20m) portions.","Lagoon\n\nhttps://www.google.co.in/search?qatoll&espv\n2&sourcelnms&tbm\nisch&saX&ved\n0ahUKEwiTsZWypv3NAhVMN48KHaMpBxgQ_AUICCgB&biw1600&bih\n813 ( a link for picture of lagoon )","Lagoon\n\nCoastal lagoons","Lagoon\n\nCoastal lagoons form along gently sloping coasts where barrier islands or reefs can develop off-shore, and the sea-level is rising relative to the land along the shore (either because of an intrinsic rise in sea-level, or subsidence of the land along the coast). Coastal lagoons do not form along steep or rocky coasts, or if the range of tides is more than 4 m. Due to the gentle slope of the coast, coastal lagoons are shallow. They are sensitive to changes in sea level due to global warming. A relative drop in sea level may leave a lagoon largely dry, while a rise in sea level may let the sea breach or destroy barrier islands, and leave reefs too deep under water to protect the lagoon. Coastal lagoons are young and dynamic, and may be short-lived in geological terms. Coastal lagoons are common, occurring along nearly 15 percent of the world's shorelines. In the United States, lagoons are found along more than 75 percent of the eastern and Gulf coasts.","Lagoon\n\nCoastal lagoons are usually connected to the open ocean by inlets between barrier islands. The number and size of the inlets, precipitation, evaporation, and inflow of fresh water all affect the nature of the lagoon. Lagoons with little or no interchange with the open ocean, little or no inflow of fresh water, and high evaporation rates, such as Lake St. Lucia, in South Africa, may become highly saline. Lagoons with no connection to the open ocean and significant inflow of fresh water, such as the Lake Worth Lagoon in Florida in the middle of the 19th century, may be entirely fresh. On the other hand, lagoons with many wide inlets, such as the Wadden Sea, have strong tidal currents and mixing. Coastal lagoons tend to accumulate sediments from inflowing rivers, from runoff from the shores of the lagoon, and from sediment carried into the lagoon through inlets by the tide. Large quantities of sediment may be occasionally be deposited in a lagoon when storm waves overwash barrier islands. Mangroves and marsh plants can facilitate the accumulation of sediment in a lagoon. Benthic organisms may stabilize or destabilize sediments.","Lagoon\n\nRiver-mouth lagoons on mixed sand and gravel beaches","Lagoon\n\nRiver-mouth lagoons on mixed sand and gravel (MSG) beaches form at the river-coast interface where a typically braided, although sometimes meandering, river interacts with a coastal environment that is significantly affected by longshore drift. The lagoons which form on the MSG coastlines are common on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand and have long been referred to as hapua by the Māori. This classification differentiates hapua from similar lagoons located on the New Zealand coast termed waituna. Hapua are often located on paraglacial coastal areas where there is a low level of coastal development and minimal population density. Hapua form as the river carves out an elongated coast-parallel area, blocked from the sea by a MSG barrier which constantly alters its shape and volume due to longshore drift. Longshore drift continually extends the barrier behind which the hapua forms by transporting sediment along the coast. Hapua are defined as a narrow shore-parallel extensions of the coastal riverbed. They discharge the majority of stored water to the ocean via an ephemeral and highly mobile drainage channel or outlet. The remainder percolates through the MSG barrier due to its high levels of permeability.","Lagoon\n\nHapua systems are driven by a wide range of dynamic processes that are generally classified as fluvial or marine; changes in the balance between these processes as well as the antecedent barrier conditions can cause shifts in the morphology of the hapua, in particular the barrier. New Zealand examples include the Rakaia, Ashburton and Hurunui river-mouths.","Lagoon\n\nHapua environment","Lagoon\n\nHapua have been identified as establishing in the Canterbury Bight coastal region on the east coast of the South Island. They are often found in areas of coarse-grained sediment where contributing rivers have moderately steep bed gradients. MSG beaches in the Canterbury Bight region contain a wide range of sediment sizes from sand to boulders and are exposed to the high energy waves that make up an east coast swell environment. MSG beaches are reflective rather than dissipative energy zones due to their morphological characteristics. They have a steep foreshore which is known as the ‘engine room’ of the beach profile. In this zone, swash and backwash are dominating processes alongside longshore transport. MSG beaches do not have a surf zone; instead a single line of breakers is visible in all sea conditions. Hapua are associated with MSG beaches as the variation in sediment size allows for the barrier to be permeable.","Lagoon\n\nThe east coast of the South Island has been identified as being in a period of chronic erosion of approximately 0.5 metres per year. This erosion trend is a result of a number of factors. According to the classification scheme of Zenkovich, the rivers on the east coast can be described as ‘small’; this classification is not related to their flow rate but to the insufficient amount of sediment that they transport to the coast to nourish it. The sediment provided is not adequate to nourish the coast against its typical high energy waves and strong longshore drift. These two processes constantly remove sediment depositing it either offshore or further up drift. As the coastline becomes eroded the hapua have been 'rolling back' by eroding the backshore to move landwards.","Lagoon\n\nHapua or river-mouth lagoons form in micro-tidal environments. A micro-tidal environment is where the tidal range (distance between low tide and high tide) is less than two metres. Tidal currents in a micro-tidal zone are less than those found on meso-tidal (two – four metres) and macro-tidal (greater than four metres) coastlines. Hapua form in this type of tidal environment as the tidal currents are unable to compete with the powerful freshwater flows of the rivers therefore there is no negligible tidal penetration to the lagoon. A fourth element of the environment in which hapua form is the strong longshore drift component. Longshore or littoral drift is the transportation of sediments along the coast at an angle to the shoreline. In the Canterbury Bight coastal area; the dominant swell direction is northwards from the Southern Ocean. Therefore, the principal movement of sediment via longshore drift is north towards Banks Peninsula. Hapua are located in areas dominated by longshore drift; because it aids the formation of the barrier behind which the hapua is sited.","Lagoon\n\nA hapua also requires sediment to form the lagoon barrier. Sediment which nourishes the east coast of New Zealand can be sourced from three different areas. Material from the highly erodible Southern Alps is removed via weathering; then carried across the Canterbury Plains by various braided rivers to the east coast beaches. The second source of sediment is the high cliffs which are located in the hinterland of lagoons. These can be eroded during the occurrence of high river flow or sea storm events. Beaches further south provide nourishment to the northern coast via longshore transport.","Lagoon\n\nHapua characteristics","Lagoon\n\nHapua have a number of characteristics which includes shifts between a variety of morphodynamic states due to changes in the balance between marine and fluvial processes as well as the antecedent barrier conditions. The MSG barrier constantly changes size and shape as a result of the longshore drift. Water stored in the hapua drains to the coast predominately though an outlet; although it can also seep through the barrier depending on the permeability of the material.","Lagoon\n\nChanges in the level of the lagoon water do not occur as a result of saltwater or tidal intrusion. Water in a hapua is predominately freshwater originating from the associated river. Hapua are non-estuarine, there is no tidal inflow however the tide does have an effect on the level of water in the lagoon. As the tide reaches its peak, the lagoon water has a much smaller amount of barrier to permeate through so the lagoon level rises. This is related to a physics theory known as hydraulic head. The lagoon level has a similar sinusoidal wave shape as the tide but reaches its peak slightly later. In general, any saltwater intrusion into the hapua will only occur during a storm via wave overtopping or sea spray.","Lagoon\n\nHapua can act as both a source and sink of sediment. The majority of sediment in the hapua is fluvial sourced. During medium to low river flows, coarser sediment generally collects in the hapua; while some of the finer sediment can be transported through the outlet to the coast. During flood events the hapua is 'flushed out' with larger amounts of sediment transferred through the outlet. This sediment can be deposited offshore or downdrift of the hapua replenishing the undernourished beach. If a large amount of material is released to the coast at one time it can be identified as a 'slug'. These can often be visible from aerial photographs.","Lagoon\n\nAntecedent barrier conditions combined with changes in the balance between marine and fluvial processes results in shifts between a variety of morphological states in a hapua or river-mouth lagoon on a MSG beach. Marine processes includes the direction of wave approach, wave height and the coincidence of storm waves with high tides. Marine processes tend to dominate the majority of morphodynamic conditions until there is a large enough flood event in the associated river to breach the barrier. The level and frequency of base or flood flows are attributed to fluvial processes. Antecedent barrier conditions are the permeability, volume and height of the barrier as well as the width and presence of previous outlet channels. During low to medium river flows, the outlet from the lagoon to the sea becomes offset in the direction of longshore drift. Outlet efficiency tends to decrease the further away from the main river-mouth the outlet is. A decrease in efficiency can cause the outlet to become choked with sediment and the hapua to close temporarily. The potential for closure varies between different hapua depending on whether marine or fluvial processes are the bigger driver in the event.","Lagoon\n\nA high flow event; such as a fresh or flood can breach the barrier directly opposite the main river channel. This causes an immediate decrease in the water level of the hapua; as well as transporting previously deposited sediments into the ocean. Flood events are important for eroding lagoon back shores; this is a behaviour which allows hapua to retreat landward and thus remain coastal landforms even with coastal transgression and sea level rise. During high flow events there is also the possibility for secondary breaches of the barrier or lagoon truncation to occur.","Lagoon\n\nStorm events also have the ability to close hapua outlets as waves overtop the barrier depositing sediment and choking the scoured channel. The resultant swift increase in lagoon water level causes a new outlet to be breached rapidly due to the large hydraulic head that forms between the lagoon and sea water levels. Storm breaching is believed to be an important but unpredictable control on the duration of closures at low to moderate river flow levels in smaller hapua.","Lagoon\n\nHapua are extremely important for a number of reasons. They provide a link between the river and sea for migrating fish as well as a corridor for migratory birds. To lose this link via closure of the hapua outlet could result in losing entire generations of specific species as they may need to migrate to the ocean or the river as a vital part of their lifecycle. River-mouth lagoons such as hapua were also used a source for mahinga kai (food gathering) by the Māori people. However, this is no longer the case due to catchment degradation which has resulted in lagoon deterioration. River-mouth lagoons on MSG beaches are not well explained in international literature.","Lagoon\n\nHapua case study","Lagoon\n\nThe hapua located at the mouth of the Rakaia River stretches approximately three kilometres north from where the river-mouth reaches the coast. The average width of the hapua between 1952 and 2004 was approximately 50 metres; whilst the surface area has stabilised at approximately 600,000 square metres since 1966. The coastal hinterland is composed of erodible cliffs and a low-lying area commonly known as the Rakaia Huts. This area has changed notably since European Settlement; with the drainage of ecologically significant wetlands and development of the small bach community.","Lagoon\n\nThe Rakaia River begins in the Southern Alps, providing approximately 4.2 Mt per year of sediment to the east coast. It is a braided river with a catchment area of 3105 kilometres squared and a mean flow of 221 cubic metres per second. The mouth of the Rakaia River reaches the coast south of Banks Peninsula. As the river reaches the coast it diverges into two channels; with the main channel flowing to the south of the island. As the hapua is located in the Canterbury Bight it is in a state of constant morphological change due to the prevailing southerly sea swells and resultant northwards longshore drift.","Lagoon\n\nImages"],"string":"[\n \"Coral island\\n\\nA coral island is a type of island formed from coral detritus and associated organic material. They occur in tropical and sub-tropical areas, typically as part of coral reefs which have grown to cover a far larger area under the sea.\",\n \"Coral island\\n\\nFormation\",\n \"Coral island\\n\\nIslands develop from coral reefs through one of two processes, uplift and accretion.\",\n \"Coral island\\n\\nIn uplift, part or all of the coral reef becomes land as a result of the earth's crust rising above sea level.\",\n \"Coral island\\n\\nIn accretion, rocks and sand are layered on top of coral reefs during cyclonic storms, and the gradual accumulation of other solid material through the action of wind and waves leads to the development of the island. The process is later enhanced with the remains of plant life which grows on the island.\",\n \"Coral island\\n\\nWhere coral islands form from atoll reefs, the result is an island or string of islands in a roughly circular form, surrounding a shallow lagoon.\",\n \"Coral island\\n\\nDistribution\",\n \"Coral island\\n\\nMost of the world's coral islands are in the Pacific Ocean. The American territories of Jarvis, Baker and Howland Islands are clear examples of coral islands. Also, some of the islands belonging to Kiribati are considered coral islands. The Maldives also consist of coral islands.\\nCoral islands are also located near Pattaya and Koh Samui, Thailand.\\nMany coral islands are small and not high above sea level, so are at threat from cyclones, storms and rising sea levels.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nA lagoon is a shallow body of water separated from a larger body of water by barrier islands or reefs. Lagoons are commonly divided into coastal lagoons and atoll lagoons. They have also been identified as occurring on mixed-sand and gravel coastlines. There is an overlap between bodies of water classified as coastal lagoons and bodies of water classified as estuaries. Lagoons are common coastal features around many parts of the world.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nLagoons can also be man-made and used for wastewater treatment, as is the case for e.g. aerated lagoons and anaerobic lagoons.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nDefinition\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nLagoons are shallow, often elongated bodies of water separated from a larger body of water by a shallow or exposed shoal, coral reef, or similar feature. Some authorities include fresh water bodies in the definition of \\\"lagoon\\\", while others explicitly restrict \\\"lagoon\\\" to bodies of water with some degree of salinity. The distinction between \\\"lagoon\\\" and \\\"estuary\\\" also varies between authorities. Richard A. Davis Jr. restricts \\\"lagoon\\\" to bodies of water with little or no fresh water inflow, and little or no tidal flow, and calls any bay that receives a regular flow of fresh water an \\\"estuary\\\". Davis does state that the terms \\\"lagoon\\\" and \\\"estuary\\\" are \\\"often loosely applied, even in scientific literature.\\\" Timothy M. Kusky characterizes lagoons as normally being elongated parallel to the coast, while estuaries are usually drowned river valleys, elongated perpendicular to the coast. When used within the context of a distinctive portion of coral reef ecosystems, the term \\\"lagoon\\\" is synonymous with the term \\\"back reef\\\" or \\\"backreef\\\", which is more commonly used by coral reef scientists to refer to the same area. Coastal lagoons are classified as inland bodies of water.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nMany lagoons do not include \\\"lagoon\\\" in their common names. Albemarle and Pamlico sounds in North Carolina, Great South Bay between Long Island and the barrier beaches of Fire Island in New York, Isle of Wight Bay, which separates Ocean City, Maryland from the rest of Worcester County, Maryland, Banana River in Florida, Lake Illawarra in New South Wales, Montrose Basin in Scotland, and Broad Water in Wales have all been classified as lagoons, despite their names. In England, The Fleet at Chesil Beach has also been described as a lagoon.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nIn Latin America, the term “laguna”, which lagoon translates to, is often used to describe a lake, such as Laguna Catemaco. In Portuguese, “lagoa” may be a body of shallow sea water, but also a relatively small freshwater lake not linked to the sea.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nLagoon is derived from the Italian laguna, which refers to the waters around Venice, the Lagoon of Venice. Laguna is attested in English by at least 1612, and had been Anglicized to \\\"lagune\\\" by 1673. In 1697 William Dampier referred to a \\\"Lagune or Lake of Salt water\\\" on the coast of Mexico. Captain James Cook described an island \\\"of Oval form with a Lagoon in the middle\\\" in 1769.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nAtoll lagoons\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nAtoll lagoons form as coral reefs grow upwards while the islands that the reefs surround subside, until eventually only the reefs remain above sea level. Unlike the lagoons that form shoreward of fringing reefs, atoll lagoons often contain some deep (>20m) portions.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nhttps://www.google.co.in/search?qatoll&espv\\n2&sourcelnms&tbm\\nisch&saX&ved\\n0ahUKEwiTsZWypv3NAhVMN48KHaMpBxgQ_AUICCgB&biw1600&bih\\n813 ( a link for picture of lagoon )\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nCoastal lagoons\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nCoastal lagoons form along gently sloping coasts where barrier islands or reefs can develop off-shore, and the sea-level is rising relative to the land along the shore (either because of an intrinsic rise in sea-level, or subsidence of the land along the coast). Coastal lagoons do not form along steep or rocky coasts, or if the range of tides is more than 4 m. Due to the gentle slope of the coast, coastal lagoons are shallow. They are sensitive to changes in sea level due to global warming. A relative drop in sea level may leave a lagoon largely dry, while a rise in sea level may let the sea breach or destroy barrier islands, and leave reefs too deep under water to protect the lagoon. Coastal lagoons are young and dynamic, and may be short-lived in geological terms. Coastal lagoons are common, occurring along nearly 15 percent of the world's shorelines. In the United States, lagoons are found along more than 75 percent of the eastern and Gulf coasts.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nCoastal lagoons are usually connected to the open ocean by inlets between barrier islands. The number and size of the inlets, precipitation, evaporation, and inflow of fresh water all affect the nature of the lagoon. Lagoons with little or no interchange with the open ocean, little or no inflow of fresh water, and high evaporation rates, such as Lake St. Lucia, in South Africa, may become highly saline. Lagoons with no connection to the open ocean and significant inflow of fresh water, such as the Lake Worth Lagoon in Florida in the middle of the 19th century, may be entirely fresh. On the other hand, lagoons with many wide inlets, such as the Wadden Sea, have strong tidal currents and mixing. Coastal lagoons tend to accumulate sediments from inflowing rivers, from runoff from the shores of the lagoon, and from sediment carried into the lagoon through inlets by the tide. Large quantities of sediment may be occasionally be deposited in a lagoon when storm waves overwash barrier islands. Mangroves and marsh plants can facilitate the accumulation of sediment in a lagoon. Benthic organisms may stabilize or destabilize sediments.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nRiver-mouth lagoons on mixed sand and gravel beaches\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nRiver-mouth lagoons on mixed sand and gravel (MSG) beaches form at the river-coast interface where a typically braided, although sometimes meandering, river interacts with a coastal environment that is significantly affected by longshore drift. The lagoons which form on the MSG coastlines are common on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand and have long been referred to as hapua by the Māori. This classification differentiates hapua from similar lagoons located on the New Zealand coast termed waituna. Hapua are often located on paraglacial coastal areas where there is a low level of coastal development and minimal population density. Hapua form as the river carves out an elongated coast-parallel area, blocked from the sea by a MSG barrier which constantly alters its shape and volume due to longshore drift. Longshore drift continually extends the barrier behind which the hapua forms by transporting sediment along the coast. Hapua are defined as a narrow shore-parallel extensions of the coastal riverbed. They discharge the majority of stored water to the ocean via an ephemeral and highly mobile drainage channel or outlet. The remainder percolates through the MSG barrier due to its high levels of permeability.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nHapua systems are driven by a wide range of dynamic processes that are generally classified as fluvial or marine; changes in the balance between these processes as well as the antecedent barrier conditions can cause shifts in the morphology of the hapua, in particular the barrier. New Zealand examples include the Rakaia, Ashburton and Hurunui river-mouths.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nHapua environment\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nHapua have been identified as establishing in the Canterbury Bight coastal region on the east coast of the South Island. They are often found in areas of coarse-grained sediment where contributing rivers have moderately steep bed gradients. MSG beaches in the Canterbury Bight region contain a wide range of sediment sizes from sand to boulders and are exposed to the high energy waves that make up an east coast swell environment. MSG beaches are reflective rather than dissipative energy zones due to their morphological characteristics. They have a steep foreshore which is known as the ‘engine room’ of the beach profile. In this zone, swash and backwash are dominating processes alongside longshore transport. MSG beaches do not have a surf zone; instead a single line of breakers is visible in all sea conditions. Hapua are associated with MSG beaches as the variation in sediment size allows for the barrier to be permeable.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nThe east coast of the South Island has been identified as being in a period of chronic erosion of approximately 0.5 metres per year. This erosion trend is a result of a number of factors. According to the classification scheme of Zenkovich, the rivers on the east coast can be described as ‘small’; this classification is not related to their flow rate but to the insufficient amount of sediment that they transport to the coast to nourish it. The sediment provided is not adequate to nourish the coast against its typical high energy waves and strong longshore drift. These two processes constantly remove sediment depositing it either offshore or further up drift. As the coastline becomes eroded the hapua have been 'rolling back' by eroding the backshore to move landwards.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nHapua or river-mouth lagoons form in micro-tidal environments. A micro-tidal environment is where the tidal range (distance between low tide and high tide) is less than two metres. Tidal currents in a micro-tidal zone are less than those found on meso-tidal (two – four metres) and macro-tidal (greater than four metres) coastlines. Hapua form in this type of tidal environment as the tidal currents are unable to compete with the powerful freshwater flows of the rivers therefore there is no negligible tidal penetration to the lagoon. A fourth element of the environment in which hapua form is the strong longshore drift component. Longshore or littoral drift is the transportation of sediments along the coast at an angle to the shoreline. In the Canterbury Bight coastal area; the dominant swell direction is northwards from the Southern Ocean. Therefore, the principal movement of sediment via longshore drift is north towards Banks Peninsula. Hapua are located in areas dominated by longshore drift; because it aids the formation of the barrier behind which the hapua is sited.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nA hapua also requires sediment to form the lagoon barrier. Sediment which nourishes the east coast of New Zealand can be sourced from three different areas. Material from the highly erodible Southern Alps is removed via weathering; then carried across the Canterbury Plains by various braided rivers to the east coast beaches. The second source of sediment is the high cliffs which are located in the hinterland of lagoons. These can be eroded during the occurrence of high river flow or sea storm events. Beaches further south provide nourishment to the northern coast via longshore transport.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nHapua characteristics\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nHapua have a number of characteristics which includes shifts between a variety of morphodynamic states due to changes in the balance between marine and fluvial processes as well as the antecedent barrier conditions. The MSG barrier constantly changes size and shape as a result of the longshore drift. Water stored in the hapua drains to the coast predominately though an outlet; although it can also seep through the barrier depending on the permeability of the material.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nChanges in the level of the lagoon water do not occur as a result of saltwater or tidal intrusion. Water in a hapua is predominately freshwater originating from the associated river. Hapua are non-estuarine, there is no tidal inflow however the tide does have an effect on the level of water in the lagoon. As the tide reaches its peak, the lagoon water has a much smaller amount of barrier to permeate through so the lagoon level rises. This is related to a physics theory known as hydraulic head. The lagoon level has a similar sinusoidal wave shape as the tide but reaches its peak slightly later. In general, any saltwater intrusion into the hapua will only occur during a storm via wave overtopping or sea spray.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nHapua can act as both a source and sink of sediment. The majority of sediment in the hapua is fluvial sourced. During medium to low river flows, coarser sediment generally collects in the hapua; while some of the finer sediment can be transported through the outlet to the coast. During flood events the hapua is 'flushed out' with larger amounts of sediment transferred through the outlet. This sediment can be deposited offshore or downdrift of the hapua replenishing the undernourished beach. If a large amount of material is released to the coast at one time it can be identified as a 'slug'. These can often be visible from aerial photographs.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nAntecedent barrier conditions combined with changes in the balance between marine and fluvial processes results in shifts between a variety of morphological states in a hapua or river-mouth lagoon on a MSG beach. Marine processes includes the direction of wave approach, wave height and the coincidence of storm waves with high tides. Marine processes tend to dominate the majority of morphodynamic conditions until there is a large enough flood event in the associated river to breach the barrier. The level and frequency of base or flood flows are attributed to fluvial processes. Antecedent barrier conditions are the permeability, volume and height of the barrier as well as the width and presence of previous outlet channels. During low to medium river flows, the outlet from the lagoon to the sea becomes offset in the direction of longshore drift. Outlet efficiency tends to decrease the further away from the main river-mouth the outlet is. A decrease in efficiency can cause the outlet to become choked with sediment and the hapua to close temporarily. The potential for closure varies between different hapua depending on whether marine or fluvial processes are the bigger driver in the event.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nA high flow event; such as a fresh or flood can breach the barrier directly opposite the main river channel. This causes an immediate decrease in the water level of the hapua; as well as transporting previously deposited sediments into the ocean. Flood events are important for eroding lagoon back shores; this is a behaviour which allows hapua to retreat landward and thus remain coastal landforms even with coastal transgression and sea level rise. During high flow events there is also the possibility for secondary breaches of the barrier or lagoon truncation to occur.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nStorm events also have the ability to close hapua outlets as waves overtop the barrier depositing sediment and choking the scoured channel. The resultant swift increase in lagoon water level causes a new outlet to be breached rapidly due to the large hydraulic head that forms between the lagoon and sea water levels. Storm breaching is believed to be an important but unpredictable control on the duration of closures at low to moderate river flow levels in smaller hapua.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nHapua are extremely important for a number of reasons. They provide a link between the river and sea for migrating fish as well as a corridor for migratory birds. To lose this link via closure of the hapua outlet could result in losing entire generations of specific species as they may need to migrate to the ocean or the river as a vital part of their lifecycle. River-mouth lagoons such as hapua were also used a source for mahinga kai (food gathering) by the Māori people. However, this is no longer the case due to catchment degradation which has resulted in lagoon deterioration. River-mouth lagoons on MSG beaches are not well explained in international literature.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nHapua case study\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nThe hapua located at the mouth of the Rakaia River stretches approximately three kilometres north from where the river-mouth reaches the coast. The average width of the hapua between 1952 and 2004 was approximately 50 metres; whilst the surface area has stabilised at approximately 600,000 square metres since 1966. The coastal hinterland is composed of erodible cliffs and a low-lying area commonly known as the Rakaia Huts. This area has changed notably since European Settlement; with the drainage of ecologically significant wetlands and development of the small bach community.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nThe Rakaia River begins in the Southern Alps, providing approximately 4.2 Mt per year of sediment to the east coast. It is a braided river with a catchment area of 3105 kilometres squared and a mean flow of 221 cubic metres per second. The mouth of the Rakaia River reaches the coast south of Banks Peninsula. As the river reaches the coast it diverges into two channels; with the main channel flowing to the south of the island. As the hapua is located in the Canterbury Bight it is in a state of constant morphological change due to the prevailing southerly sea swells and resultant northwards longshore drift.\",\n \"Lagoon\\n\\nImages\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137390,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2876"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Ratified on the 18th of August, 1920, the 19th amendment to the US constitution states: The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of what?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Sex"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["aphrodisiasm","sexs","sex in plants","seks","sexes","sex terms","anatomical sex","biological sex","sex biological division","sex","pseques","genetic sex","word sex","biological sexes","sexuality biology"],"string":"[\n \"aphrodisiasm\",\n \"sexs\",\n \"sex in plants\",\n \"seks\",\n \"sexes\",\n \"sex terms\",\n \"anatomical sex\",\n \"biological sex\",\n \"sex biological division\",\n \"sex\",\n \"pseques\",\n \"genetic sex\",\n \"word sex\",\n \"biological sexes\",\n \"sexuality biology\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThe Nineteenth Amendment (Amendment XIX) to the United States Constitution prohibits any United States citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex. It was ratified on August 18, 1920. Until the 1910s, most states disenfranchised women. The amendment was the culmination of the women's suffrage movement in the United States, which fought at both state and national levels to achieve the vote. It effectively overruled Minor v. Happersett, in which a unanimous Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment did not give women the right to vote.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThe Nineteenth Amendment was first introduced in Congress in 1878 by Senator Aaron A. Sargent. Forty-one years later, in 1919, Congress approved the amendment and submitted it to the states for ratification. It was ratified by the requisite number of states a year later, with Tennessee's ratification being the final vote needed to add the amendment to the Constitution. In Leser v. Garnett (1922), the Supreme Court rejected claims that the amendment was unconstitutionally adopted.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nText","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nBackground","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThe United States Constitution, adopted in 1789, left the boundaries of suffrage undefined. The only directly elected body created by the original Constitution was the House of Representatives, for which voter qualifications were explicitly delegated to the individual states. At that time, all states denied voting rights to women (with the exception of New Jersey, which initially carried women's suffrage but revoked it in 1807).","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nWhile scattered movements and organizations dedicated to women's rights existed previously, the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention in New York is traditionally held as the start of the American women's rights movement. Suffrage was not a focus of the convention, however, and its advancement was minimal in the decades preceding the Civil War. While suffrage bills were introduced into most state legislatures during this period, they were generally disregarded and few came to a vote.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThe women's suffrage movement took hold after the Civil War, during the Reconstruction Era (1865–1877). During this period, women's rights leaders advocated for inclusion of universal suffrage as a civil right in the Reconstruction amendments (the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments). Despite their efforts, these amendments did nothing to promote women's suffrage. Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment explicitly discriminated between men and women by penalizing states who deprived adult male citizens of the vote, but not for denying the vote to adult female citizens.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nContinued settlement of the western frontier, along with the establishment of territorial constitutions, allowed the issue to be raised continually at the state level. Through the activism of suffrage organizations and independent political parties, women's suffrage was established in the newly formed constitutions of Wyoming Territory (1869), Utah (1870), and Washington Territory (1883). Existing state legislatures began to consider suffrage bills, and several even held voter referenda, but they were unsuccessful. Efforts at the national level persisted through a strategy of congressional testimony, petitioning, and lobbying.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThere were several attempts to amend the Constitution, prior to the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment, to grant universal and limited suffrage to women. One of the attempts the \"Petition for Universal Suffrage,\" signed by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, among others, called for a Constitutional Amendment to \"prohibit the several states from disenfranchising any of their citizens on the ground of sex\" in 1865. In another attempt, the House Joint Resolution (H.J. Res.) 159, called for the limited suffrage of women who were spinsters or widows and owned property in 1888. Both attempts to amend the Constitution failed.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nTwo rival organizations, the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), were formed in 1869. The NWSA, led by suffrage leaders Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, attempted several unsuccessful court challenges in the mid-1870s. Their legal case, known as the New Departure strategy, was that the Fourteenth Amendment (granting universal citizenship) and Fifteenth Amendment (granting the vote irrespective of race) together served to guarantee voting rights to women. Three Supreme Court decisions from 1873 to 1875 rejected this argument, so these groups shifted to advocating for a new constitutional amendment.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nProposal and ratification","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThe Nineteenth Amendment is identical to the Fifteenth Amendment, except that the Nineteenth prohibits the denial of suffrage because of sex and the Fifteenth because of \"race, color, or previous condition of servitude\". \nColloquially known as the \"Anthony Amendment\", it was first introduced in the Senate by Republican Senator Aaron A. Sargent of California. Sargent, who had met and befriended Anthony on a train ride in 1872, was a dedicated women's suffrage advocate. He had frequently attempted to insert women's suffrage provisions into unrelated bills, but did not formally introduce a constitutional amendment until January 1878. Stanton and other women testified before the Senate in support of the amendment. The proposal sat in a committee until it was considered by the full Senate and rejected in a 16 to 34 vote in 1887.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nA three-decade period known as \"the doldrums\" followed, during which the amendment was not considered by Congress and the women's suffrage movement achieved few victories. During this period, the suffragists pressed for the right to vote in the laws of individual states and territories while retaining the goal of federal recognition. A flurry of activity began in 1910 and 1911 with surprise successes in Washington and California. Over the next few years, most western states passed legislation or voter referenda enacting full or partial suffrage for women. These successes were linked to the 1912 election, which saw the rise of the Progressive and Socialist parties, as well as the election of Democratic President Woodrow Wilson. Not until 1914 was the constitutional amendment again considered by the Senate, where it was again rejected.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nCarrie Chapman Catt was instrumental in the final push to gain ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment. In 1900, she succeeded Susan B. Anthony as the president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). Starting in 1915, Catt revitalized NAWSA and led a successful campaign in New York to achieve state-level suffrage in 1917. When the U.S. entered World War I, Catt made the controversial decision to support the war effort, despite the widespread pacifist sentiment of many of her colleagues and supporters. NAWSA women’s work to aid the war effort turned them into highly visible symbols of nationalism.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThe republican work of NAWSA stood in contrast to the more radical and aggressive tactics of the National Woman's Party (NWP) led by Alice Paul and Lucy Burns. In 1917, the NWP staged controversial demonstrations in Washington, D.C. to draw attention away from the war and back to women’s suffrage. Catt was successful in turning NAWSA into a patriotic organization, entirely separate from the NWP, and was rewarded when President Wilson spoke out in favor of women’s suffrage in his 1918 State of the Union address before Congress.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nAnother proposal was brought before the House on January 10, 1918. During the previous evening, President Wilson made a strong and widely published appeal to the House to pass the amendment. It was passed by the required two-thirds of the House, with only one vote to spare. The vote was then carried into the Senate. Wilson again made an appeal, but on September 30, 1918, the proposal fell two votes short of passage. On February 10, 1919, it was again voted upon and failed by only one vote.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThere was considerable desire among politicians of both parties to have the proposal made part of the Constitution before the 1920 general elections, so the President called a special session of the Congress so the proposal would be brought before the House again. On May 21, 1919, it passed the House, 42 votes more than necessary being obtained. On June 4, 1919, it was brought before the Senate and, after a long discussion, it was passed with 56 ayes and 25 nays. Within a few days, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan ratified the amendment, their legislatures being in session. Other states followed suit at a regular pace, until the amendment had been ratified by 35 of the necessary 36 state legislatures. Much of the opposition to the amendment came from Southern Democrats, a trend which remained consistent with Tennessee as the last state to pass the amendment, during a special session right before the ratification period was to expire. On August 18, 1920, Tennessee narrowly approved the Nineteenth Amendment, with 50 of 99 members of the Tennessee House of Representatives voting yes. This provided the final ratification necessary to add the amendment to the Constitution.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nRatification timeline","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThe Congress proposed the Nineteenth Amendment on June 4, 1919, and the following states ratified the amendment.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\n# Wisconsin (June 10, 1919)\n# Illinois (June 10, 1919, reaffirmed on June 17, 1919)\n# Michigan (June 10, 1919)\n# Kansas (June 16, 1919)\n# New York (June 16, 1919)\n# Ohio (June 16, 1919)\n# Pennsylvania (June 24, 1919)\n# Massachusetts (June 25, 1919)\n# Texas (June 28, 1919)\n# Iowa (July 2, 1919)date on which approved by governor\n# Missouri (July 3, 1919)\n# Arkansas (July 28, 1919)\n# Montana (August 2, 1919)\n# Nebraska (August 2, 1919)\n# Minnesota (September 8, 1919)\n# New Hampshire (September 10, 1919)\n# Utah (October 2, 1919)\n# California (November 1, 1919)\n# Maine (November 5, 1919)\n# North Dakota (December 1, 1919)\n# South Dakota (December 4, 1919)\n# Colorado (December 15, 1919)\n# Kentucky (January 6, 1920)\n# Rhode Island (January 6, 1920)\n# Oregon (January 13, 1920)\n# Indiana (January 16, 1920)\n# Wyoming (January 27, 1920)\n# Nevada (February 7, 1920)\n# New Jersey (February 9, 1920)\n# Idaho (February 11, 1920)\n# Arizona (February 12, 1920)\n# New Mexico (February 21, 1920)\n# Oklahoma (February 28, 1920)\n# West Virginia (March 10, 1920, confirmed on September 21, 1920)\n# Washington (March 22, 1920)\n# Tennessee (August 18, 1920)","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nRatification was completed on August 18, 1920, and the following states subsequently ratified the amendment:","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nConnecticut (September 14, 1920, reaffirmed on September 21, 1920)\nVermont (February 8, 1921)\nDelaware (March 6, 1923, after being rejected on June 2, 1920)\nMaryland (March 29, 1941 after being rejected on February 24, 1920; not certified until February 25, 1958)\nVirginia (February 21, 1952, after being rejected on February 12, 1920)\nAlabama (September 8, 1953, after being rejected on September 22, 1919)\nFlorida (May 13, 1969) \nSouth Carolina (July 1, 1969, after being rejected on January 28, 1920; not certified until August 22, 1973)\nGeorgia (February 20, 1970, after being rejected on July 24, 1919)\nLouisiana (June 11, 1970, after being rejected on July 1, 1920)\nNorth Carolina (May 6, 1971)\nMississippi (March 22, 1984, after being rejected on March 29, 1920)","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nAlaska and Hawaii were not states when the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nLeser v. Garnett","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThe amendment's validity was unanimously upheld in Leser v. Garnett, .","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nOscar Leser sued to stop two women registered to vote in Baltimore, Maryland, because he believed that the Maryland Constitution limited the suffrage to men and the Maryland legislature had refused to vote to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment. Two months before, the federal government had proclaimed the amendment incorporated into the Constitution on August 26, 1920.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nFirst, Leser said the amendment \"destroyed State autonomy\" because it increased Maryland's electorate without the state's consent. The Court answered that the Nineteenth Amendment was worded like the Fifteenth Amendment, which had expanded state electorates without regard to race for over 50 years by that time despite being rejected by six states, including Maryland.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nSecond, Leser claimed that the state constitutions in some ratifying states did not allow their legislatures to ratify. The Court replied that state ratification was a federal function which came from Article V of the Constitution and so is not subject to limitations by a state constitution.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThird, those bringing suit asserted the Nineteenth Amendment was not adopted, because Tennessee and West Virginia violated their own rules of procedure. The Court ruled that the point was moot, because since then Connecticut and Vermont had ratified the amendment and so there was a sufficient number of ratifications for the Nineteenth Amendment to be considered adopted even without Tennessee and West Virginia. Also, the Court ruled that Tennessee and West Virginia's certifying of their ratifications was binding and had been duly authenticated by the Secretary of State.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThus, the two women were permitted to be registered to vote in Baltimore.","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nEffects","Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nFollowing the Nineteenth Amendment's adoption, many legislators feared that a powerful women's bloc would emerge in American politics. This led to the passage of such laws as the Sheppard–Towner Act of 1921, which expanded maternity care during the 1920s. However, a women's bloc did not emerge in American politics until the 1950s.","United States\n\nThe United States of America (USA), commonly referred to as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a federal republic composed of 50 states, the federal district of Washington, D.C., five major self-governing territories, and various possessions.\nThe 48 contiguous states and federal district are in central North America between Canada and Mexico, with the state of Alaska in the northwestern part of North America and the state of Hawaii comprising an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. At 3.8 million square miles (9.8 million km2) and with over 320 million people, the United States is the world's third largest country by total area (and fourth largest by land area) and the third most populous. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. The geography and climate are also extremely diverse, and the country is home to a wide variety of wildlife.","United States\n\nPaleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago, with European colonization beginning in the 16th century. The United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the colonies led to the American Revolution, which began in 1775. On July 4, 1776, as the colonies were fighting Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War, delegates from the 13 colonies unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence. The war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, and was the first successful war of independence against a European colonial empire.Greene, Jack P.; Pole, J.R., eds. (2008). A Companion to the American Revolution. pp. 352–361. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, adopted in 1781, were felt to have provided inadequate federal powers. The first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties.","United States\n\nThe United States embarked on a vigorous expansion across North America throughout the 19th century, displacing American Indian tribes, acquiring new territories, and gradually admitting new states until it spanned the continent by 1848. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of legal slavery in the country. By the end of that century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean, and its economy, driven in large part by the Industrial Revolution, began to soar. The Spanish–American War and confirmed the country's status as a global military power. The United States emerged from as a global superpower, the first country to develop nuclear weapons, the only country to use them in warfare, and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the U.S. as the world's sole superpower.","United States\n\nThe United States is a highly developed country, with the world's largest economy by nominal and real GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of socioeconomic performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP, and productivity per person. While the U.S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services, the manufacturing sector remains the second largest in the world. Though its population is only 4.4% of the world total, the United States accounts for nearly a quarter of world GDP and almost a third of global military spending, making it the world's foremost military and economic power. The United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations.Cohen, 2004: History and the HyperpowerBBC, April 2008: Country Profile: United States of America","United States\n\nEtymology","United States\n\nIn 1507 the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a world map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere \"America\" after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci (Latin: Americus Vespucius). The first evidence of the phrase \"United States of America\" is in a letter of January 2, 1776, from the office of General George Washington which expressed his wish to carry the \"full and ample powers of the United States of America\" to Spain to assist in the revolutionary war effort.","United States\n\nThe first known publication of the phrase \"United States of America\" was in an anonymous essay in The Virginia Gazette newspaper in Williamsburg, Virginia, on April 6, 1776. The second draft of the Articles of Confederation, prepared by John Dickinson and completed by June 17, 1776, at the latest, declared \"The name of this Confederation shall be the 'United States of America.'\" The final version of the Articles sent to the states for ratification in late 1777 contains the sentence \"The Stile of this Confederacy shall be 'The United States of America. In June 1776, Thomas Jefferson wrote the phrase \"UNITED STATES OF AMERICA\" in all capitalized letters in the headline of his \"original Rough draught\" of the Declaration of Independence. This draft of the document did not surface until June 21, 1776, and it is unclear whether it was written before or after Dickinson used the term in his June 17 draft of the Articles of Confederation. In the final Fourth of July version of the Declaration, the title was changed to read, \"The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America\". The preamble of the Constitution states \"...establish this Constitution for the United States of America.\"","United States\n\nThe short form \"United States\" is also standard. Other common forms are the \"U.S.\", the \"USA\", and \"America\". Colloquial names are the \"U.S. of A.\" and, internationally, the \"States\". \"Columbia\", a name popular in poetry and songs of the late 1700s, derives its origin from Christopher Columbus; it appears in the name \"District of Columbia\". In non-English languages, the name is frequently the translation of either the \"United States\" or \"United States of America\", and colloquially as \"America\". In addition, an abbreviation (e.g. USA) is sometimes used.","United States\n\nThe phrase \"United States\" was originally plural, a description of a collection of independent states—e.g., \"the United States are\"—including in the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1865. The singular form—e.g., \"the United States is\"— became popular after the end of the American Civil War. The singular form is now standard; the plural form is retained in the idiom \"these United States\". The difference is more significant than usage; it is a difference between a collection of states and a unit.","United States\n\nA citizen of the United States is an \"American\". \"United States\", \"American\" and \"U.S.\" refer to the country adjectivally (\"American values\", \"U.S. forces\"). \"American\" rarely refers to subjects not connected with the United States.","United States\n\nHistory","United States\n\nIndigenous and European contact","United States\n\nThe first inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 15,000 years ago, though increasing evidence suggests an even earlier arrival. Some, such as the pre-Columbian Mississippian culture, developed advanced agriculture, grand architecture, and state-level societies. After the Spanish conquistadors made the first contacts, the native population declined for various reasons, primarily from diseases such as smallpox and measles. Violence was not a significant factor in the overall decline among Native Americans, though conflict among themselves and with Europeans affected specific tribes and various colonial settlements. In the Hawaiian Islands, the earliest indigenous inhabitants arrived around 1 AD from Polynesia. Europeans under the British explorer Captain James Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778.","United States\n\nIn the early days of colonization, many European settlers were subject to food shortages, disease, and attacks from Native Americans. Native Americans were also often at war with neighboring tribes and allied with Europeans in their colonial wars. At the same time, however, many natives and settlers came to depend on each other. Settlers traded for food and animal pelts, natives for guns, ammunition and other European wares. Natives taught many settlers where, when and how to cultivate corn, beans and squash. European missionaries and others felt it was important to \"civilize\" the Native Americans and urged them to adopt European agricultural techniques and lifestyles.","United States\n\nSettlements","United States\n\nAfter Spain sent Columbus' on his first voyage to the New World in 1492, other explorers followed. The Spanish set up small settlements in New Mexico and Florida. France had several small settlements along the Mississippi River. Successful English settlement on the eastern coast of North America began with the Virginia Colony in 1607 at Jamestown and the Pilgrims' Plymouth Colony in 1620. Early experiments in communal living failed until the introduction of private farm holdings. Many settlers were dissenting Christian groups who came seeking religious freedom. The continent's first elected legislative assembly, Virginia's House of Burgesses created in 1619, and the Mayflower Compact, signed by the Pilgrims before disembarking, established precedents for the pattern of representative self-government and constitutionalism that would develop throughout the American colonies.","United States\n\nMost settlers in every colony were small farmers, but other industries developed within a few decades as varied as the settlements. Cash crops included tobacco, rice and wheat. Extraction industries grew up in furs, fishing and lumber. Manufacturers produced rum and ships, and by the late colonial period Americans were producing one-seventh of the world's iron supply. Cities eventually dotted the coast to support local economies and serve as trade hubs. English colonists were supplemented by waves of Scotch-Irish and other groups. As coastal land grew more expensive freed indentured servants pushed further west.","United States\n\nSlave cultivation of cash crops began with the Spanish in the 1500s, and was adopted by the English, but life expectancy was much higher in North America because of less disease and better food and treatment, leading to a rapid increase in the numbers of slaves. Colonial society was largely divided over the religious and moral implications of slavery and colonies passed acts for and against the practice.Lien, 1913, p. 522Davis, 1996, p. 7 But by the turn of the 18th century, African slaves were replacing indentured servants for cash crop labor, especially in southern regions.","United States\n\nWith the British colonization of Georgia in 1732, the 13 colonies that would become the United States of America were established. All had local governments with elections open to most free men, with a growing devotion to the ancient rights of Englishmen and a sense of self-government stimulating support for republicanism. With extremely high birth rates, low death rates, and steady settlement, the colonial population grew rapidly. Relatively small Native American populations were eclipsed. The Christian revivalist movement of the 1730s and 1740s known as the Great Awakening fueled interest in both religion and religious liberty.","United States\n\nIn the French and Indian War, British forces seized Canada from the French, but the francophone population remained politically isolated from the southern colonies. Excluding the Native Americans, who were being conquered and displaced, those 13 colonies had a population of over 2.1 million in 1770, about one-third that of Britain. Despite continuing new arrivals, the rate of natural increase was such that by the 1770s only a small minority of Americans had been born overseas. The colonies' distance from Britain had allowed the development of self-government, but their success motivated monarchs to periodically seek to reassert royal authority.","United States\n\nIndependence and expansion (1776–1865)","United States\n\nThe American Revolutionary War was the first successful colonial war of independence against a European power. Americans had developed an ideology of \"republicanism\" asserting that government rested on the will of the people as expressed in their local legislatures. They demanded their rights as Englishmen, \"no taxation without representation\". The British insisted on administering the empire through Parliament, and the conflict escalated into war.","United States\n\nFollowing the passage of the Lee Resolution, on July 2, 1776, which was the actual vote for independence, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, on July 4, which proclaimed, in a long preamble, that humanity is created equal in their unalienable rights and that those rights were not being protected by Great Britain, and declared, in the words of the resolution, that the Thirteen Colonies were independent states and had no allegiance to the British crown in the United States. The fourth day of July is celebrated annually as Independence Day. In 1777, the Articles of Confederation established a weak government that operated until 1789.","United States\n\nBritain recognized the independence of the United States following their defeat at Yorktown. In the peace treaty of 1783, American sovereignty was recognized from the Atlantic coast west to the Mississippi River. Nationalists led the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 in writing the United States Constitution, ratified in state conventions in 1788. The federal government was reorganized into three branches, on the principle of creating salutary checks and balances, in 1789. George Washington, who had led the revolutionary army to victory, was the first president elected under the new constitution. The Bill of Rights, forbidding federal restriction of personal freedoms and guaranteeing a range of legal protections, was adopted in 1791.","United States\n\nAlthough the federal government criminalized the international slave trade in 1808, after 1820, cultivation of the highly profitable cotton crop exploded in the Deep South, and along with it, the slave population. The Second Great Awakening, beginning about 1800, converted millions to evangelical Protestantism. In the North, it energized multiple social reform movements, including abolitionism; in the South, Methodists and Baptists proselytized among slave populations.","United States\n\nAmericans' eagerness to expand westward prompted a long series of American Indian Wars. The Louisiana Purchase of French-claimed territory in 1803 almost doubled the nation's size. The War of 1812, declared against Britain over various grievances and fought to a draw, strengthened U.S. nationalism. A series of U.S. military incursions into Florida led Spain to cede it and other Gulf Coast territory in 1819. Expansion was aided by steam power, when steamboats began traveling along America's large water systems, which were connected by new canals, such as the Erie and the I&M; then, even faster railroads began their stretch across the nation's land.","United States\n\nFrom 1820 to 1850, Jacksonian democracy began a set of reforms which included wider male suffrage; it led to the rise of the Second Party System of Democrats and Whigs as the dominant parties from 1828 to 1854. The Trail of Tears in the 1830s exemplified the Indian removal policy that moved Indians into the west to their own reservations. The U.S. annexed the Republic of Texas in 1845 during a period of expansionist Manifest destiny. The 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain led to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest. Victory in the Mexican–American War resulted in the 1848 Mexican Cession of California and much of the present-day American Southwest.","United States\n\nThe California Gold Rush of 1848–49 spurred western migration and the creation of additional western states. After the American Civil War, new transcontinental railways made relocation easier for settlers, expanded internal trade and increased conflicts with Native Americans. Over a half-century, the loss of the American bison (sometimes called \"buffalo\") was an existential blow to many Plains Indians cultures. In 1869, a new Peace Policy sought to protect Native-Americans from abuses, avoid further war, and secure their eventual U.S. citizenship, although conflicts, including several of the largest Indian Wars, continued throughout the West into the 1900s.Smith (2001), Grant, pp. 523–526","United States\n\nCivil War and Reconstruction Era","United States\n\nDifferences of opinion and social order between northern and southern states in early United States society, particularly regarding Black slavery, ultimately led the U.S. into the American Civil War. Initially, states entering the Union alternated between slave and free states, keeping a sectional balance in the Senate, while free states outstripped slave states in population and in the House of Representatives. But with additional western territory and more free-soil states, tensions between slave and free states mounted with arguments over federalism and disposition of the territories, whether and how to expand or restrict slavery.","United States\n\nWith the 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln, the first president from the largely anti-slavery Republican Party, conventions in thirteen slave states ultimately declared secession and formed the Confederate States of America, while the U.S. government maintained that secession was illegal. The ensuing war was at first for Union, then after 1863 as casualties mounted and Lincoln delivered his Emancipation Proclamation, a second war aim became abolition of slavery. The war remains the deadliest military conflict in American history, resulting in the deaths of approximately 618,000 soldiers as well as many civilians.","United States\n\nFollowing the Union victory in 1865, three amendments to the U.S. Constitution brought about the prohibition of slavery, gave U.S. citizenship to the nearly four million African Americans who had been slaves, and promised them voting rights. The war and its resolution led to a substantial increase in federal power aimed at reintegrating and rebuilding the Southern states while ensuring the rights of the newly freed slaves. Following the Reconstruction Era, throughout the South Jim Crow laws soon effectively disenfranchised most blacks and some poor whites. Over the subsequent decades, in both the North and the South blacks and some whites faced systemic discrimination, including racial segregation and occasional vigilante violence, sparking national movements against these abuses.","United States\n\nIndustrialization","United States\n\nIn the North, urbanization and an unprecedented influx of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe supplied a surplus of labor for the country's industrialization and transformed its culture. National infrastructure including telegraph and transcontinental railroads spurred economic growth and greater settlement and development of the American Old West. The later invention of electric light and the telephone would also affect communication and urban life.","United States\n\nThe end of the Indian Wars further expanded acreage under mechanical cultivation, increasing surpluses for international markets. Mainland expansion was completed by the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867. In 1893, pro-American elements in Hawaii overthrew the monarchy and formed the Republic of Hawaii, which the U.S. annexed in 1898. Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines were ceded by Spain in the same year, following the Spanish–American War.","United States\n\nRapid economic development at the end of the 19th century produced many prominent industrialists, and the U.S. economy became the world's largest. Dramatic changes were accompanied by social unrest and the rise of populist, socialist, and anarchist movements. This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era, which saw significant reforms in many societal areas, including women's suffrage, alcohol prohibition, regulation of consumer goods, greater antitrust measures to ensure competition and attention to worker conditions.","United States\n\nWorld War I, Great Depression, and World War II","United States\n\nThe United States remained neutral from the outbreak of World War I, in 1914, until 1917 when it joined the war as an \"associated power\", alongside the formal Allies of World War I, helping to turn the tide against the Central Powers. In 1919, President Woodrow Wilson took a leading diplomatic role at the Paris Peace Conference and advocated strongly for the U.S. to join the League of Nations. However, the Senate refused to approve this, and did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles that established the League of Nations.","United States\n\nIn 1920, the women's rights movement won passage of a constitutional amendment granting women's suffrage. The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of radio for mass communication and the invention of early television. The prosperity of the Roaring Twenties ended with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression. After his election as president in 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt responded with the New Deal, which included the establishment of the Social Security system. The Great Migration of millions of African Americans out of the American South began before World War I and extended through the 1960s; whereas the Dust Bowl of the mid-1930s impoverished many farming communities and spurred a new wave of western migration.","United States\n\nAt first effectively neutral during World War II while Germany conquered much of continental Europe, the United States began supplying material to the Allies in March 1941 through the Lend-Lease program. On December 7, 1941, the Empire of Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, prompting the United States to join the Allies against the Axis powers. During the war, the United States was referred as one of the \"Four Policemen\" of Allies power who met to plan the postwar world, along with Britain, the Soviet Union and China. Though the nation lost more than 400,000 soldiers, it emerged relatively undamaged from the war with even greater economic and military influence.","United States\n\nThe United States played a leading role in the Bretton Woods and Yalta conferences with the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and other Allies, which signed agreements on new international financial institutions and Europe's postwar reorganization. As an Allied victory was won in Europe, a 1945 international conference held in San Francisco produced the United Nations Charter, which became active after the war. The United States developed the first nuclear weapons and used them on Japan; the Japanese surrendered on September 2, ending World War II.","United States\n\nCold War and civil rights era","United States\n\nAfter World War II the United States and the Soviet Union jockeyed for power during what is known as the Cold War, driven by an ideological divide between capitalism and communism and, according to the school of geopolitics, a divide between the maritime Atlantic and the continental Eurasian camps. They dominated the military affairs of Europe, with the U.S. and its NATO allies on one side and the USSR and its Warsaw Pact allies on the other. The U.S. developed a policy of containment towards the expansion of communist influence. While the U.S. and Soviet Union engaged in proxy wars and developed powerful nuclear arsenals, the two countries avoided direct military conflict.","United States\n\nThe U.S. often opposed Third World movements that it viewed as Soviet-sponsored. American troops fought communist Chinese and North Korean forces in the Korean War of 1950–53. The Soviet Union's 1957 launch of the first artificial satellite and its 1961 launch of the first manned spaceflight initiated a \"Space Race\" in which the United States became the first nation to land a man on the moon in 1969. A proxy war in Southeast Asia eventually evolved into full American participation, as the Vietnam War.","United States\n\nAt home, the U.S. experienced sustained economic expansion and a rapid growth of its population and middle class. Construction of an Interstate Highway System transformed the nation's infrastructure over the following decades. Millions moved from farms and inner cities to large suburban housing developments. In 1959 Hawaii became the 50th and last U.S. state added to the country. A growing civil rights movement used nonviolence to confront segregation and discrimination, with Martin Luther King, Jr. becoming a prominent leader and figurehead. A combination of court decisions and legislation, culminating in the Civil Rights Act of 1964, sought to end racial discrimination. Meanwhile, a counterculture movement grew which was fueled by opposition to the Vietnam war, black nationalism, and the sexual revolution. The launch of a \"War on Poverty\" expanded entitlements and welfare spending.","United States\n\nThe 1970s and early 1980s saw the onset of stagflation. After his election in 1980, President Ronald Reagan responded to economic stagnation with free-market oriented reforms. Following the collapse of détente, he abandoned \"containment\" and initiated the more aggressive \"rollback\" strategy towards the USSR. After a surge in female labor participation over the previous decade, by 1985 the majority of women aged 16 and over were employed.","United States\n\nThe late 1980s brought a \"thaw\" in relations with the USSR, and its collapse in 1991 finally ended the Cold War. This brought about unipolarity with the U.S. unchallenged as the world's dominant superpower. The concept of Pax Americana, which had appeared in the post-World War II period, gained wide popularity as a term for the post-Cold War new world order.","United States\n\nContemporary history","United States\n\nAfter the Cold War, the 1990s saw the longest economic expansion in modern U.S. history, ending in 2001. Originating in U.S. defense networks, the Internet spread to international academic networks, and then to the public in the 1990s, greatly affecting the global economy, society, and culture. On September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda terrorists struck the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., killing nearly 3,000 people. In response, the United States launched the War on Terror, which included war in Afghanistan and the 2003–11 Iraq War.","United States\n\nBeginning in 1994, the U.S. entered into the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), linking 450 million people producing $17 trillion worth of goods and services. The goal of the agreement was to eliminate trade and investment barriers among the U.S., Canada, and Mexico by January 1, 2008; trade among the partners has soared since the agreement went into force.[http://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta \"North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)\"] Office of the United States Trade Representative. Retrieved January 11, 2015.","United States\n\nBarack Obama, the first African American, and multiracial president, was elected in 2008 amid the Great Recession, which began in December 2007 and ended in June 2009.","United States\n\nGeography, climate, and environment","United States\n\nThe land area of the contiguous United States is 2959064 sqmi. Alaska, separated from the contiguous United States by Canada, is the largest state at 663268 sqmi. Hawaii, occupying an archipelago in the central Pacific, southwest of North America, is 10931 sqmi in area. The populated territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, and U.S. Virgin Islands together cover 9185 sqmi.","United States\n\nThe United States is the world's third or fourth largest nation by total area (land and water), ranking behind Russia and Canada and just above or below China. The ranking varies depending on how two territories disputed by China and India are counted and how the total size of the United States is measured: calculations range from 3676486 sqmi to 3717813 sqmi to 3796742 sqmi to 3,805,927 square miles (9.9 Mm2). Measured by only land area, the United States is third in size behind Russia and China, just ahead of Canada.","United States\n\nThe coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard gives way further inland to deciduous forests and the rolling hills of the Piedmont. The Appalachian Mountains divide the eastern seaboard from the Great Lakes and the grasslands of the Midwest. The Mississippi–Missouri River, the world's fourth longest river system, runs mainly north–south through the heart of the country. The flat, fertile prairie of the Great Plains stretches to the west, interrupted by a highland region in the southeast.","United States\n\nThe Rocky Mountains, at the western edge of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, reaching altitudes higher than 14000 ft in Colorado. Farther west are the rocky Great Basin and deserts such as the Chihuahua and Mojave. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges run close to the Pacific coast, both ranges reaching altitudes higher than 14000 ft. The lowest and highest points in the contiguous United States are in the state of California, and only about 84 mi apart. At an elevation of 20310 ft, Alaska's Denali (Mount McKinley) is the highest peak in the country and North America. Active volcanoes are common throughout Alaska's Alexander and Aleutian Islands, and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The supervolcano underlying Yellowstone National Park in the Rockies is the continent's largest volcanic feature.","United States\n\nThe United States, with its large size and geographic variety, includes most climate types. To the east of the 100th meridian, the climate ranges from humid continental in the north to humid subtropical in the south. The Great Plains west of the 100th meridian are semi-arid. Much of the Western mountains have an alpine climate. The climate is arid in the Great Basin, desert in the Southwest, Mediterranean in coastal California, and oceanic in coastal Oregon and Washington and southern Alaska. Most of Alaska is subarctic or polar. Hawaii and the southern tip of Florida are tropical, as are the populated territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific. Extreme weather is not uncommon—the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of the world's tornadoes occur within the country, mainly in Tornado Alley areas in the Midwest and South.","United States\n\nWildlife","United States\n\nThe U.S. ecology is megadiverse: about 17,000 species of vascular plants occur in the contiguous United States and Alaska, and over 1,800 species of flowering plants are found in Hawaii, few of which occur on the mainland. The United States is home to 428 mammal species, 784 bird species, 311 reptile species, and 295 amphibian species. About 91,000 insect species have been described. The bald eagle is both the national bird and national animal of the United States, and is an enduring symbol of the country itself.","United States\n\nThere are 58 national parks and hundreds of other federally managed parks, forests, and wilderness areas. Altogether, the government owns about 28% of the country's land area. Most of this is protected, though some is leased for oil and gas drilling, mining, logging, or cattle ranching; about .86% is used for military purposes.","United States\n\nEnvironmental issues have been on the national agenda since 1970. Environmental controversies include debates on oil and nuclear energy, dealing with air and water pollution, the economic costs of protecting wildlife, logging and deforestation, and international responses to global warming. Many federal and state agencies are involved. The most prominent is the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), created by presidential order in 1970. The idea of wilderness has shaped the management of public lands since 1964, with the Wilderness Act. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is intended to protect threatened and endangered species and their habitats, which are monitored by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.","United States\n\nDemographics","United States\n\nPopulation","United States\n\nThe U.S. Census Bureau estimated the country's population to be 323 425 550 as of April 25, 2016, and to be adding 1 person (net gain) every 13 seconds, or about 6,646 people per day. The U.S. population almost quadrupled during the 20th century, from about 76 million in 1900. The third most populous nation in the world, after China and India, the United States is the only major industrialized nation in which large population increases are projected. In the 1800s the average woman had 7.04 children, by the 1900s this number had decreased to 3.56. Since the early 1970s the birth rate has been below the replacement rate of 2.1 with 1.86 children per woman in 2014. Foreign born immigration has caused the US population to continue its rapid increase with the foreign born population doubling from almost 20 million in 1990 to over 40 million in 2010, representing one third of the population increase. The foreign born population reached 45 million in 2015.","United States\n\nThe United States has a birth rate of 13 per 1,000, which is 5 births below the world average. Its population growth rate is positive at 0.7%, higher than that of many developed nations. In fiscal year 2012, over one million immigrants (most of whom entered through family reunification) were granted legal residence. Mexico has been the leading source of new residents since the 1965 Immigration Act. China, India, and the Philippines have been in the top four sending countries every year since the 1990s. , approximately 11.4 million residents are illegal immigrants. As of 2015, 47% of all immigrants are Hispanic, 26% are Asian, 18% are white and 8% are black. The percentage of immigrants who are Asian is increasing while the percentage who are Hispanic is decreasing.","United States\n\nAccording to a survey conducted by the Williams Institute, nine million Americans, or roughly 3.4% of the adult population identify themselves as homosexual, bisexual, or transgender. A 2012 Gallup poll also concluded that 3.5% of adult Americans identified as LGBT. The highest percentage came from the District of Columbia (10%), while the lowest state was North Dakota at 1.7%. In a 2013 survey, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that 96.6% of Americans identify as straight, while 1.6% identify as gay or lesbian, and 0.7% identify as being bisexual.","United States\n\nIn 2010, the U.S. population included an estimated 5.2 million people with some American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry (2.9 million exclusively of such ancestry) and 1.2 million with some native Hawaiian or Pacific island ancestry (0.5 million exclusively). The census counted more than 19 million people of \"Some Other Race\" who were \"unable to identify with any\" of its five official race categories in 2010, over 18.5 million (97%) of whom are of Hispanic ethnicity.","United States\n\nThe population growth of Hispanic and Latino Americans (the terms are officially interchangeable) is a major demographic trend. The 50.5 million Americans of Hispanic descent are identified as sharing a distinct \"ethnicity\" by the Census Bureau; 64% of Hispanic Americans are of Mexican descent. Between 2000 and 2010, the country's Hispanic population increased 43% while the non-Hispanic population rose just 4.9%. Much of this growth is from immigration; in 2007, 12.6% of the U.S. population was foreign-born, with 54% of that figure born in Latin America.","United States\n\nAbout 82% of Americans live in urban areas (including suburbs); about half of those reside in cities with populations over 50,000. The US has numerous clusters of cities known as megaregions, the largest being the Great Lakes Megalopolis followed by the Northeast Megalopolis and Southern California. In 2008, 273 incorporated places had populations over 100,000, nine cities had more than one million residents, and four global cities had over two million (New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston). There are 52 metropolitan areas with populations greater than one million. Of the 50 fastest-growing metro areas, 47 are in the West or South. The metro areas of San Bernardino, Dallas, Houston, Atlanta, and Phoenix all grew by more than a million people between 2000 and 2008.","United States\n\nLanguage","United States\n\nEnglish (American English) is the de facto national language. Although there is no official language at the federal level, some laws—such as U.S. naturalization requirements—standardize English. In 2010, about 230 million, or 80% of the population aged five years and older, spoke only English at home. Spanish, spoken by 12% of the population at home, is the second most common language and the most widely taught second language.\"Language Spoken at Home by the U.S. Population, 2010\", American Community Survey, U.S. Census Bureau, in World Almanac and Book of Facts 2012, p. 615. Some Americans advocate making English the country's official language, as it is in 28 states.","United States\n\nBoth Hawaiian and English are official languages in Hawaii, by state law. Alaska recognizes twenty Native languages. While neither has an official language, New Mexico has laws providing for the use of both English and Spanish, as Louisiana does for English and French. Other states, such as California, mandate the publication of Spanish versions of certain government documents including court forms. Many jurisdictions with large numbers of non-English speakers produce government materials, especially voting information, in the most commonly spoken languages in those jurisdictions.","United States\n\nSeveral insular territories grant official recognition to their native languages, along with English: Samoan and Chamorro are recognized by American Samoa and Guam, respectively; Carolinian and Chamorro are recognized by the Northern Mariana Islands; Cherokee is officially recognized by the Cherokee Nation within the Cherokee tribal jurisdiction area in eastern Oklahoma; Spanish is an official language of Puerto Rico and is more widely spoken than English there.","United States\n\nAccording to the Center for Immigration Studies, Arabic and Urdu (Pakistan's national language) are the fastest growing foreign languages spoken at American households. According to the survey, more than 63.2 million US residents speak a language other than English at home. In recent years, Arabic speaking residents increased by 29%, Urdu by 23% and Persian by 9%.","United States\n\nThe most widely taught foreign languages at all levels in the United States (in terms of enrollment numbers) are: Spanish (around 7.2 million students), French (1.5 million), and German (500,000). Other commonly taught languages (with 100,000 to 250,000 learners) include Latin, Japanese, American Sign Language, Italian, and Chinese. 18% of all Americans claim to speak at least one language in addition to English.","United States\n\nReligion","United States\n\nThe First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution guarantees the free exercise of religion and forbids Congress from passing laws respecting its establishment. Christianity is by far the most common religion practiced in the U.S., but other religions are followed, too. In a 2013 survey, 56% of Americans said that religion played a \"very important role in their lives\", a far higher figure than that of any other wealthy nation. In a 2009 Gallup poll, 42% of Americans said that they attended church weekly or almost weekly; the figures ranged from a low of 23% in Vermont to a high of 63% in Mississippi.","United States\n\nAs with other Western countries, the U.S. is becoming less religious. Irreligion is growing rapidly among Americans under 30. Polls show that overall American confidence in organized religion has been declining since the mid to late 1980s, and that younger Americans in particular are becoming increasingly irreligious. According to a 2012 study, Protestant share of U.S. population dropped to 48%, thus ending its status as religious category of the majority for the first time. Americans with no religion have 1.7 children compared to 2.2 among Christians. The unaffiliated are less likely to get married with 37% marrying compared to 52% of Christians.","United States\n\nAccording to a 2014 survey, 70.6% of adults identified themselves as Christian, \nProtestant denominations accounted for 46.5%, while Roman Catholicism, at 20.8%, was the largest individual denomination. The total reporting non-Christian religions in 2014 was 5.9%. Other religions include Judaism (1.9%), Islam (0.9%), Buddhism (0.7%), Hinduism (0.7%). The survey also reported that 22.8% of Americans described themselves as agnostic, atheist or simply having no religion, up from 8.2% in 1990. There are also Unitarian Universalist, Baha'i, Sikh, Jain, Shinto, Confucian, Taoist, Druid, Native American, Wiccan, humanist and deist communities.","United States\n\nProtestantism is the largest Christian religious grouping in the United States. Baptists collectively form the largest branch of Protestantism, and the Southern Baptist Convention is the largest individual Protestant denomination. About 26% of Americans identify as Evangelical Protestants, while 15% are Mainline and 7% belong to a traditionally Black church. Roman Catholicism in the United States has its origin in the Spanish and French colonization of the Americas, and later grew because of Irish, Italian, Polish, German and Hispanic immigration. Rhode Island is the only state where a majority of the population is Catholic. Lutheranism in the U.S. has its origin in immigration from Northern Europe and Germany. North and South Dakota are the only states in which a plurality of the population is Lutheran. Presbyterianism was introduced in North America by Scottish and Ulster Scots immigrants. Although it has spread across the United States, it is heavily concentrated on the East Coast. Dutch Reformed congregations were founded first in New Amsterdam (New York City) before spreading westward. Utah is the only state where Mormonism is the religion of the majority of the population. The Mormon Corridor also extends to parts of Idaho, Nevada and Wyoming.","United States\n\nThe Bible Belt is an informal term for a region in the Southern United States in which socially conservative Evangelical Protestantism is a significant part of the culture and Christian church attendance across the denominations is generally higher than the nation's average. By contrast, religion plays the least important role in New England and in the Western United States.","United States\n\nFamily structure","United States\n\n, 58% of Americans age 18 and over were married, 6% were widowed, 10% were divorced, and 25% had never been married. Women now work mostly outside the home and receive a majority of bachelor's degrees.","United States\n\nThe U.S. teenage pregnancy rate is 26.5 per 1,000 women. The rate has declined by 57% since 1991. In 2013, the highest teenage birth rate was in Alabama, and the lowest in Wyoming. Abortion is legal throughout the U.S., owing to Roe v. Wade, a 1973 landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. While the abortion rate is falling, the abortion ratio of 241 per 1,000 live births and abortion rate of 15 per 1,000 women aged 15–44 remain higher than those of most Western nations. In 2013, the average age at first birth was 26 and 40.6% of births were to unmarried women.","United States\n\nThe total fertility rate (TFR) was estimated for 2013 at 1.86 births per woman. Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view (compared to other Western countries). In 2001, with over 127,000 adoptions, the U.S. accounted for nearly half of the total number of adoptions worldwide. Same-sex marriage is legal nationwide and it is legal for same-sex couples to adopt. Polygamy is illegal throughout the U.S.","United States\n\nGovernment and politics","United States\n\nThe United States is the world's oldest surviving federation. It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, \"in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law\". The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the U.S. Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. For 2014, the U.S. ranked 19th on the Democracy Index and 17th on the Corruption Perceptions Index.","United States\n\nIn the American federalist system, citizens are usually subject to three levels of government: federal, state, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between county and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. There is no proportional representation at the federal level, and it is rare at lower levels.","United States\n\nThe federal government is composed of three branches:\n* Legislative: The bicameral Congress, made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives, makes federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse, and has the power of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the government. \n* Executive: The President is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law (subject to Congressional override), and appoints the members of the Cabinet (subject to Senate approval) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies. \n* Judicial: The Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the President with Senate approval, interpret laws and overturn those they find unconstitutional.","United States\n\nThe House of Representatives has 435 voting members, each representing a congressional district for a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population every tenth year. At the 2010 census, seven states had the minimum of one representative, while California, the most populous state, had 53.","United States\n\nThe Senate has 100 members with each state having two senators, elected at-large to six-year terms; one third of Senate seats are up for election every other year. The President serves a four-year term and may be elected to the office no more than twice. The President is not elected by direct vote, but by an indirect electoral college system in which the determining votes are apportioned to the states and the District of Columbia. The Supreme Court, led by the Chief Justice of the United States, has nine members, who serve for life. However, the court currently has one vacant seat after the death of Associate Justice Antonin Scalia.","United States\n\nThe state governments are structured in roughly similar fashion; Nebraska uniquely has a unicameral legislature. The governor (chief executive) of each state is directly elected. Some state judges and cabinet officers are appointed by the governors of the respective states, while others are elected by popular vote.","United States\n\nThe original text of the Constitution establishes the structure and responsibilities of the federal government and its relationship with the individual states. Article One protects the right to the \"great writ\" of habeas corpus. The Constitution has been amended 27 times; the first ten amendments, which make up the Bill of Rights, and the Fourteenth Amendment form the central basis of Americans' individual rights. All laws and governmental procedures are subject to judicial review and any law ruled by the courts to be in violation of the Constitution is voided. The principle of judicial review, not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was established by the Supreme Court in Marbury v. Madison (1803) in a decision handed down by Chief Justice John Marshall.","United States\n\nPolitical divisions","United States\n\nMap of U.S. Economic Exclusion Zone, highlighting states, territories and possessions","United States\n\nThe United States is a federal republic of 50 states, a federal district, five territories and eleven uninhabited island possessions. The states and territories are the principal administrative districts in the country. These are divided into subdivisions of counties and independent cities. The District of Columbia is a federal district which contains the capital of the United States, Washington DC. The states and the District of Columbia choose the President of the United States. Each state has presidential electors equal to the number of their Representatives and Senators in Congress, the District of Columbia has three.","United States\n\nCongressional Districts are reapportioned among the states following each decennial Census of Population. Each state then draws single member districts to conform with the census apportionment. The total number of Representatives is 435, and delegate Members of Congress represent the District of Columbia and the five major US territories.","United States\n\nThe United States also observes tribal sovereignty of the American Indian nations to a limited degree, as it does with the states' sovereignty. American Indians are U.S. citizens and tribal lands are subject to the jurisdiction of the U.S Congress and the federal courts. Like the states they have a great deal of autonomy, but also like the states tribes are not allowed to make war, engage in their own foreign relations, or print and issue currency.","United States\n\nParties and elections","United States\n\nThe United States has operated under a two-party system for most of its history. For elective offices at most levels, state-administered primary elections choose the major party nominees for subsequent general elections. Since the general election of 1856, the major parties have been the Democratic Party, founded in 1824, and the Republican Party, founded in 1854. Since the Civil War, only one third-party presidential candidate—former president Theodore Roosevelt, running as a Progressive in 1912—has won as much as 20% of the popular vote. The President and Vice-president are elected through the Electoral College system.","United States\n\nWithin American political culture, the center-right Republican Party is considered \"conservative\" and the center-left Democratic Party is considered \"liberal\". The states of the Northeast and West Coast and some of the Great Lakes states, known as \"blue states\", are relatively liberal. The \"red states\" of the South and parts of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains are relatively conservative.","United States\n\nThe winner of the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections, Democrat Barack Obama, is the 44th, and current, U.S. president. Current leadership in the Senate includes Democratic Vice President Joseph Biden, Republican President Pro Tempore (Pro Tem) Orrin Hatch, Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, and Minority Leader Harry Reid. Leadership in the House includes Speaker of the House Paul Ryan, Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy, and Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi.","United States\n\nIn the 114th United States Congress, both the House of Representatives and the Senate are controlled by the Republican Party. The Senate currently consists of 54 Republicans, and 44 Democrats with two independents who caucus with the Democrats; the House consists of 246 Republicans and 188 Democrats, with one vacancy. In state governorships, there are 31 Republicans, 18 Democrats and one independent. Among the DC mayor and the 5 territorial governors, there are 2 Republicans, 2 Democrats (one is also in the PPD), and 2 Independents.","United States\n\nForeign relations","United States\n\nThe United States has an established structure of foreign relations. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, and New York City is home to the United Nations Headquarters. It is a member of the G7, G20, and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Almost all countries have embassies in Washington, D.C., and many have consulates around the country. Likewise, nearly all nations host American diplomatic missions. However, Iran, North Korea, Bhutan, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) do not have formal diplomatic relations with the United States (although the U.S. still maintains relations with Taiwan and supplies it with military equipment).","United States\n\nThe United States has a \"Special Relationship\" with the United Kingdom and strong ties with Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Japan, South Korea, Israel, and several European Union countries, including France, Italy, Germany, and Spain. It works closely with fellow NATO members on military and security issues and with its neighbors through the Organization of American States and free trade agreements such as the trilateral North American Free Trade Agreement with Canada and Mexico. In 2008, the United States spent a net $25.4 billion on official development assistance, the most in the world. As a share of America's large gross national income (GNI), however, the U.S. contribution of 0.18% ranked last among 22 donor states. By contrast, private overseas giving by Americans is relatively generous.","United States\n\nThe U.S. exercises full international defense authority and responsibility for three sovereign nations through Compact of Free Association with Micronesia, the Marshall Islands and Palau. These are Pacific island nations, once part of the U.S.-administered Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands after World War II, which gained independence in subsequent years.","United States\n\nGovernment finance","United States\n\nTaxes in the United States are levied at the federal, state and local government level. These include taxes on income, payroll, property, sales, imports, estates and gifts, as well as various fees. In 2010 taxes collected by federal, state and municipal governments amounted to 24.8% of GDP. During FY2012, the federal government collected approximately $2.45 trillion in tax revenue, up $147 billion or 6% versus FY2011 revenues of $2.30 trillion. Primary receipt categories included individual income taxes ($1,132B or 47%), Social Security/Social Insurance taxes ($845B or 35%), and corporate taxes ($242B or 10%). Based on CBO estimates, under 2013 tax law the top 1% will be paying the highest average tax rates since 1979, while other income groups will remain at historic lows.","United States\n\nU.S. taxation is generally progressive, especially the federal income taxes, and is among the most progressive in the developed world. The highest 10% of income earners pay a majority of federal taxes, and about half of all taxes. Payroll taxes for Social Security are a flat regressive tax, with no tax charged on income above $118,500 (for 2015 and 2016) and no tax at all paid on unearned income from things such as stocks and capital gains. The historic reasoning for the regressive nature of the payroll tax is that entitlement programs have not been viewed as welfare transfers. However, according to the Congressional Budget Office the net effect of Social Security is that the benefit to tax ratio ranges from roughly 70% for the top earnings quintile to about 170% for the lowest earning quintile, making the system progressive.","United States\n\nThe top 10% paid 51.8% of total federal taxes in 2009, and the top 1%, with 13.4% of pre-tax national income, paid 22.3% of federal taxes. In 2013 the Tax Policy Center projected total federal effective tax rates of 35.5% for the top 1%, 27.2% for the top quintile, 13.8% for the middle quintile, and −2.7% for the bottom quintile. The incidence of corporate income tax has been a matter of considerable ongoing controversy for decades. State and local taxes vary widely, but are generally less progressive than federal taxes as they rely heavily on broadly borne regressive sales and property taxes that yield less volatile revenue streams, though their consideration does not eliminate the progressive nature of overall taxation.","United States\n\nDuring FY 2012, the federal government spent $3.54 trillion on a budget or cash basis, down $60 billion or 1.7% vs. FY 2011 spending of $3.60 trillion. Major categories of FY 2012 spending included: Medicare & Medicaid ($802B or 23% of spending), Social Security ($768B or 22%), Defense Department ($670B or 19%), non-defense discretionary ($615B or 17%), other mandatory ($461B or 13%) and interest ($223B or 6%).","United States\n\nThe total national debt of the United States in the United States was $18.527 trillion (106% of the GDP) in 2014.","United States\n\nMilitary","United States\n\nThe President holds the title of commander-in-chief of the nation's armed forces and appoints its leaders, the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The United States Department of Defense administers the armed forces, including the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force. The Coast Guard is run by the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and by the Department of the Navy during times of war. In 2008, the armed forces had 1.4 million personnel on active duty. The Reserves and National Guard brought the total number of troops to 2.3 million. The Department of Defense also employed about 700,000 civilians, not including contractors.","United States\n\nMilitary service is voluntary, though conscription may occur in wartime through the Selective Service System. American forces can be rapidly deployed by the Air Force's large fleet of transport aircraft, the Navy's 10 active aircraft carriers, and Marine expeditionary units at sea with the Navy's Atlantic and Pacific fleets. The military operates 865 bases and facilities abroad, and maintains deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries.","United States\n\nThe military budget of the United States in 2011 was more than $700 billion, 41% of global military spending and equal to the next 14 largest national military expenditures combined. At 4.7% of GDP, the rate was the second-highest among the top 15 military spenders, after Saudi Arabia. U.S. defense spending as a percentage of GDP ranked 23rd globally in 2012 according to the CIA. Defense's share of U.S. spending has generally declined in recent decades, from Cold War peaks of 14.2% of GDP in 1953 and 69.5% of federal outlays in 1954 to 4.7% of GDP and 18.8% of federal outlays in 2011.","United States\n\nThe proposed base Department of Defense budget for 2012, $553 billion, was a 4.2% increase over 2011; an additional $118 billion was proposed for the military campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan. The last American troops serving in Iraq departed in December 2011; 4,484 service members were killed during the Iraq War. Approximately 90,000 U.S. troops were serving in Afghanistan in April 2012; by November 8, 2013 2,285 had been killed during the War in Afghanistan.","United States\n\nLaw enforcement and crime","United States\n\nLaw enforcement in the United States is primarily the responsibility of local police and sheriff's departments, with state police providing broader services. The New York City Police Department (NYPD) is the largest in the country. Federal agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the U.S. Marshals Service have specialized duties, including protecting civil rights, national security and enforcing U.S. federal courts' rulings and federal laws. At the federal level and in almost every state, a legal system operates on a common law. State courts conduct most criminal trials; federal courts handle certain designated crimes as well as certain appeals from the state criminal courts. Plea bargaining in the United States is very common; the vast majority of criminal cases in the country are settled by plea bargain rather than jury trial.","United States\n\nIn 2012 there were 4.7 murders per 100,000 persons in the United States, a 54% decline from the modern peak of 10.2 in 1980. In 2001–2, the United States had above-average levels of violent crime and particularly high levels of gun violence compared to other developed nations. A cross-sectional analysis of the World Health Organization Mortality Database from 2003 showed that United States \"homicide rates were 6.9 times higher than rates in the other high-income countries, driven by firearm homicide rates that were 19.5 times higher.\" Gun ownership rights continue to be the subject of contentious political debate.","United States\n\nFrom 1980 through 2008 males represented 77% of homicide victims and 90% of offenders. Blacks committed 52.5% of all homicides during that span, at a rate almost eight times that of whites (\"whites\" includes most Hispanics), and were victimized at a rate six times that of whites. Most homicides were intraracial, with 93% of black victims killed by blacks and 84% of white victims killed by whites. In 2012, Louisiana had the highest rate of murder and non-negligent manslaughter in the U.S., and New Hampshire the lowest. The FBI's Uniform Crime Reports estimates that there were 3,246 violent and property crimes per 100,000 residents in 2012, for a total of over 9 million total crimes.","United States\n\nCapital punishment is sanctioned in the United States for certain federal and military crimes, and used in 31 states. No executions took place from 1967 to 1977, owing in part to a U.S. Supreme Court ruling striking down arbitrary imposition of the death penalty. In 1976, that Court ruled that, under appropriate circumstances, capital punishment may constitutionally be imposed. Since the decision there have been more than 1,300 executions, a majority of these taking place in three states: Texas, Virginia, and Oklahoma. Meanwhile, several states have either abolished or struck down death penalty laws. In 2014, the country had the fifth highest number of executions in the world, following China, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq.","United States\n\nThe United States has the highest documented incarceration rate and total prison population in the world. For the latest data, see National Research Council. [http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=18613 The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences]. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. Retrieved May 10, 2014.[http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/related_material/2014_US_Nation_Behind_Bars_0.pdf Nation Behind Bars: A Human Rights Solution]. Human Rights Watch, May 2014. Retrieved May 10, 2014. At the start of 2008, more than 2.3 million people were incarcerated, more than one in every 100 adults. At year end 2012, the combined U.S. adult correctional systems supervised about 6,937,600 offenders. About 1 in every 35 adult residents in the United States was under some form of correctional supervision at yearend 2012, the lowest rate observed since 1997. The prison population has quadrupled since 1980, and state and local spending on prisons and jails has grown three times as much as that spent on public education during the same period. However, the imprisonment rate for all prisoners\nsentenced to more than a year in state or federal facilities is 478 per 100,000 in 2013 and the rate for pre-trial/remand prisoners is 153 per 100,000 residents in 2012.","United States\n\nThe country's high rate of incarceration is largely due to changes in sentencing guidelines and drug policies. According to the Federal Bureau of Prisons, the majority of inmates held in federal prisons are convicted of drug offenses. The privatization of prisons and prison services which began in the 1980s has been a subject of debate.Selman, Donna and Paul Leighton (2010). [https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781442201729/Punishment-for-Sale-Private-Prisons-Big-Business-and-the-Incarceration-Binge Punishment for Sale: Private Prisons, Big Business, and the Incarceration Binge]. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. [https://books.google.com/books?id5lBraTDtiSgC&lpg\nPP1&pgPR11#v\nonepage&q&ffalse p. xi]. ISBN 1-4422-0173-8.Gottschalk, Marie (2014). [http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10330.html Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics]. Princeton University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id\niOs_BAAAQBAJ&lpgPP1&pg\nPA70#vonepage&q&f\nfalse p. 70] ISBN 0-691-16405-3.Peter Kerwin (June 10, 2015). [http://www.news.wisc.edu/23835 Study finds private prisons keep inmates longer, without reducing future crime]. University of Wisconsin–Madison News. Retrieved June 11, 2015. In 2008, Louisiana had the highest incarceration rate, and Maine the lowest.","United States\n\nEconomy","United States\n\nThe United States has a capitalist mixed economy which is fueled by abundant natural resources and high productivity. According to the International Monetary Fund, the U.S. GDP of $16.8 trillion constitutes 24% of the gross world product at market exchange rates and over 19% of the gross world product at purchasing power parity (PPP).","United States\n\nThe US's nominal GDP is estimated to be $17.528 trillion From 1983 to 2008, U.S. real compounded annual GDP growth was 3.3%, compared to a 2.3% weighted average for the rest of the G7. The country ranks ninth in the world in nominal GDP per capita and sixth in GDP per capita at PPP. The U.S. dollar is the world's primary reserve currency.","United States\n\nThe United States is the largest importer of goods and second largest exporter, though exports per capita are relatively low. In 2010, the total U.S. trade deficit was $635 billion. Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany are its top trading partners. In 2010, oil was the largest import commodity, while transportation equipment was the country's largest export. Japan is the largest foreign holder of U.S. public debt. The largest holder of the U.S. debt are American entities, including federal government accounts and the Federal Reserve, who hold the majority of the debt.","United States\n\nIn 2009, the private sector was estimated to constitute 86.4% of the economy, with federal government activity accounting for 4.3% and state and local government activity (including federal transfers) the remaining 9.3%. The number of employees at all levels of government outnumber those in manufacturing by 1.7 to 1. While its economy has reached a postindustrial level of development and its service sector constitutes 67.8% of GDP, the United States remains an industrial power. The leading business field by gross business receipts is wholesale and retail trade; by net income it is manufacturing. In the franchising business model, McDonald's and Subway are the two most recognized brands in the world. Coca-Cola is the most recognized soft drink company in the world.","United States\n\nChemical products are the leading manufacturing field. The United States is the largest producer of oil in the world, as well as its second largest importer. It is the world's number one producer of electrical and nuclear energy, as well as liquid natural gas, sulfur, phosphates, and salt. The National Mining Association provides data pertaining to coal and minerals that include beryllium, copper, lead, magnesium, zinc, titanium and others.","United States\n\nAgriculture accounts for just under 1% of GDP, yet the United States is the world's top producer of corn and soybeans. The National Agricultural Statistics Service maintains agricultural statistics for products that include peanuts, oats, rye, wheat, rice, cotton, corn, barley, hay, sunflowers, and oilseeds. In addition, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides livestock statistics regarding beef, poultry, pork, and dairy products. The country is the primary developer and grower of genetically modified food, representing half of the world's biotech crops.","United States\n\nConsumer spending comprises 68% of the U.S. economy in 2015. In August 2010, the American labor force consisted of 154.1 million people. With 21.2 million people, government is the leading field of employment. The largest private employment sector is health care and social assistance, with 16.4 million people. About 12% of workers are unionized, compared to 30% in Western Europe. The World Bank ranks the United States first in the ease of hiring and firing workers. The United States is ranked among the top three in the Global Competitiveness Report as well. It has a smaller welfare state and redistributes less income through government action than European nations tend to.","United States\n\nThe United States is the only advanced economy that does not guarantee its workers paid vacation and is one of just a few countries in the world without paid family leave as a legal right, with the others being Papua New Guinea, Suriname and Liberia. However, 74% of full-time American workers get paid sick leave, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, although only 24% of part-time workers get the same benefits. While federal law currently does not require sick leave, it's a common benefit for government workers and full-time employees at corporations. In 2009, the United States had the third highest workforce productivity per person in the world, behind Luxembourg and Norway. It was fourth in productivity per hour, behind those two countries and the Netherlands.","United States\n\nThe 2008–2012 global recession significantly affected the United States, with output still below potential according to the Congressional Budget Office. It brought high unemployment (which has been decreasing but remains above pre-recession levels), along with low consumer confidence, the continuing decline in home values and increase in foreclosures and personal bankruptcies, an escalating federal debt crisis, inflation, and rising petroleum and food prices. There remains a record proportion of long-term unemployed, continued decreasing household income, and tax and federal budget increases.","United States\n\nIncome, poverty and wealth","United States\n\nAmericans have the highest average household and employee income among OECD nations, and in 2007 had the second highest median household income. According to the Census Bureau real median household income was $50,502 in 2011, down from $51,144 in 2010. The Global Food Security Index ranked the U.S. number one for food affordability and overall food security in March 2013. Americans on average have over twice as much living space per dwelling and per person as European Union residents, and more than every EU nation. For 2013 the United Nations Development Programme ranked the United States 5th among 187 countries in its Human Development Index and 28th in its inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI).","United States\n\nThere has been a widening gap between productivity and median incomes since the 1970s. However, the gap between total compensation and productivity is not as wide because of increased employee benefits such as health insurance. While inflation-adjusted (\"real\") household income had been increasing almost every year from 1947 to 1999, it has since been flat on balance and has even decreased recently. According to Congressional Research Service, during this same period, immigration to the United States increased, while the lower 90% of tax filers incomes became stagnant, and eventually decreasing since 2000. The rise in the share of total annual income received by the top 1 percent, which has more than doubled from 9 percent in 1976 to 20 percent in 2011, has significantly affected income inequality, leaving the United States with one of the widest income distributions among OECD nations.[http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/OECD2014-FocusOnTopIncomes.pdf Focus on Top Incomes and Taxation in OECD Countries: Was the crisis a game changer?] OECD, May 2014. Retrieved May 1, 2014. The post-recession income gains have been very uneven, with the top 1 percent capturing 95 percent of the income gains from 2009 to 2012.","United States\n\nThe extent and relevance of income inequality is a matter of debate.","United States\n\nWealth, like income and taxes, is highly concentrated; the richest 10% of the adult population possess 72% of the country's household wealth, while the bottom half claim only 2%. Between June 2007 and November 2008 the global recession led to falling asset prices around the world. Assets owned by Americans lost about a quarter of their value. Since peaking in the second quarter of 2007, household wealth was down $14 trillion, but has since increased $14 trillion over 2006 levels. At the end of 2014, household debt amounted to $11.8 trillion, down from $13.8 trillion at the end of 2008.","United States\n\nThere were about 578,424 sheltered and unsheltered homeless persons in the U.S. in January 2014, with almost two-thirds staying in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program. In 2011 16.7 million children lived in food-insecure households, about 35% more than 2007 levels, though only 1.1% of U.S. children, or 845,000, saw reduced food intake or disrupted eating patterns at some point during the year, and most cases were not chronic. According to a 2014 report by the Census Bureau, one in five young adults lives in poverty today, up from one in seven in 1980.","United States\n\nEducation","United States\n\nAmerican public education is operated by state and local governments, regulated by the United States Department of Education through restrictions on federal grants. In most states, children are required to attend school from the age of six or seven (generally, kindergarten or first grade) until they turn 18 (generally bringing them through twelfth grade, the end of high school); some states allow students to leave school at 16 or 17.","United States\n\nAbout 12% of children are enrolled in parochial or nonsectarian private schools. Just over 2% of children are homeschooled. The U.S. spends more on education per student than any nation in the world, spending more than $11,000 per elementary student in 2010 and more than $12,000 per high school student. Some 80% of U.S. college students attend public universities.","United States\n\nThe United States has many competitive private and public institutions of higher education. The majority of world's top universities listed by different ranking organizations are in the US. There are also local community colleges with generally more open admission policies, shorter academic programs, and lower tuition. Of Americans 25 and older, 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a bachelor's degree, and 9.6% earned graduate degrees. The basic literacy rate is approximately 99%. The United Nations assigns the United States an Education Index of 0.97, tying it for 12th in the world.","United States\n\nAs for public expenditures on higher education, the U.S. trails some other OECD nations but spends more per student than the OECD average, and more than all nations in combined public and private spending. , student loan debt exceeded one trillion dollars, more than Americans owe on credit cards.","United States\n\nCulture","United States\n\nThe United States is home to many cultures and a wide variety of ethnic groups, traditions, and values. Aside from the Native American, Native Hawaiian, and Native Alaskan populations, nearly all Americans or their ancestors settled or immigrated within the past five centuries. Mainstream American culture is a Western culture largely derived from the traditions of European immigrants with influences from many other sources, such as traditions brought by slaves from Africa. More recent immigration from Asia and especially Latin America has added to a cultural mix that has been described as both a homogenizing melting pot, and a heterogeneous salad bowl in which immigrants and their descendants retain distinctive cultural characteristics.","United States\n\nCore American culture was established by Protestant British colonists and shaped by the frontier settlement process, with the traits derived passed down to descendants and transmitted to immigrants through assimilation. Americans have traditionally been characterized by a strong work ethic, competitiveness, and individualism, as well as a unifying belief in an \"American creed\" emphasizing liberty, equality, private property, democracy, rule of law, and a preference for limited government. Americans are extremely charitable by global standards. According to a 2006 British study, Americans gave 1.67% of GDP to charity, more than any other nation studied, more than twice the second place British figure of 0.73%, and around twelve times the French figure of 0.14%.","United States\n\nThe American Dream, or the perception that Americans enjoy high social mobility, plays a key role in attracting immigrants. Whether this perception is realistic has been a topic of debate. CAP: [https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/news/2006/04/26/1917/understanding-mobility-in-america/ Understanding Mobility in America]. April 26, 2006 While mainstream culture holds that the United States is a classless society, scholars identify significant differences between the country's social classes, affecting socialization, language, and values. Americans' self-images, social viewpoints, and cultural expectations are associated with their occupations to an unusually close degree. While Americans tend greatly to value socioeconomic achievement, being ordinary or average is generally seen as a positive attribute.","United States\n\nFood","United States\n\nMainstream American cuisine is similar to that in other Western countries. Wheat is the primary cereal grain with about three-quarters of grain products made of wheat flour and many dishes use indigenous ingredients, such as turkey, venison, potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn, squash, and maple syrup which were consumed by Native Americans and early European settlers. These home grown foods are part of a shared national menu on one of America's most popular holidays; Thanksgiving, when some Americans make traditional foods to celebrate the occasion.","United States\n\nCharacteristic dishes such as apple pie, fried chicken, pizza, hamburgers, and hot dogs derive from the recipes of various immigrants. French fries, Mexican dishes such as burritos and tacos, and pasta dishes freely adapted from Italian sources are widely consumed. Americans drink three times as much coffee as tea. Marketing by U.S. industries is largely responsible for making orange juice and milk ubiquitous breakfast beverages.","United States\n\nAmerican eating habits owe a great deal to that of their British culinary roots with some variations. Although American lands could grow newer vegetables England could not, most colonists would not eat these new foods until accepted by Europeans. Over time American foods changed to a point that food critic, John L. Hess stated in 1972: \"Our founding fathers were as far superior to our present political leaders in the quality of their food as they were in the quality of their prose and intelligence\".","United States\n\nThe American fast food industry, the world's largest, pioneered the drive-through format in the 1940s. Fast food consumption has sparked health concerns. During the 1980s and 1990s, Americans' caloric intake rose 24%; frequent dining at fast food outlets is associated with what public health officials call the American \"obesity epidemic\". Highly sweetened soft drinks are widely popular, and sugared beverages account for nine percent of American caloric intake.","United States\n\nLiterature, philosophy, and the arts","United States\n\nIn the 18th and early 19th centuries, American art and literature took most of its cues from Europe. Writers such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, and Henry David Thoreau established a distinctive American literary voice by the middle of the 19th century. Mark Twain and poet Walt Whitman were major figures in the century's second half; Emily Dickinson, virtually unknown during her lifetime, is now recognized as an essential American poet. A work seen as capturing fundamental aspects of the national experience and character—such as Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby (1925) and Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird (1960)— may be dubbed the \"Great American Novel\".","United States\n\nEleven U.S. citizens have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, most recently Toni Morrison in 1993. William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway and John Steinbeck are often named among the most influential writers of the 20th century. Popular literary genres such as the Western and hardboiled crime fiction developed in the United States. The Beat Generation writers opened up new literary approaches, as have postmodernist authors such as John Barth, Thomas Pynchon, and Don DeLillo.","United States\n\nThe transcendentalists, led by Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, established the first major American philosophical movement. After the Civil War, Charles Sanders Peirce and then William James and John Dewey were leaders in the development of pragmatism. In the 20th century, the work of W. V. O. Quine and Richard Rorty, and later Noam Chomsky, brought analytic philosophy to the fore of American philosophical academia. John Rawls and Robert Nozick led a revival of political philosophy. Cornel West and Judith Butler have led a continental tradition in American philosophical academia. Chicago school economists like Milton Friedman, James M. Buchanan, and Thomas Sowell have affected various fields in social and political philosophy.","United States\n\nIn the visual arts, the Hudson River School was a mid-19th-century movement in the tradition of European naturalism. The realist paintings of Thomas Eakins are now widely celebrated. The 1913 Armory Show in New York City, an exhibition of European modernist art, shocked the public and transformed the U.S. art scene. Georgia O'Keeffe, Marsden Hartley, and others experimented with new, individualistic styles. Major artistic movements such as the abstract expressionism of Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning and the pop art of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein developed largely in the United States. The tide of modernism and then postmodernism has brought fame to American architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright, Philip Johnson, and Frank Gehry.","United States\n\nOne of the first major promoters of American theater was impresario P. T. Barnum, who began operating a lower Manhattan entertainment complex in 1841. The team of Harrigan and Hart produced a series of popular musical comedies in New York starting in the late 1870s. In the 20th century, the modern musical form emerged on Broadway; the songs of musical theater composers such as Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, and Stephen Sondheim have become pop standards. Playwright Eugene O'Neill won the Nobel literature prize in 1936; other acclaimed U.S. dramatists include multiple Pulitzer Prize winners Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee, and August Wilson.","United States\n\nThough little known at the time, Charles Ives's work of the 1910s established him as the first major U.S. composer in the classical tradition, while experimentalists such as Henry Cowell and John Cage created a distinctive American approach to classical composition. Aaron Copland and George Gershwin developed a new synthesis of popular and classical music. Choreographers Isadora Duncan and Martha Graham helped create modern dance, while George Balanchine and Jerome Robbins were leaders in 20th-century ballet. Americans have long been important in the modern artistic medium of photography, with major photographers including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, and Ansel Adams.","United States\n\nMusic","United States\n\nThe rhythmic and lyrical styles of African-American music have deeply influenced American music at large, distinguishing it from European traditions. Elements from folk idioms such as the blues and what is now known as old-time music were adopted and transformed into popular genres with global audiences. Jazz was developed by innovators such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington early in the 20th century. Country music developed in the 1920s, and rhythm and blues in the 1940s.","United States\n\nElvis Presley and Chuck Berry were among the mid-1950s pioneers of rock and roll. In the 1960s, Bob Dylan emerged from the folk revival to become one of America's most celebrated songwriters and James Brown led the development of funk. More recent American creations include hip hop and house music. American pop stars such as Presley, Michael Jackson, and Madonna have become global celebrities, as have contemporary musical artists such as Taylor Swift, Britney Spears, Katy Perry, and Beyoncé as well as hip hop artists Jay Z, Eminem and Kanye West. Rock bands such as Metallica, the Eagles, and Aerosmith are among the highest grossing in worldwide sales.","United States\n\nCinema","United States\n\nHollywood, a northern district of Los Angeles, California, is one of the leaders in motion picture production. The world's first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New York City in 1894, using Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope. The next year saw the first commercial screening of a projected film, also in New York, and the United States was in the forefront of sound film's development in the following decades. Since the early 20th century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and around Hollywood, although in the 21st century an increasing number of films are not made there, and film companies have been subject to the forces of globalization.","United States\n\nDirector D. W. Griffith, American's top filmmaker during the silent film period, was central to the development of film grammar, and producer/entrepreneur Walt Disney was a leader in both animated film and movie merchandising. Directors such as John Ford redefined the image of the American Old West and history, and, like others such as John Huston, broadened the possibilities of cinema with location shooting, with great influence on subsequent directors. The industry enjoyed its golden years, in what is commonly referred to as the \"Golden Age of Hollywood\", from the early sound period until the early 1960s, with screen actors such as John Wayne and Marilyn Monroe becoming iconic figures. In the 1970s, film directors such as Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola and Robert Altman were a vital component in what became known as \"New Hollywood\" or the \"Hollywood Renaissance\", grittier films influenced by French and Italian realist pictures of the post-war period. Since, directors such as Steven Spielberg, George Lucas and James Cameron have gained renown for their blockbuster films, often characterized by high production costs, and in return, high earnings at the box office, with Cameron's Avatar (2009) earning more than $2 billion.","United States\n\nNotable films topping the American Film Institute's AFI 100 list include Orson Welles's Citizen Kane (1941), which is frequently cited as the greatest film of all time, Casablanca (1942), The Godfather (1972), Gone with the Wind (1939), Lawrence of Arabia (1962), The Wizard of Oz (1939), The Graduate (1967), On the Waterfront (1954), Schindler's List (1993), Singin' in the Rain (1952), It's a Wonderful Life (1946) and Sunset Boulevard (1950). The Academy Awards, popularly known as the Oscars, have been held annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences since 1929, and the Golden Globe Awards have been held annually since January 1944.","United States\n\nSports","United States\n\nAmerican football is by several measures the most popular spectator sport; the National Football League (NFL) has the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world, and the Super Bowl is watched by millions globally. Baseball has been regarded as the U.S. national sport since the late 19th century, with Major League Baseball (MLB) being the top league. Basketball and ice hockey are the country's next two leading professional team sports, with the top leagues being the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Hockey League (NHL). These four major sports, when played professionally, each occupy a season at different, but overlapping, times of the year. College football and basketball attract large audiences. In soccer, the country hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the men's national soccer team qualified for ten World Cups and the women's team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup three times; Major League Soccer is the sport's highest league in the United States.\nThe market for professional sports in the United States is roughly $69 billion, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined.","United States\n\nEight Olympic Games have taken place in the United States. As of 2014, the United States has won 2,400 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, more than any other country, and 281 in the Winter Olympic Games, the second most behind Norway. \nWhile most major U.S. sports have evolved out of European practices, basketball, volleyball, skateboarding, and snowboarding are American inventions, some of which have become popular in other countries. Lacrosse and surfing arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact.Liss, Howard. Lacrosse (Funk & Wagnalls, 1970) pg 13. The most watched individual sports are golf and auto racing, particularly NASCAR.","United States\n\nMedia","United States\n\nThe four major broadcasters in the U.S. are the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) and Fox. The four major broadcast television networks are all commercial entities. Cable television offers hundreds of channels catering to a variety of niches. Americans listen to radio programming, also largely commercial, on average just over two-and-a-half hours a day.","United States\n\nIn 1998, the number of U.S. commercial radio stations had grown to 4,793 AM stations and 5,662 FM stations. In addition, there are 1,460 public radio stations. Most of these stations are run by universities and public authorities for educational purposes and are financed by public or private funds, subscriptions and corporate underwriting. Much public-radio broadcasting is supplied by NPR (formerly National Public Radio). NPR was incorporated in February 1970 under the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967; its television counterpart, PBS, was also created by the same legislation. (NPR and PBS are operated separately from each other.) , there are 15,433 licensed full-power radio stations in the US according to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC).","United States\n\nWell-known newspapers are The New York Times, USA Today and The Wall Street Journal. Although the cost of publishing has increased over the years, the price of newspapers has generally remained low, forcing newspapers to rely more on advertising revenue and on articles provided by a major wire service, such as the Associated Press or Reuters, for their national and world coverage. With very few exceptions, all the newspapers in the U.S. are privately owned, either by large chains such as Gannett or McClatchy, which own dozens or even hundreds of newspapers; by small chains that own a handful of papers; or in a situation that is increasingly rare, by individuals or families. Major cities often have \"alternative weeklies\" to complement the mainstream daily papers, for example, New York City's The Village Voice or Los Angeles' LA Weekly, to name two of the best-known. Major cities may also support a local business journal, trade papers relating to local industries, and papers for local ethnic and social groups. Early versions of the American newspaper comic strip and the American comic book began appearing in the 19th century.","United States\n\nIn 1938, Superman, the comic book superhero of DC Comics, developed into an American icon. Aside from web portals and search engines, the most popular websites are Facebook, YouTube, Wikipedia, Yahoo.com, eBay, Amazon and Twitter.","United States\n\nMore than 800 publications are produced in Spanish, the second most widely spoken mother tongue behind English.","United States\n\nInfrastructure","United States\n\nTransportation","United States\n\nPersonal transportation is dominated by automobiles, which operate on a network of 4 million miles (6.4 million km) of public roads, including one of the world's longest highway systems at 57,000 miles (91700 km). The world's second largest automobile market, the United States has the highest rate of per-capita vehicle ownership in the world, with 765 vehicles per 1,000 Americans. About 40% of personal vehicles are vans, SUVs, or light trucks. The average American adult (accounting for all drivers and non-drivers) spends 55 minutes driving every day, traveling 29 mi.","United States\n\nMass transit accounts for 9% of total U.S. work trips. Transport of goods by rail is extensive, though relatively low numbers of passengers (approximately 31 million annually) use intercity rail to travel, partly because of the low population density throughout much of the U.S. interior. However, ridership on Amtrak, the national intercity passenger rail system, grew by almost 37% between 2000 and 2010. Also, light rail development has increased in recent years. Bicycle usage for work commutes is minimal.","United States\n\nThe civil airline industry is entirely privately owned and has been largely deregulated since 1978, while \nmost major airports are publicly owned. The three largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are U.S.-based; American Airlines is number one after its 2013 acquisition by US Airways. Of the world's 50 busiest passenger airports, 16 are in the United States, including the busiest, Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport, and the fourth-busiest, O'Hare International Airport in Chicago.","United States\n\nEnergy","United States\n\nThe United States energy market is about 29,000 terawatt hours per year.IEA Key World Energy Statistics Statistics [http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld2013.pdf 2013], [http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/kwes.pdf 2012], [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2011/key_world_energy_stats.pdf 2011], [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf 2010], [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2009/key2009.pdf 2009], [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2006/key2006.pdf 2006] IEA October, crude oil p.11, coal p. 13 gas p. 15 Energy consumption per capita is 7.8 tons (7076 kg) of oil equivalent per year, the 10th highest rate in the world. In 2005, 40% of this energy came from petroleum, 23% from coal, and 22% from natural gas. The remainder was supplied by nuclear power and renewable energy sources. The United States is the world's largest consumer of petroleum.","United States\n\nFor decades, nuclear power has played a limited role relative to many other developed countries, in part because of public perception in the wake of a 1979 accident. In 2007, several applications for new nuclear plants were filed. The United States has 27% of global coal reserves. It is the world's largest producer of natural gas and crude oil.","United States\n\nWater supply and sanitation","United States\n\nIssues that affect water supply in the United States include droughts in the West, water scarcity, pollution, a backlog of investment, concerns about the affordability of water for the poorest, and a rapidly retiring workforce. Increased variability and intensity of rainfall as a result of climate change is expected to produce both more severe droughts and flooding, with potentially serious consequences for water supply and for pollution from combined sewer overflows.","United States\n\nScience and technology","United States\n\nThe United States has been a leader in technological innovation since the late 19th century and scientific research since the mid 20th century. Methods for producing interchangeable parts were developed by the U.S. War Department by the Federal Armories during the first half of the 19th century. This technology, along with the establishment of a machine tool industry, enabled the U.S. to have large scale manufacturing of sewing machines, bicycles and other items in the late 19th century and became known as the American system of manufacturing. Factory electrification in the early 20th century and introduction of the assembly line and other labor saving techniques created the system called mass production.","United States\n\nIn 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone. Thomas Edison's research laboratory, one of the first of its kind, developed the phonograph, the first long-lasting light bulb, and the first viable movie camera. The latter lead to emergence of the worldwide entertainment industry. In the early 20th century, the automobile companies of Ransom E. Olds and Henry Ford popularized the assembly line. The Wright brothers, in 1903, made the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight.","United States\n\nThe rise of Nazism in the 1930s led many European scientists, including Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, and John von Neumann, to immigrate to the United States. During World War II, the Manhattan Project developed nuclear weapons, ushering in the Atomic Age, while the Space Race produced rapid advances in rocketry, materials science, and aeronautics.","United States\n\nThe invention of the transistor in the 1950s, a key active component in practically all modern electronics, led to many technological developments and a significant expansion of the U.S. technology industry. This in turn led to the establishment of many new technology companies and regions around the county such as Silicon Valley in California. Advancements by American microprocessor companies such as Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), and Intel along with both computer software and hardware companies that include Adobe Systems, Apple Computer, IBM, GNU-Linux, Microsoft, and Sun Microsystems created and popularized the personal computer. The ARPANET was developed in the 1960s to meet Defense Department requirements, and became the first of a series of networks which evolved into the Internet.","United States\n\nThese advancements then lead to greater personalization of technology for individual use. , 83.8% of American households owned at least one computer, and 73.3% had high-speed Internet service. 91% of Americans also own a mobile phone . The United States ranks highly with regard to freedom of use of the internet.","United States\n\nIn the 21st century, 64% of research and development funding comes from the private sector. The United States leads the world in scientific research papers and impact factor.","United States\n\nHealth","United States\n\nThe United States has a life expectancy of 79.8 years at birth, up from 75.2 years in 1990. Increasing obesity in the United States and health improvements elsewhere have contributed to lowering the country's rank in life expectancy from 1987, when it was 11th in the world. Obesity rates in the United States are amongst the highest in the world.","United States\n\nApproximately one-third of the adult population is obese and an additional third is overweight; the obesity rate, the highest in the industrialized world, has more than doubled in the last quarter-century. Obesity-related type 2 diabetes is considered epidemic by health care professionals. The infant mortality rate of 6.17 per thousand places the United States 169th highest out of 224 countries, with the 224th country having the lowest mortality rate.","United States\n\nIn 2010, coronary artery disease, lung cancer, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, and traffic accidents caused the most years of life lost in the U.S. Low back pain, depression, musculoskeletal disorders, neck pain, and anxiety caused the most years lost to disability. The most deleterious risk factors were poor diet, tobacco smoking, obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, physical inactivity, and alcohol use. Alzheimer's disease, drug abuse, kidney disease and cancer, and falls caused the most additional years of life lost over their age-adjusted 1990 per-capita rates. U.S. teenage pregnancy and abortion rates are substantially higher than in other Western nations, especially among blacks and Hispanics. U.S. underage drinking among teenagers is among the lowest in industrialized nations.","United States\n\nThe U.S. is a global leader in medical innovation. America solely developed or contributed significantly to 9 of the top 10 most important medical innovations since 1975 as ranked by a 2001 poll of physicians, while the EU and Switzerland together contributed to five. Since 1966, more Americans have received the Nobel Prize in Medicine than the rest of the world combined. From 1989 to 2002, four times more money was invested in private biotechnology companies in America than in Europe. The U.S. health-care system far outspends any other nation, measured in both per capita spending and percentage of GDP.","United States\n\nHealth-care coverage in the United States is a combination of public and private efforts and is not universal. In 2014, 13.4% of the population did not carry health insurance. The subject of uninsured and underinsured Americans is a major political issue. In 2006, Massachusetts became the first state to mandate universal health insurance. Federal legislation passed in early 2010 would ostensibly create a near-universal health insurance system around the country by 2014, though the bill and its ultimate effect are issues of controversy."],"string":"[\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nThe Nineteenth Amendment (Amendment XIX) to the United States Constitution prohibits any United States citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex. It was ratified on August 18, 1920. Until the 1910s, most states disenfranchised women. The amendment was the culmination of the women's suffrage movement in the United States, which fought at both state and national levels to achieve the vote. It effectively overruled Minor v. Happersett, in which a unanimous Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment did not give women the right to vote.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nThe Nineteenth Amendment was first introduced in Congress in 1878 by Senator Aaron A. Sargent. Forty-one years later, in 1919, Congress approved the amendment and submitted it to the states for ratification. It was ratified by the requisite number of states a year later, with Tennessee's ratification being the final vote needed to add the amendment to the Constitution. In Leser v. Garnett (1922), the Supreme Court rejected claims that the amendment was unconstitutionally adopted.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nText\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nBackground\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nThe United States Constitution, adopted in 1789, left the boundaries of suffrage undefined. The only directly elected body created by the original Constitution was the House of Representatives, for which voter qualifications were explicitly delegated to the individual states. At that time, all states denied voting rights to women (with the exception of New Jersey, which initially carried women's suffrage but revoked it in 1807).\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nWhile scattered movements and organizations dedicated to women's rights existed previously, the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention in New York is traditionally held as the start of the American women's rights movement. Suffrage was not a focus of the convention, however, and its advancement was minimal in the decades preceding the Civil War. While suffrage bills were introduced into most state legislatures during this period, they were generally disregarded and few came to a vote.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nThe women's suffrage movement took hold after the Civil War, during the Reconstruction Era (1865–1877). During this period, women's rights leaders advocated for inclusion of universal suffrage as a civil right in the Reconstruction amendments (the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments). Despite their efforts, these amendments did nothing to promote women's suffrage. Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment explicitly discriminated between men and women by penalizing states who deprived adult male citizens of the vote, but not for denying the vote to adult female citizens.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nContinued settlement of the western frontier, along with the establishment of territorial constitutions, allowed the issue to be raised continually at the state level. Through the activism of suffrage organizations and independent political parties, women's suffrage was established in the newly formed constitutions of Wyoming Territory (1869), Utah (1870), and Washington Territory (1883). Existing state legislatures began to consider suffrage bills, and several even held voter referenda, but they were unsuccessful. Efforts at the national level persisted through a strategy of congressional testimony, petitioning, and lobbying.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nThere were several attempts to amend the Constitution, prior to the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment, to grant universal and limited suffrage to women. One of the attempts the \\\"Petition for Universal Suffrage,\\\" signed by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, among others, called for a Constitutional Amendment to \\\"prohibit the several states from disenfranchising any of their citizens on the ground of sex\\\" in 1865. In another attempt, the House Joint Resolution (H.J. Res.) 159, called for the limited suffrage of women who were spinsters or widows and owned property in 1888. Both attempts to amend the Constitution failed.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nTwo rival organizations, the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), were formed in 1869. The NWSA, led by suffrage leaders Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, attempted several unsuccessful court challenges in the mid-1870s. Their legal case, known as the New Departure strategy, was that the Fourteenth Amendment (granting universal citizenship) and Fifteenth Amendment (granting the vote irrespective of race) together served to guarantee voting rights to women. Three Supreme Court decisions from 1873 to 1875 rejected this argument, so these groups shifted to advocating for a new constitutional amendment.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nProposal and ratification\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nThe Nineteenth Amendment is identical to the Fifteenth Amendment, except that the Nineteenth prohibits the denial of suffrage because of sex and the Fifteenth because of \\\"race, color, or previous condition of servitude\\\". \\nColloquially known as the \\\"Anthony Amendment\\\", it was first introduced in the Senate by Republican Senator Aaron A. Sargent of California. Sargent, who had met and befriended Anthony on a train ride in 1872, was a dedicated women's suffrage advocate. He had frequently attempted to insert women's suffrage provisions into unrelated bills, but did not formally introduce a constitutional amendment until January 1878. Stanton and other women testified before the Senate in support of the amendment. The proposal sat in a committee until it was considered by the full Senate and rejected in a 16 to 34 vote in 1887.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nA three-decade period known as \\\"the doldrums\\\" followed, during which the amendment was not considered by Congress and the women's suffrage movement achieved few victories. During this period, the suffragists pressed for the right to vote in the laws of individual states and territories while retaining the goal of federal recognition. A flurry of activity began in 1910 and 1911 with surprise successes in Washington and California. Over the next few years, most western states passed legislation or voter referenda enacting full or partial suffrage for women. These successes were linked to the 1912 election, which saw the rise of the Progressive and Socialist parties, as well as the election of Democratic President Woodrow Wilson. Not until 1914 was the constitutional amendment again considered by the Senate, where it was again rejected.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nCarrie Chapman Catt was instrumental in the final push to gain ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment. In 1900, she succeeded Susan B. Anthony as the president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). Starting in 1915, Catt revitalized NAWSA and led a successful campaign in New York to achieve state-level suffrage in 1917. When the U.S. entered World War I, Catt made the controversial decision to support the war effort, despite the widespread pacifist sentiment of many of her colleagues and supporters. NAWSA women’s work to aid the war effort turned them into highly visible symbols of nationalism.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nThe republican work of NAWSA stood in contrast to the more radical and aggressive tactics of the National Woman's Party (NWP) led by Alice Paul and Lucy Burns. In 1917, the NWP staged controversial demonstrations in Washington, D.C. to draw attention away from the war and back to women’s suffrage. Catt was successful in turning NAWSA into a patriotic organization, entirely separate from the NWP, and was rewarded when President Wilson spoke out in favor of women’s suffrage in his 1918 State of the Union address before Congress.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nAnother proposal was brought before the House on January 10, 1918. During the previous evening, President Wilson made a strong and widely published appeal to the House to pass the amendment. It was passed by the required two-thirds of the House, with only one vote to spare. The vote was then carried into the Senate. Wilson again made an appeal, but on September 30, 1918, the proposal fell two votes short of passage. On February 10, 1919, it was again voted upon and failed by only one vote.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nThere was considerable desire among politicians of both parties to have the proposal made part of the Constitution before the 1920 general elections, so the President called a special session of the Congress so the proposal would be brought before the House again. On May 21, 1919, it passed the House, 42 votes more than necessary being obtained. On June 4, 1919, it was brought before the Senate and, after a long discussion, it was passed with 56 ayes and 25 nays. Within a few days, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan ratified the amendment, their legislatures being in session. Other states followed suit at a regular pace, until the amendment had been ratified by 35 of the necessary 36 state legislatures. Much of the opposition to the amendment came from Southern Democrats, a trend which remained consistent with Tennessee as the last state to pass the amendment, during a special session right before the ratification period was to expire. On August 18, 1920, Tennessee narrowly approved the Nineteenth Amendment, with 50 of 99 members of the Tennessee House of Representatives voting yes. This provided the final ratification necessary to add the amendment to the Constitution.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nRatification timeline\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nThe Congress proposed the Nineteenth Amendment on June 4, 1919, and the following states ratified the amendment.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\n# Wisconsin (June 10, 1919)\\n# Illinois (June 10, 1919, reaffirmed on June 17, 1919)\\n# Michigan (June 10, 1919)\\n# Kansas (June 16, 1919)\\n# New York (June 16, 1919)\\n# Ohio (June 16, 1919)\\n# Pennsylvania (June 24, 1919)\\n# Massachusetts (June 25, 1919)\\n# Texas (June 28, 1919)\\n# Iowa (July 2, 1919)date on which approved by governor\\n# Missouri (July 3, 1919)\\n# Arkansas (July 28, 1919)\\n# Montana (August 2, 1919)\\n# Nebraska (August 2, 1919)\\n# Minnesota (September 8, 1919)\\n# New Hampshire (September 10, 1919)\\n# Utah (October 2, 1919)\\n# California (November 1, 1919)\\n# Maine (November 5, 1919)\\n# North Dakota (December 1, 1919)\\n# South Dakota (December 4, 1919)\\n# Colorado (December 15, 1919)\\n# Kentucky (January 6, 1920)\\n# Rhode Island (January 6, 1920)\\n# Oregon (January 13, 1920)\\n# Indiana (January 16, 1920)\\n# Wyoming (January 27, 1920)\\n# Nevada (February 7, 1920)\\n# New Jersey (February 9, 1920)\\n# Idaho (February 11, 1920)\\n# Arizona (February 12, 1920)\\n# New Mexico (February 21, 1920)\\n# Oklahoma (February 28, 1920)\\n# West Virginia (March 10, 1920, confirmed on September 21, 1920)\\n# Washington (March 22, 1920)\\n# Tennessee (August 18, 1920)\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nRatification was completed on August 18, 1920, and the following states subsequently ratified the amendment:\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nConnecticut (September 14, 1920, reaffirmed on September 21, 1920)\\nVermont (February 8, 1921)\\nDelaware (March 6, 1923, after being rejected on June 2, 1920)\\nMaryland (March 29, 1941 after being rejected on February 24, 1920; not certified until February 25, 1958)\\nVirginia (February 21, 1952, after being rejected on February 12, 1920)\\nAlabama (September 8, 1953, after being rejected on September 22, 1919)\\nFlorida (May 13, 1969) \\nSouth Carolina (July 1, 1969, after being rejected on January 28, 1920; not certified until August 22, 1973)\\nGeorgia (February 20, 1970, after being rejected on July 24, 1919)\\nLouisiana (June 11, 1970, after being rejected on July 1, 1920)\\nNorth Carolina (May 6, 1971)\\nMississippi (March 22, 1984, after being rejected on March 29, 1920)\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nAlaska and Hawaii were not states when the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nLeser v. Garnett\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nThe amendment's validity was unanimously upheld in Leser v. Garnett, .\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nOscar Leser sued to stop two women registered to vote in Baltimore, Maryland, because he believed that the Maryland Constitution limited the suffrage to men and the Maryland legislature had refused to vote to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment. Two months before, the federal government had proclaimed the amendment incorporated into the Constitution on August 26, 1920.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nFirst, Leser said the amendment \\\"destroyed State autonomy\\\" because it increased Maryland's electorate without the state's consent. The Court answered that the Nineteenth Amendment was worded like the Fifteenth Amendment, which had expanded state electorates without regard to race for over 50 years by that time despite being rejected by six states, including Maryland.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nSecond, Leser claimed that the state constitutions in some ratifying states did not allow their legislatures to ratify. The Court replied that state ratification was a federal function which came from Article V of the Constitution and so is not subject to limitations by a state constitution.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nThird, those bringing suit asserted the Nineteenth Amendment was not adopted, because Tennessee and West Virginia violated their own rules of procedure. The Court ruled that the point was moot, because since then Connecticut and Vermont had ratified the amendment and so there was a sufficient number of ratifications for the Nineteenth Amendment to be considered adopted even without Tennessee and West Virginia. Also, the Court ruled that Tennessee and West Virginia's certifying of their ratifications was binding and had been duly authenticated by the Secretary of State.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nThus, the two women were permitted to be registered to vote in Baltimore.\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nEffects\",\n \"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\\n\\nFollowing the Nineteenth Amendment's adoption, many legislators feared that a powerful women's bloc would emerge in American politics. This led to the passage of such laws as the Sheppard–Towner Act of 1921, which expanded maternity care during the 1920s. However, a women's bloc did not emerge in American politics until the 1950s.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States of America (USA), commonly referred to as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a federal republic composed of 50 states, the federal district of Washington, D.C., five major self-governing territories, and various possessions.\\nThe 48 contiguous states and federal district are in central North America between Canada and Mexico, with the state of Alaska in the northwestern part of North America and the state of Hawaii comprising an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. At 3.8 million square miles (9.8 million km2) and with over 320 million people, the United States is the world's third largest country by total area (and fourth largest by land area) and the third most populous. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. The geography and climate are also extremely diverse, and the country is home to a wide variety of wildlife.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nPaleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago, with European colonization beginning in the 16th century. The United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the colonies led to the American Revolution, which began in 1775. On July 4, 1776, as the colonies were fighting Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War, delegates from the 13 colonies unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence. The war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, and was the first successful war of independence against a European colonial empire.Greene, Jack P.; Pole, J.R., eds. (2008). A Companion to the American Revolution. pp. 352–361. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, adopted in 1781, were felt to have provided inadequate federal powers. The first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States embarked on a vigorous expansion across North America throughout the 19th century, displacing American Indian tribes, acquiring new territories, and gradually admitting new states until it spanned the continent by 1848. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of legal slavery in the country. By the end of that century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean, and its economy, driven in large part by the Industrial Revolution, began to soar. The Spanish–American War and confirmed the country's status as a global military power. The United States emerged from as a global superpower, the first country to develop nuclear weapons, the only country to use them in warfare, and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the U.S. as the world's sole superpower.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States is a highly developed country, with the world's largest economy by nominal and real GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of socioeconomic performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP, and productivity per person. While the U.S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services, the manufacturing sector remains the second largest in the world. Though its population is only 4.4% of the world total, the United States accounts for nearly a quarter of world GDP and almost a third of global military spending, making it the world's foremost military and economic power. The United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations.Cohen, 2004: History and the HyperpowerBBC, April 2008: Country Profile: United States of America\",\n \"United States\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn 1507 the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a world map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere \\\"America\\\" after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci (Latin: Americus Vespucius). The first evidence of the phrase \\\"United States of America\\\" is in a letter of January 2, 1776, from the office of General George Washington which expressed his wish to carry the \\\"full and ample powers of the United States of America\\\" to Spain to assist in the revolutionary war effort.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe first known publication of the phrase \\\"United States of America\\\" was in an anonymous essay in The Virginia Gazette newspaper in Williamsburg, Virginia, on April 6, 1776. The second draft of the Articles of Confederation, prepared by John Dickinson and completed by June 17, 1776, at the latest, declared \\\"The name of this Confederation shall be the 'United States of America.'\\\" The final version of the Articles sent to the states for ratification in late 1777 contains the sentence \\\"The Stile of this Confederacy shall be 'The United States of America. In June 1776, Thomas Jefferson wrote the phrase \\\"UNITED STATES OF AMERICA\\\" in all capitalized letters in the headline of his \\\"original Rough draught\\\" of the Declaration of Independence. This draft of the document did not surface until June 21, 1776, and it is unclear whether it was written before or after Dickinson used the term in his June 17 draft of the Articles of Confederation. In the final Fourth of July version of the Declaration, the title was changed to read, \\\"The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America\\\". The preamble of the Constitution states \\\"...establish this Constitution for the United States of America.\\\"\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe short form \\\"United States\\\" is also standard. Other common forms are the \\\"U.S.\\\", the \\\"USA\\\", and \\\"America\\\". Colloquial names are the \\\"U.S. of A.\\\" and, internationally, the \\\"States\\\". \\\"Columbia\\\", a name popular in poetry and songs of the late 1700s, derives its origin from Christopher Columbus; it appears in the name \\\"District of Columbia\\\". In non-English languages, the name is frequently the translation of either the \\\"United States\\\" or \\\"United States of America\\\", and colloquially as \\\"America\\\". In addition, an abbreviation (e.g. USA) is sometimes used.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe phrase \\\"United States\\\" was originally plural, a description of a collection of independent states—e.g., \\\"the United States are\\\"—including in the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1865. The singular form—e.g., \\\"the United States is\\\"— became popular after the end of the American Civil War. The singular form is now standard; the plural form is retained in the idiom \\\"these United States\\\". The difference is more significant than usage; it is a difference between a collection of states and a unit.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nA citizen of the United States is an \\\"American\\\". \\\"United States\\\", \\\"American\\\" and \\\"U.S.\\\" refer to the country adjectivally (\\\"American values\\\", \\\"U.S. forces\\\"). \\\"American\\\" rarely refers to subjects not connected with the United States.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIndigenous and European contact\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe first inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 15,000 years ago, though increasing evidence suggests an even earlier arrival. Some, such as the pre-Columbian Mississippian culture, developed advanced agriculture, grand architecture, and state-level societies. After the Spanish conquistadors made the first contacts, the native population declined for various reasons, primarily from diseases such as smallpox and measles. Violence was not a significant factor in the overall decline among Native Americans, though conflict among themselves and with Europeans affected specific tribes and various colonial settlements. In the Hawaiian Islands, the earliest indigenous inhabitants arrived around 1 AD from Polynesia. Europeans under the British explorer Captain James Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn the early days of colonization, many European settlers were subject to food shortages, disease, and attacks from Native Americans. Native Americans were also often at war with neighboring tribes and allied with Europeans in their colonial wars. At the same time, however, many natives and settlers came to depend on each other. Settlers traded for food and animal pelts, natives for guns, ammunition and other European wares. Natives taught many settlers where, when and how to cultivate corn, beans and squash. European missionaries and others felt it was important to \\\"civilize\\\" the Native Americans and urged them to adopt European agricultural techniques and lifestyles.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nSettlements\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAfter Spain sent Columbus' on his first voyage to the New World in 1492, other explorers followed. The Spanish set up small settlements in New Mexico and Florida. France had several small settlements along the Mississippi River. Successful English settlement on the eastern coast of North America began with the Virginia Colony in 1607 at Jamestown and the Pilgrims' Plymouth Colony in 1620. Early experiments in communal living failed until the introduction of private farm holdings. Many settlers were dissenting Christian groups who came seeking religious freedom. The continent's first elected legislative assembly, Virginia's House of Burgesses created in 1619, and the Mayflower Compact, signed by the Pilgrims before disembarking, established precedents for the pattern of representative self-government and constitutionalism that would develop throughout the American colonies.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nMost settlers in every colony were small farmers, but other industries developed within a few decades as varied as the settlements. Cash crops included tobacco, rice and wheat. Extraction industries grew up in furs, fishing and lumber. Manufacturers produced rum and ships, and by the late colonial period Americans were producing one-seventh of the world's iron supply. Cities eventually dotted the coast to support local economies and serve as trade hubs. English colonists were supplemented by waves of Scotch-Irish and other groups. As coastal land grew more expensive freed indentured servants pushed further west.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nSlave cultivation of cash crops began with the Spanish in the 1500s, and was adopted by the English, but life expectancy was much higher in North America because of less disease and better food and treatment, leading to a rapid increase in the numbers of slaves. Colonial society was largely divided over the religious and moral implications of slavery and colonies passed acts for and against the practice.Lien, 1913, p. 522Davis, 1996, p. 7 But by the turn of the 18th century, African slaves were replacing indentured servants for cash crop labor, especially in southern regions.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nWith the British colonization of Georgia in 1732, the 13 colonies that would become the United States of America were established. All had local governments with elections open to most free men, with a growing devotion to the ancient rights of Englishmen and a sense of self-government stimulating support for republicanism. With extremely high birth rates, low death rates, and steady settlement, the colonial population grew rapidly. Relatively small Native American populations were eclipsed. The Christian revivalist movement of the 1730s and 1740s known as the Great Awakening fueled interest in both religion and religious liberty.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn the French and Indian War, British forces seized Canada from the French, but the francophone population remained politically isolated from the southern colonies. Excluding the Native Americans, who were being conquered and displaced, those 13 colonies had a population of over 2.1 million in 1770, about one-third that of Britain. Despite continuing new arrivals, the rate of natural increase was such that by the 1770s only a small minority of Americans had been born overseas. The colonies' distance from Britain had allowed the development of self-government, but their success motivated monarchs to periodically seek to reassert royal authority.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIndependence and expansion (1776–1865)\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe American Revolutionary War was the first successful colonial war of independence against a European power. Americans had developed an ideology of \\\"republicanism\\\" asserting that government rested on the will of the people as expressed in their local legislatures. They demanded their rights as Englishmen, \\\"no taxation without representation\\\". The British insisted on administering the empire through Parliament, and the conflict escalated into war.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nFollowing the passage of the Lee Resolution, on July 2, 1776, which was the actual vote for independence, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, on July 4, which proclaimed, in a long preamble, that humanity is created equal in their unalienable rights and that those rights were not being protected by Great Britain, and declared, in the words of the resolution, that the Thirteen Colonies were independent states and had no allegiance to the British crown in the United States. The fourth day of July is celebrated annually as Independence Day. In 1777, the Articles of Confederation established a weak government that operated until 1789.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nBritain recognized the independence of the United States following their defeat at Yorktown. In the peace treaty of 1783, American sovereignty was recognized from the Atlantic coast west to the Mississippi River. Nationalists led the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 in writing the United States Constitution, ratified in state conventions in 1788. The federal government was reorganized into three branches, on the principle of creating salutary checks and balances, in 1789. George Washington, who had led the revolutionary army to victory, was the first president elected under the new constitution. The Bill of Rights, forbidding federal restriction of personal freedoms and guaranteeing a range of legal protections, was adopted in 1791.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAlthough the federal government criminalized the international slave trade in 1808, after 1820, cultivation of the highly profitable cotton crop exploded in the Deep South, and along with it, the slave population. The Second Great Awakening, beginning about 1800, converted millions to evangelical Protestantism. In the North, it energized multiple social reform movements, including abolitionism; in the South, Methodists and Baptists proselytized among slave populations.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAmericans' eagerness to expand westward prompted a long series of American Indian Wars. The Louisiana Purchase of French-claimed territory in 1803 almost doubled the nation's size. The War of 1812, declared against Britain over various grievances and fought to a draw, strengthened U.S. nationalism. A series of U.S. military incursions into Florida led Spain to cede it and other Gulf Coast territory in 1819. Expansion was aided by steam power, when steamboats began traveling along America's large water systems, which were connected by new canals, such as the Erie and the I&M; then, even faster railroads began their stretch across the nation's land.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nFrom 1820 to 1850, Jacksonian democracy began a set of reforms which included wider male suffrage; it led to the rise of the Second Party System of Democrats and Whigs as the dominant parties from 1828 to 1854. The Trail of Tears in the 1830s exemplified the Indian removal policy that moved Indians into the west to their own reservations. The U.S. annexed the Republic of Texas in 1845 during a period of expansionist Manifest destiny. The 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain led to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest. Victory in the Mexican–American War resulted in the 1848 Mexican Cession of California and much of the present-day American Southwest.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe California Gold Rush of 1848–49 spurred western migration and the creation of additional western states. After the American Civil War, new transcontinental railways made relocation easier for settlers, expanded internal trade and increased conflicts with Native Americans. Over a half-century, the loss of the American bison (sometimes called \\\"buffalo\\\") was an existential blow to many Plains Indians cultures. In 1869, a new Peace Policy sought to protect Native-Americans from abuses, avoid further war, and secure their eventual U.S. citizenship, although conflicts, including several of the largest Indian Wars, continued throughout the West into the 1900s.Smith (2001), Grant, pp. 523–526\",\n \"United States\\n\\nCivil War and Reconstruction Era\",\n \"United States\\n\\nDifferences of opinion and social order between northern and southern states in early United States society, particularly regarding Black slavery, ultimately led the U.S. into the American Civil War. Initially, states entering the Union alternated between slave and free states, keeping a sectional balance in the Senate, while free states outstripped slave states in population and in the House of Representatives. But with additional western territory and more free-soil states, tensions between slave and free states mounted with arguments over federalism and disposition of the territories, whether and how to expand or restrict slavery.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nWith the 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln, the first president from the largely anti-slavery Republican Party, conventions in thirteen slave states ultimately declared secession and formed the Confederate States of America, while the U.S. government maintained that secession was illegal. The ensuing war was at first for Union, then after 1863 as casualties mounted and Lincoln delivered his Emancipation Proclamation, a second war aim became abolition of slavery. The war remains the deadliest military conflict in American history, resulting in the deaths of approximately 618,000 soldiers as well as many civilians.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nFollowing the Union victory in 1865, three amendments to the U.S. Constitution brought about the prohibition of slavery, gave U.S. citizenship to the nearly four million African Americans who had been slaves, and promised them voting rights. The war and its resolution led to a substantial increase in federal power aimed at reintegrating and rebuilding the Southern states while ensuring the rights of the newly freed slaves. Following the Reconstruction Era, throughout the South Jim Crow laws soon effectively disenfranchised most blacks and some poor whites. Over the subsequent decades, in both the North and the South blacks and some whites faced systemic discrimination, including racial segregation and occasional vigilante violence, sparking national movements against these abuses.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIndustrialization\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn the North, urbanization and an unprecedented influx of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe supplied a surplus of labor for the country's industrialization and transformed its culture. National infrastructure including telegraph and transcontinental railroads spurred economic growth and greater settlement and development of the American Old West. The later invention of electric light and the telephone would also affect communication and urban life.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe end of the Indian Wars further expanded acreage under mechanical cultivation, increasing surpluses for international markets. Mainland expansion was completed by the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867. In 1893, pro-American elements in Hawaii overthrew the monarchy and formed the Republic of Hawaii, which the U.S. annexed in 1898. Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines were ceded by Spain in the same year, following the Spanish–American War.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nRapid economic development at the end of the 19th century produced many prominent industrialists, and the U.S. economy became the world's largest. Dramatic changes were accompanied by social unrest and the rise of populist, socialist, and anarchist movements. This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era, which saw significant reforms in many societal areas, including women's suffrage, alcohol prohibition, regulation of consumer goods, greater antitrust measures to ensure competition and attention to worker conditions.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nWorld War I, Great Depression, and World War II\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States remained neutral from the outbreak of World War I, in 1914, until 1917 when it joined the war as an \\\"associated power\\\", alongside the formal Allies of World War I, helping to turn the tide against the Central Powers. In 1919, President Woodrow Wilson took a leading diplomatic role at the Paris Peace Conference and advocated strongly for the U.S. to join the League of Nations. However, the Senate refused to approve this, and did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles that established the League of Nations.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn 1920, the women's rights movement won passage of a constitutional amendment granting women's suffrage. The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of radio for mass communication and the invention of early television. The prosperity of the Roaring Twenties ended with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression. After his election as president in 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt responded with the New Deal, which included the establishment of the Social Security system. The Great Migration of millions of African Americans out of the American South began before World War I and extended through the 1960s; whereas the Dust Bowl of the mid-1930s impoverished many farming communities and spurred a new wave of western migration.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAt first effectively neutral during World War II while Germany conquered much of continental Europe, the United States began supplying material to the Allies in March 1941 through the Lend-Lease program. On December 7, 1941, the Empire of Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, prompting the United States to join the Allies against the Axis powers. During the war, the United States was referred as one of the \\\"Four Policemen\\\" of Allies power who met to plan the postwar world, along with Britain, the Soviet Union and China. Though the nation lost more than 400,000 soldiers, it emerged relatively undamaged from the war with even greater economic and military influence.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States played a leading role in the Bretton Woods and Yalta conferences with the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and other Allies, which signed agreements on new international financial institutions and Europe's postwar reorganization. As an Allied victory was won in Europe, a 1945 international conference held in San Francisco produced the United Nations Charter, which became active after the war. The United States developed the first nuclear weapons and used them on Japan; the Japanese surrendered on September 2, ending World War II.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nCold War and civil rights era\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAfter World War II the United States and the Soviet Union jockeyed for power during what is known as the Cold War, driven by an ideological divide between capitalism and communism and, according to the school of geopolitics, a divide between the maritime Atlantic and the continental Eurasian camps. They dominated the military affairs of Europe, with the U.S. and its NATO allies on one side and the USSR and its Warsaw Pact allies on the other. The U.S. developed a policy of containment towards the expansion of communist influence. While the U.S. and Soviet Union engaged in proxy wars and developed powerful nuclear arsenals, the two countries avoided direct military conflict.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe U.S. often opposed Third World movements that it viewed as Soviet-sponsored. American troops fought communist Chinese and North Korean forces in the Korean War of 1950–53. The Soviet Union's 1957 launch of the first artificial satellite and its 1961 launch of the first manned spaceflight initiated a \\\"Space Race\\\" in which the United States became the first nation to land a man on the moon in 1969. A proxy war in Southeast Asia eventually evolved into full American participation, as the Vietnam War.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAt home, the U.S. experienced sustained economic expansion and a rapid growth of its population and middle class. Construction of an Interstate Highway System transformed the nation's infrastructure over the following decades. Millions moved from farms and inner cities to large suburban housing developments. In 1959 Hawaii became the 50th and last U.S. state added to the country. A growing civil rights movement used nonviolence to confront segregation and discrimination, with Martin Luther King, Jr. becoming a prominent leader and figurehead. A combination of court decisions and legislation, culminating in the Civil Rights Act of 1964, sought to end racial discrimination. Meanwhile, a counterculture movement grew which was fueled by opposition to the Vietnam war, black nationalism, and the sexual revolution. The launch of a \\\"War on Poverty\\\" expanded entitlements and welfare spending.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe 1970s and early 1980s saw the onset of stagflation. After his election in 1980, President Ronald Reagan responded to economic stagnation with free-market oriented reforms. Following the collapse of détente, he abandoned \\\"containment\\\" and initiated the more aggressive \\\"rollback\\\" strategy towards the USSR. After a surge in female labor participation over the previous decade, by 1985 the majority of women aged 16 and over were employed.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe late 1980s brought a \\\"thaw\\\" in relations with the USSR, and its collapse in 1991 finally ended the Cold War. This brought about unipolarity with the U.S. unchallenged as the world's dominant superpower. The concept of Pax Americana, which had appeared in the post-World War II period, gained wide popularity as a term for the post-Cold War new world order.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nContemporary history\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAfter the Cold War, the 1990s saw the longest economic expansion in modern U.S. history, ending in 2001. Originating in U.S. defense networks, the Internet spread to international academic networks, and then to the public in the 1990s, greatly affecting the global economy, society, and culture. On September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda terrorists struck the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., killing nearly 3,000 people. In response, the United States launched the War on Terror, which included war in Afghanistan and the 2003–11 Iraq War.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nBeginning in 1994, the U.S. entered into the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), linking 450 million people producing $17 trillion worth of goods and services. The goal of the agreement was to eliminate trade and investment barriers among the U.S., Canada, and Mexico by January 1, 2008; trade among the partners has soared since the agreement went into force.[http://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta \\\"North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)\\\"] Office of the United States Trade Representative. Retrieved January 11, 2015.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nBarack Obama, the first African American, and multiracial president, was elected in 2008 amid the Great Recession, which began in December 2007 and ended in June 2009.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nGeography, climate, and environment\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe land area of the contiguous United States is 2959064 sqmi. Alaska, separated from the contiguous United States by Canada, is the largest state at 663268 sqmi. Hawaii, occupying an archipelago in the central Pacific, southwest of North America, is 10931 sqmi in area. The populated territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, and U.S. Virgin Islands together cover 9185 sqmi.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States is the world's third or fourth largest nation by total area (land and water), ranking behind Russia and Canada and just above or below China. The ranking varies depending on how two territories disputed by China and India are counted and how the total size of the United States is measured: calculations range from 3676486 sqmi to 3717813 sqmi to 3796742 sqmi to 3,805,927 square miles (9.9 Mm2). Measured by only land area, the United States is third in size behind Russia and China, just ahead of Canada.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard gives way further inland to deciduous forests and the rolling hills of the Piedmont. The Appalachian Mountains divide the eastern seaboard from the Great Lakes and the grasslands of the Midwest. The Mississippi–Missouri River, the world's fourth longest river system, runs mainly north–south through the heart of the country. The flat, fertile prairie of the Great Plains stretches to the west, interrupted by a highland region in the southeast.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe Rocky Mountains, at the western edge of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, reaching altitudes higher than 14000 ft in Colorado. Farther west are the rocky Great Basin and deserts such as the Chihuahua and Mojave. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges run close to the Pacific coast, both ranges reaching altitudes higher than 14000 ft. The lowest and highest points in the contiguous United States are in the state of California, and only about 84 mi apart. At an elevation of 20310 ft, Alaska's Denali (Mount McKinley) is the highest peak in the country and North America. Active volcanoes are common throughout Alaska's Alexander and Aleutian Islands, and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The supervolcano underlying Yellowstone National Park in the Rockies is the continent's largest volcanic feature.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States, with its large size and geographic variety, includes most climate types. To the east of the 100th meridian, the climate ranges from humid continental in the north to humid subtropical in the south. The Great Plains west of the 100th meridian are semi-arid. Much of the Western mountains have an alpine climate. The climate is arid in the Great Basin, desert in the Southwest, Mediterranean in coastal California, and oceanic in coastal Oregon and Washington and southern Alaska. Most of Alaska is subarctic or polar. Hawaii and the southern tip of Florida are tropical, as are the populated territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific. Extreme weather is not uncommon—the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of the world's tornadoes occur within the country, mainly in Tornado Alley areas in the Midwest and South.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nWildlife\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe U.S. ecology is megadiverse: about 17,000 species of vascular plants occur in the contiguous United States and Alaska, and over 1,800 species of flowering plants are found in Hawaii, few of which occur on the mainland. The United States is home to 428 mammal species, 784 bird species, 311 reptile species, and 295 amphibian species. About 91,000 insect species have been described. The bald eagle is both the national bird and national animal of the United States, and is an enduring symbol of the country itself.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThere are 58 national parks and hundreds of other federally managed parks, forests, and wilderness areas. Altogether, the government owns about 28% of the country's land area. Most of this is protected, though some is leased for oil and gas drilling, mining, logging, or cattle ranching; about .86% is used for military purposes.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nEnvironmental issues have been on the national agenda since 1970. Environmental controversies include debates on oil and nuclear energy, dealing with air and water pollution, the economic costs of protecting wildlife, logging and deforestation, and international responses to global warming. Many federal and state agencies are involved. The most prominent is the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), created by presidential order in 1970. The idea of wilderness has shaped the management of public lands since 1964, with the Wilderness Act. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is intended to protect threatened and endangered species and their habitats, which are monitored by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"United States\\n\\nPopulation\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe U.S. Census Bureau estimated the country's population to be 323 425 550 as of April 25, 2016, and to be adding 1 person (net gain) every 13 seconds, or about 6,646 people per day. The U.S. population almost quadrupled during the 20th century, from about 76 million in 1900. The third most populous nation in the world, after China and India, the United States is the only major industrialized nation in which large population increases are projected. In the 1800s the average woman had 7.04 children, by the 1900s this number had decreased to 3.56. Since the early 1970s the birth rate has been below the replacement rate of 2.1 with 1.86 children per woman in 2014. Foreign born immigration has caused the US population to continue its rapid increase with the foreign born population doubling from almost 20 million in 1990 to over 40 million in 2010, representing one third of the population increase. The foreign born population reached 45 million in 2015.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States has a birth rate of 13 per 1,000, which is 5 births below the world average. Its population growth rate is positive at 0.7%, higher than that of many developed nations. In fiscal year 2012, over one million immigrants (most of whom entered through family reunification) were granted legal residence. Mexico has been the leading source of new residents since the 1965 Immigration Act. China, India, and the Philippines have been in the top four sending countries every year since the 1990s. , approximately 11.4 million residents are illegal immigrants. As of 2015, 47% of all immigrants are Hispanic, 26% are Asian, 18% are white and 8% are black. The percentage of immigrants who are Asian is increasing while the percentage who are Hispanic is decreasing.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAccording to a survey conducted by the Williams Institute, nine million Americans, or roughly 3.4% of the adult population identify themselves as homosexual, bisexual, or transgender. A 2012 Gallup poll also concluded that 3.5% of adult Americans identified as LGBT. The highest percentage came from the District of Columbia (10%), while the lowest state was North Dakota at 1.7%. In a 2013 survey, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that 96.6% of Americans identify as straight, while 1.6% identify as gay or lesbian, and 0.7% identify as being bisexual.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn 2010, the U.S. population included an estimated 5.2 million people with some American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry (2.9 million exclusively of such ancestry) and 1.2 million with some native Hawaiian or Pacific island ancestry (0.5 million exclusively). The census counted more than 19 million people of \\\"Some Other Race\\\" who were \\\"unable to identify with any\\\" of its five official race categories in 2010, over 18.5 million (97%) of whom are of Hispanic ethnicity.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe population growth of Hispanic and Latino Americans (the terms are officially interchangeable) is a major demographic trend. The 50.5 million Americans of Hispanic descent are identified as sharing a distinct \\\"ethnicity\\\" by the Census Bureau; 64% of Hispanic Americans are of Mexican descent. Between 2000 and 2010, the country's Hispanic population increased 43% while the non-Hispanic population rose just 4.9%. Much of this growth is from immigration; in 2007, 12.6% of the U.S. population was foreign-born, with 54% of that figure born in Latin America.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAbout 82% of Americans live in urban areas (including suburbs); about half of those reside in cities with populations over 50,000. The US has numerous clusters of cities known as megaregions, the largest being the Great Lakes Megalopolis followed by the Northeast Megalopolis and Southern California. In 2008, 273 incorporated places had populations over 100,000, nine cities had more than one million residents, and four global cities had over two million (New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston). There are 52 metropolitan areas with populations greater than one million. Of the 50 fastest-growing metro areas, 47 are in the West or South. The metro areas of San Bernardino, Dallas, Houston, Atlanta, and Phoenix all grew by more than a million people between 2000 and 2008.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nLanguage\",\n \"United States\\n\\nEnglish (American English) is the de facto national language. Although there is no official language at the federal level, some laws—such as U.S. naturalization requirements—standardize English. In 2010, about 230 million, or 80% of the population aged five years and older, spoke only English at home. Spanish, spoken by 12% of the population at home, is the second most common language and the most widely taught second language.\\\"Language Spoken at Home by the U.S. Population, 2010\\\", American Community Survey, U.S. Census Bureau, in World Almanac and Book of Facts 2012, p. 615. Some Americans advocate making English the country's official language, as it is in 28 states.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nBoth Hawaiian and English are official languages in Hawaii, by state law. Alaska recognizes twenty Native languages. While neither has an official language, New Mexico has laws providing for the use of both English and Spanish, as Louisiana does for English and French. Other states, such as California, mandate the publication of Spanish versions of certain government documents including court forms. Many jurisdictions with large numbers of non-English speakers produce government materials, especially voting information, in the most commonly spoken languages in those jurisdictions.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nSeveral insular territories grant official recognition to their native languages, along with English: Samoan and Chamorro are recognized by American Samoa and Guam, respectively; Carolinian and Chamorro are recognized by the Northern Mariana Islands; Cherokee is officially recognized by the Cherokee Nation within the Cherokee tribal jurisdiction area in eastern Oklahoma; Spanish is an official language of Puerto Rico and is more widely spoken than English there.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAccording to the Center for Immigration Studies, Arabic and Urdu (Pakistan's national language) are the fastest growing foreign languages spoken at American households. According to the survey, more than 63.2 million US residents speak a language other than English at home. In recent years, Arabic speaking residents increased by 29%, Urdu by 23% and Persian by 9%.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe most widely taught foreign languages at all levels in the United States (in terms of enrollment numbers) are: Spanish (around 7.2 million students), French (1.5 million), and German (500,000). Other commonly taught languages (with 100,000 to 250,000 learners) include Latin, Japanese, American Sign Language, Italian, and Chinese. 18% of all Americans claim to speak at least one language in addition to English.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution guarantees the free exercise of religion and forbids Congress from passing laws respecting its establishment. Christianity is by far the most common religion practiced in the U.S., but other religions are followed, too. In a 2013 survey, 56% of Americans said that religion played a \\\"very important role in their lives\\\", a far higher figure than that of any other wealthy nation. In a 2009 Gallup poll, 42% of Americans said that they attended church weekly or almost weekly; the figures ranged from a low of 23% in Vermont to a high of 63% in Mississippi.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAs with other Western countries, the U.S. is becoming less religious. Irreligion is growing rapidly among Americans under 30. Polls show that overall American confidence in organized religion has been declining since the mid to late 1980s, and that younger Americans in particular are becoming increasingly irreligious. According to a 2012 study, Protestant share of U.S. population dropped to 48%, thus ending its status as religious category of the majority for the first time. Americans with no religion have 1.7 children compared to 2.2 among Christians. The unaffiliated are less likely to get married with 37% marrying compared to 52% of Christians.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAccording to a 2014 survey, 70.6% of adults identified themselves as Christian, \\nProtestant denominations accounted for 46.5%, while Roman Catholicism, at 20.8%, was the largest individual denomination. The total reporting non-Christian religions in 2014 was 5.9%. Other religions include Judaism (1.9%), Islam (0.9%), Buddhism (0.7%), Hinduism (0.7%). The survey also reported that 22.8% of Americans described themselves as agnostic, atheist or simply having no religion, up from 8.2% in 1990. There are also Unitarian Universalist, Baha'i, Sikh, Jain, Shinto, Confucian, Taoist, Druid, Native American, Wiccan, humanist and deist communities.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nProtestantism is the largest Christian religious grouping in the United States. Baptists collectively form the largest branch of Protestantism, and the Southern Baptist Convention is the largest individual Protestant denomination. About 26% of Americans identify as Evangelical Protestants, while 15% are Mainline and 7% belong to a traditionally Black church. Roman Catholicism in the United States has its origin in the Spanish and French colonization of the Americas, and later grew because of Irish, Italian, Polish, German and Hispanic immigration. Rhode Island is the only state where a majority of the population is Catholic. Lutheranism in the U.S. has its origin in immigration from Northern Europe and Germany. North and South Dakota are the only states in which a plurality of the population is Lutheran. Presbyterianism was introduced in North America by Scottish and Ulster Scots immigrants. Although it has spread across the United States, it is heavily concentrated on the East Coast. Dutch Reformed congregations were founded first in New Amsterdam (New York City) before spreading westward. Utah is the only state where Mormonism is the religion of the majority of the population. The Mormon Corridor also extends to parts of Idaho, Nevada and Wyoming.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe Bible Belt is an informal term for a region in the Southern United States in which socially conservative Evangelical Protestantism is a significant part of the culture and Christian church attendance across the denominations is generally higher than the nation's average. By contrast, religion plays the least important role in New England and in the Western United States.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nFamily structure\",\n \"United States\\n\\n, 58% of Americans age 18 and over were married, 6% were widowed, 10% were divorced, and 25% had never been married. Women now work mostly outside the home and receive a majority of bachelor's degrees.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe U.S. teenage pregnancy rate is 26.5 per 1,000 women. The rate has declined by 57% since 1991. In 2013, the highest teenage birth rate was in Alabama, and the lowest in Wyoming. Abortion is legal throughout the U.S., owing to Roe v. Wade, a 1973 landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. While the abortion rate is falling, the abortion ratio of 241 per 1,000 live births and abortion rate of 15 per 1,000 women aged 15–44 remain higher than those of most Western nations. In 2013, the average age at first birth was 26 and 40.6% of births were to unmarried women.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe total fertility rate (TFR) was estimated for 2013 at 1.86 births per woman. Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view (compared to other Western countries). In 2001, with over 127,000 adoptions, the U.S. accounted for nearly half of the total number of adoptions worldwide. Same-sex marriage is legal nationwide and it is legal for same-sex couples to adopt. Polygamy is illegal throughout the U.S.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nGovernment and politics\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States is the world's oldest surviving federation. It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, \\\"in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law\\\". The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the U.S. Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. For 2014, the U.S. ranked 19th on the Democracy Index and 17th on the Corruption Perceptions Index.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn the American federalist system, citizens are usually subject to three levels of government: federal, state, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between county and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. There is no proportional representation at the federal level, and it is rare at lower levels.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe federal government is composed of three branches:\\n* Legislative: The bicameral Congress, made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives, makes federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse, and has the power of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the government. \\n* Executive: The President is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law (subject to Congressional override), and appoints the members of the Cabinet (subject to Senate approval) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies. \\n* Judicial: The Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the President with Senate approval, interpret laws and overturn those they find unconstitutional.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe House of Representatives has 435 voting members, each representing a congressional district for a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population every tenth year. At the 2010 census, seven states had the minimum of one representative, while California, the most populous state, had 53.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe Senate has 100 members with each state having two senators, elected at-large to six-year terms; one third of Senate seats are up for election every other year. The President serves a four-year term and may be elected to the office no more than twice. The President is not elected by direct vote, but by an indirect electoral college system in which the determining votes are apportioned to the states and the District of Columbia. The Supreme Court, led by the Chief Justice of the United States, has nine members, who serve for life. However, the court currently has one vacant seat after the death of Associate Justice Antonin Scalia.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe state governments are structured in roughly similar fashion; Nebraska uniquely has a unicameral legislature. The governor (chief executive) of each state is directly elected. Some state judges and cabinet officers are appointed by the governors of the respective states, while others are elected by popular vote.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe original text of the Constitution establishes the structure and responsibilities of the federal government and its relationship with the individual states. Article One protects the right to the \\\"great writ\\\" of habeas corpus. The Constitution has been amended 27 times; the first ten amendments, which make up the Bill of Rights, and the Fourteenth Amendment form the central basis of Americans' individual rights. All laws and governmental procedures are subject to judicial review and any law ruled by the courts to be in violation of the Constitution is voided. The principle of judicial review, not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was established by the Supreme Court in Marbury v. Madison (1803) in a decision handed down by Chief Justice John Marshall.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nPolitical divisions\",\n \"United States\\n\\nMap of U.S. Economic Exclusion Zone, highlighting states, territories and possessions\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States is a federal republic of 50 states, a federal district, five territories and eleven uninhabited island possessions. The states and territories are the principal administrative districts in the country. These are divided into subdivisions of counties and independent cities. The District of Columbia is a federal district which contains the capital of the United States, Washington DC. The states and the District of Columbia choose the President of the United States. Each state has presidential electors equal to the number of their Representatives and Senators in Congress, the District of Columbia has three.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nCongressional Districts are reapportioned among the states following each decennial Census of Population. Each state then draws single member districts to conform with the census apportionment. The total number of Representatives is 435, and delegate Members of Congress represent the District of Columbia and the five major US territories.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States also observes tribal sovereignty of the American Indian nations to a limited degree, as it does with the states' sovereignty. American Indians are U.S. citizens and tribal lands are subject to the jurisdiction of the U.S Congress and the federal courts. Like the states they have a great deal of autonomy, but also like the states tribes are not allowed to make war, engage in their own foreign relations, or print and issue currency.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nParties and elections\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States has operated under a two-party system for most of its history. For elective offices at most levels, state-administered primary elections choose the major party nominees for subsequent general elections. Since the general election of 1856, the major parties have been the Democratic Party, founded in 1824, and the Republican Party, founded in 1854. Since the Civil War, only one third-party presidential candidate—former president Theodore Roosevelt, running as a Progressive in 1912—has won as much as 20% of the popular vote. The President and Vice-president are elected through the Electoral College system.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nWithin American political culture, the center-right Republican Party is considered \\\"conservative\\\" and the center-left Democratic Party is considered \\\"liberal\\\". The states of the Northeast and West Coast and some of the Great Lakes states, known as \\\"blue states\\\", are relatively liberal. The \\\"red states\\\" of the South and parts of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains are relatively conservative.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe winner of the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections, Democrat Barack Obama, is the 44th, and current, U.S. president. Current leadership in the Senate includes Democratic Vice President Joseph Biden, Republican President Pro Tempore (Pro Tem) Orrin Hatch, Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, and Minority Leader Harry Reid. Leadership in the House includes Speaker of the House Paul Ryan, Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy, and Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn the 114th United States Congress, both the House of Representatives and the Senate are controlled by the Republican Party. The Senate currently consists of 54 Republicans, and 44 Democrats with two independents who caucus with the Democrats; the House consists of 246 Republicans and 188 Democrats, with one vacancy. In state governorships, there are 31 Republicans, 18 Democrats and one independent. Among the DC mayor and the 5 territorial governors, there are 2 Republicans, 2 Democrats (one is also in the PPD), and 2 Independents.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nForeign relations\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States has an established structure of foreign relations. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, and New York City is home to the United Nations Headquarters. It is a member of the G7, G20, and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Almost all countries have embassies in Washington, D.C., and many have consulates around the country. Likewise, nearly all nations host American diplomatic missions. However, Iran, North Korea, Bhutan, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) do not have formal diplomatic relations with the United States (although the U.S. still maintains relations with Taiwan and supplies it with military equipment).\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States has a \\\"Special Relationship\\\" with the United Kingdom and strong ties with Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Japan, South Korea, Israel, and several European Union countries, including France, Italy, Germany, and Spain. It works closely with fellow NATO members on military and security issues and with its neighbors through the Organization of American States and free trade agreements such as the trilateral North American Free Trade Agreement with Canada and Mexico. In 2008, the United States spent a net $25.4 billion on official development assistance, the most in the world. As a share of America's large gross national income (GNI), however, the U.S. contribution of 0.18% ranked last among 22 donor states. By contrast, private overseas giving by Americans is relatively generous.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe U.S. exercises full international defense authority and responsibility for three sovereign nations through Compact of Free Association with Micronesia, the Marshall Islands and Palau. These are Pacific island nations, once part of the U.S.-administered Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands after World War II, which gained independence in subsequent years.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nGovernment finance\",\n \"United States\\n\\nTaxes in the United States are levied at the federal, state and local government level. These include taxes on income, payroll, property, sales, imports, estates and gifts, as well as various fees. In 2010 taxes collected by federal, state and municipal governments amounted to 24.8% of GDP. During FY2012, the federal government collected approximately $2.45 trillion in tax revenue, up $147 billion or 6% versus FY2011 revenues of $2.30 trillion. Primary receipt categories included individual income taxes ($1,132B or 47%), Social Security/Social Insurance taxes ($845B or 35%), and corporate taxes ($242B or 10%). Based on CBO estimates, under 2013 tax law the top 1% will be paying the highest average tax rates since 1979, while other income groups will remain at historic lows.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nU.S. taxation is generally progressive, especially the federal income taxes, and is among the most progressive in the developed world. The highest 10% of income earners pay a majority of federal taxes, and about half of all taxes. Payroll taxes for Social Security are a flat regressive tax, with no tax charged on income above $118,500 (for 2015 and 2016) and no tax at all paid on unearned income from things such as stocks and capital gains. The historic reasoning for the regressive nature of the payroll tax is that entitlement programs have not been viewed as welfare transfers. However, according to the Congressional Budget Office the net effect of Social Security is that the benefit to tax ratio ranges from roughly 70% for the top earnings quintile to about 170% for the lowest earning quintile, making the system progressive.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe top 10% paid 51.8% of total federal taxes in 2009, and the top 1%, with 13.4% of pre-tax national income, paid 22.3% of federal taxes. In 2013 the Tax Policy Center projected total federal effective tax rates of 35.5% for the top 1%, 27.2% for the top quintile, 13.8% for the middle quintile, and −2.7% for the bottom quintile. The incidence of corporate income tax has been a matter of considerable ongoing controversy for decades. State and local taxes vary widely, but are generally less progressive than federal taxes as they rely heavily on broadly borne regressive sales and property taxes that yield less volatile revenue streams, though their consideration does not eliminate the progressive nature of overall taxation.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nDuring FY 2012, the federal government spent $3.54 trillion on a budget or cash basis, down $60 billion or 1.7% vs. FY 2011 spending of $3.60 trillion. Major categories of FY 2012 spending included: Medicare & Medicaid ($802B or 23% of spending), Social Security ($768B or 22%), Defense Department ($670B or 19%), non-defense discretionary ($615B or 17%), other mandatory ($461B or 13%) and interest ($223B or 6%).\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe total national debt of the United States in the United States was $18.527 trillion (106% of the GDP) in 2014.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nMilitary\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe President holds the title of commander-in-chief of the nation's armed forces and appoints its leaders, the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The United States Department of Defense administers the armed forces, including the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force. The Coast Guard is run by the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and by the Department of the Navy during times of war. In 2008, the armed forces had 1.4 million personnel on active duty. The Reserves and National Guard brought the total number of troops to 2.3 million. The Department of Defense also employed about 700,000 civilians, not including contractors.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nMilitary service is voluntary, though conscription may occur in wartime through the Selective Service System. American forces can be rapidly deployed by the Air Force's large fleet of transport aircraft, the Navy's 10 active aircraft carriers, and Marine expeditionary units at sea with the Navy's Atlantic and Pacific fleets. The military operates 865 bases and facilities abroad, and maintains deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe military budget of the United States in 2011 was more than $700 billion, 41% of global military spending and equal to the next 14 largest national military expenditures combined. At 4.7% of GDP, the rate was the second-highest among the top 15 military spenders, after Saudi Arabia. U.S. defense spending as a percentage of GDP ranked 23rd globally in 2012 according to the CIA. Defense's share of U.S. spending has generally declined in recent decades, from Cold War peaks of 14.2% of GDP in 1953 and 69.5% of federal outlays in 1954 to 4.7% of GDP and 18.8% of federal outlays in 2011.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe proposed base Department of Defense budget for 2012, $553 billion, was a 4.2% increase over 2011; an additional $118 billion was proposed for the military campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan. The last American troops serving in Iraq departed in December 2011; 4,484 service members were killed during the Iraq War. Approximately 90,000 U.S. troops were serving in Afghanistan in April 2012; by November 8, 2013 2,285 had been killed during the War in Afghanistan.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nLaw enforcement and crime\",\n \"United States\\n\\nLaw enforcement in the United States is primarily the responsibility of local police and sheriff's departments, with state police providing broader services. The New York City Police Department (NYPD) is the largest in the country. Federal agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the U.S. Marshals Service have specialized duties, including protecting civil rights, national security and enforcing U.S. federal courts' rulings and federal laws. At the federal level and in almost every state, a legal system operates on a common law. State courts conduct most criminal trials; federal courts handle certain designated crimes as well as certain appeals from the state criminal courts. Plea bargaining in the United States is very common; the vast majority of criminal cases in the country are settled by plea bargain rather than jury trial.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn 2012 there were 4.7 murders per 100,000 persons in the United States, a 54% decline from the modern peak of 10.2 in 1980. In 2001–2, the United States had above-average levels of violent crime and particularly high levels of gun violence compared to other developed nations. A cross-sectional analysis of the World Health Organization Mortality Database from 2003 showed that United States \\\"homicide rates were 6.9 times higher than rates in the other high-income countries, driven by firearm homicide rates that were 19.5 times higher.\\\" Gun ownership rights continue to be the subject of contentious political debate.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nFrom 1980 through 2008 males represented 77% of homicide victims and 90% of offenders. Blacks committed 52.5% of all homicides during that span, at a rate almost eight times that of whites (\\\"whites\\\" includes most Hispanics), and were victimized at a rate six times that of whites. Most homicides were intraracial, with 93% of black victims killed by blacks and 84% of white victims killed by whites. In 2012, Louisiana had the highest rate of murder and non-negligent manslaughter in the U.S., and New Hampshire the lowest. The FBI's Uniform Crime Reports estimates that there were 3,246 violent and property crimes per 100,000 residents in 2012, for a total of over 9 million total crimes.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nCapital punishment is sanctioned in the United States for certain federal and military crimes, and used in 31 states. No executions took place from 1967 to 1977, owing in part to a U.S. Supreme Court ruling striking down arbitrary imposition of the death penalty. In 1976, that Court ruled that, under appropriate circumstances, capital punishment may constitutionally be imposed. Since the decision there have been more than 1,300 executions, a majority of these taking place in three states: Texas, Virginia, and Oklahoma. Meanwhile, several states have either abolished or struck down death penalty laws. In 2014, the country had the fifth highest number of executions in the world, following China, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States has the highest documented incarceration rate and total prison population in the world. For the latest data, see National Research Council. [http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=18613 The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences]. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2014. Retrieved May 10, 2014.[http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/related_material/2014_US_Nation_Behind_Bars_0.pdf Nation Behind Bars: A Human Rights Solution]. Human Rights Watch, May 2014. Retrieved May 10, 2014. At the start of 2008, more than 2.3 million people were incarcerated, more than one in every 100 adults. At year end 2012, the combined U.S. adult correctional systems supervised about 6,937,600 offenders. About 1 in every 35 adult residents in the United States was under some form of correctional supervision at yearend 2012, the lowest rate observed since 1997. The prison population has quadrupled since 1980, and state and local spending on prisons and jails has grown three times as much as that spent on public education during the same period. However, the imprisonment rate for all prisoners\\nsentenced to more than a year in state or federal facilities is 478 per 100,000 in 2013 and the rate for pre-trial/remand prisoners is 153 per 100,000 residents in 2012.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe country's high rate of incarceration is largely due to changes in sentencing guidelines and drug policies. According to the Federal Bureau of Prisons, the majority of inmates held in federal prisons are convicted of drug offenses. The privatization of prisons and prison services which began in the 1980s has been a subject of debate.Selman, Donna and Paul Leighton (2010). [https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781442201729/Punishment-for-Sale-Private-Prisons-Big-Business-and-the-Incarceration-Binge Punishment for Sale: Private Prisons, Big Business, and the Incarceration Binge]. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. [https://books.google.com/books?id5lBraTDtiSgC&lpg\\nPP1&pgPR11#v\\nonepage&q&ffalse p. xi]. ISBN 1-4422-0173-8.Gottschalk, Marie (2014). [http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10330.html Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics]. Princeton University Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id\\niOs_BAAAQBAJ&lpgPP1&pg\\nPA70#vonepage&q&f\\nfalse p. 70] ISBN 0-691-16405-3.Peter Kerwin (June 10, 2015). [http://www.news.wisc.edu/23835 Study finds private prisons keep inmates longer, without reducing future crime]. University of Wisconsin–Madison News. Retrieved June 11, 2015. In 2008, Louisiana had the highest incarceration rate, and Maine the lowest.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States has a capitalist mixed economy which is fueled by abundant natural resources and high productivity. According to the International Monetary Fund, the U.S. GDP of $16.8 trillion constitutes 24% of the gross world product at market exchange rates and over 19% of the gross world product at purchasing power parity (PPP).\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe US's nominal GDP is estimated to be $17.528 trillion From 1983 to 2008, U.S. real compounded annual GDP growth was 3.3%, compared to a 2.3% weighted average for the rest of the G7. The country ranks ninth in the world in nominal GDP per capita and sixth in GDP per capita at PPP. The U.S. dollar is the world's primary reserve currency.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States is the largest importer of goods and second largest exporter, though exports per capita are relatively low. In 2010, the total U.S. trade deficit was $635 billion. Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany are its top trading partners. In 2010, oil was the largest import commodity, while transportation equipment was the country's largest export. Japan is the largest foreign holder of U.S. public debt. The largest holder of the U.S. debt are American entities, including federal government accounts and the Federal Reserve, who hold the majority of the debt.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn 2009, the private sector was estimated to constitute 86.4% of the economy, with federal government activity accounting for 4.3% and state and local government activity (including federal transfers) the remaining 9.3%. The number of employees at all levels of government outnumber those in manufacturing by 1.7 to 1. While its economy has reached a postindustrial level of development and its service sector constitutes 67.8% of GDP, the United States remains an industrial power. The leading business field by gross business receipts is wholesale and retail trade; by net income it is manufacturing. In the franchising business model, McDonald's and Subway are the two most recognized brands in the world. Coca-Cola is the most recognized soft drink company in the world.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nChemical products are the leading manufacturing field. The United States is the largest producer of oil in the world, as well as its second largest importer. It is the world's number one producer of electrical and nuclear energy, as well as liquid natural gas, sulfur, phosphates, and salt. The National Mining Association provides data pertaining to coal and minerals that include beryllium, copper, lead, magnesium, zinc, titanium and others.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAgriculture accounts for just under 1% of GDP, yet the United States is the world's top producer of corn and soybeans. The National Agricultural Statistics Service maintains agricultural statistics for products that include peanuts, oats, rye, wheat, rice, cotton, corn, barley, hay, sunflowers, and oilseeds. In addition, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides livestock statistics regarding beef, poultry, pork, and dairy products. The country is the primary developer and grower of genetically modified food, representing half of the world's biotech crops.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nConsumer spending comprises 68% of the U.S. economy in 2015. In August 2010, the American labor force consisted of 154.1 million people. With 21.2 million people, government is the leading field of employment. The largest private employment sector is health care and social assistance, with 16.4 million people. About 12% of workers are unionized, compared to 30% in Western Europe. The World Bank ranks the United States first in the ease of hiring and firing workers. The United States is ranked among the top three in the Global Competitiveness Report as well. It has a smaller welfare state and redistributes less income through government action than European nations tend to.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States is the only advanced economy that does not guarantee its workers paid vacation and is one of just a few countries in the world without paid family leave as a legal right, with the others being Papua New Guinea, Suriname and Liberia. However, 74% of full-time American workers get paid sick leave, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, although only 24% of part-time workers get the same benefits. While federal law currently does not require sick leave, it's a common benefit for government workers and full-time employees at corporations. In 2009, the United States had the third highest workforce productivity per person in the world, behind Luxembourg and Norway. It was fourth in productivity per hour, behind those two countries and the Netherlands.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe 2008–2012 global recession significantly affected the United States, with output still below potential according to the Congressional Budget Office. It brought high unemployment (which has been decreasing but remains above pre-recession levels), along with low consumer confidence, the continuing decline in home values and increase in foreclosures and personal bankruptcies, an escalating federal debt crisis, inflation, and rising petroleum and food prices. There remains a record proportion of long-term unemployed, continued decreasing household income, and tax and federal budget increases.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIncome, poverty and wealth\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAmericans have the highest average household and employee income among OECD nations, and in 2007 had the second highest median household income. According to the Census Bureau real median household income was $50,502 in 2011, down from $51,144 in 2010. The Global Food Security Index ranked the U.S. number one for food affordability and overall food security in March 2013. Americans on average have over twice as much living space per dwelling and per person as European Union residents, and more than every EU nation. For 2013 the United Nations Development Programme ranked the United States 5th among 187 countries in its Human Development Index and 28th in its inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI).\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThere has been a widening gap between productivity and median incomes since the 1970s. However, the gap between total compensation and productivity is not as wide because of increased employee benefits such as health insurance. While inflation-adjusted (\\\"real\\\") household income had been increasing almost every year from 1947 to 1999, it has since been flat on balance and has even decreased recently. According to Congressional Research Service, during this same period, immigration to the United States increased, while the lower 90% of tax filers incomes became stagnant, and eventually decreasing since 2000. The rise in the share of total annual income received by the top 1 percent, which has more than doubled from 9 percent in 1976 to 20 percent in 2011, has significantly affected income inequality, leaving the United States with one of the widest income distributions among OECD nations.[http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/OECD2014-FocusOnTopIncomes.pdf Focus on Top Incomes and Taxation in OECD Countries: Was the crisis a game changer?] OECD, May 2014. Retrieved May 1, 2014. The post-recession income gains have been very uneven, with the top 1 percent capturing 95 percent of the income gains from 2009 to 2012.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe extent and relevance of income inequality is a matter of debate.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nWealth, like income and taxes, is highly concentrated; the richest 10% of the adult population possess 72% of the country's household wealth, while the bottom half claim only 2%. Between June 2007 and November 2008 the global recession led to falling asset prices around the world. Assets owned by Americans lost about a quarter of their value. Since peaking in the second quarter of 2007, household wealth was down $14 trillion, but has since increased $14 trillion over 2006 levels. At the end of 2014, household debt amounted to $11.8 trillion, down from $13.8 trillion at the end of 2008.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThere were about 578,424 sheltered and unsheltered homeless persons in the U.S. in January 2014, with almost two-thirds staying in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program. In 2011 16.7 million children lived in food-insecure households, about 35% more than 2007 levels, though only 1.1% of U.S. children, or 845,000, saw reduced food intake or disrupted eating patterns at some point during the year, and most cases were not chronic. According to a 2014 report by the Census Bureau, one in five young adults lives in poverty today, up from one in seven in 1980.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAmerican public education is operated by state and local governments, regulated by the United States Department of Education through restrictions on federal grants. In most states, children are required to attend school from the age of six or seven (generally, kindergarten or first grade) until they turn 18 (generally bringing them through twelfth grade, the end of high school); some states allow students to leave school at 16 or 17.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAbout 12% of children are enrolled in parochial or nonsectarian private schools. Just over 2% of children are homeschooled. The U.S. spends more on education per student than any nation in the world, spending more than $11,000 per elementary student in 2010 and more than $12,000 per high school student. Some 80% of U.S. college students attend public universities.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States has many competitive private and public institutions of higher education. The majority of world's top universities listed by different ranking organizations are in the US. There are also local community colleges with generally more open admission policies, shorter academic programs, and lower tuition. Of Americans 25 and older, 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a bachelor's degree, and 9.6% earned graduate degrees. The basic literacy rate is approximately 99%. The United Nations assigns the United States an Education Index of 0.97, tying it for 12th in the world.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAs for public expenditures on higher education, the U.S. trails some other OECD nations but spends more per student than the OECD average, and more than all nations in combined public and private spending. , student loan debt exceeded one trillion dollars, more than Americans owe on credit cards.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States is home to many cultures and a wide variety of ethnic groups, traditions, and values. Aside from the Native American, Native Hawaiian, and Native Alaskan populations, nearly all Americans or their ancestors settled or immigrated within the past five centuries. Mainstream American culture is a Western culture largely derived from the traditions of European immigrants with influences from many other sources, such as traditions brought by slaves from Africa. More recent immigration from Asia and especially Latin America has added to a cultural mix that has been described as both a homogenizing melting pot, and a heterogeneous salad bowl in which immigrants and their descendants retain distinctive cultural characteristics.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nCore American culture was established by Protestant British colonists and shaped by the frontier settlement process, with the traits derived passed down to descendants and transmitted to immigrants through assimilation. Americans have traditionally been characterized by a strong work ethic, competitiveness, and individualism, as well as a unifying belief in an \\\"American creed\\\" emphasizing liberty, equality, private property, democracy, rule of law, and a preference for limited government. Americans are extremely charitable by global standards. According to a 2006 British study, Americans gave 1.67% of GDP to charity, more than any other nation studied, more than twice the second place British figure of 0.73%, and around twelve times the French figure of 0.14%.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe American Dream, or the perception that Americans enjoy high social mobility, plays a key role in attracting immigrants. Whether this perception is realistic has been a topic of debate. CAP: [https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/news/2006/04/26/1917/understanding-mobility-in-america/ Understanding Mobility in America]. April 26, 2006 While mainstream culture holds that the United States is a classless society, scholars identify significant differences between the country's social classes, affecting socialization, language, and values. Americans' self-images, social viewpoints, and cultural expectations are associated with their occupations to an unusually close degree. While Americans tend greatly to value socioeconomic achievement, being ordinary or average is generally seen as a positive attribute.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nFood\",\n \"United States\\n\\nMainstream American cuisine is similar to that in other Western countries. Wheat is the primary cereal grain with about three-quarters of grain products made of wheat flour and many dishes use indigenous ingredients, such as turkey, venison, potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn, squash, and maple syrup which were consumed by Native Americans and early European settlers. These home grown foods are part of a shared national menu on one of America's most popular holidays; Thanksgiving, when some Americans make traditional foods to celebrate the occasion.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nCharacteristic dishes such as apple pie, fried chicken, pizza, hamburgers, and hot dogs derive from the recipes of various immigrants. French fries, Mexican dishes such as burritos and tacos, and pasta dishes freely adapted from Italian sources are widely consumed. Americans drink three times as much coffee as tea. Marketing by U.S. industries is largely responsible for making orange juice and milk ubiquitous breakfast beverages.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAmerican eating habits owe a great deal to that of their British culinary roots with some variations. Although American lands could grow newer vegetables England could not, most colonists would not eat these new foods until accepted by Europeans. Over time American foods changed to a point that food critic, John L. Hess stated in 1972: \\\"Our founding fathers were as far superior to our present political leaders in the quality of their food as they were in the quality of their prose and intelligence\\\".\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe American fast food industry, the world's largest, pioneered the drive-through format in the 1940s. Fast food consumption has sparked health concerns. During the 1980s and 1990s, Americans' caloric intake rose 24%; frequent dining at fast food outlets is associated with what public health officials call the American \\\"obesity epidemic\\\". Highly sweetened soft drinks are widely popular, and sugared beverages account for nine percent of American caloric intake.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nLiterature, philosophy, and the arts\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn the 18th and early 19th centuries, American art and literature took most of its cues from Europe. Writers such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, and Henry David Thoreau established a distinctive American literary voice by the middle of the 19th century. Mark Twain and poet Walt Whitman were major figures in the century's second half; Emily Dickinson, virtually unknown during her lifetime, is now recognized as an essential American poet. A work seen as capturing fundamental aspects of the national experience and character—such as Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby (1925) and Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird (1960)— may be dubbed the \\\"Great American Novel\\\".\",\n \"United States\\n\\nEleven U.S. citizens have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, most recently Toni Morrison in 1993. William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway and John Steinbeck are often named among the most influential writers of the 20th century. Popular literary genres such as the Western and hardboiled crime fiction developed in the United States. The Beat Generation writers opened up new literary approaches, as have postmodernist authors such as John Barth, Thomas Pynchon, and Don DeLillo.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe transcendentalists, led by Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, established the first major American philosophical movement. After the Civil War, Charles Sanders Peirce and then William James and John Dewey were leaders in the development of pragmatism. In the 20th century, the work of W. V. O. Quine and Richard Rorty, and later Noam Chomsky, brought analytic philosophy to the fore of American philosophical academia. John Rawls and Robert Nozick led a revival of political philosophy. Cornel West and Judith Butler have led a continental tradition in American philosophical academia. Chicago school economists like Milton Friedman, James M. Buchanan, and Thomas Sowell have affected various fields in social and political philosophy.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn the visual arts, the Hudson River School was a mid-19th-century movement in the tradition of European naturalism. The realist paintings of Thomas Eakins are now widely celebrated. The 1913 Armory Show in New York City, an exhibition of European modernist art, shocked the public and transformed the U.S. art scene. Georgia O'Keeffe, Marsden Hartley, and others experimented with new, individualistic styles. Major artistic movements such as the abstract expressionism of Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning and the pop art of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein developed largely in the United States. The tide of modernism and then postmodernism has brought fame to American architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright, Philip Johnson, and Frank Gehry.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nOne of the first major promoters of American theater was impresario P. T. Barnum, who began operating a lower Manhattan entertainment complex in 1841. The team of Harrigan and Hart produced a series of popular musical comedies in New York starting in the late 1870s. In the 20th century, the modern musical form emerged on Broadway; the songs of musical theater composers such as Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, and Stephen Sondheim have become pop standards. Playwright Eugene O'Neill won the Nobel literature prize in 1936; other acclaimed U.S. dramatists include multiple Pulitzer Prize winners Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee, and August Wilson.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThough little known at the time, Charles Ives's work of the 1910s established him as the first major U.S. composer in the classical tradition, while experimentalists such as Henry Cowell and John Cage created a distinctive American approach to classical composition. Aaron Copland and George Gershwin developed a new synthesis of popular and classical music. Choreographers Isadora Duncan and Martha Graham helped create modern dance, while George Balanchine and Jerome Robbins were leaders in 20th-century ballet. Americans have long been important in the modern artistic medium of photography, with major photographers including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, and Ansel Adams.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe rhythmic and lyrical styles of African-American music have deeply influenced American music at large, distinguishing it from European traditions. Elements from folk idioms such as the blues and what is now known as old-time music were adopted and transformed into popular genres with global audiences. Jazz was developed by innovators such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington early in the 20th century. Country music developed in the 1920s, and rhythm and blues in the 1940s.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nElvis Presley and Chuck Berry were among the mid-1950s pioneers of rock and roll. In the 1960s, Bob Dylan emerged from the folk revival to become one of America's most celebrated songwriters and James Brown led the development of funk. More recent American creations include hip hop and house music. American pop stars such as Presley, Michael Jackson, and Madonna have become global celebrities, as have contemporary musical artists such as Taylor Swift, Britney Spears, Katy Perry, and Beyoncé as well as hip hop artists Jay Z, Eminem and Kanye West. Rock bands such as Metallica, the Eagles, and Aerosmith are among the highest grossing in worldwide sales.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nCinema\",\n \"United States\\n\\nHollywood, a northern district of Los Angeles, California, is one of the leaders in motion picture production. The world's first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New York City in 1894, using Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope. The next year saw the first commercial screening of a projected film, also in New York, and the United States was in the forefront of sound film's development in the following decades. Since the early 20th century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and around Hollywood, although in the 21st century an increasing number of films are not made there, and film companies have been subject to the forces of globalization.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nDirector D. W. Griffith, American's top filmmaker during the silent film period, was central to the development of film grammar, and producer/entrepreneur Walt Disney was a leader in both animated film and movie merchandising. Directors such as John Ford redefined the image of the American Old West and history, and, like others such as John Huston, broadened the possibilities of cinema with location shooting, with great influence on subsequent directors. The industry enjoyed its golden years, in what is commonly referred to as the \\\"Golden Age of Hollywood\\\", from the early sound period until the early 1960s, with screen actors such as John Wayne and Marilyn Monroe becoming iconic figures. In the 1970s, film directors such as Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola and Robert Altman were a vital component in what became known as \\\"New Hollywood\\\" or the \\\"Hollywood Renaissance\\\", grittier films influenced by French and Italian realist pictures of the post-war period. Since, directors such as Steven Spielberg, George Lucas and James Cameron have gained renown for their blockbuster films, often characterized by high production costs, and in return, high earnings at the box office, with Cameron's Avatar (2009) earning more than $2 billion.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nNotable films topping the American Film Institute's AFI 100 list include Orson Welles's Citizen Kane (1941), which is frequently cited as the greatest film of all time, Casablanca (1942), The Godfather (1972), Gone with the Wind (1939), Lawrence of Arabia (1962), The Wizard of Oz (1939), The Graduate (1967), On the Waterfront (1954), Schindler's List (1993), Singin' in the Rain (1952), It's a Wonderful Life (1946) and Sunset Boulevard (1950). The Academy Awards, popularly known as the Oscars, have been held annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences since 1929, and the Golden Globe Awards have been held annually since January 1944.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nSports\",\n \"United States\\n\\nAmerican football is by several measures the most popular spectator sport; the National Football League (NFL) has the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world, and the Super Bowl is watched by millions globally. Baseball has been regarded as the U.S. national sport since the late 19th century, with Major League Baseball (MLB) being the top league. Basketball and ice hockey are the country's next two leading professional team sports, with the top leagues being the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the National Hockey League (NHL). These four major sports, when played professionally, each occupy a season at different, but overlapping, times of the year. College football and basketball attract large audiences. In soccer, the country hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the men's national soccer team qualified for ten World Cups and the women's team has won the FIFA Women's World Cup three times; Major League Soccer is the sport's highest league in the United States.\\nThe market for professional sports in the United States is roughly $69 billion, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nEight Olympic Games have taken place in the United States. As of 2014, the United States has won 2,400 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, more than any other country, and 281 in the Winter Olympic Games, the second most behind Norway. \\nWhile most major U.S. sports have evolved out of European practices, basketball, volleyball, skateboarding, and snowboarding are American inventions, some of which have become popular in other countries. Lacrosse and surfing arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact.Liss, Howard. Lacrosse (Funk & Wagnalls, 1970) pg 13. The most watched individual sports are golf and auto racing, particularly NASCAR.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nMedia\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe four major broadcasters in the U.S. are the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) and Fox. The four major broadcast television networks are all commercial entities. Cable television offers hundreds of channels catering to a variety of niches. Americans listen to radio programming, also largely commercial, on average just over two-and-a-half hours a day.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn 1998, the number of U.S. commercial radio stations had grown to 4,793 AM stations and 5,662 FM stations. In addition, there are 1,460 public radio stations. Most of these stations are run by universities and public authorities for educational purposes and are financed by public or private funds, subscriptions and corporate underwriting. Much public-radio broadcasting is supplied by NPR (formerly National Public Radio). NPR was incorporated in February 1970 under the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967; its television counterpart, PBS, was also created by the same legislation. (NPR and PBS are operated separately from each other.) , there are 15,433 licensed full-power radio stations in the US according to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC).\",\n \"United States\\n\\nWell-known newspapers are The New York Times, USA Today and The Wall Street Journal. Although the cost of publishing has increased over the years, the price of newspapers has generally remained low, forcing newspapers to rely more on advertising revenue and on articles provided by a major wire service, such as the Associated Press or Reuters, for their national and world coverage. With very few exceptions, all the newspapers in the U.S. are privately owned, either by large chains such as Gannett or McClatchy, which own dozens or even hundreds of newspapers; by small chains that own a handful of papers; or in a situation that is increasingly rare, by individuals or families. Major cities often have \\\"alternative weeklies\\\" to complement the mainstream daily papers, for example, New York City's The Village Voice or Los Angeles' LA Weekly, to name two of the best-known. Major cities may also support a local business journal, trade papers relating to local industries, and papers for local ethnic and social groups. Early versions of the American newspaper comic strip and the American comic book began appearing in the 19th century.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn 1938, Superman, the comic book superhero of DC Comics, developed into an American icon. Aside from web portals and search engines, the most popular websites are Facebook, YouTube, Wikipedia, Yahoo.com, eBay, Amazon and Twitter.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nMore than 800 publications are produced in Spanish, the second most widely spoken mother tongue behind English.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nInfrastructure\",\n \"United States\\n\\nTransportation\",\n \"United States\\n\\nPersonal transportation is dominated by automobiles, which operate on a network of 4 million miles (6.4 million km) of public roads, including one of the world's longest highway systems at 57,000 miles (91700 km). The world's second largest automobile market, the United States has the highest rate of per-capita vehicle ownership in the world, with 765 vehicles per 1,000 Americans. About 40% of personal vehicles are vans, SUVs, or light trucks. The average American adult (accounting for all drivers and non-drivers) spends 55 minutes driving every day, traveling 29 mi.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nMass transit accounts for 9% of total U.S. work trips. Transport of goods by rail is extensive, though relatively low numbers of passengers (approximately 31 million annually) use intercity rail to travel, partly because of the low population density throughout much of the U.S. interior. However, ridership on Amtrak, the national intercity passenger rail system, grew by almost 37% between 2000 and 2010. Also, light rail development has increased in recent years. Bicycle usage for work commutes is minimal.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe civil airline industry is entirely privately owned and has been largely deregulated since 1978, while \\nmost major airports are publicly owned. The three largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are U.S.-based; American Airlines is number one after its 2013 acquisition by US Airways. Of the world's 50 busiest passenger airports, 16 are in the United States, including the busiest, Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport, and the fourth-busiest, O'Hare International Airport in Chicago.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nEnergy\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States energy market is about 29,000 terawatt hours per year.IEA Key World Energy Statistics Statistics [http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld2013.pdf 2013], [http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/kwes.pdf 2012], [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2011/key_world_energy_stats.pdf 2011], [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2010/key_stats_2010.pdf 2010], [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2009/key2009.pdf 2009], [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2006/key2006.pdf 2006] IEA October, crude oil p.11, coal p. 13 gas p. 15 Energy consumption per capita is 7.8 tons (7076 kg) of oil equivalent per year, the 10th highest rate in the world. In 2005, 40% of this energy came from petroleum, 23% from coal, and 22% from natural gas. The remainder was supplied by nuclear power and renewable energy sources. The United States is the world's largest consumer of petroleum.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nFor decades, nuclear power has played a limited role relative to many other developed countries, in part because of public perception in the wake of a 1979 accident. In 2007, several applications for new nuclear plants were filed. The United States has 27% of global coal reserves. It is the world's largest producer of natural gas and crude oil.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nWater supply and sanitation\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIssues that affect water supply in the United States include droughts in the West, water scarcity, pollution, a backlog of investment, concerns about the affordability of water for the poorest, and a rapidly retiring workforce. Increased variability and intensity of rainfall as a result of climate change is expected to produce both more severe droughts and flooding, with potentially serious consequences for water supply and for pollution from combined sewer overflows.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nScience and technology\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States has been a leader in technological innovation since the late 19th century and scientific research since the mid 20th century. Methods for producing interchangeable parts were developed by the U.S. War Department by the Federal Armories during the first half of the 19th century. This technology, along with the establishment of a machine tool industry, enabled the U.S. to have large scale manufacturing of sewing machines, bicycles and other items in the late 19th century and became known as the American system of manufacturing. Factory electrification in the early 20th century and introduction of the assembly line and other labor saving techniques created the system called mass production.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone. Thomas Edison's research laboratory, one of the first of its kind, developed the phonograph, the first long-lasting light bulb, and the first viable movie camera. The latter lead to emergence of the worldwide entertainment industry. In the early 20th century, the automobile companies of Ransom E. Olds and Henry Ford popularized the assembly line. The Wright brothers, in 1903, made the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe rise of Nazism in the 1930s led many European scientists, including Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, and John von Neumann, to immigrate to the United States. During World War II, the Manhattan Project developed nuclear weapons, ushering in the Atomic Age, while the Space Race produced rapid advances in rocketry, materials science, and aeronautics.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe invention of the transistor in the 1950s, a key active component in practically all modern electronics, led to many technological developments and a significant expansion of the U.S. technology industry. This in turn led to the establishment of many new technology companies and regions around the county such as Silicon Valley in California. Advancements by American microprocessor companies such as Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), and Intel along with both computer software and hardware companies that include Adobe Systems, Apple Computer, IBM, GNU-Linux, Microsoft, and Sun Microsystems created and popularized the personal computer. The ARPANET was developed in the 1960s to meet Defense Department requirements, and became the first of a series of networks which evolved into the Internet.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThese advancements then lead to greater personalization of technology for individual use. , 83.8% of American households owned at least one computer, and 73.3% had high-speed Internet service. 91% of Americans also own a mobile phone . The United States ranks highly with regard to freedom of use of the internet.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn the 21st century, 64% of research and development funding comes from the private sector. The United States leads the world in scientific research papers and impact factor.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nHealth\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe United States has a life expectancy of 79.8 years at birth, up from 75.2 years in 1990. Increasing obesity in the United States and health improvements elsewhere have contributed to lowering the country's rank in life expectancy from 1987, when it was 11th in the world. Obesity rates in the United States are amongst the highest in the world.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nApproximately one-third of the adult population is obese and an additional third is overweight; the obesity rate, the highest in the industrialized world, has more than doubled in the last quarter-century. Obesity-related type 2 diabetes is considered epidemic by health care professionals. The infant mortality rate of 6.17 per thousand places the United States 169th highest out of 224 countries, with the 224th country having the lowest mortality rate.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nIn 2010, coronary artery disease, lung cancer, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, and traffic accidents caused the most years of life lost in the U.S. Low back pain, depression, musculoskeletal disorders, neck pain, and anxiety caused the most years lost to disability. The most deleterious risk factors were poor diet, tobacco smoking, obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, physical inactivity, and alcohol use. Alzheimer's disease, drug abuse, kidney disease and cancer, and falls caused the most additional years of life lost over their age-adjusted 1990 per-capita rates. U.S. teenage pregnancy and abortion rates are substantially higher than in other Western nations, especially among blacks and Hispanics. U.S. underage drinking among teenagers is among the lowest in industrialized nations.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nThe U.S. is a global leader in medical innovation. America solely developed or contributed significantly to 9 of the top 10 most important medical innovations since 1975 as ranked by a 2001 poll of physicians, while the EU and Switzerland together contributed to five. Since 1966, more Americans have received the Nobel Prize in Medicine than the rest of the world combined. From 1989 to 2002, four times more money was invested in private biotechnology companies in America than in Europe. The U.S. health-care system far outspends any other nation, measured in both per capita spending and percentage of GDP.\",\n \"United States\\n\\nHealth-care coverage in the United States is a combination of public and private efforts and is not universal. In 2014, 13.4% of the population did not carry health insurance. The subject of uninsured and underinsured Americans is a major political issue. In 2006, Massachusetts became the first state to mandate universal health insurance. Federal legislation passed in early 2010 would ostensibly create a near-universal health insurance system around the country by 2014, though the bill and its ultimate effect are issues of controversy.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137391,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2877"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"At what city did Bugs Bunny always belatedly realize, I knew I shoulda taken that left turn at?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Albuquerque"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["albuqurque","list of trivia associated with albuquerque","un locode usabq","albuquerque","albukerky","alberquerque","climate of albuquerque new mexico","albaquerque new mexico","ranchos de alburquerque","burque","duke city","city of albuquerque","albuquerque new mexico","alberquerque new mexico","albuquerque nm","list of newspapers in albuqeurque","albuquerque traction company","journal pavilion","albuquerque n m","q albuquerque","albequerque","albuquerque trivia","albaquerque","city electric company","abq nm"],"string":"[\n \"albuqurque\",\n \"list of trivia associated with albuquerque\",\n \"un locode usabq\",\n \"albuquerque\",\n \"albukerky\",\n \"alberquerque\",\n \"climate of albuquerque new mexico\",\n \"albaquerque new mexico\",\n \"ranchos de alburquerque\",\n \"burque\",\n \"duke city\",\n \"city of albuquerque\",\n \"albuquerque new mexico\",\n \"alberquerque new mexico\",\n \"albuquerque nm\",\n \"list of newspapers in albuqeurque\",\n \"albuquerque traction company\",\n \"journal pavilion\",\n \"albuquerque n m\",\n \"q albuquerque\",\n \"albequerque\",\n \"albuquerque trivia\",\n \"albaquerque\",\n \"city electric company\",\n \"abq nm\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Bugs Bunny\n\nBugs Bunny is an animated cartoon character, created by the staff of Leon Schlesinger Productions (later Warner Bros. Cartoons) and voiced originally by the \"Man of a Thousand Voices,\" Mel Blanc. Bugs is best known for his starring roles in the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies series of animated short films, produced by Warner Bros. during the golden age of American animation. His popularity during this era led to his becoming an American cultural icon, as well as a corporate mascot of Warner Bros. Entertainment.","Bugs Bunny\n\nBugs is an anthropomorphic gray hare or rabbit who is famous for his flippant, insouciant personality; a pronounced New York accent; his portrayal as a trickster; and his catch phrase \"Eh... What's up, doc?\", usually said while chewing a carrot. Though a similar rabbit character began appearing in the Warner Bros. cartoon shorts during the late 1930s, the definitive character of Bugs Bunny is widely credited to have made his debut in director Tex Avery's Oscar-nominated film A Wild Hare (1940).","Bugs Bunny\n\nSince his debut, Bugs has appeared in various short films, feature films, compilations, TV series, music records, comic books, video games, award shows, amusement park rides and commercials. He has also appeared in more films than any other cartoon character, is the ninth most-portrayed film personality in the world, and has his own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.","Bugs Bunny\n\nHistory","Bugs Bunny\n\nDevelopment","Bugs Bunny\n\nAccording to Chase Craig, who was a member of Tex Avery's cartoon unit and later wrote and drew the first Bugs Bunny comic Sunday pages and the first Bugs comic book; \"Bugs was not the creation of any one man but rather represented the creative talents of perhaps five or six directors and many cartoon-writers. In those days the stories were often the work of a group who suggested various gags, bounced them around and finalized them in a joint story conference.\" A rabbit with some of the personality of Bugs, though looking very different, was originally featured in the film Porky's Hare Hunt, released on April 30, 1938. It was co-directed by Ben \"Bugs\" Hardaway and an uncredited Cal Dalton (who was responsible for the initial design of the rabbit). This cartoon has an almost identical plot to Avery's Porky's Duck Hunt (1937), which had introduced Daffy Duck. Porky Pig is again cast as a hunter tracking a silly prey who is more interested in driving his pursuer insane and less interested in escaping. Hare Hunt replaces the little black duck with a small white rabbit.","Bugs Bunny\n\nThe rabbit introduces himself with the odd expression \"Jiggers, fellers,\" and Mel Blanc gave the character a voice and laugh much like those he would later use for Woody Woodpecker. Hare Hunt also gives its rabbit the famous Groucho Marx line, \"Of course you realize, this means war!\" The rabbit character was popular enough with audiences that the Termite Terrace staff decided to use it again. According to Friz Freleng, Hardaway and Dalton had decided to dress the duck in a rabbit suit. The white rabbit had an oval head and a shapeless body. In characterization, he was \"a rural buffoon\". He was loud, zany with a goofy, guttural laugh. Blanc provided him with a hayseed voice.","Bugs Bunny\n\nThe rabbit returns in Prest-O Change-O (1939), directed by Chuck Jones, where he is the pet rabbit of unseen character Sham-Fu the Magician. Two dogs, fleeing the local dogcatcher, enter his absent master's house. The rabbit harasses them, but is ultimately bested by the bigger of the two dogs. This version of the rabbit was cool, graceful, and controlled. He retained the guttural laugh but was otherwise silent.","Bugs Bunny\n\nThe rabbit's third appearance comes in Hare-um Scare-um (1939), directed again by Dalton and Hardaway. This cartoon—the first in which he is depicted as a gray bunny instead of a white one—is also notable as the rabbit's first singing role. Charlie Thorson, lead animator on the film, gave the character a name. He had written \"Bugs' Bunny\" on the model sheet that he drew for Hardaway. In promotional material for the cartoon, including a surviving 1939 presskit, the name on the model sheet was altered to become the rabbit's own name: \"Bugs\" Bunny (quotation marks only used, on and off, until 1944). In his autobiography, Blanc claimed that another proposed name for the character was \"Happy Rabbit.\" In the actual cartoons and publicity, however, the name \"Happy\" only seems to have been used in reference to Bugs Hardaway. In Hare-um Scare-um, a newspaper headline reads, \"Happy Hardaway.\"","Bugs Bunny\n\nThorson had been approached by Tedd Pierce, head of the story department, and asked to design a better rabbit. The decision was influenced by Thorson's experience in designing hares. He had designed Max Hare in Toby Tortoise Returns (1936). For Hardaway, Thorson created the model sheet previously mentioned, with six different rabbit poses. Thorson's model sheet is \"a comic rendition of the stereotypical fuzzy bunny\". He had a pear-shaped body with a protruding rear end. His face was flat and had large expressive eyes. He had an exaggerated long neck, gloved hands with three fingers, oversized feet, and a \"smart aleck\" grin. The end result was influenced by Walt Disney Animation Studios' tendency to draw animals in the style of cute infants. He had an obvious Disney influence, but looked like an awkward merger of the lean and streamlined Max Hare from The Tortoise and the Hare (1935), and the round, soft bunnies from Little Hiawatha (1937).","Bugs Bunny\n\nIn Jones' Elmer's Candid Camera (1940) the rabbit first meets Elmer Fudd. This time the rabbit looks more like the present-day Bugs, taller and with a similar face—but retaining the more primitive voice. Candid Cameras Elmer character design is also different: taller and chubbier in the face than the modern model, though Arthur Q. Bryan's character voice is already established.","Bugs Bunny\n\nOfficial debut","Bugs Bunny\n\nWhile Porky's Hare Hunt was the first Warner Bros. cartoon to feature a Bugs Bunny-like rabbit, A Wild Hare, directed by Tex Avery and released on July 27, 1940, is widely considered to be the first official Bugs Bunny cartoon. It is the first film where both Elmer Fudd and Bugs (both redesigned by Bob Givens) are shown in their fully developed forms as hunter and tormentor, respectively; the first in which Mel Blanc uses what would become Bugs' standard voice; and the first in which Bugs uses his catchphrase, \"What's up, Doc?\" A Wild Hare was a huge success in theaters and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Cartoon Short Subject.","Bugs Bunny\n\nFor the film Avery asked Givens to remodel the rabbit. The result had a closer resemblance to Max Hare. He had a more elongated body, stood more erect, and looked more poised. If Thorson's rabbit looked like an infant, Givens' version looked like an adolescent. Blanc gave Bugs the voice of a city slicker. The rabbit was as audacious as he had been in Hare-um Scare-um and as cool and collected as in Prest-O Change-O.","Bugs Bunny\n\nImmediately following on A Wild Hare, Bob Clampett's Patient Porky (1940) features a cameo appearance by Bugs, announcing to the audience that 750 rabbits have been born. The gag uses Bugs' Wild Hare visual design, but his goofier pre-Wild Hare voice characterization.","Bugs Bunny\n\nThe second full-fledged role for the mature Bugs, Chuck Jones' Elmer's Pet Rabbit (1941), is the first to use Bugs' name on-screen: it appears in a title card, \"featuring Bugs Bunny,\" at the start of the film (which was edited in following the success of A Wild Hare). However, Bugs' voice and personality in this cartoon is noticeably different, and his design was slightly altered as well; Bugs' visual design is based on the prototype rabbit in Candid Camera, but with yellow gloves and no buck teeth, has a lower-pitched voice and a more aggressive, arrogant and thuggish personality instead of a fun loving personality. After Pet Rabbit, however, subsequent Bugs appearances returned to normal: the Wild Hare visual design and personality returned, and Blanc re-used the Wild Hare voice characterization.","Bugs Bunny\n\nHiawatha's Rabbit Hunt (1941), directed by Friz Freleng, became the second Bugs Bunny cartoon to receive an Academy Award nomination. The fact that it didn't win the award was later spoofed somewhat in What's Cookin' Doc? (1944), in which Bugs demands a recount (claiming to be a victim of \"sa-bo-TAH-gee\") after losing the Oscar to Jimmy Cagney and presents a clip from Hiawatha's Rabbit Hunt to prove his point.","Bugs Bunny\n\nWorld War II","Bugs Bunny\n\nBy 1942, Bugs had become the number one star of Merrie Melodies. The series was originally intended only for one-shot characters in films after several early attempts to introduce characters (Foxy, Goopy Geer and Piggy) failed under Harman–Ising. By the mid-1930s, under Leon Schlesinger, Merrie Melodies started introducing newer characters. Bugs Bunny Gets the Boid (1942) shows a slight redesign of Bugs, with less-prominent front teeth and a rounder head. The character was reworked by Robert McKimson, then an animator in Clampett's unit. The redesign at first was only used in the films created by Clampett's unit, but in time it would be taken up by the other directors, with Freleng and Frank Tashlin the first. When McKimson was himself promoted to director, he created yet another version, with more slanted eyes, longer teeth and a much larger mouth. He used this version until 1949 (as did Art Davis for the one Bugs Bunny film he directed) when he started using the version he had designed for Clampett. Jones would come up with his own slight modification, and the voice had slight variations between the units. Bugs also made cameos in Avery's final Warner Bros. cartoon, Crazy Cruise.","Bugs Bunny\n\nSince Bugs' debut in A Wild Hare, he appeared only in color Merrie Melodies films (making him one of the few recurring characters created for that series in the Schlesinger era prior to the full conversion to color), alongside Elmer predecessor Egghead, Inki, Sniffles, and Elmer himself. While Bugs made a cameo in Porky Pig's Feat (1943), this was his only appearance in a black-and-white Looney Tunes film. He did not star in a Looney Tunes film until that series made its complete conversion to only color cartoons beginning in 1944. Buckaroo Bugs was Bugs' first film in the Looney Tunes series, and was also the last Warner Bros. cartoon to credit Schlesinger (as he had retired and sold his studio to Warner Bros. that year).[http://www.davemackey.com/animation/wb/1944.html Warner Bros. Cartoon Releases - 1944]","Bugs Bunny\n\nBugs' popularity soared during World War II because of his free and easy attitude, and he began receiving special star billing in his cartoons by 1943. By that time Warner Bros. had become the most profitable cartoon studio in the United States. In company with cartoon studios such as Disney and Famous Studios, Warners pitted its characters against Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and the Japanese. Bugs Bunny Nips the Nips (1944) features Bugs at odds with a group of Japanese soldiers. This cartoon has since been pulled from distribution due to its depiction of Japanese people. He also faces off against Hermann Göring and Hitler in Herr Meets Hare (1945), which introduced his well-known reference to Albuquerque as he mistakenly winds up in the Black Forest of 'Joimany' instead of Las Vegas, Nevada. Bugs also appeared in the 1942 two-minute U.S. war bonds commercial film Any Bonds Today?, along with Porky and Elmer.","Bugs Bunny\n\nAt the end of Super-Rabbit (1943), Bugs appears wearing a United States Marine Corps dress blue uniform. As a result, the Marine Corps made Bugs an honorary Marine Master Sergeant. From 1943 to 1946, Bugs was the official mascot of Kingman Army Airfield, Kingman, Arizona, where thousands of aerial gunners were trained during World War II. Some notable trainees included Clark Gable and Charles Bronson. Bugs also served as the mascot for 530 Squadron of the 380th Bombardment Group, 5th Air Force, U.S. Air Force, which was attached to the Royal Australian Air Force and operated out of Australia's Northern Territory from 1943 to 1945, flying B-24 Liberator bombers. Bugs riding an air delivered torpedo served as the squadron logo for Marine Torpedo/Bomber Squadron 242 in the Second World War. Additionally, Bugs appeared on the nose of B-24J #42-110157, in both the 855th Bomb Squadron of the 491st Bombardment Group (Heavy) and later in the 786th BS of the 466th BG(H), both being part of the 8th Air Force operating out of England.","Bugs Bunny\n\nIn 1944, Bugs Bunny made a cameo appearance in Jasper Goes Hunting, a Puppetoons film produced by rival studio Paramount Pictures. In this cameo (animated by McKimson, with Blanc providing the usual voice), Bugs (after being threatened at gunpoint) pops out of a rabbit hole, saying his usual catchphrase; after hearing the orchestra play the wrong theme song, he realizes \"Hey, I'm in the wrong picture!\" and then goes back in the hole. Bugs also made a cameo in the Private Snafu short Gas, in which he is found stowed away in the titular private's belongings; his only spoken line is his usual catchphrase.","Bugs Bunny\n\nAlthough it was usually Porky Pig who brought the Looney Tunes films to a close with his stuttering, \"That's all, folks!\", Bugs replaced him at the end of Hare Tonic and Baseball Bugs, bursting through a drum just as Porky did, but munching on a carrot and saying in his Bronx-Brooklyn accent, \"And that's the end!\"","Bugs Bunny\n\nPost-war era","Bugs Bunny\n\nAfter World War II, Bugs continued to appear in numerous Warner Bros. cartoons, making his last \"Golden Age\" appearance in False Hare (1964). He starred in over 167 theatrical short films, most of which were directed by Friz Freleng, Robert McKimson and Chuck Jones. Freleng's Knighty Knight Bugs (1958), in which a medieval Bugs trades blows with Yosemite Sam and his fire-breathing dragon (which has a cold), won an Academy Award for Best Cartoon Short Subject (becoming the first Bugs Bunny cartoon to win said award). Three of Jones' films — Rabbit Fire, Rabbit Seasoning, and Duck! Rabbit, Duck! — compose what is often referred to as the \"Rabbit Season/Duck Season\" trilogy and are famous for originating the \"historic\" rivalry between Bugs and Daffy Duck. Jones' classic What's Opera, Doc? (1957), casts Bugs and Elmer Fudd in a parody of Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen. It was deemed \"culturally significant\" by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry in 1992, becoming the first cartoon short to receive this honor.[http://www.loc.gov/film/titles.html National Film Registry: 1989-2007]","Bugs Bunny\n\nIn the fall of 1960, ABC debuted the prime-time television program The Bugs Bunny Show. This show packaged many of the post-1948 Warners cartoons with newly animated wraparounds. After two seasons, it was moved from its evening slot to reruns on Saturday mornings. The Bugs Bunny Show changed format and exact title frequently, but remained on network television for 40 years. The packaging was later completely different, with each cartoon simply presented on its own, title and all, though some clips from the new bridging material were sometimes used as filler.","Bugs Bunny\n\nLater years","Bugs Bunny\n\nBugs did not appear in any of the post-1964 Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies films produced by DePatie-Freleng Enterprises or Seven Arts Productions, nor did he appear in the lone Looney Tunes TV special produced by Filmation. He would not appear in new material on-screen again until Bugs and Daffy's Carnival of the Animals aired in 1976.","Bugs Bunny\n\nFrom the late 1970s through the early 1990s, Bugs was featured in various animated specials for network television, such as Bugs Bunny's Thanksgiving Diet, Bugs Bunny's Looney Christmas Tales and Bugs Bunny's Bustin' Out All Over. Bugs also starred in several theatrical compilation features during this time, including the United Artists-distributed documentary Bugs Bunny: Superstar (1975) and Warner Bros.' own efforts The Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie (1979), The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie (1981), Bugs Bunny's 3rd Movie: 1001 Rabbit Tales (1982) and Daffy Duck's Quackbusters (1988).","Bugs Bunny\n\nIn the 1988 live-action/animated comedy, Who Framed Roger Rabbit, Bugs appeared as one of the inhabitants of Toontown. However, since the film was being produced by Disney, Warner Bros. would only allow the use of their biggest star if he got an equal amount of screen time as Disney's biggest star, Mickey Mouse. Because of this, both characters are always together in frame when onscreen. Roger Rabbit was also one of the final productions in which Mel Blanc voiced Bugs (as well as the other Looney Tunes characters) before his death in 1989.","Bugs Bunny\n\nBugs later appeared in another animated production featuring numerous characters from rival studios: the 1990 drug prevention TV special Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue. This special is notable for being the first time that someone other than Blanc voiced Bugs and Daffy (both characters were voiced by Jeff Bergman for this). Bugs also made guest appearances in the early 1990s television series Tiny Toon Adventures, as the principal of Acme Looniversity and the mentor of Buster Bunny. He made further cameos in Warner Bros.' subsequent animated TV shows Taz-Mania, Animaniacs and Histeria!","Bugs Bunny\n\nBugs returned to the silver screen in Box-Office Bunny (1990). This was the first Bugs Bunny cartoon since 1964 to be released in theaters and it was created for Bugs' 50th anniversary celebration. It was followed by (Blooper) Bunny, a cartoon that was shelved from theaters, but later premiered on Cartoon Network in 1997 and has since gained a cult following among animation fans for its edgy humor.","Bugs Bunny\n\nIn 1996, Bugs and the other Looney Tunes characters appeared in the live-action/animated film, Space Jam, directed by Joe Pytka and starring NBA superstar Michael Jordan. The film also introduced the character Lola Bunny, who becomes Bugs' new love interest. Space Jam received mixed reviews from critics, but was a box office success (grossing over $230 million worldwide). The success of Space Jam led to the development of another live-action/animated film, Looney Tunes: Back in Action, released in 2003 and directed by Joe Dante. Unlike Space Jam, Back in Action was a box-office bomb, though it did receive more positive reviews from critics.","Bugs Bunny\n\nIn 1997, Bugs appeared on a U.S. postage stamp, the first cartoon to be so honored, beating the iconic Mickey Mouse. The stamp is number seven on the list of the ten most popular U.S. stamps, as calculated by the number of stamps purchased but not used. The introduction of Bugs onto a stamp was controversial at the time, as it was seen as a step toward the 'commercialization' of stamp art. The postal service rejected many designs, and went with a postal-themed drawing. Avery Dennison printed the Bugs Bunny stamp sheet, which featured \"a special ten-stamp design and was the first self-adhesive souvenir sheet issued by the U.S. Postal Service.\"","Bugs Bunny\n\nA younger version of Bugs is the main character of Baby Looney Tunes, which debuted on Kids' WB in 2001. In the action comedy Loonatics Unleashed, his definite descendant Ace Bunny is the leader of the Loonatics team and seems to have inherited his ancestor's Brooklyn accent and comic wit.","Bugs Bunny\n\nModern era","Bugs Bunny\n\nIn 2011, Bugs Bunny and the rest of the Looney Tunes gang returned to television in the Cartoon Network sitcom, The Looney Tunes Show, with Jeff Bergman returning to voice both Bugs and Daffy Duck for the first time in almost 20 years. The characters feature new designs by artist Jessica Borutski. Among the changes to Bugs' appearance were the simplification and enlargement of his feet, as well as a change to his fur from gray to a shade of mauve (though in the second season, his fur was changed back to gray). In the series, Bugs and Daffy are portrayed as best friends as opposed to their usual pairing as rivals or frenemies. At the same time, Bugs is more openly annoyed at Daffy's antics in the series (sometimes to the point of aggression), compared to his usual carefree personality from the original cartoons. Bugs and Daffy are close friends with Porky Pig in the series, although Bugs tends to be a more reliable friend to Porky than Daffy is.","Bugs Bunny\n\nBugs also dates Lola Bunny in the show, although at first he finds her to be \"crazy\" and a bit too talkative (he later learns to accept her personality quirks, similar to his tolerance for Daffy). Unlike the original cartoons, Bugs lives in a regular home, which he shares with Daffy, Taz (whom he treats as a pet dog) and Speedy Gonzales, in the middle of a cul-de-sac with their neighbors Yosemite Sam, Granny and Witch Lazeh.","Bugs Bunny\n\nIn 2015, Bugs starred in the direct-to-video film Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run, and later returned to television yet again as the star of Cartoon Network and Boomerang's new comedy series Wabbit. A Looney Tunes Production.","Bugs Bunny\n\nBugs has also appeared in numerous video games, including the Bugs Bunny's Crazy Castle series, Bugs Bunny Birthday Blowout, Bugs Bunny: Rabbit Rampage, Bugs Bunny in Double Trouble, Looney Tunes B-Ball, Looney Tunes Racing, Looney Tunes: Space Race, Bugs Bunny Lost in Time, Bugs Bunny and Taz Time Busters, Loons: The Fight for Fame, Looney Tunes: Acme Arsenal and Scooby Doo and Looney Tunes: Cartoon Universe.","Bugs Bunny\n\nPersonality and catchphrases","Bugs Bunny\n\nBugs Bunny is characterized as being clever and capable of outsmarting anyone who antagonizes him, including Elmer Fudd, Yosemite Sam, Tasmanian Devil, Marvin the Martian, Wile E. Coyote, Cecil Turtle, Witch Hazel, Rocky and Mugsy, The Crusher, Beaky Buzzard, Willoughby the dog, Count Blood Count and a host of others. Bugs almost always wins these conflicts, a plot pattern which recurs in Looney Tunes films directed by Chuck Jones. Concerned that viewers would lose sympathy for an aggressive protagonist who always won, Jones arranged for Bugs to be bullied, cheated, or threatened by the antagonists while minding his own business, justifying his subsequent antics as retaliation or self-defense. He's also been known to break the fourth wall by \"communicating\" with the audience, either by explaining the situation (e.g. \"Be with you in a minute, folks!\"), describing someone to the audience (e.g. \"Feisty, ain't they?\"), clueing in on the story (e.g. \"That happens to him all during the picture, folks.\"), explaining that one of his antagonists' actions have pushed him to the breaking point (\"Of course you realize, this means war.\"), admitting his own deviousness toward his antagonists (\"Gee, ain't I a stinker?\"), etc.","Bugs Bunny\n\nBugs will usually try to placate the antagonist and avoid conflict, but when an antagonist pushes him too far, Bugs may address the audience and invoke his catchphrase \"Of course you realize this means war!\" before he retaliates, and the retaliation will be devastating. This line was taken from Groucho Marx and others in the 1933 film Duck Soup and was also used in the 1935 Marx film A Night at the Opera. Bugs would pay homage to Groucho in other ways, such as occasionally adopting his stooped walk or leering eyebrow-raising (in Hair-Raising Hare, for example) or sometimes with a direct impersonation (as in Slick Hare). Other directors, such as Friz Freleng, characterized Bugs as altruistic. When Bugs meets other successful characters (such as Cecil Turtle in Tortoise Beats Hare, or the Gremlin in Falling Hare), his overconfidence becomes a disadvantage.","Bugs Bunny\n\nBugs' nonchalant carrot-chewing standing position, as explained by Freleng, Jones and Bob Clampett, originated in a scene from the 1934 film It Happened One Night, in which Clark Gable's character Peter Warne leans against a fence, eating carrots rapidly and talking with his mouth full to Claudette Colbert's character. This scene was well known while the film was popular, and viewers at the time likely recognized Bugs Bunny's behavior as satire. Coincidentally, the film also features a minor character, Oscar Shapely, who addresses Peter Warne as \"Doc\", and Warne mentions an imaginary person named \"Bugs Dooley\" to frighten Shapely.","Bugs Bunny\n\nThe carrot-chewing scenes are generally followed by Bugs' most well-known catchphrase, \"What's up, Doc?\", which was written by director Tex Avery for his first Bugs Bunny film, A Wild Hare (1940). Avery explained later that it was a common expression in his native Texas and that he did not think much of the phrase. When the cartoon was first screened in theaters, the \"What's up, Doc?\" scene generated a tremendously positive audience reaction. As a result, the scene became a recurring element in subsequent cartoons. The phrase was sometimes modified for a situation. For example, Bugs says \"What's up, dogs?\" to the antagonists in A Hare Grows in Manhattan, \"What's up, Duke?\" to the knight in Knight-mare Hare and \"What's up, prune-face?\" to the aged Elmer in The Old Grey Hare. He might also greet Daffy with \"What's up, Duck?\" He used one variation, \"What's all the hub-bub, bub?\" only once, in Falling Hare. Another variation is used in Looney Tunes: Back in Action, when he greets a blaster-wielding Marvin the Martian saying \"What's up, Darth?\"","Bugs Bunny\n\nIn many of Bugs' appearances in the 1940s Merrie Melodies and Looney Tunes shorts, his carrot-chewing made its way into the opening sequence of the cartoon. In these cases, Bugs would be lying atop the Warner Brothers shield logo as it came onto the screen and eating his carrot. After a few seconds, Bugs would stop eating and shoot the audience a dirty look for staring at him. From there, one of two things would happen. Frequently, the open would simply dissolve into the cartoon series logo, but on occasion Bugs would reach up to the top of the screen and pull the logo down like a curtain to give himself some privacy. This formed the basis for the later intro to Bugs' cartoons, where he would pull the bottom of the screen up and be shown sitting atop his own intro screen while eating a carrot.","Bugs Bunny\n\nSeveral Chuck Jones films in the late 1940s and 1950s depict Bugs travelling via cross-country (and, in some cases, intercontinental) tunnel-digging, ending up in places as varied as Barcelona, Spain (Bully for Bugs), the Himalayas (The Abominable Snow Rabbit) and Antarctica (Frigid Hare) all because he \"shoulda taken that left toin at Albukoikee.\" He first utters that phrase in Herr Meets Hare (1945), when he emerges in the Black Forest, a cartoon seldom seen today due to its blatantly topical subject matter. When Hermann Göring says to Bugs, \"There is no Las Vegas in 'Chermany'\" and takes a potshot at Bugs, Bugs dives into his hole and says, \"Joimany! Yipe!\", as Bugs realizes he's behind enemy lines. The confused response to his \"left toin\" comment also followed a pattern. For example, when he tunnels into Scotland in My Bunny Lies over the Sea (1948), while thinking he's heading for the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, California, it provides another chance for an ethnic joke: \"Therrre arrre no La Brrrea Tarrr Pits in Scotland!\" (to which Bugs responds, \"Scotland!? Eh...what's up, Mac-doc?\").","Bugs Bunny\n\nA couple of late-1950s/early-1960s cartoons of this ilk also featured Daffy Duck travelling with Bugs (\"Since when is Pismo Beach inside a cave?!\").","Bugs Bunny\n\nVoice actors","Bugs Bunny\n\nThe following are the various vocal artists who have voiced Bugs Bunny over the last 75-plus years for Warner Bros.' animated productions:","Bugs Bunny\n\n;Mel Blanc\nMel Blanc voiced the character for almost 50 years, from Bugs' debut in the 1940 short A Wild Hare until Blanc's death in 1989. Blanc described the voice as a combination of Bronx and Brooklyn accents; however, Tex Avery claimed that he asked Blanc to give the character not a New York accent per se, but a voice like that of actor Frank McHugh, who frequently appeared in supporting roles in the 1930s and whose voice might be described as New York Irish. In Bugs' second cartoon Elmer's Pet Rabbit, Blanc created a completely new voice for Bugs, which sounded like a Jimmy Stewart impression, but the directors decided the previous voice was better. Though Blanc's best-known character was the carrot-chomping rabbit, munching on the carrots interrupted the dialogue. Various substitutes, such as celery, were tried, but none of them sounded like a carrot. So for the sake of expedience, he would munch and then spit the carrot bits into a spittoon rather than swallowing them, and continue with the dialogue.","Bugs Bunny\n\nOne often-repeated story, possibly originating from Bugs Bunny: Superstar, is that Blanc was allergic to carrots and had to spit them out to minimize any allergic reaction — but his autobiography makes no such claim. In fact, in a 1984 interview with Tim Lawson, co-author of The Magic Behind The Voices: A Who's Who of Voice Actors, Blanc emphatically denied being allergic to carrots.","Bugs Bunny\n\n;Others\n* Jeff Bergman (Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue, The Earth Day Special, Gremlins 2: The New Batch, Tiny Toon Adventures, Box Office Bunny, (Blooper) Bunny, Invasion of the Bunny Snatchers, The Looney Tunes Show, Scooby Doo and Looney Tunes: Cartoon Universe, Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run, Wabbit. A Looney Tunes Production) \n* Greg Burson (Tiny Toon Adventures, Taz-Mania, Animaniacs, Carrotblanca, From Hare to Eternity)\n* John Kassir (Tiny Toon Adventures)\n* Noel Blanc (Tiny Toon Adventures)\n* Billy West (Space Jam, Histeria!, Bah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas, video games)\n* Joe Alaskey (Tweety's High-Flying Adventure, Looney Tunes: Back in Action, Hare and Loathing in Las Vegas, Daffy Duck for President, Justice League: The New Frontier, Looney Tunes ClickN READ Phonics, video games)\n* Samuel Vincent (Baby Looney Tunes, Baby Looney Tunes: Egg-straordinary Adventure)\n* Bill Farmer (Robot Chicken)","Bugs Bunny\n\nReception and legacy","Bugs Bunny\n\nLike Mickey Mouse for Disney, Bugs Bunny has served as the mascot for Warner Bros. and its various divisions. According to Guinness World Records, Bugs has appeared in more films (both short and feature-length) than any other cartoon character and is the ninth most-portrayed film personality in the world. On December 10, 1985, Bugs became the second cartoon character (after Mickey) to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.","Bugs Bunny\n\nHe also has been a pitchman for companies including Kool-Aid and Nike. His Nike commercials with Michael Jordan as \"Hare Jordan\" for the Air Jordan VII and VIII became precursors to Space Jam. As a result, he has spent time as an honorary member of Jordan Brand, including having Jordan's Jumpman logo done in his image.","Bugs Bunny\n\nIn 2002, TV Guide compiled a list of the 50 greatest cartoon characters of all time as part of the magazine's 50th anniversary. Bugs Bunny was given the honor of number 1. In a CNN broadcast on July 31, 2002, a TV Guide editor talked about the group that created the list. The editor also explained why Bugs pulled top billing: \"His stock...has never gone down...Bugs is the best example...of the smart-aleck American comic. He not only is a great cartoon character, he's a great comedian. He was written well. He was drawn beautifully. He has thrilled and made many generations laugh. He is tops.\"","Bugs Bunny\n\nNotable films","Bugs Bunny\n\nsee also List of Bugs Bunny cartoons","Bugs Bunny\n\n* Porky's Hare Hunt (1938) (prototype debut)\n* A Wild Hare (1940) (official debut; Oscar nominee; first appearance with Elmer Fudd)\n* Hiawatha's Rabbit Hunt (1941) (Oscar nominee)\n* Hare Trigger (1945) (first appearance with Yosemite Sam)\n* Haredevil Hare (1948) (first appearance with Marvin the Martian)\n* Rabbit Fire (1951) (first appearance with Daffy Duck)\n* Devil May Hare (1954) (first appearance with Taz)\n* What's Opera Doc (1957) (voted #1 of the 50 Greatest Cartoons of all time and inducted into the National Film Registry)\n* Knighty Knight Bugs (1958) (Oscar winner)\n* False Hare (1964) (final regular cartoon)\n* Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) (first and only appearance in a Disney film; appeared alongside Disney's star character, Mickey Mouse)\n* Space Jam (1996) (appeared alongside NBA superstar, Michael Jordan)\n* Looney Tunes: Back in Action (2003) (final feature length live-action animated film appearance)","Bugs Bunny\n\nLanguage","Bugs Bunny\n\nAmerican use of the term Nimrod to mean \"idiot\" is attributed (in Garner's Modern American Usage) entirely to Bugs's expostulation \"What a Nimrod!\" to describe the inept hunter Elmer Fudd.","Herr Meets Hare\n\nHerr Meets Hare is a 1945 Warner Bros. cartoon directed by Friz Freleng, under the Merrie Melodies series. This short, coming a few months before the collapse of the Third Reich, was one of the last major wartime cartoons from Warner Bros. It was released 4 months and 27 days before Adolf Hitler committed suicide. Herr Meets Hare also sets up two important facets of Bugs Bunny: one in which Bugs would realize he \"should have made a left toin [turn] at Albukoykee\". The other is an extended dance sequence in the middle, which would later be retooled by Chuck Jones into What's Opera, Doc?.","Herr Meets Hare\n\nSynopsis","Herr Meets Hare\n\nThe cartoon opens with a faux Walter Winchell-like voice discussing the end of the Third Reich, saying that \"Germany has been battered into a fare-thee-well\", and musing about where the high leadership, and \"Fatso\" Göring in particular has gone. The scene soon cuts to the Black Forest, where Hermann Göring - in bemedalled lederhosen - is \"soothing his jangled nerves\" marching while on a hunt. Nearby, a familiar furrow in the ground appears, with a hole at the end.","Herr Meets Hare\n\nBugs pops out of the hole, and sees no sign of the Black Forest on his map. (Variants on this comment would be used in later cartoons as the lead-in to the joke that Bugs while tunneling did indeed turn wrong somewhere in New Mexico, usually by not taking a left turn at Albuquerque, this cartoon being the first time Bugs says his popular catchphrase: \"I KNEW I ‘shoulda’ [should have] made ‘dat’ [that] left ‘toin’ [turn] in ‘Albakoikie’ [Albuquerque]\"). Bugs asks Göring about the directions to Las Vegas, oblivious to his location. Göring is almost tricked into going to Las Vegas, but then quickly realizes he’s being tricked and replies: \"Las Veegas? Why, there is no Las Veegas in Germany!\" For once genuinely alarmed by his mistaken destination, Bugs hightails it, saying \"‘Joimany’ [Germany]? Yipe!\". Göring chases after him, sucking him with his musket as a plunger.","Herr Meets Hare\n\nA few chase gags go by in which Bugs insults the integrity of Göring’s medals by bending one with his teeth. Suckered into bending one himself, Göring declares them ersatz and mumbles all sorts of anti-Hitler sentiments (\"Oh, do I hate that Hitler swine, that phony führer, that…\"). Bugs masquerades as Adolf Hitler using a bit of mud, and faces the surprised Göring. Göring disappears off-screen in a flash to change into his Nazi uniform adorned with all sorts of medals. After the usual Nazi salute, Bugs berates him in faux German as he strips Göring of his medals (Klooten-flooten-blooten-pooten-meirooten-tooten!) and even his belt, causing Göring to \"kiss\" in reverence, saying in order: \"Look! I kiss mein Führer’s hand. I kiss right in der Führer’s face!\" (the joke being a wildly popular song at the time of the same name composed by Oliver Wallace, and performed by Spike Jones’s band, and the subject of a rival short animated subject from the Walt Disney Company. Afterwards, Göring exclaims \"Oh, I’m a bad flooten-boy-glooten!\", a variant on Warner Bros. cartoons’ frequently-cited Lou Costello-type catchphrase: \"I’m a bad boy!\".","Herr Meets Hare\n\nLater, when the jig is up, Bugs rides in on a white horse, dressed as Brünhilde – from Wagnerian opera, to the tune of the \"Pilgrims’ Chorus\" from “Tannhäuser”). Entranced, Göring responds by dressing up as Siegfried. The two dance, before Bugs once again makes a fool of Göring and escapes (a scene later re-used in What's Opera, Doc?, co-starring Elmer Fudd).","Herr Meets Hare\n\nEventually, Göring gets a hawk to capture Bugs. Bugs asks \"Do you think he’ll catch me, doc?\"; to which Göring replies \"Will he catch you? Why, he’ll have you back here faster than you can say Schicklgruber.\" (Schicklgruber was the original surname of Hitler’s father Alois.) The hawk imitates Jimmy Durante and captures Bugs in a bag. Göring brings the bag to Hitler, who plays solitaire in front of a map depicting the decline of Fortress Europe. Göring identifies the captive in the bag as \"Bugsenheimer Bunny\" (as opposed to ‘Weisenheimer’, or \"wise guy\") to der Führer. As Herr Hitler talks of the great rewards he’s going to pile upon Göring for this act of heroism, he peeks inside the bag and is shocked (\"Ach!! Himmel!\"). Göring goes and looks inside the bag as well, to be shocked as well (Again, \"Ach!! Himmel!\"). Out of the bag comes Bugs dressed as Joseph Stalin — complete with an enormous pipe and a large moustache — staring back at them. Göring and Hitler flee.","Herr Meets Hare\n\nAs the cartoon ends, Bugs glances back at the camera and asks, in a Russian accent: \"Does your tobacco taste different lately?\" citing an ad slogan of that era for the Sir Walter Raleigh pipe tobacco manufactured by the Brown & Williamson Tobacco Company.","Herr Meets Hare\n\nAnalysis","Herr Meets Hare\n\nBugs dresses as Hitler to assert control over his German opponent. This is a repetition of a scene from Bugs Bunny Nips the Nips, where Bugs dresses up as a Japanese general.","Herr Meets Hare\n\nDaniel Goldmark cites the cartoon as a significant precursor to What's Opera, Doc? (1957) and a source for its visual imagery. After running off, Bugs re-enters the scene dressed as Brünnhilde. The costume includes a blonde wig with braids and a Viking-style helmet. Bugs rides on a white horse, visually based on the Clydesdale horse. Musically, the scene is accompanied by the \"Pilgrim’s Chorus\" from the “Tannhäuser” (1845).","Herr Meets Hare\n\nIn response, Hermann Göring changes clothes. His lederhosen is replaced by a long brown loincloth. He wears a horned-type Viking helmet. The horns grow in size as if erect, as he lustfully gazes at \"Brünnhilde\". The duo dances to the tune of two waltzes by Johann Strauss II: “Vienna Life” and “You and You”, the latter originating in “Die Fledermaus” (1874).","Herr Meets Hare\n\nThe entry of Bugs and his white horse into the scene is repeated in What’s Opera, Doc?. The dance with the male suitor is, however, changed from a slapstick-rendition of the waltz to a refined ballet. The motivation of the dancers also changes. Göring is \"lost in the moment\" and follows his partner’s lead. In the latter, the dance is part of an artistic performance.","Herr Meets Hare\n\nBoth cartoons were written by Michael Maltese, which may account for the similarities. In the older short, the musical references were intended as a criticism of Germany, Richard Wagner serving as \"a suitable musical backdrop\". The second short makes Wagner and opera itself as its targets.","Herr Meets Hare\n\nReception","Herr Meets Hare\n\nLike other American animated cartoons, Herr Meets Hare was available to German prisoners of war in the United States, some of whom did not like it; Hans Goebler said: \"You saw Hermann Göring standing there full of decorations, then all of a sudden a rabbit showed up and took all the decorations off, and stuff like that. And we didn’t care for that.\"","Herr Meets Hare\n\nAs with many of the World War II-themed cartoons put out by the major studios, Herr Meets Hare was placed under an unofficial ban from broadcast or video distribution by Warner Bros. and other rights-holders (including Turner Broadcasting and AOL Time Warner). In 2001, Cartoon Network had planned on showing each and every Bugs Bunny cartoon made so far as part of its yearly \"June Bugs\" festival. AOL Time Warner refused to allow the broadcast of Herr Meets Hare, on the grounds that the cartoon was offensive (by today’s standards) as it dealt with the Nazis in a joking manner.","Herr Meets Hare\n\nThe cartoon saw limited broadcast on a special one-hour episode of “ToonHeads” about cartoons from World War II. It has also appeared on Turner Classic Movies’ “Cartoon Alley” as recently as January 20, 2007.","Herr Meets Hare\n\nAvailability","Herr Meets Hare\n\n*Herr Meets Hare is available (uncut and digitally remastered) on Looney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 6."],"string":"[\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nBugs Bunny is an animated cartoon character, created by the staff of Leon Schlesinger Productions (later Warner Bros. Cartoons) and voiced originally by the \\\"Man of a Thousand Voices,\\\" Mel Blanc. Bugs is best known for his starring roles in the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies series of animated short films, produced by Warner Bros. during the golden age of American animation. His popularity during this era led to his becoming an American cultural icon, as well as a corporate mascot of Warner Bros. Entertainment.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nBugs is an anthropomorphic gray hare or rabbit who is famous for his flippant, insouciant personality; a pronounced New York accent; his portrayal as a trickster; and his catch phrase \\\"Eh... What's up, doc?\\\", usually said while chewing a carrot. Though a similar rabbit character began appearing in the Warner Bros. cartoon shorts during the late 1930s, the definitive character of Bugs Bunny is widely credited to have made his debut in director Tex Avery's Oscar-nominated film A Wild Hare (1940).\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nSince his debut, Bugs has appeared in various short films, feature films, compilations, TV series, music records, comic books, video games, award shows, amusement park rides and commercials. He has also appeared in more films than any other cartoon character, is the ninth most-portrayed film personality in the world, and has his own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nDevelopment\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nAccording to Chase Craig, who was a member of Tex Avery's cartoon unit and later wrote and drew the first Bugs Bunny comic Sunday pages and the first Bugs comic book; \\\"Bugs was not the creation of any one man but rather represented the creative talents of perhaps five or six directors and many cartoon-writers. In those days the stories were often the work of a group who suggested various gags, bounced them around and finalized them in a joint story conference.\\\" A rabbit with some of the personality of Bugs, though looking very different, was originally featured in the film Porky's Hare Hunt, released on April 30, 1938. It was co-directed by Ben \\\"Bugs\\\" Hardaway and an uncredited Cal Dalton (who was responsible for the initial design of the rabbit). This cartoon has an almost identical plot to Avery's Porky's Duck Hunt (1937), which had introduced Daffy Duck. Porky Pig is again cast as a hunter tracking a silly prey who is more interested in driving his pursuer insane and less interested in escaping. Hare Hunt replaces the little black duck with a small white rabbit.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nThe rabbit introduces himself with the odd expression \\\"Jiggers, fellers,\\\" and Mel Blanc gave the character a voice and laugh much like those he would later use for Woody Woodpecker. Hare Hunt also gives its rabbit the famous Groucho Marx line, \\\"Of course you realize, this means war!\\\" The rabbit character was popular enough with audiences that the Termite Terrace staff decided to use it again. According to Friz Freleng, Hardaway and Dalton had decided to dress the duck in a rabbit suit. The white rabbit had an oval head and a shapeless body. In characterization, he was \\\"a rural buffoon\\\". He was loud, zany with a goofy, guttural laugh. Blanc provided him with a hayseed voice.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nThe rabbit returns in Prest-O Change-O (1939), directed by Chuck Jones, where he is the pet rabbit of unseen character Sham-Fu the Magician. Two dogs, fleeing the local dogcatcher, enter his absent master's house. The rabbit harasses them, but is ultimately bested by the bigger of the two dogs. This version of the rabbit was cool, graceful, and controlled. He retained the guttural laugh but was otherwise silent.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nThe rabbit's third appearance comes in Hare-um Scare-um (1939), directed again by Dalton and Hardaway. This cartoon—the first in which he is depicted as a gray bunny instead of a white one—is also notable as the rabbit's first singing role. Charlie Thorson, lead animator on the film, gave the character a name. He had written \\\"Bugs' Bunny\\\" on the model sheet that he drew for Hardaway. In promotional material for the cartoon, including a surviving 1939 presskit, the name on the model sheet was altered to become the rabbit's own name: \\\"Bugs\\\" Bunny (quotation marks only used, on and off, until 1944). In his autobiography, Blanc claimed that another proposed name for the character was \\\"Happy Rabbit.\\\" In the actual cartoons and publicity, however, the name \\\"Happy\\\" only seems to have been used in reference to Bugs Hardaway. In Hare-um Scare-um, a newspaper headline reads, \\\"Happy Hardaway.\\\"\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nThorson had been approached by Tedd Pierce, head of the story department, and asked to design a better rabbit. The decision was influenced by Thorson's experience in designing hares. He had designed Max Hare in Toby Tortoise Returns (1936). For Hardaway, Thorson created the model sheet previously mentioned, with six different rabbit poses. Thorson's model sheet is \\\"a comic rendition of the stereotypical fuzzy bunny\\\". He had a pear-shaped body with a protruding rear end. His face was flat and had large expressive eyes. He had an exaggerated long neck, gloved hands with three fingers, oversized feet, and a \\\"smart aleck\\\" grin. The end result was influenced by Walt Disney Animation Studios' tendency to draw animals in the style of cute infants. He had an obvious Disney influence, but looked like an awkward merger of the lean and streamlined Max Hare from The Tortoise and the Hare (1935), and the round, soft bunnies from Little Hiawatha (1937).\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nIn Jones' Elmer's Candid Camera (1940) the rabbit first meets Elmer Fudd. This time the rabbit looks more like the present-day Bugs, taller and with a similar face—but retaining the more primitive voice. Candid Cameras Elmer character design is also different: taller and chubbier in the face than the modern model, though Arthur Q. Bryan's character voice is already established.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nOfficial debut\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nWhile Porky's Hare Hunt was the first Warner Bros. cartoon to feature a Bugs Bunny-like rabbit, A Wild Hare, directed by Tex Avery and released on July 27, 1940, is widely considered to be the first official Bugs Bunny cartoon. It is the first film where both Elmer Fudd and Bugs (both redesigned by Bob Givens) are shown in their fully developed forms as hunter and tormentor, respectively; the first in which Mel Blanc uses what would become Bugs' standard voice; and the first in which Bugs uses his catchphrase, \\\"What's up, Doc?\\\" A Wild Hare was a huge success in theaters and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Cartoon Short Subject.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nFor the film Avery asked Givens to remodel the rabbit. The result had a closer resemblance to Max Hare. He had a more elongated body, stood more erect, and looked more poised. If Thorson's rabbit looked like an infant, Givens' version looked like an adolescent. Blanc gave Bugs the voice of a city slicker. The rabbit was as audacious as he had been in Hare-um Scare-um and as cool and collected as in Prest-O Change-O.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nImmediately following on A Wild Hare, Bob Clampett's Patient Porky (1940) features a cameo appearance by Bugs, announcing to the audience that 750 rabbits have been born. The gag uses Bugs' Wild Hare visual design, but his goofier pre-Wild Hare voice characterization.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nThe second full-fledged role for the mature Bugs, Chuck Jones' Elmer's Pet Rabbit (1941), is the first to use Bugs' name on-screen: it appears in a title card, \\\"featuring Bugs Bunny,\\\" at the start of the film (which was edited in following the success of A Wild Hare). However, Bugs' voice and personality in this cartoon is noticeably different, and his design was slightly altered as well; Bugs' visual design is based on the prototype rabbit in Candid Camera, but with yellow gloves and no buck teeth, has a lower-pitched voice and a more aggressive, arrogant and thuggish personality instead of a fun loving personality. After Pet Rabbit, however, subsequent Bugs appearances returned to normal: the Wild Hare visual design and personality returned, and Blanc re-used the Wild Hare voice characterization.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nHiawatha's Rabbit Hunt (1941), directed by Friz Freleng, became the second Bugs Bunny cartoon to receive an Academy Award nomination. The fact that it didn't win the award was later spoofed somewhat in What's Cookin' Doc? (1944), in which Bugs demands a recount (claiming to be a victim of \\\"sa-bo-TAH-gee\\\") after losing the Oscar to Jimmy Cagney and presents a clip from Hiawatha's Rabbit Hunt to prove his point.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nWorld War II\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nBy 1942, Bugs had become the number one star of Merrie Melodies. The series was originally intended only for one-shot characters in films after several early attempts to introduce characters (Foxy, Goopy Geer and Piggy) failed under Harman–Ising. By the mid-1930s, under Leon Schlesinger, Merrie Melodies started introducing newer characters. Bugs Bunny Gets the Boid (1942) shows a slight redesign of Bugs, with less-prominent front teeth and a rounder head. The character was reworked by Robert McKimson, then an animator in Clampett's unit. The redesign at first was only used in the films created by Clampett's unit, but in time it would be taken up by the other directors, with Freleng and Frank Tashlin the first. When McKimson was himself promoted to director, he created yet another version, with more slanted eyes, longer teeth and a much larger mouth. He used this version until 1949 (as did Art Davis for the one Bugs Bunny film he directed) when he started using the version he had designed for Clampett. Jones would come up with his own slight modification, and the voice had slight variations between the units. Bugs also made cameos in Avery's final Warner Bros. cartoon, Crazy Cruise.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nSince Bugs' debut in A Wild Hare, he appeared only in color Merrie Melodies films (making him one of the few recurring characters created for that series in the Schlesinger era prior to the full conversion to color), alongside Elmer predecessor Egghead, Inki, Sniffles, and Elmer himself. While Bugs made a cameo in Porky Pig's Feat (1943), this was his only appearance in a black-and-white Looney Tunes film. He did not star in a Looney Tunes film until that series made its complete conversion to only color cartoons beginning in 1944. Buckaroo Bugs was Bugs' first film in the Looney Tunes series, and was also the last Warner Bros. cartoon to credit Schlesinger (as he had retired and sold his studio to Warner Bros. that year).[http://www.davemackey.com/animation/wb/1944.html Warner Bros. Cartoon Releases - 1944]\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nBugs' popularity soared during World War II because of his free and easy attitude, and he began receiving special star billing in his cartoons by 1943. By that time Warner Bros. had become the most profitable cartoon studio in the United States. In company with cartoon studios such as Disney and Famous Studios, Warners pitted its characters against Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and the Japanese. Bugs Bunny Nips the Nips (1944) features Bugs at odds with a group of Japanese soldiers. This cartoon has since been pulled from distribution due to its depiction of Japanese people. He also faces off against Hermann Göring and Hitler in Herr Meets Hare (1945), which introduced his well-known reference to Albuquerque as he mistakenly winds up in the Black Forest of 'Joimany' instead of Las Vegas, Nevada. Bugs also appeared in the 1942 two-minute U.S. war bonds commercial film Any Bonds Today?, along with Porky and Elmer.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nAt the end of Super-Rabbit (1943), Bugs appears wearing a United States Marine Corps dress blue uniform. As a result, the Marine Corps made Bugs an honorary Marine Master Sergeant. From 1943 to 1946, Bugs was the official mascot of Kingman Army Airfield, Kingman, Arizona, where thousands of aerial gunners were trained during World War II. Some notable trainees included Clark Gable and Charles Bronson. Bugs also served as the mascot for 530 Squadron of the 380th Bombardment Group, 5th Air Force, U.S. Air Force, which was attached to the Royal Australian Air Force and operated out of Australia's Northern Territory from 1943 to 1945, flying B-24 Liberator bombers. Bugs riding an air delivered torpedo served as the squadron logo for Marine Torpedo/Bomber Squadron 242 in the Second World War. Additionally, Bugs appeared on the nose of B-24J #42-110157, in both the 855th Bomb Squadron of the 491st Bombardment Group (Heavy) and later in the 786th BS of the 466th BG(H), both being part of the 8th Air Force operating out of England.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nIn 1944, Bugs Bunny made a cameo appearance in Jasper Goes Hunting, a Puppetoons film produced by rival studio Paramount Pictures. In this cameo (animated by McKimson, with Blanc providing the usual voice), Bugs (after being threatened at gunpoint) pops out of a rabbit hole, saying his usual catchphrase; after hearing the orchestra play the wrong theme song, he realizes \\\"Hey, I'm in the wrong picture!\\\" and then goes back in the hole. Bugs also made a cameo in the Private Snafu short Gas, in which he is found stowed away in the titular private's belongings; his only spoken line is his usual catchphrase.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nAlthough it was usually Porky Pig who brought the Looney Tunes films to a close with his stuttering, \\\"That's all, folks!\\\", Bugs replaced him at the end of Hare Tonic and Baseball Bugs, bursting through a drum just as Porky did, but munching on a carrot and saying in his Bronx-Brooklyn accent, \\\"And that's the end!\\\"\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nPost-war era\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nAfter World War II, Bugs continued to appear in numerous Warner Bros. cartoons, making his last \\\"Golden Age\\\" appearance in False Hare (1964). He starred in over 167 theatrical short films, most of which were directed by Friz Freleng, Robert McKimson and Chuck Jones. Freleng's Knighty Knight Bugs (1958), in which a medieval Bugs trades blows with Yosemite Sam and his fire-breathing dragon (which has a cold), won an Academy Award for Best Cartoon Short Subject (becoming the first Bugs Bunny cartoon to win said award). Three of Jones' films — Rabbit Fire, Rabbit Seasoning, and Duck! Rabbit, Duck! — compose what is often referred to as the \\\"Rabbit Season/Duck Season\\\" trilogy and are famous for originating the \\\"historic\\\" rivalry between Bugs and Daffy Duck. Jones' classic What's Opera, Doc? (1957), casts Bugs and Elmer Fudd in a parody of Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen. It was deemed \\\"culturally significant\\\" by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry in 1992, becoming the first cartoon short to receive this honor.[http://www.loc.gov/film/titles.html National Film Registry: 1989-2007]\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nIn the fall of 1960, ABC debuted the prime-time television program The Bugs Bunny Show. This show packaged many of the post-1948 Warners cartoons with newly animated wraparounds. After two seasons, it was moved from its evening slot to reruns on Saturday mornings. The Bugs Bunny Show changed format and exact title frequently, but remained on network television for 40 years. The packaging was later completely different, with each cartoon simply presented on its own, title and all, though some clips from the new bridging material were sometimes used as filler.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nLater years\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nBugs did not appear in any of the post-1964 Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies films produced by DePatie-Freleng Enterprises or Seven Arts Productions, nor did he appear in the lone Looney Tunes TV special produced by Filmation. He would not appear in new material on-screen again until Bugs and Daffy's Carnival of the Animals aired in 1976.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nFrom the late 1970s through the early 1990s, Bugs was featured in various animated specials for network television, such as Bugs Bunny's Thanksgiving Diet, Bugs Bunny's Looney Christmas Tales and Bugs Bunny's Bustin' Out All Over. Bugs also starred in several theatrical compilation features during this time, including the United Artists-distributed documentary Bugs Bunny: Superstar (1975) and Warner Bros.' own efforts The Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie (1979), The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie (1981), Bugs Bunny's 3rd Movie: 1001 Rabbit Tales (1982) and Daffy Duck's Quackbusters (1988).\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nIn the 1988 live-action/animated comedy, Who Framed Roger Rabbit, Bugs appeared as one of the inhabitants of Toontown. However, since the film was being produced by Disney, Warner Bros. would only allow the use of their biggest star if he got an equal amount of screen time as Disney's biggest star, Mickey Mouse. Because of this, both characters are always together in frame when onscreen. Roger Rabbit was also one of the final productions in which Mel Blanc voiced Bugs (as well as the other Looney Tunes characters) before his death in 1989.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nBugs later appeared in another animated production featuring numerous characters from rival studios: the 1990 drug prevention TV special Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue. This special is notable for being the first time that someone other than Blanc voiced Bugs and Daffy (both characters were voiced by Jeff Bergman for this). Bugs also made guest appearances in the early 1990s television series Tiny Toon Adventures, as the principal of Acme Looniversity and the mentor of Buster Bunny. He made further cameos in Warner Bros.' subsequent animated TV shows Taz-Mania, Animaniacs and Histeria!\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nBugs returned to the silver screen in Box-Office Bunny (1990). This was the first Bugs Bunny cartoon since 1964 to be released in theaters and it was created for Bugs' 50th anniversary celebration. It was followed by (Blooper) Bunny, a cartoon that was shelved from theaters, but later premiered on Cartoon Network in 1997 and has since gained a cult following among animation fans for its edgy humor.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nIn 1996, Bugs and the other Looney Tunes characters appeared in the live-action/animated film, Space Jam, directed by Joe Pytka and starring NBA superstar Michael Jordan. The film also introduced the character Lola Bunny, who becomes Bugs' new love interest. Space Jam received mixed reviews from critics, but was a box office success (grossing over $230 million worldwide). The success of Space Jam led to the development of another live-action/animated film, Looney Tunes: Back in Action, released in 2003 and directed by Joe Dante. Unlike Space Jam, Back in Action was a box-office bomb, though it did receive more positive reviews from critics.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nIn 1997, Bugs appeared on a U.S. postage stamp, the first cartoon to be so honored, beating the iconic Mickey Mouse. The stamp is number seven on the list of the ten most popular U.S. stamps, as calculated by the number of stamps purchased but not used. The introduction of Bugs onto a stamp was controversial at the time, as it was seen as a step toward the 'commercialization' of stamp art. The postal service rejected many designs, and went with a postal-themed drawing. Avery Dennison printed the Bugs Bunny stamp sheet, which featured \\\"a special ten-stamp design and was the first self-adhesive souvenir sheet issued by the U.S. Postal Service.\\\"\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nA younger version of Bugs is the main character of Baby Looney Tunes, which debuted on Kids' WB in 2001. In the action comedy Loonatics Unleashed, his definite descendant Ace Bunny is the leader of the Loonatics team and seems to have inherited his ancestor's Brooklyn accent and comic wit.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nModern era\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nIn 2011, Bugs Bunny and the rest of the Looney Tunes gang returned to television in the Cartoon Network sitcom, The Looney Tunes Show, with Jeff Bergman returning to voice both Bugs and Daffy Duck for the first time in almost 20 years. The characters feature new designs by artist Jessica Borutski. Among the changes to Bugs' appearance were the simplification and enlargement of his feet, as well as a change to his fur from gray to a shade of mauve (though in the second season, his fur was changed back to gray). In the series, Bugs and Daffy are portrayed as best friends as opposed to their usual pairing as rivals or frenemies. At the same time, Bugs is more openly annoyed at Daffy's antics in the series (sometimes to the point of aggression), compared to his usual carefree personality from the original cartoons. Bugs and Daffy are close friends with Porky Pig in the series, although Bugs tends to be a more reliable friend to Porky than Daffy is.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nBugs also dates Lola Bunny in the show, although at first he finds her to be \\\"crazy\\\" and a bit too talkative (he later learns to accept her personality quirks, similar to his tolerance for Daffy). Unlike the original cartoons, Bugs lives in a regular home, which he shares with Daffy, Taz (whom he treats as a pet dog) and Speedy Gonzales, in the middle of a cul-de-sac with their neighbors Yosemite Sam, Granny and Witch Lazeh.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nIn 2015, Bugs starred in the direct-to-video film Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run, and later returned to television yet again as the star of Cartoon Network and Boomerang's new comedy series Wabbit. A Looney Tunes Production.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nBugs has also appeared in numerous video games, including the Bugs Bunny's Crazy Castle series, Bugs Bunny Birthday Blowout, Bugs Bunny: Rabbit Rampage, Bugs Bunny in Double Trouble, Looney Tunes B-Ball, Looney Tunes Racing, Looney Tunes: Space Race, Bugs Bunny Lost in Time, Bugs Bunny and Taz Time Busters, Loons: The Fight for Fame, Looney Tunes: Acme Arsenal and Scooby Doo and Looney Tunes: Cartoon Universe.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nPersonality and catchphrases\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nBugs Bunny is characterized as being clever and capable of outsmarting anyone who antagonizes him, including Elmer Fudd, Yosemite Sam, Tasmanian Devil, Marvin the Martian, Wile E. Coyote, Cecil Turtle, Witch Hazel, Rocky and Mugsy, The Crusher, Beaky Buzzard, Willoughby the dog, Count Blood Count and a host of others. Bugs almost always wins these conflicts, a plot pattern which recurs in Looney Tunes films directed by Chuck Jones. Concerned that viewers would lose sympathy for an aggressive protagonist who always won, Jones arranged for Bugs to be bullied, cheated, or threatened by the antagonists while minding his own business, justifying his subsequent antics as retaliation or self-defense. He's also been known to break the fourth wall by \\\"communicating\\\" with the audience, either by explaining the situation (e.g. \\\"Be with you in a minute, folks!\\\"), describing someone to the audience (e.g. \\\"Feisty, ain't they?\\\"), clueing in on the story (e.g. \\\"That happens to him all during the picture, folks.\\\"), explaining that one of his antagonists' actions have pushed him to the breaking point (\\\"Of course you realize, this means war.\\\"), admitting his own deviousness toward his antagonists (\\\"Gee, ain't I a stinker?\\\"), etc.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nBugs will usually try to placate the antagonist and avoid conflict, but when an antagonist pushes him too far, Bugs may address the audience and invoke his catchphrase \\\"Of course you realize this means war!\\\" before he retaliates, and the retaliation will be devastating. This line was taken from Groucho Marx and others in the 1933 film Duck Soup and was also used in the 1935 Marx film A Night at the Opera. Bugs would pay homage to Groucho in other ways, such as occasionally adopting his stooped walk or leering eyebrow-raising (in Hair-Raising Hare, for example) or sometimes with a direct impersonation (as in Slick Hare). Other directors, such as Friz Freleng, characterized Bugs as altruistic. When Bugs meets other successful characters (such as Cecil Turtle in Tortoise Beats Hare, or the Gremlin in Falling Hare), his overconfidence becomes a disadvantage.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nBugs' nonchalant carrot-chewing standing position, as explained by Freleng, Jones and Bob Clampett, originated in a scene from the 1934 film It Happened One Night, in which Clark Gable's character Peter Warne leans against a fence, eating carrots rapidly and talking with his mouth full to Claudette Colbert's character. This scene was well known while the film was popular, and viewers at the time likely recognized Bugs Bunny's behavior as satire. Coincidentally, the film also features a minor character, Oscar Shapely, who addresses Peter Warne as \\\"Doc\\\", and Warne mentions an imaginary person named \\\"Bugs Dooley\\\" to frighten Shapely.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nThe carrot-chewing scenes are generally followed by Bugs' most well-known catchphrase, \\\"What's up, Doc?\\\", which was written by director Tex Avery for his first Bugs Bunny film, A Wild Hare (1940). Avery explained later that it was a common expression in his native Texas and that he did not think much of the phrase. When the cartoon was first screened in theaters, the \\\"What's up, Doc?\\\" scene generated a tremendously positive audience reaction. As a result, the scene became a recurring element in subsequent cartoons. The phrase was sometimes modified for a situation. For example, Bugs says \\\"What's up, dogs?\\\" to the antagonists in A Hare Grows in Manhattan, \\\"What's up, Duke?\\\" to the knight in Knight-mare Hare and \\\"What's up, prune-face?\\\" to the aged Elmer in The Old Grey Hare. He might also greet Daffy with \\\"What's up, Duck?\\\" He used one variation, \\\"What's all the hub-bub, bub?\\\" only once, in Falling Hare. Another variation is used in Looney Tunes: Back in Action, when he greets a blaster-wielding Marvin the Martian saying \\\"What's up, Darth?\\\"\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nIn many of Bugs' appearances in the 1940s Merrie Melodies and Looney Tunes shorts, his carrot-chewing made its way into the opening sequence of the cartoon. In these cases, Bugs would be lying atop the Warner Brothers shield logo as it came onto the screen and eating his carrot. After a few seconds, Bugs would stop eating and shoot the audience a dirty look for staring at him. From there, one of two things would happen. Frequently, the open would simply dissolve into the cartoon series logo, but on occasion Bugs would reach up to the top of the screen and pull the logo down like a curtain to give himself some privacy. This formed the basis for the later intro to Bugs' cartoons, where he would pull the bottom of the screen up and be shown sitting atop his own intro screen while eating a carrot.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nSeveral Chuck Jones films in the late 1940s and 1950s depict Bugs travelling via cross-country (and, in some cases, intercontinental) tunnel-digging, ending up in places as varied as Barcelona, Spain (Bully for Bugs), the Himalayas (The Abominable Snow Rabbit) and Antarctica (Frigid Hare) all because he \\\"shoulda taken that left toin at Albukoikee.\\\" He first utters that phrase in Herr Meets Hare (1945), when he emerges in the Black Forest, a cartoon seldom seen today due to its blatantly topical subject matter. When Hermann Göring says to Bugs, \\\"There is no Las Vegas in 'Chermany'\\\" and takes a potshot at Bugs, Bugs dives into his hole and says, \\\"Joimany! Yipe!\\\", as Bugs realizes he's behind enemy lines. The confused response to his \\\"left toin\\\" comment also followed a pattern. For example, when he tunnels into Scotland in My Bunny Lies over the Sea (1948), while thinking he's heading for the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, California, it provides another chance for an ethnic joke: \\\"Therrre arrre no La Brrrea Tarrr Pits in Scotland!\\\" (to which Bugs responds, \\\"Scotland!? Eh...what's up, Mac-doc?\\\").\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nA couple of late-1950s/early-1960s cartoons of this ilk also featured Daffy Duck travelling with Bugs (\\\"Since when is Pismo Beach inside a cave?!\\\").\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nVoice actors\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nThe following are the various vocal artists who have voiced Bugs Bunny over the last 75-plus years for Warner Bros.' animated productions:\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\n;Mel Blanc\\nMel Blanc voiced the character for almost 50 years, from Bugs' debut in the 1940 short A Wild Hare until Blanc's death in 1989. Blanc described the voice as a combination of Bronx and Brooklyn accents; however, Tex Avery claimed that he asked Blanc to give the character not a New York accent per se, but a voice like that of actor Frank McHugh, who frequently appeared in supporting roles in the 1930s and whose voice might be described as New York Irish. In Bugs' second cartoon Elmer's Pet Rabbit, Blanc created a completely new voice for Bugs, which sounded like a Jimmy Stewart impression, but the directors decided the previous voice was better. Though Blanc's best-known character was the carrot-chomping rabbit, munching on the carrots interrupted the dialogue. Various substitutes, such as celery, were tried, but none of them sounded like a carrot. So for the sake of expedience, he would munch and then spit the carrot bits into a spittoon rather than swallowing them, and continue with the dialogue.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nOne often-repeated story, possibly originating from Bugs Bunny: Superstar, is that Blanc was allergic to carrots and had to spit them out to minimize any allergic reaction — but his autobiography makes no such claim. In fact, in a 1984 interview with Tim Lawson, co-author of The Magic Behind The Voices: A Who's Who of Voice Actors, Blanc emphatically denied being allergic to carrots.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\n;Others\\n* Jeff Bergman (Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue, The Earth Day Special, Gremlins 2: The New Batch, Tiny Toon Adventures, Box Office Bunny, (Blooper) Bunny, Invasion of the Bunny Snatchers, The Looney Tunes Show, Scooby Doo and Looney Tunes: Cartoon Universe, Looney Tunes: Rabbits Run, Wabbit. A Looney Tunes Production) \\n* Greg Burson (Tiny Toon Adventures, Taz-Mania, Animaniacs, Carrotblanca, From Hare to Eternity)\\n* John Kassir (Tiny Toon Adventures)\\n* Noel Blanc (Tiny Toon Adventures)\\n* Billy West (Space Jam, Histeria!, Bah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas, video games)\\n* Joe Alaskey (Tweety's High-Flying Adventure, Looney Tunes: Back in Action, Hare and Loathing in Las Vegas, Daffy Duck for President, Justice League: The New Frontier, Looney Tunes ClickN READ Phonics, video games)\\n* Samuel Vincent (Baby Looney Tunes, Baby Looney Tunes: Egg-straordinary Adventure)\\n* Bill Farmer (Robot Chicken)\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nReception and legacy\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nLike Mickey Mouse for Disney, Bugs Bunny has served as the mascot for Warner Bros. and its various divisions. According to Guinness World Records, Bugs has appeared in more films (both short and feature-length) than any other cartoon character and is the ninth most-portrayed film personality in the world. On December 10, 1985, Bugs became the second cartoon character (after Mickey) to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nHe also has been a pitchman for companies including Kool-Aid and Nike. His Nike commercials with Michael Jordan as \\\"Hare Jordan\\\" for the Air Jordan VII and VIII became precursors to Space Jam. As a result, he has spent time as an honorary member of Jordan Brand, including having Jordan's Jumpman logo done in his image.\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nIn 2002, TV Guide compiled a list of the 50 greatest cartoon characters of all time as part of the magazine's 50th anniversary. Bugs Bunny was given the honor of number 1. In a CNN broadcast on July 31, 2002, a TV Guide editor talked about the group that created the list. The editor also explained why Bugs pulled top billing: \\\"His stock...has never gone down...Bugs is the best example...of the smart-aleck American comic. He not only is a great cartoon character, he's a great comedian. He was written well. He was drawn beautifully. He has thrilled and made many generations laugh. He is tops.\\\"\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nNotable films\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nsee also List of Bugs Bunny cartoons\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\n* Porky's Hare Hunt (1938) (prototype debut)\\n* A Wild Hare (1940) (official debut; Oscar nominee; first appearance with Elmer Fudd)\\n* Hiawatha's Rabbit Hunt (1941) (Oscar nominee)\\n* Hare Trigger (1945) (first appearance with Yosemite Sam)\\n* Haredevil Hare (1948) (first appearance with Marvin the Martian)\\n* Rabbit Fire (1951) (first appearance with Daffy Duck)\\n* Devil May Hare (1954) (first appearance with Taz)\\n* What's Opera Doc (1957) (voted #1 of the 50 Greatest Cartoons of all time and inducted into the National Film Registry)\\n* Knighty Knight Bugs (1958) (Oscar winner)\\n* False Hare (1964) (final regular cartoon)\\n* Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) (first and only appearance in a Disney film; appeared alongside Disney's star character, Mickey Mouse)\\n* Space Jam (1996) (appeared alongside NBA superstar, Michael Jordan)\\n* Looney Tunes: Back in Action (2003) (final feature length live-action animated film appearance)\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nLanguage\",\n \"Bugs Bunny\\n\\nAmerican use of the term Nimrod to mean \\\"idiot\\\" is attributed (in Garner's Modern American Usage) entirely to Bugs's expostulation \\\"What a Nimrod!\\\" to describe the inept hunter Elmer Fudd.\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nHerr Meets Hare is a 1945 Warner Bros. cartoon directed by Friz Freleng, under the Merrie Melodies series. This short, coming a few months before the collapse of the Third Reich, was one of the last major wartime cartoons from Warner Bros. It was released 4 months and 27 days before Adolf Hitler committed suicide. Herr Meets Hare also sets up two important facets of Bugs Bunny: one in which Bugs would realize he \\\"should have made a left toin [turn] at Albukoykee\\\". The other is an extended dance sequence in the middle, which would later be retooled by Chuck Jones into What's Opera, Doc?.\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nSynopsis\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nThe cartoon opens with a faux Walter Winchell-like voice discussing the end of the Third Reich, saying that \\\"Germany has been battered into a fare-thee-well\\\", and musing about where the high leadership, and \\\"Fatso\\\" Göring in particular has gone. The scene soon cuts to the Black Forest, where Hermann Göring - in bemedalled lederhosen - is \\\"soothing his jangled nerves\\\" marching while on a hunt. Nearby, a familiar furrow in the ground appears, with a hole at the end.\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nBugs pops out of the hole, and sees no sign of the Black Forest on his map. (Variants on this comment would be used in later cartoons as the lead-in to the joke that Bugs while tunneling did indeed turn wrong somewhere in New Mexico, usually by not taking a left turn at Albuquerque, this cartoon being the first time Bugs says his popular catchphrase: \\\"I KNEW I ‘shoulda’ [should have] made ‘dat’ [that] left ‘toin’ [turn] in ‘Albakoikie’ [Albuquerque]\\\"). Bugs asks Göring about the directions to Las Vegas, oblivious to his location. Göring is almost tricked into going to Las Vegas, but then quickly realizes he’s being tricked and replies: \\\"Las Veegas? Why, there is no Las Veegas in Germany!\\\" For once genuinely alarmed by his mistaken destination, Bugs hightails it, saying \\\"‘Joimany’ [Germany]? Yipe!\\\". Göring chases after him, sucking him with his musket as a plunger.\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nA few chase gags go by in which Bugs insults the integrity of Göring’s medals by bending one with his teeth. Suckered into bending one himself, Göring declares them ersatz and mumbles all sorts of anti-Hitler sentiments (\\\"Oh, do I hate that Hitler swine, that phony führer, that…\\\"). Bugs masquerades as Adolf Hitler using a bit of mud, and faces the surprised Göring. Göring disappears off-screen in a flash to change into his Nazi uniform adorned with all sorts of medals. After the usual Nazi salute, Bugs berates him in faux German as he strips Göring of his medals (Klooten-flooten-blooten-pooten-meirooten-tooten!) and even his belt, causing Göring to \\\"kiss\\\" in reverence, saying in order: \\\"Look! I kiss mein Führer’s hand. I kiss right in der Führer’s face!\\\" (the joke being a wildly popular song at the time of the same name composed by Oliver Wallace, and performed by Spike Jones’s band, and the subject of a rival short animated subject from the Walt Disney Company. Afterwards, Göring exclaims \\\"Oh, I’m a bad flooten-boy-glooten!\\\", a variant on Warner Bros. cartoons’ frequently-cited Lou Costello-type catchphrase: \\\"I’m a bad boy!\\\".\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nLater, when the jig is up, Bugs rides in on a white horse, dressed as Brünhilde – from Wagnerian opera, to the tune of the \\\"Pilgrims’ Chorus\\\" from “Tannhäuser”). Entranced, Göring responds by dressing up as Siegfried. The two dance, before Bugs once again makes a fool of Göring and escapes (a scene later re-used in What's Opera, Doc?, co-starring Elmer Fudd).\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nEventually, Göring gets a hawk to capture Bugs. Bugs asks \\\"Do you think he’ll catch me, doc?\\\"; to which Göring replies \\\"Will he catch you? Why, he’ll have you back here faster than you can say Schicklgruber.\\\" (Schicklgruber was the original surname of Hitler’s father Alois.) The hawk imitates Jimmy Durante and captures Bugs in a bag. Göring brings the bag to Hitler, who plays solitaire in front of a map depicting the decline of Fortress Europe. Göring identifies the captive in the bag as \\\"Bugsenheimer Bunny\\\" (as opposed to ‘Weisenheimer’, or \\\"wise guy\\\") to der Führer. As Herr Hitler talks of the great rewards he’s going to pile upon Göring for this act of heroism, he peeks inside the bag and is shocked (\\\"Ach!! Himmel!\\\"). Göring goes and looks inside the bag as well, to be shocked as well (Again, \\\"Ach!! Himmel!\\\"). Out of the bag comes Bugs dressed as Joseph Stalin — complete with an enormous pipe and a large moustache — staring back at them. Göring and Hitler flee.\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nAs the cartoon ends, Bugs glances back at the camera and asks, in a Russian accent: \\\"Does your tobacco taste different lately?\\\" citing an ad slogan of that era for the Sir Walter Raleigh pipe tobacco manufactured by the Brown & Williamson Tobacco Company.\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nAnalysis\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nBugs dresses as Hitler to assert control over his German opponent. This is a repetition of a scene from Bugs Bunny Nips the Nips, where Bugs dresses up as a Japanese general.\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nDaniel Goldmark cites the cartoon as a significant precursor to What's Opera, Doc? (1957) and a source for its visual imagery. After running off, Bugs re-enters the scene dressed as Brünnhilde. The costume includes a blonde wig with braids and a Viking-style helmet. Bugs rides on a white horse, visually based on the Clydesdale horse. Musically, the scene is accompanied by the \\\"Pilgrim’s Chorus\\\" from the “Tannhäuser” (1845).\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nIn response, Hermann Göring changes clothes. His lederhosen is replaced by a long brown loincloth. He wears a horned-type Viking helmet. The horns grow in size as if erect, as he lustfully gazes at \\\"Brünnhilde\\\". The duo dances to the tune of two waltzes by Johann Strauss II: “Vienna Life” and “You and You”, the latter originating in “Die Fledermaus” (1874).\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nThe entry of Bugs and his white horse into the scene is repeated in What’s Opera, Doc?. The dance with the male suitor is, however, changed from a slapstick-rendition of the waltz to a refined ballet. The motivation of the dancers also changes. Göring is \\\"lost in the moment\\\" and follows his partner’s lead. In the latter, the dance is part of an artistic performance.\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nBoth cartoons were written by Michael Maltese, which may account for the similarities. In the older short, the musical references were intended as a criticism of Germany, Richard Wagner serving as \\\"a suitable musical backdrop\\\". The second short makes Wagner and opera itself as its targets.\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nReception\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nLike other American animated cartoons, Herr Meets Hare was available to German prisoners of war in the United States, some of whom did not like it; Hans Goebler said: \\\"You saw Hermann Göring standing there full of decorations, then all of a sudden a rabbit showed up and took all the decorations off, and stuff like that. And we didn’t care for that.\\\"\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nAs with many of the World War II-themed cartoons put out by the major studios, Herr Meets Hare was placed under an unofficial ban from broadcast or video distribution by Warner Bros. and other rights-holders (including Turner Broadcasting and AOL Time Warner). In 2001, Cartoon Network had planned on showing each and every Bugs Bunny cartoon made so far as part of its yearly \\\"June Bugs\\\" festival. AOL Time Warner refused to allow the broadcast of Herr Meets Hare, on the grounds that the cartoon was offensive (by today’s standards) as it dealt with the Nazis in a joking manner.\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nThe cartoon saw limited broadcast on a special one-hour episode of “ToonHeads” about cartoons from World War II. It has also appeared on Turner Classic Movies’ “Cartoon Alley” as recently as January 20, 2007.\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\nAvailability\",\n \"Herr Meets Hare\\n\\n*Herr Meets Hare is available (uncut and digitally remastered) on Looney Tunes Golden Collection: Volume 6.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137392,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2880"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Commander of the Coalition forces during the First Gulf War, which general had the nickname Stormin' Norman?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"H. Norman Schwarzkopf"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["general norman schwartzkopf","general swartzkoff","norman schwarzkopf jr","general h norman schwarzkopf jr","h norman schwarzkopf jr","schwarzkopf h norman jr","general norman schwarzkopf","general schwartzkopf","general swartzkof","general schwarzkopf","h norman schwarzkopf","herbert norman schwarzkopf jr","norman shwarzkopf","norman schwartzkopf","it doesn t take hero autobiography of general h norman schwarzkopf","it doesn t take hero","h norman jr schwarzkopf","gen norman schwarzkopf","norman schwarzkopf"],"string":"[\n \"general norman schwartzkopf\",\n \"general swartzkoff\",\n \"norman schwarzkopf jr\",\n \"general h norman schwarzkopf jr\",\n \"h norman schwarzkopf jr\",\n \"schwarzkopf h norman jr\",\n \"general norman schwarzkopf\",\n \"general schwartzkopf\",\n \"general swartzkof\",\n \"general schwarzkopf\",\n \"h norman schwarzkopf\",\n \"herbert norman schwarzkopf jr\",\n \"norman shwarzkopf\",\n \"norman schwartzkopf\",\n \"it doesn t take hero autobiography of general h norman schwarzkopf\",\n \"it doesn t take hero\",\n \"h norman jr schwarzkopf\",\n \"gen norman schwarzkopf\",\n \"norman schwarzkopf\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Gulf War\n\nThe Gulf War (2 August 1990 – 28 February 1991), codenamed Operation Desert Shield (2 August 1990 – 17 January 1991), for operations leading to the buildup of troops and defense of Saudi Arabia and Operation Desert Storm (17 January 1991 – 28 February 1991) in its combat phase, was a war waged by coalition forces from 34 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.","Gulf War\n\nThe war is also known under other names, such as the Persian Gulf War, First Gulf War, Gulf War I, Kuwait War, First Iraq War, or Iraq War before the term \"Iraq War\" became identified instead with the 2003 Iraq War (also referred to in the U.S. as \"Operation Iraqi Freedom\"). \nThe Iraqi Army's occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the U.N. Security Council. U.S. President George H. W. Bush deployed U.S. forces into Saudi Arabia, and urged other countries to send their own forces to the scene. An array of nations joined the Coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the Coalition's military forces were from the U.S., with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom and Egypt as leading contributors, in that order. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost.","Gulf War\n\nThe war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the U.S. network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board U.S. bombers during Operation Desert Storm.","Gulf War\n\nThe initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991, continuing for five weeks. This was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a decisive victory for the Coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait and advanced into Iraqi territory. The Coalition ceased its advance, and declared a cease-fire 100 hours after the ground campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas on Saudi Arabia's border. Iraq launched Scud missiles against Coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel.","Gulf War\n\nTerminology","Gulf War\n\nThe following names have been used to describe the conflict itself:\n*Gulf War and Persian Gulf War have been the most common terms for the conflict used within western countries. A problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts: see Gulf War (disambiguation). The use of the term Persian Gulf (as opposed to Arabian Gulf) is also disputed: see Persian Gulf naming dispute. With no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Some variants include:\n**Gulf War (e.g. The Gulf War, BBC television series, 2005; Modern Conflicts: The Gulf War, Discovery Channel DVD set, 2010)\n**Persian Gulf War (e.g. Encyclopedia of the Persian Gulf War, Mark Grossman, 1995; An Operational Analysis of the Persian Gulf War, U.S. Army War College, 2016)\n**Gulf War (1990–1991) (e.g. The Gulf War 1991 (Essential Histories), Alastair Finlan, 2003; Gulf War, 1990-91, William Thomas Allison, 2012)\n**First Gulf War (to distinguish it from the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the subsequent Iraq War) (e.g. Gulf War One: Real Voices from the Front Line, Hugh McManners, 2010)\n**Second Gulf War (to distinguish it from the Iran–Iraq War) (e.g.","Gulf War\n\nIraq and the Second Gulf War: State Building and Regime Security, Mohammad-Mahmoud Mohamedou, 1997)\n*Liberation of Kuwait () (taḥrīr al-kuwayt) is the term used by Kuwait and most of the Coalition's Arab states including Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Egypt and the United Arab Emirates. *Other language terms include and (Gulf War); (Second Gulf War); (War of Kuwait)\n*The mother of all battles () (umm al-ma‘ārik) is a term derived from Saddam Hussein (e.g. The Mother of All Battles: Saddam Hussein's Strategic Plan for the Persian Gulf War, Kevin M. Woods, 2008).","Gulf War\n\nOperational names","Gulf War\n\nMost of the Coalition states used various names for their operations and the war's operational phases. These are sometimes incorrectly used as the conflict's overall name, especially the U.S. Desert Storm:\n*Operation Desert Shield was the U.S. operational name for the U.S. buildup of forces and Saudi Arabia's defense from 2 August 1990, to 16 January 1991.\n*Operation Desert Storm was the U.S. name of the airland conflict from 17 January 1991, through 11 April 1991.\n**Operation Desert Sabre (early name Operation Desert Sword) was the U.S. name for the airland offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations (the \"100-hour war\") from 24–28 February 1991, in itself, part of Operation Desert Storm.\n*Operation Desert Farewell was the name given to the return of U.S. units and equipment to the U.S. in 1991 after Kuwait's liberation, sometimes referred to as Operation Desert Calm.\n*Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations and conflict.\n*Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict.\n*Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations\n*Operazione Locusta (Italian for Locust) was the Italian name for the operations and conflict.","Gulf War\n\nIn addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name.","Gulf War\n\nCampaign names","Gulf War\n\nThe U.S. divided the conflict into three major campaigns:\n*Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991.\n*Liberation and Defense of Kuwait for the period 17 January 1991, through 11 April 1991.\n*Southwest Asia Cease-Fire for the period 12 April 1991, through 30 November 1995, including Operation Provide Comfort.","Gulf War\n\nBackground","Gulf War\n\nThroughout the Cold War, Iraq had been an ally of the Soviet Union, and there was a history of friction between it and the United States. The U.S. was concerned with Iraq's position on Israeli–Palestinian politics, and its disapproval of the nature of the peace between Israel and Egypt. The U.S. also disliked Iraqi support for many Arab and Palestinian militant groups such as Abu Nidal, which led to Iraq's inclusion on the developing U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism on 29 December 1979. The U.S. remained officially neutral after Iraq's invasion of Iran in 1980, which became the Iran–Iraq War, although it provided resources, political support, and some \"non-military\" aircraft to Iraq. In March 1982, Iran began a successful counteroffensive (Operation Undeniable Victory), and the U.S. increased its support for Iraq to prevent Iran from forcing a surrender. In a U.S. bid to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the country was removed from the U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Ostensibly this was because of improvement in the regime's record, although former U.S. Assistant Defense Secretary Noel Koch later stated, \"No one had any doubts about [the Iraqis'] continued involvement in terrorism ...","Gulf War\n\nThe real reason was to help them succeed in the war against Iran.\" With Iraq's newfound success in the war, and the Iranian rebuff of a peace offer in July, arms sales to Iraq reached a record spike in 1982. When Iraqi President Saddam Hussein expelled Abu Nidal to Syria at the U.S.' request in November 1983, the Reagan administration sent Donald Rumsfeld to meet Saddam as a special envoy and to cultivate ties. By the time the ceasefire with Iran was signed in August 1988, Iraq was heavily debt-ridden and tensions within society were rising. Most of its debt was owed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Iraq pressured both nations to forgive the debts, but they refused.","Gulf War\n\nThe Iraq–Kuwait dispute also involved Iraqi claims to Kuwait as Iraqi territory. Kuwait had been a part of the Ottoman Empire's province of Basra, something that Iraq claimed made it rightful Iraq territory. Its ruling dynasty, the al-Sabah family, had concluded a protectorate agreement in 1899 that assigned responsibility for its foreign affairs to the United Kingdom. The UK drew the border between the two countries in 1922, making Iraq virtually landlocked. Kuwait rejected Iraqi attempts to secure further provisions in the region.","Gulf War\n\nIraq also accused Kuwait of exceeding its OPEC quotas for oil production. In order for the cartel to maintain its desired price of $18 a barrel, discipline was required. The United Arab Emirates and Kuwait were consistently overproducing; the latter at least in part to repair losses caused by Iranian attacks in the Iran–Iraq War and to pay for the losses of an economic scandal. The result was a slump in the oil price – as low as $10 a barrel – with a resulting loss of $7 billion a year to Iraq, equal to its 1989 balance of payments deficit. Resulting revenues struggled to support the government's basic costs, let alone repair Iraq's damaged infrastructure. Jordan and Iraq both looked for more discipline, with little success. The Iraqi government described it as a form of economic warfare, which it claimed was aggravated by Kuwait slant-drilling across the border into Iraq's Rumaila oil field. At the same time, Saddam looked for closer ties with those Arab states that had supported Iraq in the war.","Gulf War\n\nThis was supported by the U.S., who believed that Iraqi ties with pro-Western Gulf states would help bring and maintain Iraq inside the U.S.' sphere of influence.","Gulf War\n\nIn 1989, it appeared that Saudi-Iraqi relations, strong during the war, would be maintained. A pact of non-interference and non-aggression was signed between the countries, followed by a Kuwaiti-Iraqi deal for Iraq to supply Kuwait with water for drinking and irrigation, although a request for Kuwait to lease Iraq Umm Qasr was rejected. Saudi-backed development projects were hampered by Iraq's large debts, even with the demobilization of 200,000 soldiers. Iraq also looked to increase arms production so as to become an exporter, although the success of these projects was also restrained by Iraq's obligations; in Iraq, resentment to OPEC's controls mounted.","Gulf War\n\nIraq's relations with its Arab neighbors – in particular Egypt – were degraded by mounting violence in Iraq against expatriate groups, well-employed during the war, by Iraqi unemployed, among them demobilized soldiers. These events drew little notice outside the Arab world because of fast-moving events in Eastern Europe. The U.S. did, however, begin to condemn Iraq's human rights record, including the well-known use of torture. The UK also condemned the execution of Farzad Bazoft, a journalist working for the British newspaper The Observer. Following Saddam's declaration that \"binary chemical weapons\" would be used on Israel if it used military force against Iraq, Washington halted part of its funding. A U.N. mission to the Israeli-occupied territories, where riots had resulted in Palestinian deaths, was vetoed by the U.S., making Iraq deeply skeptical of U.S. foreign policy aims in the region, combined with the U.S.' reliance on Middle Eastern energy reserves.","Gulf War\n\nIn early July 1990, Iraq complained about Kuwait's behavior, such as not respecting their quota, and openly threatened to take military action. On the 23rd, the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border, and the U.S. naval fleet in the Persian Gulf was placed on alert. Saddam believed an anti-Iraq conspiracy was developing – Kuwait had begun talks with Iran, and Iraq's rival Syria had arranged a visit to Egypt. Upon review by the Secretary of Defense, it was found that Syria indeed planned a strike against Iraq in the coming days. Saddam immediately used funding to incorporate central intelligence into Syria and ultimate prevented the impending air strike. On 15 July 1990, Saddam's government laid out its combined objections to the Arab League, including that policy moves were costing Iraq $1 billion a year, that Kuwait was still using the Rumaila oil field, that loans made by the UAE and Kuwait could not be considered debts to its \"Arab brothers\". He threatened force against Kuwait and the UAE saying \"The policies of some Arab rulers are American ... They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security.\" The U.S.","Gulf War\n\nsent aerial refuelling planes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf in response to these threats. Discussions in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, mediated on the Arab League's behalf by Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, were held on 31 July and led Mubarak to believe that a peaceful course could be established.","Gulf War\n\nOn the 25th, Saddam met with April Glaspie, the U.S. Ambassador to Iraq, in Baghdad. The Iraqi leader attacked American policy with regards to Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates:","Gulf War\n\nGlaspie replied:","Gulf War\n\nSaddam stated that he would attempt last-ditch negotiations with the Kuwaitis but Iraq \"would not accept death\".","Gulf War\n\nAccording to Glaspie's own account, she stated in reference to the precise border between Kuwait and Iraq, \"... that she had served in Kuwait 20 years before; 'then, as now, we took no position on these Arab affairs'.\" Glaspie similarly believed that war was not imminent.","Gulf War\n\nInvasion of Kuwait","Gulf War\n\nThe result of the Jeddah talks was an Iraqi demand for $10 billion to cover the lost revenues from Rumaila; the Kuwaiti response was to offer $9 billion. The Iraqi response was to immediately order the invasion. On 2 August 1990, Iraq launched the invasion by bombing Kuwait's capital, Kuwait City.","Gulf War\n\nAt the time of the invasion, the Kuwaiti military was believed to have numbered 16,000 men, arranged into three armored, one mechanised infantry and one under-strength artillery brigade. The pre-war strength of the Kuwait Air Force was around 2,200 Kuwaiti personnel, with 80 aircraft and forty helicopters. In spite of Iraqi saber-rattling, Kuwait didn't have its forces on alert; the army had been stood down on 19 July.","Gulf War\n\nBy 1988, at the Iran–Iraq War's end, the Iraqi Army was the world's fourth largest army; it consisted of 955,000 standing soldiers and 650,000 paramilitary forces in the Popular Army. According to John Childs and André Corvisier, a low estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding 4,500 tanks, 484 combat aircraft and 232 combat helicopters. According to Michael Knights, a high estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding one million men and 850,000 reservists, 5,500 tanks, 3,000 artillery pieces, 700 combat aircraft and helicopters; and held 53 divisions, 20 special-forces brigades, and several regional militias, and had a strong air defense.","Gulf War\n\nIraqi commandos infiltrated the Kuwaiti border first to prepare for the major units which began the attack at midnight. The Iraqi attack had two prongs, with the primary attack force driving south straight for Kuwait City down the main highway, and a supporting attack force entering Kuwait farther west, but then turning and driving east, cutting off Kuwait City from the country's southern half. The commander of a Kuwaiti armored battalion, 35th Armoured Brigade, deployed them against the Iraqi attack and was able to conduct a robust defense (Battle of the Bridges), near Al Jahra, west of Kuwait City.","Gulf War\n\nKuwaiti aircraft scrambled to meet the invading force, but approximately 20% were lost or captured. A few combat sorties were flown against Iraqi ground forces.","Gulf War\n\nThe main Iraqi thrust into Kuwait City was conducted by commandos deployed by helicopters and boats to attack the city from the sea, while other divisions seized the airports and two airbases. The Iraqis attacked the Dasman Palace, the Royal Residence of Kuwait's Emir, Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, which was defended by the Emiri Guard supported with M-84 tanks. In the process, the Iraqis killed Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, the Emir's youngest brother.","Gulf War\n\nWithin 12 hours, most resistance had ended within Kuwait and the royal family had fled, leaving Iraq in control of most of Kuwait. After two days of intense combat, most of the Kuwaiti military were either overrun by the Iraqi Republican Guard, or had escaped to Saudi Arabia. The Emir and key ministers were able to get out and head south along the highway for refuge in Saudi Arabia. Iraqi ground forces consolidated their control of Kuwait City, then headed south and redeployed along the Saudi border. After the decisive Iraqi victory, Saddam initially installed a puppet regime known as the \"Provisional Government of Free Kuwait\" before installing his cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid as Kuwait's governor on 8 August.","Gulf War\n\nKuwaiti resistance movement","Gulf War\n\nKuwaitis founded a local armed resistance movement following the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. The Kuwaiti resistance's casualty rate far exceeded that of the coalition military forces and Western hostages. The resistance predominantly consisted of ordinary citizens who lacked any form of training and supervision.","Gulf War\n\nRun-up to the war","Gulf War\n\nDiplomatic means","Gulf War\n\nA key element of U.S. political-military and energy economic planning occurred in early 1984. The Iran–Iraq war had been going on for five years and there were significant casualties on both sides, reaching hundreds of thousands. Within President Ronald Reagan's National Security Council concern was growing that the war could spread beyond the boundaries of the two belligerents. A National Security Planning Group meeting was formed, chaired by then Vice President George H. W. Bush to review U.S. options. It was determined that there was a high likelihood that the conflict would spread into Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states, but that the United States had little capability to defend the region. Furthermore, it was determined that a prolonged war in the region would induce much higher oil prices and threaten the fragile recovery of the world economy which was just beginning to gain momentum. On 22 May 1984, President Reagan was briefed on the project conclusions in the Oval Office by William Flynn Martin who had served as the head of the NSC staff that organized the study. The full declassified presentation can be seen here.","Gulf War\n\nThe conclusions were threefold: first oil stocks needed to be increased among members of the International Energy Agency and, if necessary, released early in the event of oil market disruption; second the United States needed to beef up the security of friendly Arab states in the region and thirdly an embargo should be placed on sales of military equipment to Iran and Iraq. The Plan was approved by the President Reagan and later affirmed by the G-7 leaders headed by Great Britain's Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the London Summit of 1984. The plan was implemented and became the basis for U.S. preparedness to respond to the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in 1991.","Gulf War\n\nWithin hours of the invasion, Kuwait and U.S. delegations requested a meeting of the United Nations Security Council, which passed Resolution 660, condemning the invasion and demanding a withdrawal of Iraqi troops. On 3 August, the Arab League passed its own resolution, which called for a solution to the conflict from within the League, and warned against outside intervention; Iraq and Libya were the only two Arab League states which opposed a resolution for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait. The PLO opposed it as well. The Arab states of Yemen and Jordan – a Western ally which bordered Iraq and relied on the country for economic support – opposed military intervention from non-Arab states. The Arab state of Sudan aligned itself with Saddam.","Gulf War\n\nOn 6 August, Resolution 661 placed economic sanctions on Iraq. Resolution 665 followed soon after, which authorized a naval blockade to enforce the sanctions. It said the \"use of measures commensurate to the specific circumstances as may be necessary ... to halt all inward and outward maritime shipping in order to inspect and verify their cargoes and destinations and to ensure strict implementation of resolution 661.\"","Gulf War\n\nFrom the beginning, U.S. officials insisted on a total Iraqi pullout from Kuwait, without any linkage to other Middle Eastern problems, fearing any concessions would strengthen Iraqi influence in the region for years to come.","Gulf War\n\nOn 12 August 1990, Saddam \"propose[d] that all cases of occupation, and those cases that have been portrayed as occupation, in the region, be resolved simultaneously\". Specifically, he called for Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon, Syria to withdraw from Lebanon, and \"mutual withdrawals by Iraq and Iran and arrangement for the situation in Kuwait.\" He also called for a replacement of U.S. troops that mobilized in Saudi Arabia in response to Kuwait's invasion with \"an Arab force\", as long as that force did not involve Egypt. Additionally, he requested an \"immediate freeze of all boycott and siege decisions\" and a general normalization of relations with Iraq. From the beginning of the crisis, President Bush was strongly opposed to any \"linkage\" between Iraq's occupation of Kuwait and the Palestinian issue.","Gulf War\n\nOn 23 August, Saddam appeared on state television with Western hostages to whom he had refused exit visas. In the video, he asks a young British boy, Stuart Lockwood, whether he is getting his milk, and goes on to say, through his interpreter, \"We hope your presence as guests here will not be for too long. Your presence here, and in other places, is meant to prevent the scourge of war.\"","Gulf War\n\nAnother Iraqi proposal communicated in August 1990 was delivered to U.S. National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft by an unidentified Iraqi official. The official communicated to the White House that Iraq would \"withdraw from Kuwait and allow foreigners to leave\" provided that the U.N. lifted sanctions, allowed \"guaranteed access to the Persian Gulf through the Kuwaiti islands of Bubiyan and Warbah\", and allowed Iraq to \"gain full control of the Rumaila oil field that extends slightly into Kuwaiti territory\". The proposal also \"include[d] offers to negotiate an oil agreement with the United States 'satisfactory to both nations' national security interests,' develop a joint plan 'to alleviate Iraq's economical and financial problems' and 'jointly work on the stability of the gulf.'\"","Gulf War\n\nIn December 1990, Iraq made a proposal to withdraw from Kuwait provided that foreign troops left the region and that an agreement was reached regarding the Palestinian problem and the dismantlement of both Israel's and Iraq's weapons of mass destruction. The White House rejected the proposal. The PLO's Yasser Arafat expressed that neither he nor Saddam insisted that solving the Israel–Palestine issues should be a precondition to solving the issues in Kuwait, though he did acknowledge a \"strong link\" between these problems.","Gulf War\n\nUltimately, the U.S. stuck to its position that there would be no negotiations until Iraq withdrew from Kuwait and that they should not grant Iraq concessions, lest they give the impression that Iraq benefited from its military campaign. Also, when U.S. Secretary of State James Baker met with Tariq Aziz in Geneva, Switzerland, for last minute peace talks in early 1991, Aziz reportedly made no concrete proposals and did not outline any hypothetical Iraqi moves.","Gulf War\n\nOn 29 November 1990, the Security Council passed Resolution 678 which gave Iraq until 15 January 1991 to withdraw from Kuwait and empowered states to use \"all necessary means\" to force Iraq out of Kuwait after the deadline.","Gulf War\n\nOn 14 January 1991, France proposed that the U.N. Security Council call for \"a rapid and massive withdrawal\" from Kuwait along with a statement to Iraq that Council members would bring their \"active contribution\" to a settlement of the region's other problems, \"in particular, of the Arab–Israeli conflict and in particular to the Palestinian problem by convening, at an appropriate moment, an international conference\" to assure \"the security, stability and development of this region of the world.\" The French proposal was supported by Belgium (at the moment one of the rotating Council members), Germany, Spain, Italy, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and several non-aligned nations. The U.S., the UK, and the Soviet Union rejected it; U.S. Ambassador to the U.N. Thomas Pickering stated that the French proposal was unacceptable, because it went beyond previous Council resolutions on the Iraqi invasion. France dropped this proposal when it found \"no tangible sign of interest\" from Baghdad.","Gulf War\n\nMilitary means","Gulf War\n\nOne of the West's main concerns was the significant threat Iraq posed to Saudi Arabia. Following Kuwait's conquest, the Iraqi Army was within easy striking distance of Saudi oil fields. Control of these fields, along with Kuwaiti and Iraqi reserves, would have given Saddam control over the majority of the world's oil reserves. Iraq also had a number of grievances with Saudi Arabia. The Saudis had lent Iraq some 26 billion dollars during its war with Iran. The Saudis had backed Iraq in that war, as they feared the influence of Shia Iran's Islamic revolution on its own Shia minority. After the war, Saddam felt he shouldn't have to repay the loans due to the help he had given the Saudis by fighting Iran.","Gulf War\n\nSoon after his conquest of Kuwait, Saddam began verbally attacking the Saudis. He argued that the U.S.-supported Saudi state was an illegitimate and unworthy guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. He combined the language of the Islamist groups that had recently fought in Afghanistan with the rhetoric Iran had long used to attack the Saudis.","Gulf War\n\nActing on the Carter Doctrine's policy, and out of fear the Iraqi Army could launch an invasion of Saudi Arabia, U.S. President George H. W. Bush quickly announced that the U.S. would launch a \"wholly defensive\" mission to prevent Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia under the codename Operation Desert Shield. Operation Desert Shield began on 7 August 1990 when U.S. troops were sent to Saudi Arabia due also to the request of its monarch, King Fahd, who had earlier called for U.S. military assistance. This \"wholly defensive\" doctrine was quickly abandoned when, on 8 August, Iraq declared Kuwait to be Iraq's 19th province and Saddam named his cousin, Ali Hassan Al-Majid, as its military-governor.","Gulf War\n\nThe U.S. Navy dispatched two naval battle groups built around the aircraft carriers USS Dwight D. Eisenhower and USS Independence to the Persian Gulf, where they were ready by 8 August. The U.S. also sent the battleships USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin to the region. A total of 48 U.S. Air Force F-15s from the 1st Fighter Wing at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, landed in Saudi Arabia, and immediately commenced round the clock air patrols of the Saudi–Kuwait–Iraq border to discourage further Iraqi military advances. They were joined by 36 F-15 A-Ds from the 36th Tactical Fighter Wing at Bitburg, Germany. The Bitburg contingent was based at Al Kharj Air Base, approximately 1-hour southeast of Riyadh. The 36th TFW would be responsible for 11 confirmed Iraqi Air Force aircraft shot down during the war. There were also two Air National Guard units stationed at Al Kharj Air Base, the South Carolina Air National Guard's 169th Fighter Wing flew bombing missions with 24 F-16s flying 2,000 combat missions and dropping 4 million pounds of munitions, and the New York Air National Guard's 174th Fighter Wing from Syracuse flew 24 F-16s on bombing missions.","Gulf War\n\nMilitary buildup continued from there, eventually reaching 543,000 troops, twice the number used in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Much of the material was airlifted or carried to the staging areas via fast sealift ships, allowing a quick buildup.","Gulf War\n\nCreating a coalition","Gulf War\n\nA series of U.N. Security Council resolutions and Arab League resolutions were passed regarding Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. One of the most important was Resolution 678, passed on 29 November 1990, which gave Iraq a withdrawal deadline until 15 January 1991, and authorized \"all necessary means to uphold and implement Resolution 660\", and a diplomatic formulation authorizing the use of force if Iraq failed to comply.","Gulf War\n\nTo ensure that economic backing, Baker went on an eleven-day journey to nine countries that the press dubbed \"The Tin Cup Trip\". The first stop was Saudi Arabia, who a month before had already granted permission to the United States to use its facilities. However, Baker believed that Saudi Arabia, an immensely wealthy nation, should assume some of the cost of the military efforts, since one of the most decisive military objectives was defending Saudi Arabia. When Baker asked King Fahd for 15 billion dollars, the King readily agreed, with the promise that Baker ask Kuwait for the same amount.","Gulf War\n\nThe next day, 7 September, he did just that, and the Emir of Kuwait, displaced in a Sheraton hotel outside his invaded country, easily agreed. Baker then moved to enter talks with Egypt, whose leadership he considered to be \"the moderate voice of the middle east\". President Mubarak of Egypt was furious with Saddam for his invasion of Kuwait, and for the fact that Saddam had assured Mubarak that an invasion was not his intention. Therefore, he was willing to commit troops to the coalition forces to quell Saddam, as well as relieved the United States was willing to forgive his country's 7.1 billion dollar debt.","Gulf War\n\nAfter stops in Helsinki and Moscow to smooth out Iraqi demands for a middle-eastern peace conference with Russia (then the Soviet Union), Baker traveled to Syria to discuss its role in the crisis with its President Hafez Assad. Assad had a deep personal enmity towards Saddam, which was defined by the fact that \"Saddam had been trying to kill him [Assad] for years\". Harboring this animosity and being impressed with Baker's diplomatic initiative to visit Damascus (relations had been severed since the 1983 bombing of U.S. Marine barracks in Beirut), Assad agreed to pledge up to 100,000 Syrian troops to the coalition effort. This was a vital step in ensuring Arab states were represented in the coalition.","Gulf War\n\nBaker flew to Rome for a brief visit with the Italians in which he was promised the use of some military equipment, before journeying to Germany to meet with American ally Chancellor Kohl. Although Germany's constitution (which was brokered essentially by the United States) prohibited military involvement in outside nations, Kohl was willing to repay his gratitude for the United States with a two billion dollar contribution to the coalition's war effort, as well as further economic and military support of coalition ally Turkey, and the execution of the transport of Egyptian soldiers and ships to the Persian Gulf.","Gulf War\n\nA coalition of forces opposing Iraq's aggression was formed, consisting of forces from 34 countries: Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Kuwait, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Portugal, Qatar, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Spain, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the U.S. itself. It was the largest coalition since World War II. U.S. Army General Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. was designated to be the commander of the Coalition forces in the Persian Gulf area. The Soviet Union also supported United States intervention.","Gulf War\n\nAlthough they didn't contribute any forces, Japan and Germany made financial contributions totaling $10 billion and $6.6 billion respectively. U.S. troops represented 73% of the Coalition's 956,600 troops in Iraq.","Gulf War\n\nMany of the Coalition's forces were reluctant to join. Some felt that the war was an internal Arab affair, or didn't want to increase U.S. influence in the Middle East. In the end, however, many nations were persuaded by Iraq's belligerence towards other Arab states, offers of economic aid or debt forgiveness, and threats to withhold aid.","Gulf War\n\nJustification for intervention","Gulf War\n\nThe U.S. and the U.N. gave several public justifications for involvement in the conflict, the most prominent being the Iraqi violation of Kuwaiti territorial integrity. In addition, the U.S. moved to support its ally Saudi Arabia, whose importance in the region, and as a key supplier of oil, made it of considerable geopolitical importance. Shortly after the Iraqi invasion, U.S. Defense Secretary Dick Cheney made the first of several visits to Saudi Arabia where King Fahd requested U.S. military assistance. During a speech in a special joint session of the U.S. Congress given on 11 September 1990, U.S. President George H. W. Bush summed up the reasons with the following remarks: \"Within three days, 120,000 Iraqi troops with 850 tanks had poured into Kuwait and moved south to threaten Saudi Arabia. It was then that I decided to act to check that aggression.\"","Gulf War\n\nThe Pentagon stated that satellite photos showing a buildup of Iraqi forces along the border were this information's source, but this was later alleged to be false. A reporter for the St. Petersburg Times acquired two commercial Soviet satellite images made at the time in question, which showed nothing but empty desert.","Gulf War\n\nOther justifications for foreign involvement included Iraq's history of human rights abuses under Saddam. Iraq was also known to possess biological weapons and chemical weapons, which Saddam had used against Iranian troops during the Iran–Iraq War and against his own country's Kurdish population in the Al-Anfal Campaign. Iraq was also known to have a nuclear weapons program, but the report about it from January 1991 was partially declassified by the CIA on 26 May 2001.","Gulf War\n\nAlthough there were human rights abuses committed in Kuwait by the invading Iraqi military, the alleged incidents which received most publicity in the U.S. were inventions of the public relations firm hired by the government of Kuwait to influence U.S. opinion in favor of military intervention. Shortly after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the organization Citizens for a Free Kuwait was formed in the U.S. It hired the public relations firm Hill & Knowlton for about $11 million, paid by Kuwait's government.","Gulf War\n\nAmong many other means of influencing U.S. opinion (distributing books on Iraqi atrocities to U.S. soldiers deployed in the region, 'Free Kuwait' T-shirts and speakers to college campuses, and dozens of video news releases to television stations), the firm arranged for an appearance before a group of members of the U.S. Congress in which a woman identifying herself as a nurse working in the Kuwait City hospital described Iraqi soldiers pulling babies out of incubators and letting them die on the floor.","Gulf War\n\nThe story was an influence in tipping both the public and Congress towards a war with Iraq: six Congressmen said the testimony was enough for them to support military action against Iraq and seven Senators referenced the testimony in debate. The Senate supported the military actions in a 52–47 vote. A year after the war, however, this allegation was revealed to be a fabrication. The woman who had testified was found to be a member of Kuwait's Royal Family, in fact the daughter of Kuwait's ambassador to the U.S. She hadn't lived in Kuwait during the Iraqi invasion.","Gulf War\n\nThe details of the Hill & Knowlton public relations campaign, including the incubator testimony, were published in John R. MacArthur's Second Front: Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992), and came to wide public attention when an Op-ed by MacArthur was published in The New York Times. This prompted a reexamination by Amnesty International, which had originally promoted an account alleging even greater numbers of babies torn from incubators than the original fake testimony. After finding no evidence to support it, the organization issued a retraction. President Bush then repeated the incubator allegations on television.","Gulf War\n\nAt the same time, the Iraqi Army committed several well-documented crimes during its occupation of Kuwait, such as the summary execution without trial of three brothers after which their bodies were stacked in a pile and left to decay in a public street. Iraqi troops also ransacked and looted private Kuwaiti homes; one residence was repeatedly defecated in. A resident later commented, \"The whole thing was violence for the sake of violence, destruction for the sake of destruction ... Imagine a surrealistic painting by Salvador Dalí\".","Gulf War\n\nEarly battles","Gulf War\n\nAir campaign","Gulf War\n\nThe Gulf War began with an extensive aerial bombing campaign on 17 January 1991. The Coalition flew over 100,000 sorties, dropping 88,500 tons of bombs, and widely destroying military and civilian infrastructure. The air campaign was commanded by USAF Lieutenant General Chuck Horner, who briefly served as U.S. Central Command's Commander-in-Chief – Forward while General Schwarzkopf was still in the U.S.","Gulf War\n\nA day after the deadline set in Resolution 678, the Coalition launched a massive air campaign, which began the general offensive codenamed Operation Desert Storm. The first priority for Coalition forces was the destruction of Iraq's Air Force and anti-aircraft facilities. The sorties were launched mostly from Saudi Arabia and the six Coalition carrier battle groups (CVBG) in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.","Gulf War\n\nThe next Coalition targets were command and communication facilities. Saddam Hussein had closely micromanaged Iraqi forces in the Iran–Iraq War, and initiative at lower levels was discouraged. Coalition planners hoped that Iraqi resistance would quickly collapse if deprived of command and control.","Gulf War\n\nThe air campaign's third and largest phase targeted military targets throughout Iraq and Kuwait: Scud missile launchers, weapons research facilities, and naval forces. About one-third of the Coalition's air power was devoted to attacking Scuds, some of which were on trucks and therefore difficult to locate. U.S. and British special operations forces had been covertly inserted into western Iraq to aid in the search for and destruction of Scuds.","Gulf War\n\nIraqi anti-aircraft defenses, including Man-portable air-defense systems, were surprisingly ineffective against Coalition aircraft and the Coalition suffered only 75 aircraft losses in over 100,000 sorties, 44 of which were the result of Iraqi action. Two of these losses are the result of aircraft colliding with the ground while evading Iraqi ground fired weapons. One of these losses is a confirmed air-air victory.","Gulf War\n\nIraqi missile strikes on Israel and Saudi Arabia","Gulf War\n\nIraq's government made no secret that it would attack if invaded. Prior to the war's start, Tariq Aziz, Iraq's English-speaking Foreign Minister and Deputy Prime Minister, was asked in the aftermath of the failed U.S.–Iraq peace talks in Geneva, Switzerland, by a reporter. \"Mr. Foreign Minister, if war starts ... will you attack?\" His response was, \"Yes, absolutely, yes.\"","Gulf War\n\nFive hours after the first attacks, Iraq's state radio broadcast declaring that \"The dawn of victory nears as this great showdown begins.\" Iraq fired eight missiles the next day. These missile attacks were to continue throughout the war. A total of 88 Scud missiles were fired by Iraq during the war's seven weeks.","Gulf War\n\nIraq hoped to provoke a military response from Israel. The Iraqi government hoped that many Arab states would withdraw from the Coalition, as they would be reluctant to fight alongside Israel.Waldman, Shmuel (2005). Beyond a Reasonable Doubt. Feldheim Publishers, p. 179. ISBN 1-58330-806-7 Following the first attacks, Israeli Air Force jets were deployed to patrol the northern airspace with Iraq. Israel prepared to militarily retaliate, as its policy for the previous forty years had always been retaliation. However, President Bush pressured Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir not to retaliate and withdraw Israeli jets, fearing that if Israel attacked Iraq, the other Arab nations would either desert the Coalition or join Iraq. It was also feared that if Israel used Syrian or Jordanian airspace to attack Iraq, they would intervene in the war on Iraq's side or attack Israel. The Coalition promised to deploy Patriot missiles to defend Israel if it refrained from responding to the Scud attacks.","Gulf War\n\nThe Scud missiles targeting Israel were relatively ineffective, as firing at extreme range resulted in a dramatic reduction in accuracy and payload. According to the Jewish Virtual Library, a total of 74 Israelis died as a result of the Iraqi attacks: two directly and the rest from suffocation and heart attacks. Approximately 230 Israelis were injured. Extensive property damage was also caused, and according to Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, \"Damage to general property consisted of 1,302 houses, 6,142 apartments, 23 public buildings, 200 shops and 50 cars.\" It was feared that Iraq would fire missiles filled with nerve agents such as sarin. As a result, Israel's government issued gas masks to its citizens. When the first Iraqi missiles hit Israel, some people injected themselves with an antidote for nerve gas. It has been suggested that the sturdy construction techniques used in Israeli cities, coupled with the fact that Scuds were only launched at night, played an important role in limiting the number of casualties from Scud attacks.","Gulf War\n\nIn response to the threat of Scuds on Israel, the U.S. rapidly sent a Patriot missile air defense artillery battalion to Israel along with two batteries of MIM-104 Patriot missiles for the protection of civilians. The Royal Netherlands Air Force also deployed a Patriot missile squadron to Israel and Turkey. The Dutch Defense Ministry later stated that the military use of the Patriot missile system was largely ineffective, but its psychological value for the affected populations was high.","Gulf War\n\nCoalition air forces were also extensively exercised in \"Scud hunts\" in the Iraqi desert, trying to locate the camouflaged trucks before they fired their missiles at Israel or Saudi Arabia. On the ground, special operations forces also infiltrated Iraq, tasked with locating and destroying Scuds. Once special operations were combined with air patrols, the number of attacks fell sharply, then increased slightly as Iraqi forces adjusted to Coalition tactics.","Gulf War\n\nAs the Scud attacks continued, the Israelis grew increasingly impatient, and considered taking unilateral military action against Iraq. On 22 January 1991, a Scud missile and two Coalition Patriots that had been fired to intercept it but missed, and hit the Israeli city of Ramat Gan. The incident caused three elderly people to suffer fatal heart attacks. Another 96 people were injured, and 20 apartment buildings were damaged. After this attack, the Israelis warned that if the U.S. failed to stop the attacks, they would. At one point, Israeli commandos were loaded onto helicopters prepared to fly into Iraq, but the mission was called off after a phone call from U.S. Defense Secretary Dick Cheney, reporting on the extent of Coalition efforts to destroy Scuds and emphasizing that Israeli intervention could endanger U.S. forces.","Gulf War\n\nIn addition to the attacks on Israel, 47 Scud missiles were fired into Saudi Arabia, and one missile was fired at Bahrain and another at Qatar. The missiles were fired at both military and civilian targets. One Saudi civilian was killed, and 78 others were injured. No casualties were reported in Bahrain or Qatar. The Saudi government issued all its citizens and expatriates with gas masks in the event of Iraq using missiles with chemical or biological warheads. The government broadcast alerts and 'all clear' messages over television to warn citizens during Scud attacks.","Gulf War\n\nOn 25 February 1991, a Scud missile hit a U.S. Army barracks of the 14th Quartermaster Detachment, out of Greensburg, Pennsylvania, stationed in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 soldiers and injuring over 100.","Gulf War\n\nIraqi invasion of Saudi Arabia (Battle of Khafji)","Gulf War\n\nOn 29 January, Iraqi forces attacked and occupied the lightly defended Saudi city of Khafji with tanks and infantry. The Battle of Khafji ended two days later when the Iraqis were driven back by the Saudi Arabian National Guard, supported by Qatari forces and U.S. Marines. The allied forces used extensive artillery fire.","Gulf War\n\nBoth sides suffered casualties, although Iraqi forces sustained substantially more dead and captured than the allied forces. Eleven Americans were killed in two separate friendly fire incidents, an additional 14 U.S. airmen were killed when their AC-130 gunship was shot down by an Iraqi surface-to-air missile, and two U.S. soldiers were captured during the battle. Saudi and Qatari forces had a total of 18 dead. Iraqi forces in Khafji had 60–300 dead and 400 captured.","Gulf War\n\nThe Battle of Khafji was an example of how air power could single-handedly hinder the advance of enemy ground forces. Upon learning of Iraqi troop movements, 140 coalition aircraft were diverted to attack an advancing column consisting of two armored divisions in battalion-sized units. Precision stand-off attacks were conducted during the night and through to the next day. Iraqi vehicle losses included 357 tanks, 147 armored personnel carriers, and 89 mobile artillery pieces. Some crews simply abandoned their vehicles upon realizing that they could be destroyed by guided bombs without warning, stopping the divisions from massing for an organized attack on the town. One Iraqi soldier, who had fought in the Iran-Iraq War, remarked that his brigade \"had sustained more punishment from allied airpower in 30 minutes at Khafji than in eight years of fighting against Iran.\"","Gulf War\n\nCounter reconnaissance","Gulf War\n\nTask Force 1-41 Infantry was a heavy battalion task force from the 2nd Armored Division (Forward). It consisted primarily of the 1st Battalion, 41st Infantry Regiment, 3rd Battalion, 66th Armor Regiment, and the 4th Battalion, 3rd Field Artillery Regiment. Task Force 1-41 was the first coalition force to breach the Saudi Arabian border on 15 February 1991 and conduct ground combat operations in Iraq engaging in direct and indirect fire fights with the enemy on 17 February 1991. Shortly after arrival in theatre Task Force 1-41 Infantry received a counter-reconnaissance mission. Counter-reconnaissance generally includes destroying or repelling the enemy's reconnaissance elements and denying their commander any observation of friendly forces. On 15 February 1991 4th Battalion of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment fired on a trailer and a few trucks in the Iraqi sector that was observing American forces. On 16 February 1991 several groups of Iraqi vehicles appeared to be performing reconnaissance on the Task Force and were driven away by fire from 4-3 FA. Another enemy platoon, including six vehicles, was reported as being to the northeast of the Task Force. They were engaged with artillery fire from 4-3 FA.","Gulf War\n\nLater that evening another group of Iraqi vehicles was spotted moving towards the center of the Task Force. They appeared to be Iraqi Soviet-made BTRs and tanks. For the next hour the Task Force fought several small battles with Iraqi reconnaissance units. TF 1-41 IN fired TOW missiles at the Iraqi formation destroying one tank. The rest of the formation was destroyed or driven away by artillery fire from 4-3 FA. On 17 February 1991 the Task Force took enemy mortar fire, however, the enemy forces managed to escape. Later that evening the Task Force received enemy artillery fire but suffered no casualties.","Gulf War\n\nBreach","Gulf War\n\nThe breach was preceded by a heavy artillery barrage, led by 4th Battalion of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment and the 210th Field Artillery Brigade, to soften up Iraqi defenses. Around 300 guns from multiple nations participated in the barrage. Over 14,000 rounds of artillery and over 4,900 MLRS rockets were fired at Iraqi forces during these raids. Iraq lost close to 22 artillery battalions during the initial stages of this barrage. This would include the destruction of approximately 396 Iraqi artillery pieces. By the end of these raids Iraqi artillery assets had all but ceased to exist. These raids were supplemented by air attacks by B-52 Stratofortress bombers and C-130 cargo aircraft.","Gulf War\n\nTask Force 1-41 Infantry was given the task of breaching Iraq's initial defensive positions along the Iraq-Saudi Arabia border. Once into Iraqi territory the Task Force encountered multiple Iraqi defensive positions and bunkers. These defensive positions were occupied by a brigade-sized element. TF 1-41 IN elements dismounted and prepared to engage the enemy soldiers which occupied these well-prepared and heavily fortified bunkers. The Task Force found itself engaged in six hours of combat in order to clear the extensive bunker complex. The Iraqis engaged the Task Force with small arms fire, RPGs, mortar fire, and what was left of Iraqi artillery assets. A series of battles unfolded which resulted in heavy Iraqi casualties and the Iraqis being removed from their defensive positions with many becoming prisoners of war. Some escaped to be killed or captured by other coalition forces. In the process of clearing the bunkers Task Force 1-41 captured two brigade command posts and the command post of the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division. The Task Force also captured a brigade commander, several battalion commanders, company commanders, and staff officers. Task Force 1-41 earned a Valorous Unit Award for its efforts.","Gulf War\n\nGround campaign","Gulf War\n\nThe Coalition forces dominated the air with their technological advantages. Coalition forces had the significant advantage of being able to operate under the protection of air supremacy that had been achieved by their air forces before the start of the main ground offensive. Coalition forces also had two key technological advantages:\n#Coalition main battle tanks, such as the U.S. M1 Abrams, British Challenger 1, and Kuwaiti M-84AB were vastly superior to the Chinese Type 69 and export-model T-72 tanks used by the Iraqis. Coalition crews were better trained with more highly developed armored doctrine. Iraqi tanks were mainly employed as armored self-propelled artillery, rather than maneuver warfare roles employed by the Coalition.\n# The use of GPS made it possible for Coalition forces to navigate without reference to roads or other fixed landmarks. This, along with aerial reconnaissance, allowed them to fight a battle of maneuver rather than a battle of encounter: they knew where they were and where the enemy was, so they could attack a specific target rather than searching on the ground for enemy forces.","Gulf War\n\nKuwait's Liberation","Gulf War\n\nU.S. decoy attacks by air attacks and naval gunfire the night before Kuwait's liberation were designed to make the Iraqis believe the main Coalition ground attack would focus on central Kuwait.","Gulf War\n\nFor months, American units in Saudi Arabia had been under almost constant Iraqi artillery fire, as well as threats from Scud missile or chemical attacks. On 24 February 1991, the 1st and 2nd Marine Divisions, and the 1st Light Armored Infantry Battalion crossed into Kuwait and headed toward Kuwait City. They encountered trenches, barbed wire, and minefields. However, these positions were poorly defended, and were overrun in the first few hours. Several tank battles took place, but apart from that, Coalition troops encountered minimal resistance, as most Iraqi troops surrendered. The general pattern was that the Iraqis would put up a short fight before surrendering. However, Iraqi air defenses shot down nine U.S. aircraft. Meanwhile, forces from Arab states advanced into Kuwait from the east, encountering little resistance and suffering few casualties.","Gulf War\n\nDespite the successes of Coalition forces, it was feared that the Iraqi Republican Guard would escape into Iraq before it could be destroyed. It was decided to send British armored forces into Kuwait fifteen hours ahead of schedule, and to send U.S. forces after the Republican Guard. The Coalition advance was preceded by a heavy artillery and rocket barrage, after which 150,000 troops and 1,500 tanks began their advance. Iraqi forces in Kuwait counterattacked against U.S. troops, acting on a direct order from Saddam himself. Despite the intense combat, the Americans repulsed the Iraqis and continued to advance towards Kuwait City.","Gulf War\n\nKuwaiti forces were tasked with liberating the city. Iraqi troops offered only light resistance. The Kuwaitis lost one soldier and one plane that was shot down, and quickly liberated the city. On 27 February, Saddam ordered a retreat from Kuwait, and President Bush declared it liberated. However, an Iraqi unit at Kuwait International Airport appeared not to have gotten the message, and fiercely resisted. U.S. Marines had to fight for hours before securing the airport, after which Kuwait was declared secure. After four days of fighting, Iraqi forces were expelled from Kuwait. As part of a scorched earth policy, they set fire to nearly 700 oil wells, and placed land mines around the wells to make extinguishing the fires more difficult.","Gulf War\n\nInitial moves into Iraq","Gulf War\n\nThe war's ground phase was officially designated Operation Desert Saber.","Gulf War\n\nThe first units to move into Iraq were three patrols of the British Special Air Service's B squadron, call signs Bravo One Zero, Bravo Two Zero, and Bravo Three Zero, in late January. These eight-man patrols landed behind Iraqi lines to gather intelligence on the movements of Scud mobile missile launchers, which couldn't be detected from the air, as they were hidden under bridges and camouflage netting during the day. Other objectives included the destruction of the launchers and their fiber-optic communications arrays that lay in pipelines and relayed coordinates to the TEL operators that were launching attacks against Israel. The operations were designed to prevent any possible Israeli intervention. Due to lack of sufficient ground cover to carry out their assignment, One Zero and Three Zero abandoned their operations, while Two Zero remained, and was later compromised, with only Sergeant Chris Ryan escaping to Syria.","Gulf War\n\nElements of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Battalion 5th Cavalry of the 1st Cavalry Division of the U.S. Army performed a direct attack into Iraq on 15 February 1991, followed by one in force on 20 February that led directly through 7 Iraqi divisions which were caught off guard. From 15–20 February, the Battle of Wadi Al-Batin took place inside Iraq; this was the first of two attacks by 1 Battalion 5th Cavalry of the 1st Cavalry Division. It was a feint attack, designed to make the Iraqis think that a Coalition invasion would take place from the south. The Iraqis fiercely resisted, and the Americans eventually withdrew as planned back into the Wadi Al-Batin. Three U.S. soldiers were killed and nine wounded as well with only one M2 Bradley IFV turret destroyed, but they had taken 40 prisoners and destroyed five tanks, and successfully deceived the Iraqis. This attack led the way for the XVIII Airborne Corps to sweep around behind the 1st Cav and attack Iraqi forces to the west. On 22 February 1991, Iraq agreed to a Soviet-proposed ceasefire agreement.","Gulf War\n\nThe agreement called for Iraq to withdraw troops to pre-invasion positions within six weeks following a total cease-fire, and called for monitoring of the cease-fire and withdrawal to be overseen by the UN Security Council.","Gulf War\n\nThe Coalition rejected the proposal, but said that retreating Iraqi forces wouldn't be attacked, and gave twenty-four hours for Iraq to begin withdrawing forces. On 23 February, fighting resulted in the capture of 500 Iraqi soldiers. On 24 February, British and American armored forces crossed the Iraq–Kuwait border and entered Iraq in large numbers, taking hundreds of prisoners. Iraqi resistance was light, and 4 Americans were killed.","Gulf War\n\nCoalition forces enter Iraq","Gulf War\n\nShortly afterwards, the U.S. VII Corps, in full strength and spearheaded by the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment, launched an armored attack into Iraq early on 24 February, just to the west of Kuwait, taking Iraqi forces by surprise. Simultaneously, the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps launched a sweeping \"left-hook\" attack across southern Iraq's largely undefended desert, led by the U.S. 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment and the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized). This movement's left flank was protected by France's 6th Light Armoured Division Daguet.","Gulf War\n\nThe French force quickly overcame Iraq's 45th Infantry Division, suffering light casualties and taking a large number of prisoners, and took up blocking positions to prevent an Iraqi counter-attack on the Coalition's flank. The movement's right flank was protected by the United Kingdom's 1st Armoured Division. Once the allies had penetrated deep into Iraqi territory, they turned eastward, launching a flank attack against the elite Republican Guard before it could escape. The Iraqis resisted fiercely from dug-in positions and stationary vehicles, and even mounted armored charges.","Gulf War\n\nUnlike many previous engagements, the destruction of the first Iraqi tanks did not result in a mass surrender. The Iraqis suffered massive losses and lost dozens of tanks and vehicles, while U.S. casualties were comparatively low, with a single Bradley knocked out. Coalition forces pressed another ten kilometers into Iraqi territory, and captured their objective within three hours. They took 500 prisoners and inflicted heavy losses, defeating Iraq's 26th Infantry Division. A U.S. soldier was killed by an Iraqi land mine, another five by friendly fire, and thirty wounded during the battle. Meanwhile, British forces attacked Iraq's Medina Division and a major Republican Guard logistics base. In nearly two days of some of the war's most intense fighting, the British destroyed 40 enemy tanks and captured a division commander.","Gulf War\n\nMeanwhile, U.S. forces attacked the village of Al Busayyah, meeting fierce resistance. They suffered no casualties, but destroyed a considerable amount of military hardware and took prisoners.","Gulf War\n\nOn 25 February 1991, Iraqi forces fired a Scud missile at an American barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. The missile attack killed 28 U.S. military personnel.","Gulf War\n\nThe Coalition's advance was much swifter than U.S. generals had expected. On 26 February, Iraqi troops began retreating from Kuwait, after they had set its oil fields on fire (737 oil wells were set on fire). A long convoy of retreating Iraqi troops formed along the main Iraq-Kuwait highway. Although they were retreating, this convoy was bombed so extensively by Coalition air forces that it came to be known as the Highway of Death. Hundreds of Iraqi troops were killed. American, British, and French forces continued to pursue retreating Iraqi forces over the border and back into Iraq, eventually moving to within 150 miles (240 km) of Baghdad before withdrawing back to Iraq's border with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.","Gulf War\n\nOne hundred hours after the ground campaign started, on 28 February, President Bush declared a ceasefire, and he also declared that Kuwait had been liberated.","Gulf War\n\nThe end of active hostilities","Gulf War\n\nIn Coalition-occupied Iraqi territory, a peace conference was held where a ceasefire agreement was negotiated and signed by both sides. At the conference, Iraq was approved to fly armed helicopters on their side of the temporary border, ostensibly for government transit due to the damage done to civilian infrastructure. Soon after, these helicopters and much of Iraq's military were used to fight an uprising in the south. The rebellions were encouraged by an airing of \"The Voice of Free Iraq\" on 2 February 1991, which was broadcast from a CIA-run radio station out of Saudi Arabia. The Arabic service of the Voice of America supported the uprising by stating that the rebellion was large, and that they soon would be liberated from Saddam.","Gulf War\n\nIn the North, Kurdish leaders took American statements that they would support an uprising to heart, and began fighting, hoping to trigger a coup d'état. However, when no U.S. support came, Iraqi generals remained loyal to Saddam and brutally crushed the Kurdish uprising. Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and Kurdish areas of Iran. These events later resulted in no-fly zones being established in northern and southern Iraq. In Kuwait, the Emir was restored, and suspected Iraqi collaborators were repressed. Eventually, over 400,000 people were expelled from the country, including a large number of Palestinians, due to PLO support of Saddam. Yasser Arafat didn't apologize for his support of Iraq, but after his death, the Fatah under Mahmoud Abbas' authority formally apologized in 2004.","Gulf War\n\nThere was some criticism of the Bush administration, as they chose to allow Saddam to remain in power instead of pushing on to capture Baghdad and overthrowing his government. In their co-written 1998 book, A World Transformed, Bush and Brent Scowcroft argued that such a course would have fractured the alliance, and would have had many unnecessary political and human costs associated with it.","Gulf War\n\nIn 1992, the U.S. Defense Secretary during the war, Dick Cheney, made the same point:","Gulf War\n\nInstead of a greater involvement of its own military, the U.S. hoped that Saddam would be overthrown in an internal coup d'état. The CIA used its assets in Iraq to organize a revolt, but the Iraqi government defeated the effort.","Gulf War\n\nOn 10 March 1991, 540,000 U.S. troops began moving out of the Persian Gulf.","Gulf War\n\nCoalition involvement","Gulf War\n\nCoalition members included Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Honduras, Hungary, Italy, Kuwait, Malaysia, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America.","Gulf War\n\nGermany and Japan provided financial assistance and donated military hardware, but didn't send direct military assistance. This later became known as checkbook diplomacy.","Gulf War\n\nUnited Kingdom","Gulf War\n\nThe United Kingdom committed the largest contingent of any European state that participated in the war's combat operations. Operation Granby was the code name for the operations in the Persian Gulf. British Army regiments (mainly with the 1st Armoured Division), Royal Air Force squadrons and Royal Navy vessels were mobilized in the Persian Gulf. The Royal Air Force, using various aircraft, operated from airbases in Saudi Arabia. Almost 2,500 armored vehicles and 53,462 troops were shipped for action.","Gulf War\n\nChief Royal Navy vessels deployed to the Persian Gulf included Broadsword-class frigates, and Sheffield-class destroyers, other R.N. and R.F.A. ships were also deployed. The light aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal was deployed to the Mediterranean Sea.","Gulf War\n\nSpecial operations forces were deployed in the form of several SAS squadrons.","Gulf War\n\nFrance","Gulf War\n\nThe second largest European contingent was from France, which committed 18,000 troops. Operating on the left flank of the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps, the main French Army force was the 6th Light Armoured Division, including troops from the French Foreign Legion. Initially, the French operated independently under national command and control, but coordinated closely with the Americans (via CENTCOM) and Saudis. In January, the Division was placed under the tactical control of the XVIII Airborne Corps. France also deployed several combat aircraft and naval units. The French called their contribution Opération Daguet.","Gulf War\n\nCanada","Gulf War\n\nCanada was one of the first countries to condemn Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, and it quickly agreed to join the U.S.-led coalition. In August 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney committed the Canadian Forces to deploy a Naval Task Group. The destroyers and joined the maritime interdiction force supported by the supply ship in Operation Friction. The Canadian Task Group led the Coalition's maritime logistics forces in the Persian Gulf. A fourth ship, , arrived in-theater after hostilities had ceased and was the first allied ship to visit Kuwait.","Gulf War\n\nFollowing the U.N.-authorized use of force against Iraq, the Canadian Forces deployed a CF-18 Hornet and CH-124 Sea King squadron with support personnel, as well as a field hospital to deal with casualties from the ground war. When the air war began, the CF-18s were integrated into the Coalition force and were tasked with providing air cover and attacking ground targets. This was the first time since the Korean War that Canada's military had participated in offensive combat operations. The only CF-18 Hornet to record an official victory during the conflict was an aircraft involved in the beginning of the Battle of Bubiyan against the Iraqi Navy.","Gulf War\n\nThe Canadian Commander in the Middle East was Commodore Kenneth J. Summers.","Gulf War\n\nAustralia","Gulf War\n\nAustralia contributed a Naval Task Group, which formed part of the multi-national fleet in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, under Operation Damask. In addition, medical teams were deployed aboard a U.S. hospital ship, and a naval clearance diving team took part in de-mining Kuwait's port facilities following the end of combat operations. While the Australian forces did not see combat, they did play a significant role in enforcing the sanctions put in place against Iraq following Kuwait's invasion, as well as other small support contributions to Operation Desert Storm. Following the war's end, Australia deployed a medical unit on Operation Habitat to northern Iraq as part of Operation Provide Comfort.","Gulf War\n\nArgentina","Gulf War\n\nArgentina was the only Latin American country to participate in the 1991 Gulf War sending a destroyer, ARA Almirante Brown (D-10), a corvette, ARA Spiro (P-43) (later replaced by another corvette, ARA Rosales (P-42)) and a supply ship (ARA Bahía San Blas (B-4)) to participate on the United Nations blockade and sea control effort of the Persian Gulf. The success of Operación Alfil (\"English: Operation Bishop\") as it was known, with more than 700 interceptions and 25,000 miles sailed in the theatre of operations helped to overcome the so-called \"Malvinas syndrome\". Argentina was later classified as major non-NATO ally due to its contributions during the war.","Gulf War\n\nCasualties","Gulf War\n\nCivilian","Gulf War\n\nOver 1,000 Kuwaiti civilians were killed by Iraqis. More than 600 Kuwaitis went missing during Iraq's occupation, and approximately 375 remains were found in mass graves in Iraq. The increased importance of air attacks from both Coalition warplanes and cruise missiles led to controversy over the number of civilian deaths caused during Desert Storm's initial stages. Within Desert Storm's first 24 hours, more than 1,000 sorties were flown, many against targets in Baghdad. The city was the target of heavy bombing, as it was the seat of power for Saddam and the Iraqi forces' command and control. This ultimately led to civilian casualties.","Gulf War\n\nIn one noted incident, two USAF stealth planes bombed a bunker in Amiriyah, causing the deaths of 408 Iraqi civilians who were in the shelter.Scott Peterson, [http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/1022/p01s01-wosc.htm \"'Smarter' bombs still hit civilians\"], Christian Science Monitor, 22 October 2002. Scenes of burned and mutilated bodies were subsequently broadcast, and controversy arose over the bunker's status, with some stating that it was a civilian shelter, while others contended that it was a center of Iraqi military operations, and that the civilians had been deliberately moved there to act as human shields.","Gulf War\n\nSaddam's government gave high civilian casualty figures in order to draw support from Islamic countries. The Iraqi government claimed that 2,300 civilians died during the air campaign. According to the Project on Defense Alternatives study, 3,664 Iraqi civilians were killed in the conflict. An investigation by Beth Osborne Daponte estimated total civilian fatalities at about 3,500 from bombing, and some 100,000 from the war's other effects.","Gulf War\n\nIraqi","Gulf War\n\nThe exact number of Iraqi combat casualties is unknown, but is believed to have been heavy. Some estimate that Iraq sustained between 20,000 and 35,000 fatalities. A report commissioned by the U.S. Air Force, estimated 10,000–12,000 Iraqi combat deaths in the air campaign, and as many as 10,000 casualties in the ground war. This analysis is based on Iraqi prisoner of war reports.","Gulf War\n\nAccording to the Project on Defense Alternatives study, between 20,000 and 26,000 Iraqi military personnel were killed in the conflict while 75,000 others were wounded.","Gulf War\n\nCoalition","Gulf War\n\nThe DoD reports that U.S. forces suffered 148 battle-related deaths (35 to friendly fire), with one pilot listed as MIA (his remains were found and identified in August 2009). A further 145 Americans died in non-combat accidents. The U.K. suffered 47 deaths (9 to friendly fire, all by U.S. forces), France 2, and the other countries, not including Kuwait, suffered 37 deaths (18 Saudis, 1 Egyptian, 6 UAE, and 3 Qataris). At least 605 Kuwaiti soldiers were still missing 10 years after their capture.","Gulf War\n\nThe largest single loss of life among Coalition forces happened on 25 February 1991, when an Iraqi Al Hussein missile hit a U.S. military barrack in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 U.S. Army Reservists from Pennsylvania. In all, 190 Coalition troops were killed by Iraqi fire during the war, 113 of whom were American, out of a total of 358 Coalition deaths. Another 44 soldiers were killed, and 57 wounded, by friendly fire. 145 soldiers died of exploding munitions, or non-combat accidents.","Gulf War\n\nThe largest accident among Coalition forces happened on 21 March 1991, a Royal Saudi Air Force C-130H crashed in heavy smoke on approach to Ras Al-Mishab Airport, Saudi Arabia. 92 Senegalese soldiers and 6 Saudi crew members were killed.","Gulf War\n\nThe number of Coalition wounded in combat was 776, including 458 Americans.","Gulf War\n\n190 Coalition troops were killed by Iraqi combatants, the rest of the 379 Coalition deaths being from friendly fire or accidents. This number was much lower than expected. Among the American dead were three female soldiers.","Gulf War\n\nFriendly fire","Gulf War\n\nWhile the death toll among Coalition forces engaging Iraqi combatants was very low, a substantial number of deaths were caused by accidental attacks from other Allied units. Of the 148 U.S. troops who died in battle, 24% were killed by friendly fire, a total of 35 service personnel. A further 11 died in detonations of coalition munitions. Nine British military personnel were killed in a friendly fire incident when a USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II destroyed a group of two Warrior IFVs.","Gulf War\n\nControversies","Gulf War\n\nGulf War Illness","Gulf War\n\nMany returning Coalition soldiers reported illnesses following their action in the war, a phenomenon known as Gulf War syndrome or Gulf War illness. Common symptoms that were reported are chronic fatigue, Fibromyalgia, and Gastrointestinal disorder. There has been widespread speculation and disagreement about the causes of the illness and the reported birth defects. Researchers found that infants born to male veterans of the 1991 war had higher rates of two types of heart valve defects. Gulf War veterans' children born after the war had a certain kidney defect that was not found in Gulf War veterans' children born before the war. Researchers have said that they did not have enough information to link birth defects with exposure to toxic substances. Some factors considered as possibilities include exposure to depleted uranium, chemical weapons, anthrax vaccines given to deploying soldiers, and/or infectious diseases. Major Michael Donnelly, a USAF officer during the War, helped publicize the syndrome and advocated for veterans' rights in this regard.","Gulf War\n\nEffects of depleted uranium","Gulf War\n\nDepleted uranium was used in the war in tank kinetic energy penetrators and 20–30 mm cannon ordnance. Significant controversy regarding the long term safety of depleted uranium exists, although detractors claim pyrophoric, genotoxic, and teratogenic heavy metal effects. Many have cited its use during the war as a contributing factor to a number of instances of health issues in the conflict's veterans and surrounding civilian populations. However, scientific opinion on the risk is mixed.","Gulf War\n\nSome say that depleted uranium is not a significant health hazard unless it is taken into the body. External exposure to radiation from depleted uranium is generally not a major concern because the alpha particles emitted by its isotopes travel only a few centimeters in air or can be stopped by a sheet of paper. Also, the uranium-235 that remains in depleted uranium emits only a small amount of low-energy gamma radiation. However, if allowed to enter the body, depleted uranium, like natural uranium, has the potential for both chemical and radiological toxicity with the two important target organs being the kidneys and the lungs","Gulf War\n\nHighway of Death","Gulf War\n\nOn the night of 26–27 February 1991, some Iraqi forces began leaving Kuwait on the main highway north of Al Jahra in a column of some 1,400 vehicles. A patrolling E-8 Joint STARS aircraft observed the retreating forces and relayed the information to the DDM-8 air operations center in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. These vehicles and the retreating soldiers were subsequently attacked, resulting in a 60 km stretch of highway strewn with debris—the Highway of Death. New York Times reporter Maureen Dowd wrote, \"With the Iraqi leader facing military defeat, Mr. Bush decided that he would rather gamble on a violent and potentially unpopular ground war than risk the alternative: an imperfect settlement hammered out by the Soviets and Iraqis that world opinion might accept as tolerable.\"","Gulf War\n\nChuck Horner, Commander of U.S. and allied air operations has written:","Gulf War\n\nBulldozer assault","Gulf War\n\nAnother incident during the war highlighted the question of large-scale Iraqi combat deaths. This was the \"bulldozer assault\", wherein two brigades from the U.S. 1st Infantry Division (Mechanized) were faced with a large and complex trench network, as part of the heavily fortified \"Saddam Hussein Line\". After some deliberation, they opted to use anti-mine plows mounted on tanks and combat earthmovers to simply plow over and bury alive the defending Iraqi soldiers. Not a single American was killed during the attack. Reporters were banned from witnessing the attack, near the neutral zone that touches the border between Saudi Arabia and Iraq. Every American in the assault was inside an armored vehicle. One newspaper story reported that U.S. commanders estimated thousands of Iraqi soldiers surrendered, escaping live burial during the two-day assault 24–26 February 1991. Patrick Day Sloyan of Newsday reported, \"Bradley Fighting Vehicles and Vulcan armored carriers straddled the trench lines and fired into the Iraqi soldiers as the tanks covered them with mounds of sand. 'I came through right after the lead company,' [Col. Anthony] Moreno said. 'What you saw was a bunch of buried trenches with peoples' arms and things sticking out of them... .","Gulf War\n\nHowever, after the war, the Iraqi government said that only 44 bodies were found. In his book The Wars Against Saddam, John Simpson alleges that U.S. forces attempted to cover up the incident. After the incident, the commander of the 1st Brigade said: \"I know burying people like that sounds pretty nasty, but it would be even nastier if we had to put our troops in the trenches and clean them out with bayonets.\" Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney did not mention the First Division's tactics in an interim report to Congress on Operation Desert Storm. In the report, Cheney acknowledged that 457 enemy soldiers were buried during the ground war.","Gulf War\n\nPalestinian exodus from Kuwait","Gulf War\n\nA Palestinian exodus from Kuwait took place during and after the Gulf War. During the Gulf War, more than 200,000 Palestinians voluntarily fled Kuwait during the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait due to harassment and intimidation by Iraqi security forces, in addition to getting fired from work by Iraqi authority figures in Kuwait. After the Gulf War, the Kuwaiti authorities forcibly pressured nearly 200,000 Palestinians to leave Kuwait in 1991. Kuwait's policy, which led to this exodus, was a response to alignment of Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and the PLO with Saddam Hussein.","Gulf War\n\nThe Palestinians who fled Kuwait were Jordanian citizens. In 2013, there were 280,000 Jordanian citizens of Palestinian origin in Kuwait. In 2012, 80,000 Palestinians (without Jordanian citizenship) lived in Kuwait.","Gulf War\n\nSaudi Arabia expelled Yemeni workers after Yemen supported Saddam during the Gulf War.","Gulf War\n\nCoalition bombing of Iraq's civilian infrastructure","Gulf War\n\nIn the 23 June 1991 edition of The Washington Post, reporter Bart Gellman wrote: \"Many of the targets were chosen only secondarily to contribute to the military defeat of [Iraq] ... Military planners hoped the bombing would amplify the economic and psychological impact of international sanctions on Iraqi society ... They deliberately did great harm to Iraq's ability to support itself as an industrial society ...\" In the Jan/Feb 1995 edition of Foreign Affairs, French diplomat Eric Rouleau wrote: \"[T]he Iraqi people, who were not consulted about the invasion, have paid the price for their government's madness ... Iraqis understood the legitimacy of a military action to drive their army from Kuwait, but they have had difficulty comprehending the Allied rationale for using air power to systematically destroy or cripple Iraqi infrastructure and industry: electric power stations (92 percent of installed capacity destroyed), refineries (80 percent of production capacity), petrochemical complexes, telecommunications centers (including 135 telephone networks), bridges (more than 100), roads, highways, railroads, hundreds of locomotives and boxcars full of goods, radio and television broadcasting stations, cement plants, and factories producing aluminum, textiles, electric cables, and medical supplies.\" However, the U.N.","Gulf War\n\nsubsequently spent billions rebuilding hospitals, schools, and water purification facilities throughout the country.","Gulf War\n\nAbuse of Coalition POWs","Gulf War\n\nDuring the conflict, Coalition aircrew shot down over Iraq were displayed as prisoners of war on TV, most with visible signs of abuse. Amongst several testimonies to poor treatment, Air Force Captain, Richard Storr was allegededly tortured by Iraqis during the Persian Gulf War. Iraqi secret police broke his nose, dislocated his shoulder and punctured his eardrum. Royal Air Force Tornado crew John Nichol and John Peters have both alleged that they were tortured during this time. Nichol and Peters were forced to make statements against the war in front of television cameras. Members of British Special Air Service Bravo Two Zero were captured while providing information about an Iraqi supply line of Scud missiles to Coalition forces. Only one, Chris Ryan, evaded capture while the group's other surviving members were violently tortured. Flight surgeon (later General) Rhonda Cornum was raped by one of her captors after the Black Hawk she was riding in was shot down while searching for a downed F-16 pilot.","Gulf War\n\nOperation Southern Watch","Gulf War\n\nSince the war, the U.S. has had a continued presence of 5,000 troops stationed in Saudi Arabia – a figure that rose to 10,000 during the 2003 conflict in Iraq. Operation Southern Watch enforced the no-fly zones over southern Iraq set up after 1991; oil exports through the Persian Gulf's shipping lanes were protected by the Bahrain-based U.S. Fifth Fleet.","Gulf War\n\nSince Saudi Arabia houses Mecca and Medina, Islam's holiest sites, many Muslims were upset at the permanent military presence. The continued presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia after the war was one of the stated motivations behind the 11 September terrorist attacks, the Khobar Towers bombing, and the date chosen for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings (7 August), which was eight years to the day that U.S. troops were sent to Saudi Arabia. Osama bin Laden interpreted the Islamic prophet Muhammad as banning the \"permanent presence of infidels in Arabia\". In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwa, calling for U.S. troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In a December 1999 interview with Rahimullah Yusufzai, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were \"too near to Mecca\" and considered this a provocation to the entire Islamic world.","Gulf War\n\nSanctions","Gulf War\n\nOn 6 August 1990, after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the U.N. Security Council adopted Resolution 661 which imposed economic sanctions on Iraq, providing for a full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items of humanitarian necessity, these to be determined by the Council's sanctions committee. From 1991 until 2003, the effects of government policy and sanctions regime led to hyperinflation, widespread poverty and malnutrition.","Gulf War\n\nDuring the late 1990s, the U.N. considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions.","Gulf War\n\nDraining of the Qurna Marshes","Gulf War\n\nThe draining of the Qurna Marshes was an irrigation project in Iraq during and immediately after the war, to drain a large area of marshes in the Tigris–Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 3,000 square kilometers, the large complex of wetlands were almost completely emptied of water, and the local Shi'ite population relocated, following the war and 1991 uprisings. By 2000, United Nations Environment Programme estimated that 90% of the marshlands had disappeared, causing desertification of over 7500 sqmi.","Gulf War\n\nThe draining of the Qurna Marshes also called The Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes occurred in Iraq and to a smaller degree in Iran between the 1950s and 1990s to clear large areas of the marshes in the Tigris-Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi), the large complex of wetlands was 90% drained prior to the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. The marshes are typically divided into three main sub-marshes, the Hawizeh, Central, and Hammar Marshes and all three were drained at different times for different reasons. Initial draining of the Central Marshes was intended to reclaim land for agriculture but later all three marshes would become a tool of war and revenge.","Gulf War\n\nMany international organizations such as the U.N. Human Rights Commission, the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq, the Wetlands International, and Middle East Watch have described the project as a political attempt to force the Marsh Arabs out of the area through water diversion tactics.","Gulf War\n\nOil spill","Gulf War\n\nOn 23 January, Iraq dumped 400 e6USgal of crude oil into the Persian Gulf , causing the largest offshore oil spill in history at that time. It was reported as a deliberate natural resources attack to keep U.S. Marines from coming ashore (Missouri and Wisconsin had shelled Failaka Island during the war to reinforce the idea that there would be an amphibious assault attempt). About 30–40% of this came from allied raids on Iraqi coastal targets.","Gulf War\n\nKuwaiti oil fires","Gulf War\n\nThe Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to 700 oil wells as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by Coalition forces. The fires started in January and February 1991 and the last one was extinguished by November 1991.","Gulf War\n\nThe resulting fires burned out of control because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires could be put out. Somewhere around 6 Moilbbl of oil were lost each day. Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US$1.5 billion to Kuwait. By that time, however, the fires had burned for approximately ten months, causing widespread pollution.","Gulf War\n\nCost","Gulf War\n\nThe cost of the war to the United States was calculated by the U.S. Congress to be $61.1 billion. About $52 billion of that amount was paid by other countries: $36 billion by Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf; $16 billion by Germany and Japan (which sent no combat forces due to their constitutions). About 25% of Saudi Arabia's contribution was paid in the form of in-kind services to the troops, such as food and transportation. U.S. troops represented about 74% of the combined force, and the global cost was therefore higher.","Gulf War\n\nEffect on developing countries","Gulf War\n\nApart from the impact on Arab States of the Persian Gulf, the resulting economic disruptions after the crisis affected many states. The Overseas Development Institute (ODI) undertook a study in 1991 to assess the effects on developing states and the international community's response. A briefing paper finalized on the day that the conflict ended draws on their findings which had two main conclusions: Many developing states were severely affected and while there has been a considerable response to the crisis, the distribution of assistance was highly selective.","Gulf War\n\nThe ODI factored in elements of \"cost\" which included oil imports, remittance flows, re-settlement costs, loss of export earnings and tourism. For Egypt, the cost totaled $1 billion, 3% of GDP. Yemen had a cost of $830 million, 10% of GDP, while it cost Jordan $1.8 billion, 32% of GDP.","Gulf War\n\nInternational response to the crisis on developing states came with the channeling of aid through The Gulf Crisis Financial Co-ordination Group. They were 24 states, comprising most of the OECD countries plus some Gulf states: Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Kuwait. The members of this group agreed to disperse $14 billion in development assistance.","Gulf War\n\nThe World Bank responded by speeding up the disbursement of existing project and adjustment loans. The International Monetary Fund adopted two lending facilities – the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) and the Compensatory & Contingency Financing Facility (CCFF). The European Community offered $2 billion in assistance.","Gulf War\n\nMedia coverage","Gulf War\n\nThe war was heavily televised. For the first time, people all over the world were able to watch live pictures of missiles hitting their targets and fighters departing from aircraft carriers. Allied forces were keen to demonstrate their weapons' accuracy.","Gulf War\n\nIn the United States, the \"big three\" network anchors led the war's network news coverage: ABC's Peter Jennings, CBS's Dan Rather, and NBC's Tom Brokaw were anchoring their evening newscasts when air strikes began on 16 January 1991. ABC News correspondent Gary Shepard, reporting live from Baghdad, told Jennings of the city's quietness. But, moments later, Shepard was back on the air as flashes of light were seen on the horizon and tracer fire was heard on the ground.","Gulf War\n\nOn CBS, viewers were watching a report from correspondent Allen Pizzey, who was also reporting from Baghdad, when the war began. Rather, after the report was finished, announced that there were unconfirmed reports of flashes in Baghdad and heavy air traffic at bases in Saudi Arabia. On the \"NBC Nightly News\", correspondent Mike Boettcher reported unusual air activity in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Moments later, Brokaw announced to his viewers that the air attack had begun.","Gulf War\n\nStill, it was CNN whose coverage gained the most popularity and indeed its wartime coverage is often cited as one of the landmark events in the network's history (ultimately leading to the establishment of CNN International). CNN correspondents John Holliman and Peter Arnett and CNN anchor Bernard Shaw relayed audio reports from Baghdad's Al-Rashid Hotel as the air strikes began. The network had previously convinced the Iraqi government to allow installation of a permanent audio circuit in their makeshift bureau. When the telephones of all of the other Western TV correspondents went dead during the bombing, CNN was the only service able to provide live reporting. After the initial bombing, Arnett remained behind and was, for a time, the only American TV correspondent reporting from Iraq.","Gulf War\n\nIn the United Kingdom, the BBC devoted the FM portion of its national speech radio station BBC Radio 4 to an eighteen-hour rolling news format creating Radio 4 News FM. The station was short lived, ending shortly after President Bush declared the ceasefire and Kuwait's liberation. However, it paved the way for the later introduction of Radio Five Live.","Gulf War\n\nTwo BBC journalists, John Simpson and Bob Simpson (no relation), defied their editors and remained in Baghdad to report on the war's progress. They were responsible for a report which included an \"infamous cruise missile that travelled down a street and turned left at a traffic light.\"","Gulf War\n\nNewspapers all over the world also covered the war and Time magazine published a special issue dated 28 January 1991, the headline \"WAR IN THE GULF\" emblazoned on the cover over a picture of Baghdad taken as the war began.","Gulf War\n\nU.S. policy regarding media freedom was much more restrictive than in the Vietnam War. The policy had been spelled out in a Pentagon document entitled Annex Foxtrot. Most of the press information came from briefings organized by the military. Only selected journalists were allowed to visit the front lines or conduct interviews with soldiers. Those visits were always conducted in the presence of officers, and were subject to both prior approval by the military and censorship afterward. This was ostensibly to protect sensitive information from being revealed to Iraq. This policy was heavily influenced by the military's experience with the Vietnam War, in which public opposition within the U.S. grew throughout the war's course. It was not only the limitation of information in the Middle East; media were also restricting what was shown about the war with more graphic depictions like Ken Jarecke's image of a burnt Iraqi soldier being pulled from the American AP wire whereas in Europe it was given extensive coverage.","Gulf War\n\nAt the same time, the war's coverage was new in its instantaneousness. About halfway through the war, Iraq's government decided to allow live satellite transmissions from the country by Western news organizations, and U.S. journalists returned en masse to Baghdad. NBC's Tom Aspell, ABC's Bill Blakemore, and CBS News' Betsy Aaron filed reports, subject to acknowledged Iraqi censorship. Throughout the war, footage of incoming missiles was broadcast almost immediately.","Gulf War\n\nA British crew from CBS News (David Green and Andy Thompson), equipped with satellite transmission equipment traveled with the front line forces and, having transmitted live TV pictures of the fighting en route, arrived the day before the forces in Kuwait City, broadcasting live television from the city and covering the entrance of the Arab forces the next day.","Gulf War\n\nAlternative media outlets provided views in opposition to the war. Deep Dish Television compiled segments from independent producers in the U.S. and abroad, and produced a ten-hour series that was distributed internationally, called [https://web.archive.org/web/20100711090755/http://www.deepdishtv.org/Series/Default.aspx?id=4 The Gulf Crisis TV Project]. The series' first program [https://archive.org/details/ddtv_50_war_oil_and_power War, Oil and Power] was compiled and released in 1990, before the war broke out. [https://archive.org/details/ddtv_56_new_world_order News World Order] was the title of another program in the series; it focused on the media's complicity in promoting the war, as well as Americans' reactions to the media coverage. In San Francisco, as a local example, Paper Tiger Television West produced a weekly cable television show with highlights of mass demonstrations, artists' actions, lectures, and protests against mainstream media coverage at newspaper offices and television stations. Local media outlets in cities across the country screened similar oppositional media.","Gulf War\n\nThe organization Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) critically analyzed media coverage during the war in various articles and books, such as the 1991 Gulf War Coverage: The Worst Censorship was at Home.","Gulf War\n\nTechnology","Gulf War\n\nPrecision-guided munitions, such as the U.S. Air Force's AGM-130 guided missile, were heralded as key in allowing military strikes to be made with a minimum of civilian casualties compared to previous wars, although they were not used as often as more traditional, less accurate bombs. Specific buildings in downtown Baghdad could be bombed while journalists in their hotels watched cruise missiles fly by.","Gulf War\n\nPrecision-guided munitions amounted to approximately 7.4% of all bombs dropped by the Coalition. Other bombs included cluster bombs, which disperse numerous submunitions, and daisy cutters, 15,000-pound bombs which can disintegrate everything within hundreds of yards.","Gulf War\n\nGlobal Positioning System units were relatively new at the time and were important in enabling Coalition units to easily navigate across the desert. Since military GPS receivers were not available for most troops, many used commercially available units. To permit these to be used to best effect, the \"selective availability\" feature of the GPS system was turned off for the duration of Desert Storm, allowing these commercial receivers to provide the same precision as the military equipment.","Gulf War\n\nAirborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) and satellite communication systems were also important. Two examples of this are the U.S. Navy's Grumman E-2 Hawkeye and the U.S. Air Force's Boeing E-3 Sentry. Both were used in command and control area of operations. These systems provided essential communications links between air, ground, and naval forces. It is one of several reasons why Coalition forces dominated the air war.","Gulf War\n\nAmerican-made color photocopiers were used to produce some of Iraq's battle plans. Some of the copiers contained concealed high-tech transmitters that revealed their positions to American electronic warfare aircraft, leading to more precise bombings.","Gulf War\n\nScud and Patriot missiles","Gulf War\n\nThe role of Iraq's Scud missiles featured prominently in the war. Scud is a tactical ballistic missile that the Soviet Union developed and deployed among the forward deployed Red Army divisions in East Germany. The role of the Scuds which were armed with nuclear and chemical warheads was to destroy command, control, and communication facilities and delay full mobilization of Western German and Allied Forces in Germany. It could also be used to directly target ground forces.","Gulf War\n\nScud missiles utilize inertial guidance which operates for the duration that the engines operate. Iraq used Scud missiles, launching them into both Saudi Arabia and Israel. Some missiles caused extensive casualties, while others caused little damage. Concerns were raised of possible chemical or biological warheads on these rockets, but if they existed, they were not used.","Gulf War\n\nThe U.S. Patriot missile was used in combat for the first time. The U.S. military claimed a high effectiveness against Scuds at the time, but later analysis gives figures as low as nine percent, with forty-five percent of the 158 Patriot launches being against debris or false targets. The Dutch Ministry of Defense, which also sent Patriot missiles to protect civilians in Israel and Turkey, later disputed the higher claim. Further, there is at least one incident of a software error causing a Patriot missile's failure to engage an incoming Scud, resulting in deaths. Both the U.S. Army and the missile manufacturers maintained the Patriot delivered a \"miracle performance\" in the Gulf War.","Stormin' Norman\n\nStormin' Norman is a rhyming nickname frequently used for anyone named Norman who is also seen as a dynamic or ditzy personality. The name is usually a media tag. Here are a few examples of public figures with that tag:","Stormin' Norman\n\n* Norm Sloan (1926–2003), American college basketball coach\n* Norm Cash (1934–1986), major league baseball player\n* Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. (1934–2012), American military figure\n* Norm Stewart (born 1935), American college basketball coach (University of Missouri)\n* Norman Siegel (born 1943), American civil rights attorney\n* Norman Moore (born 1945), State President Liberal Party of Australia (WA Division)\n* Norm Van Lier (1947–2009), American basketball player","Stormin' Norman\n\n* Norman Ligairi (born 1976), a Fijian rugby union player\n* Norman Parke (born 1986) Northern Ireland born MMA fighter known as \"Stormin' Norman Parke.\"","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nH. Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. (; August 22, 1934 – December 27, 2012) was a United States Army general. While serving as Commander-in-Chief, United States Central Command, he led all coalition forces in the Persian Gulf War.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nBorn in Trenton, New Jersey, Schwarzkopf grew up in the United States and later in Iran. He was accepted into the U.S. Military Academy at West Point and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the United States Army in 1956. After a number of initial training programs, Schwarzkopf interrupted a stint as an academy teacher, and served in the Vietnam War first as an adviser to the South Vietnamese Army and later as a battalion commander. Schwarzkopf was highly decorated in Vietnam, being awarded three Silver Star Medals, two Purple Hearts, and the Legion of Merit. Rising through the ranks after the conflict, he later commanded the U.S. 24th Infantry Division and was one of the commanders of the Invasion of Grenada in 1983.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nAssuming command of United States Central Command in 1988, Schwarzkopf was called on to respond to the Invasion of Kuwait in 1990 by the forces of Iraq under Saddam Hussein. Initially tasked with defending Saudi Arabia from Iraqi aggression, Schwarzkopf's command eventually grew to an international force of over 750,000 troops. After diplomatic relations broke down, he planned and led Operation Desert Storm—an extended air campaign followed by a highly successful 100-hour ground offensive—which defeated the Iraqi Army and liberated Kuwait in early 1991. Schwarzkopf was presented with military honors.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nSchwarzkopf retired shortly after the end of the war and undertook a number of philanthropic ventures, only occasionally stepping into the political spotlight before his death from complications of pneumonia in late 2012. Known for being a hard-driving military commander with a strong temper, Schwarzkopf was nonetheless considered an exceptional leader by biographers and was noted for his abilities as a military diplomat and in dealing with the press.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nEarly life and education","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nSchwarzkopf was born Herbert Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. on August 22, 1934 in Trenton, New Jersey, to Herbert Norman Schwarzkopf Sr. and Ruth Alice (née Bowman). His father was a German-American 1917 graduate of the United States Military Academy and veteran of World War I. His mother was a housewife from West Virginia who was distantly related to Thomas Jefferson. The senior Schwarzkopf later became the Superintendent of the New Jersey State Police, where he worked as a lead investigator on the 1932 Lindbergh baby kidnapping case. In January 1952, the younger Schwarzkopf's birth certificate was amended to make his name \"H. Norman Schwarzkopf\", reportedly because his father detested his first name. The younger Schwarzkopf had two older sisters, Ruth Ann and Sally Joan.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nNorman Schwarzkopf was described by childhood friends as active and assertive, protective of his sisters and a skilled athlete. He spent his childhood attached to his father, who subsequently became the narrator for the Gang Busters radio program. When Norman Schwarzkopf was eight years old, his father returned to the military amid World War II. His continuous absence made home life difficult, particularly for his wife. As a 10-year-old cadet at Bordentown Military Institute, near Trenton, he posed for his official photograph wearing a stern expression because – as he said afterwards – \"Some day when I become a general, I want people to know that I’m serious.\" In 1946, when Norman Schwarzkopf was 12, he moved with his father to Tehran, Iran. In Iran, Norman learned shooting, horseback riding, and hunting. Schwarzkopf developed a lifelong interest in Middle Eastern culture. The family moved to Geneva, Switzerland, in 1947, following a new military assignment for Herbert Schwarzkopf. The senior Schwarzkopf visited Italy, Heidelberg, Frankfurt, and Berlin, Germany during his military duties, and the younger Schwarzkopf accompanied him. By 1951 he had returned to Iran briefly before returning to the United States. Herbert Schwarzkopf died in 1958.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nFrom a young age, Norman wanted to be a military officer, following his father's example.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nHe attended the Community High School in Tehran, later the International School of Geneva, and briefly Frankfurt American High School, in Frankfurt, Germany (1948–49), and Heidelberg American High School, in Heidelberg, Germany (1949–50). He finally graduated from Valley Forge Military Academy. He was also a member of Mensa. Schwarzkopf graduated valedictorian out of his class of 150, and his IQ was tested at 168. Schwarzkopf then attended the United States Military Academy, where he played football, wrestled, sang and conducted the West Point Chapel choir. His large frame, 6 ft in height and weighing 240 lb, was advantageous in athletics. In his plebe year he was given the nickname \"Schwarzie,\" the same as his father, and he was often pushed by older cadets to imitate his father's radio show as a traditional act of hazing. Schwarzkopf also gained a great respect for certain military leaders at West Point, notably Ulysses S. Grant, William Tecumseh Sherman and Creighton Abrams, believing them excellent commanders who nonetheless did not glorify war. He graduated 43rd of 480 in the class of 1956 with a Bachelor of Engineering degree. Norman earned a Masters of Engineering at the University of Southern California. [http://www.biography.com/people/norman-schwarzkopf-9476401#early-life]","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nCareer","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nJunior officer","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nCommissioned as a second lieutenant in the Infantry Branch, Schwarzkopf spent October 1956 to March 1957 at United States Army Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia, where he earned his Parachutist Badge. His first assignment was as platoon leader, later executive officer, of E Company, 2nd Airborne Battle Group, 187th Airborne Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. He was promoted to first lieutenant in 1958. In July 1959, Schwarzkopf was assigned his first overseas assignment; as a staff officer alternating with duties as a platoon leader, liaison officer, and reconnaissance platoon leader with the 6th Infantry Division in West Germany. In July 1960, Schwarzkopf was assigned as aide-de-camp to Brigadier General Charles Johnson, who commanded the Berlin Brigade in West Berlin.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nSchwarzkopf was promoted to captain in July 1961 and reassigned for Advanced Infantry School at Fort Benning for eight months. He also earned his Master Parachutist Badge in that time. In June 1962, Schwarzkopf enrolled at the University of Southern California in a Master of Science in Engineering course studying missile mechanics. He graduated in June 1964, having earned a Master of Science in mechanical and aerospace engineering. He then returned to West Point to serve as an instructor in the Department of Mechanics. He was originally intended to teach at the Military Academy for three years, but after his first year he volunteered for service in South Vietnam because he thought that career advancement could be most quickly earned in combat. West Point approved his request in early 1965 with the stipulation that he return and teach the remaining two years after his tour.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nVietnam War","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nIn the Vietnam War, Schwarzkopf served as a task force adviser to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam Airborne Division. He was promoted to major shortly after arriving in Vietnam. After an initial orientation at Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), headquartered in Saigon, Schwarzkopf was sent north to Pleiku in the central highlands, in the II Corps Tactical Zone. He got his first combat experience on August 3, when he was the senior adviser to a force of 1,000 South Vietnamese paratroopers sent to relieve a beleaguered South Vietnamese Army force at Đức Cơ Camp. The paratroopers took heavy casualties and a second, larger force was required to relieve them. That force too came into heavy contact. Schwarzkopf and his group fought continuously for several days. At one point, he braved heavy North Vietnamese fire to recover and treat a handful of wounded South Vietnamese soldiers and escort them to safety. By August 17 the 173rd Airborne Brigade arrived and broke the siege, ending the Battle of Đức Cơ. General William Westmoreland later arrived to review the incident and congratulate Schwarzkopf. For his leadership in the battle, Schwarzkopf was awarded the Silver Star.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nOn February 14, 1966, Schwarzkopf led an ARVN paratrooper assault on a Viet Cong position, during which he was wounded four times by small arms fire. In spite of this, he refused medical evacuation or to relinquish command until the objective had been captured. For this, he was awarded a second Silver Star and a Purple Heart.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nAfter ten months of combat duty, Schwarzkopf was pulled from the front by MACV and reassigned as senior staff adviser for civil affairs to the ARVN Airborne Division. Then, he returned to the United States and finished his teaching assignment at West Point, where he was an associate professor in the Department of Mechanics. In 1968, he attended the Army's Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, completing the course in June 1969. In this time back home, he also met Brenda Holsinger, a flight attendant for Trans World Airlines. They were introduced at a West Point football game in 1967 and married the next year. The couple would later have three children: Cynthia, born in 1970; Jessica, born in 1972; and Christian, born in 1977.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nSchwarzkopf was promoted to lieutenant colonel and ordered to a second tour in Vietnam, leaving in June 1969. He was assigned as executive officer to the chief of staff at MACV headquarters, based at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in Saigon. Schwarzkopf later recalled this second tour of duty was very different from his first; there were 500,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam, the Vietnamization strategy was in effect, and recent events such as the Tet Offensive and My Lai Massacre put troops under increased political scrutiny. In December 1969 he gained his first field command, taking over the 1st Battalion, 6th Infantry, 198th Infantry Brigade at Chu Lai. He later said these troops were initially demoralized and in poor condition, racked with rampant drug use and disciplinary problems as well as a lack of support from home. Despite the brigade's otherwise controversial performance record, Schwarzkopf was quickly regarded as one of its best combat commanders. He aggressively stepped up patrols and operations to counter Viet Cong infiltration in the battalion's sector. He developed his leadership attitudes during this command.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nFellow commander Hal Moore later wrote that during his time in Vietnam Schwarzkopf acquired his well-known temper, while arguing via radio for passing American helicopters to land and pick up his wounded men. He also showed a preference of leading from the front and prided himself on avoiding the rear areas, which he called a \"cesspool.\"","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nDuring this second tour, Schwarzkopf noted two incidents which haunted him. On February 17, 1970, two men in C Company, 1st Battalion, 6th Infantry were killed by friendly fire from an American artillery shell that had been ordered by Schwarzkopf, but which had struck a tree near their position on its way to a target. The parents of one soldier blamed him for the death of their son, a claim which Schwarzkopf strongly denied and termed an accident of war. On May 28, 1970, Schwarzkopf landed his helicopter when discovering troops of B Company who had stumbled into a minefield. Two company officers had been wounded and two soldiers were trapped, fearful of setting off more mines. Although a medevac was on its way, Schwarzkopf ordered his UH-1 Huey to remove the wounded. As he attempted to help the troops back out of the field, one soldier struck a landmine, breaking a leg, and began to panic. Fearing he would set off another landmine, Schwarzkopf pinned the soldier to the ground while another soldier put a splint on the wounded man's leg. In doing so, another mine was set off, killing three and wounding Schwarzkopf's artillery officer.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nReturning to the United States in 1970, Schwarzkopf was awarded a third Silver Star and a second Purple Heart for risking his life to protect the soldiers, as well as three Bronze Star Medals and a Legion of Merit for his command performance. Still, his experiences in Vietnam embittered him to U.S. foreign policy. Upon returning to the United States, he remarked of a wariness of future conflicts to author C. D. B. Bryan in 1971: He related these experiences under the assumed name of Lieutenant Colonel Byron Schindler.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nRise to general","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nDisgruntled by the treatment of Vietnam veterans in the United States after the war, Schwarzkopf considered leaving the military, but ultimately decided to stay, hoping to fix some of the problems encountered by the military during the war. He underwent surgery at Walter Reed Army Hospital shortly after his return from Vietnam to repair longstanding back problems exacerbated by parachute jumps.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nBetween 1970 and 1983, Schwarzkopf and his family lived primarily in Washington, D.C., as he took on a number of different assignments. Promoted to colonel, Schwarzkopf volunteered for an assignment in Alaska, and in late 1974 became deputy commander of the 172nd Infantry Brigade at Fort Richardson, Alaska. In October 1976, he moved to Fort Lewis, Washington, to command the 1st Brigade of the 9th Infantry Division, where he impressed his division commander, Major General Richard E. Cavazos. The two frequently hunted together and developed a close friendship. Having been very successful improving the combat readiness of the 1st Brigade, he was nominated to receive his first star as a brigadier general. His promotion ceremony occurred at Fort Lewis shortly after relinquishing command of the brigade.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nIn July 1978, Schwarzkopf became deputy director of plans at the U.S. Pacific Command in Hawaii. He then served a two-year stint as assistant division commander of the 8th Infantry Division (Mechanized) in Germany. He returned to Washington D.C. for an assignment as director of personnel management for the Army, subordinate to the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, General Maxwell R. Thurman. Schwarzkopf was promoted to major general. In June 1983, he became commanding general of the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized) at Fort Stewart, Georgia. He immediately established an extremely rigorous training regimen and became well known among the troops of the command for his strict training and aggressive personality.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nOn October 25, 1983, Schwarzkopf was appointed to the command group for the Invasion of Grenada. He was the chief army adviser to the overall operation commander, Vice Admiral Joseph Metcalf III, Commander, United States Second Fleet/Commander Joint Task Force 120. The operation was plagued by logistical difficulties, exacerbated by poor communication and lack of cooperation between the branches of the United States military. Schwarzkopf was named deputy commander of the invasion at the last minute, leaving him with little say in the planning. Schwarzkopf helped lead the initial landing operations while aboard . He was involved in an incident where the colonel commanding the 22nd Marine Amphibious Unit initially refused to fly Army troops in Marine helicopters. He flew into St. George's on the second day of the operation. While he initially did not think the U.S. should have been involved in the conflict, he later said he considered the mission a success because it re-asserted the dominance of the U.S. military after the Vietnam War. Following the invasion, Schwarzkopf returned to the 24th Infantry Division and completed his tour as its commander.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nHe was subsequently among those leaders who were criticized for the poor inter-service cooperation in the operation, particularly poor communication between forces of the different branches in combat. The operation was a learning experience for Schwarzkopf, who saw the need to develop greater cooperation between the services for future joint operations. He would later push for more policies to make joint warfare and inter-service cooperation standard practice in warfare. Specifically, the operation demonstrated a need for greater joint roles in planning, deploying troops, and communicating operations. Subsequent operations gave more authority to joint commanders in operations and doctrine emphasized joint warfare doctrine over service-centered doctrine.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nIn July 1985, Schwarzkopf began an 11-month assignment as Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans at the Pentagon. On July 1, 1986, he was promoted to lieutenant general, and was reassigned to Fort Lewis as commander of I Corps. He held this post for 14 months before returning to the Pentagon as Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans in August 1987. In a second role, Schwarzkopf served as the Army's senior member on the Military Staff Committee at the United Nations Security Council, where he began to build diplomatic skills in dealings with representatives from other countries. As a part of his duties during the posting, he sat in on arms reduction talks with leaders from the Soviet Union.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nCENTCOM commander","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nIn November 1988, Schwarzkopf was named commander of United States Central Command (CENTCOM), succeeding General George B. Crist. Schwarzkopf was selected over a more popular choice, Vice Admiral Henry C. Mustin, because commanders considered him an accomplished strategic thinker who had experience both in combat and with diplomacy, and who had great knowledge of the Middle East from his childhood experiences there. He assumed command of CENTCOM, with his headquarters at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida, and was promoted to general. At the time of this appointment, CENTCOM had overall responsibility for U.S. military operations in 19 countries, and had 200,000 servicemen on call should a crisis arise. Schwarzkopf immediately took to changing the focus of the command, which to that point had focused on the \"Zagros Doctrine\", a hypothetical ground invasion by the Soviet Union through the Zagros Mountains which the U.S. would counter in Iran. Schwarzkopf was more concerned with the effects of the Iran–Iraq War on the stability of the region than of an external threat posed by the Soviet Union.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nIn testimony before the Senate Armed Services Committee in March 1989, Schwarzkopf maintained that the Soviet Union was a threat to the region, but when giving an overview of the countries in the region, noted that Iraq posed a threat to its weaker neighbors. He implored that the U.S. \"seek to assert a moderating influence in Iraq.\" With regional turmoil growing, Schwarzkopf became concerned about the threat posed by Saddam Hussein, focusing the attention of his command to prepare to respond to what he thought was a \"more realistic scenario.\" That year, his command began planning to counter an Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, seeing it as a likely conflict which would threaten the interests of the United States. In early 1990 he testified again before the Senate Armed Services Committee in threat-assessment hearings that the Cold War was ending and it was less likely the Soviet Union would exert military force in the region. Though he declined to identify Iraq specifically as a threat, he noted a regional conflict was the most likely event to destabilize the region, and noted Iraq's ceasefire with Iran meant it was continuing to grow and modernize its military.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nIn early 1990, he drafted a war plan, Operations Plan 1002-90, titled \"Defense of the Arabian Peninsula,\" which envisioned an Iraqi invasion of Saudi Arabia through Kuwait.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nDuring CENTCOM military exercises in July 1990 termed Internal Look '90, Schwarzkopf wrote up a scenario that tested how the command would respond to a regional dictator invading a neighboring country and threatening oil fields there, a scenario which closely mirrored the rising tension between Iraq and Kuwait. One week after the end of these exercises, Iraq invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nPersian Gulf War","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nInitially believing the Iraqi Army would only advance to the Ramallah oil field, Schwarzkopf was surprised when the Iraqis captured Kuwait City. Fearing Iraq would next invade Saudi Arabia, Schwarzkopf ordered contingency plans put in motion, with the 82nd Airborne Division, 101st Airborne Division and 24th Infantry Division put on alert. He was then called to an emergency meeting with President George H. W. Bush (also a combat veteran), where his Internal Look '90 strategic plans were made the basis of a potential counteroffensive plan. By August 5, Bush opted for an aggressive response to the invasion. Schwarzkopf then accompanied Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney to meet with Saudi King Fahd to convince him to allow U.S. troops into Saudi Arabia to counter the Iraqi military. With Fahd's consent, Bush ordered troops into Saudi Arabia on August 7, initially tasked to defend Saudi Arabia should Iraq attack. U.S. commanders from the beginning wanted a quick conflict characterized by decisive, overwhelming force, as opposed to the gradual escalation of U.S. involvement as had been seen in Vietnam.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nSchwarzkopf in particular was very adamant that many of the policies governing military operations in Vietnam, especially slow escalation of air power and troop force, not reoccur. His plan for direct and overwhelming force was initially criticized in Washington as uncreative. By August 13, the news media began to closely cover Schwarzkopf, who had been named to lead the operation.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nOperation Desert Shield","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nFrom his headquarters in Tampa, Schwarzkopf began planning the operations to defend Saudi Arabia. Lieutenant General Charles Horner, USAF, ran the headquarters in Riyadh. Schwarzkopf planned supply lines for the 50,000 troops initially sent to Saudi Arabia, tapping Major General William G. Pagonis as director of the logistical operations, with U.S. Air Force cargo aircraft landing supplies at Dhahran and U.S. Navy ships offloading troops and supplies at Dammam. By August 20, 20,000 U.S. troops were in Saudi Arabia, with another 80,000 preparing to deploy, and a further 40,000 reserves tapped to augment them. Schwarzkopf arrived at the CENTCOM command in Riyadh on August 25, and on August 29 he conducted his first front-line tour of the potential combat zone, accompanied by reporters. Over the next several weeks, Schwarzkopf spoke frequently with both reporters and troops under his command, conducting many high-profile press conferences and updates to the situation in Saudi Arabia. Schwarzkopf worked to help coordinate the contributions of the different nations contributing military forces to the effort. By mid-October, Schwarzkopf indicated he was confident the forces were of a sufficient level that they could defend Saudi Arabia if it was attacked.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nThrough October, Schwarzkopf and his command were occupied with setting up facilities and supply lines for the troops streaming into Saudi Arabia. He also worked to minimize the culture clash among foreigners in sharia-dominated Saudi Arabia, such as the high visibility of women in military roles. Schwarzkopf remained at his command in Riyadh through December, making frequent frontline visits to the troops. On December 29, 1990, he received a warning order from The Pentagon to be ready to attack into Iraq and Kuwait by January 17.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nInitially, Operation Desert Shield involved a sea interdiction campaign that saw international warships detaining and inspecting tankers from Iraq. As the buildup continued, Schwarzkopf was occupied with planning an offensive operation against the Iraqi units along the border, sometimes working 18-hour days in planning, assisted by a close group of aides. He frequently met with subordinates and Saudi commanders. Schwarzkopf planned counters both for Iraq's large armored forces and air forces, as well as its elite Republican Guard forces. While planning, Schwarzkopf remained in frequent contact with Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell (both Vietnam veterans) concerning Schwarzkopf's plans for the offensive. Schwarzkopf devised an operational plan, dubbed \"Operation Desert Storm,\" to be based on overwhelming force and strong infantry attacks supported by artillery and armor. It incorporated the desert warfare strategies used by British commander Bernard Montgomery in his defeat of German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel at the Second Battle of El Alamein in World War II. By November 8, Bush agreed to commit 400,000 U.S. troops to Saudi Arabia at Schwarzkopf's insistence. Schwarzkopf believed larger numbers of troops would reduce the likelihood of high casualties.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nHe planned a strategic bombing campaign to precede an offensive into Kuwait, simultaneously striking the forward Iraqi forces and their supply lines. In the meantime, diplomatic solutions began to break down, and the deadline established by the United Nations Security Council, January 15, 1991, passed without a solution.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nBy this time, Schwarzkopf commanded an international army of 750,000, comprising 500,000 U.S. troops and 250,000 troops from other nations, as well as thousands of main battle tanks, combat aircraft and six carrier battle groups. Most of the U.S. and allied forces, however, were not combat veterans, and Schwarzkopf and the other allied commanders wanted to fight cautiously to minimize casualties. Schwarzkopf's experience in the Middle East allowed him to understand the factors surrounding the conflict, including allied commanders, with greater ease. He had a good relationship with Saudi commander Khalid bin Sultan, who in turn helped Schwarzkopf win over the Saudi Arabian populace. In spite of the cooperation, he later said he considered the Arab troops to be the least effective of the war. Schwarzkopf also had an agreeable relationship with his deputy commander, Lieutenant General Cal Waller, who handled much of the administrative burden. Peter de la Billière, commander of the British contingent, and Michel Roquejeoffre, commander of the French contingent, also cooperated well with Schwarzkopf. The good relationship between the allied commanders meant their forces were able to cooperate effectively during the operation.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nOperation Desert Storm","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nThe air campaign against Iraq began on January 17, 1991, after 139 days of planning and buildup. Schwarzkopf sent a prepared statement to the troops ahead of the first airstrikes, which were timed to hit their targets at 02:40. He oversaw the strikes from his war room in Riyadh, then emerged from his command center late in the day on January 18 to speak to the press, saying the air war had gone \"just about exactly as we had intended it to go\". He then began making frequent briefings to the media to increase press coverage of the results. He declined to measure the success of the campaign by counting suspected Iraqi casualties, believing this would undermine his credibility. The air campaign proved to be a success by achieving air superiority and destroying the Iraqi military's communications network, supplies, as well as many tanks and armored vehicles. By January 20 he announced Iraq's nuclear test reactors had been destroyed, and by January 27 he announced that the coalition had total air superiority in Iraq. Bush then gave Hussein an ultimatum to withdraw from Kuwait by 12:00 on February 23 or Schwarzkopf's ground forces would attack.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nSchwarzkopf began his ground campaign in earnest at 04:00 on February 24, with the Saudi-led Arab forces attacking into Kuwait City, while two U.S. Marine Corps divisions struck at the oil fields, and the VII Corps and XVIII Airborne Corps on the left flank struck quickly to cut off the Iraqi forces from the west, which would later be known as his \"Left Hook\" strategy. Schwarzkopf expected the war to last several weeks, and had anticipated chemical weapon attacks by the Iraqi forces, which did not occur. Resistance was lighter than Schwarzkopf expected, and Iraqi troops surrendered in large numbers. Within 90 hours, his force had destroyed 42 of 50 Iraqi Army divisions at a cost of about 125 killed and 200 wounded among American troops, and about 482 killed, 458 wounded among all of the coalition. He ordered his forces to destroy as much Iraqi armor and equipment as possible in order to ensure the country's military would be weakened in the long term. Schwarzkopf, who had ordered a media blackout during the ground offensive, finally appeared before journalists on February 27 to explain his strategy.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nOn March 3 he arrived in Kuwait City to survey the aftermath of the Iraqi occupation and negotiate a ceasefire with Iraqi military leaders, as well as work out the return of prisoners of war on both sides. With this in place, he then began the process of overseeing U.S. troops returning from the conflict.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nFor his services during the war, he was welcomed back to America with a large parade down Broadway in New York, along with other honors. Schwarzkopf led a highly publicized homecoming parade in Washington, D.C., on June 8, 1991, where he was greeted by Bush amid thousands of onlookers. His accomplishments were praised in a manner much differently from commanders who returned from the Vietnam and Korean Wars. He became an instant national celebrity and the source of great curiosity by the general public. He was quick to award praise and medals to the troops, part of what he saw as restoring pride in the U.S. armed forces after the Vietnam War.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nLater life","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nRetirement","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nSchwarzkopf returned to the United States after the Persian Gulf War as a national hero, and his ability to effectively deal with the press left him a positive image. Schwarzkopf indicated a desire to retire from the military in mid-1991. He was initially considered for promotion alternatively to General of the Army or to Army Chief of Staff, and was ultimately asked to assume the latter post, but he declined. He was later questioned about running for political office, but, considering himself an independent, expressed little interest in doing so. Schwarzkopf was not vocal about his political opinions during his military career. He retired from the military in August 1991, moving to Tampa, Florida.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nFollowing his retirement, Schwarzkopf attained a status as celebrity, and was highly praised in the news media. He was profiled by the Associated Press, the Washington Post, and Newsday, People, as well as praised in a Random House publication on the war, Triumph in the Desert. Schwarzkopf's speaking fees topped $60,000 per public appearance.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nIn 1992, Schwarzkopf published a memoir, It Doesn't Take a Hero, about his life; it became a bestseller. Schwarzkopf sold the rights to his memoirs to Bantam Books for $5,000,000. In 1993, Schwarzkopf was found to have prostate cancer, for which he was successfully treated. Among the many honors he received was the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2002. Queen Elizabeth II honorarily knighted Schwarzkopf and he was awarded many other military accolades from foreign countries. He led the Pegasus Parade at the Kentucky Derby and was an honorary guest at the Indianapolis 500. He supported several children's charities and national philanthropic causes, and he was a spokesperson for prostate cancer awareness, recovery of the grizzly bear from endangered species status, and served on the Nature Conservancy board of governors. Schwarzkopf otherwise sought to live out a low-profile retirement in Tampa, though he briefly served as a military commentator for NBC.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nAt first, Schwarzkopf was ambivalent during the run-up to the Iraq War in 2003. He initially endorsed an invasion after Colin Powell's presentation to the United Nations on February 6, 2003. When weapons of mass destruction were not located in the country after the invasion, he changed his stance. He was critical of the lack of a reconstruction plan after the fall of Baghdad, feeling the initial offensive operations plans did not take into account the cultural complexities of Iraq. In 2004, he was critical of Donald Rumsfeld and his handling of Operation Iraqi Freedom. He felt it was a mistake to send U.S. Army Reserve troops into the country without adequate training.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nSchwarzkopf endorsed George W. Bush in the 2000 U.S. presidential election and the 2004 U.S. presidential election. He supported John McCain in the 2008 U.S. presidential election. He was on several occasions encouraged to run for United States Senate or President of the United States as a member of the Republican Party, but showed no interest.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nDeath","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nSchwarzkopf died at age 78 on December 27, 2012 of complications following a bout of pneumonia. A memorial service was conducted on February 28, 2013 at the Cadet Chapel at West Point, which was attended by Colin Powell, Schwarzkopf's family, and others. Schwarzkopf was cremated and his remains were buried near those of his father in the West Point Cemetery in a ceremony attended by cadets, military leaders, and New Jersey State Police officers.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nAmong reactions to Schwarzkopf's death, George H. W. Bush said of him; \"General Norm Schwarzkopf, to me, epitomized the 'duty, service, country' creed that has defended our freedom and seen this great Nation through our most trying international crises. More than that, he was a good and decent man and a dear friend.\" In a statement, President Barack Obama said \"From his decorated service in Vietnam to the historic liberation of Kuwait and his leadership of United States Central Command, General Schwarzkopf stood tall for the country and Army he loved.\" In a letter, Secretary of the Army John McHugh and Army Chief of Staff General Raymond T. Odierno wrote in a joint statement, \"Our nation owes a great debt of gratitude to General Schwarzkopf and our Soldiers will hold a special place in their hearts for this great leader. While much will be written in coming days of his many accomplishments, his most lasting and important legacies are the tremendous Soldiers he trained and led.\"","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nLegacy","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nDuring his tour of duty in Vietnam, Schwarzkopf developed a reputation as a commander who preferred to lead from the front, even willing to risk his own life for his subordinates. His leadership style stressed preparedness, discipline and rigorous training, but also allowed his troops to enjoy the luxuries they had. His rehabilitation of the 1st Battalion, 6th Infantry stressed survival as well as offense. Like Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel and General George S. Patton, Schwarzkopf highly regarded decisiveness and valued determination among his commanders. He pushed for offensive combat over defensive operations in the Gulf War. He was known to be extremely critical of staff officers who were unprepared, but was even more contentious with other generals whom he felt were not aggressive enough. His frequently short temper with subordinates was well known in his command. His leadership style was sometimes criticized by subordinates who felt it reduced their ability to solve problems creatively. Army Chief of Staff Carl E. Vuono, a lifelong friend of Schwarzkopf, described him as \"competent, compassionate, egotistical, loyal, opinionated, funny, emotional, sensitive to any slight.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nAt times he can be an overbearing bastard, but not with me.\" While Colin Powell would say Schwarzkopf's strengths outweighed his weaknesses, Dick Cheney personally disliked what he considered Schwarzkopf's pretentious behavior with subordinates. Cheney doubted Schwarzkopf's ability to lead the Gulf War, and so Powell dealt with Schwarzkopf instead.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nThe quick and decisive results of the Persian Gulf War were attributed to Schwarzkopf's leadership. Historian Rick Atkinson considered Schwarzkopf \"the most theatrical American in uniform since Douglas MacArthur.\" Atkinson further contended that in his leadership during the Persian Gulf War, Schwarzkopf conducted one of the greatest military campaigns of all time, providing the United States with its \"first battlefield hero in decades.\" His accomplishments were later compared favorably to that of General Tommy Franks during Operation Enduring Freedom. However, in an analysis of the effects of the Gulf War, several historians, including Spencer C. Tucker, contended that Schwarzkopf's ceasefire agreement allowed Iraq to continue to fly armed helicopters, which allowed it to later conduct operations against its Shia Arab and Kurdish populations. Schwarzkopf later wrote it would have been a mistake to continue the offensive and capture all of Iraq, noting that the U.S. would likely have had to pay the entire cost of rebuilding the country. In a 2012 book, historian Thomas E. Ricks wrote Schwarzkopf's lack of experience with politics were disadvantageous to his conduct of the war.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nRicks said that Schwarzkopf was overly cautious in the execution of his plans because of his fear of repeating mistakes in Vietnam, which meant his troops failed to destroy the Iraqi Republican Guard. Ricks further criticized Schwarzkopf for failing to relieve General Frederick M. Franks Jr., as well as other subordinates who Schwarzkopf later said in his memoirs were ineffective. Ricks concluded that the Gulf War was a \"tactical triumph but a strategic draw at best.\" In his memoirs, Schwarzkopf responded to these kinds of criticisms by saying his mandate had only been to liberate and safeguard Kuwait, and that an invasion of Iraq would have been highly controversial, particularly among Middle Eastern military allies.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nSchwarzkopf sought to change the relationship between journalists and the military, feeling that the news media's negative portrayal of the Vietnam War had degraded troops there. When he took command during the Persian Gulf War, he sought an entirely different strategy which was ultimately successful, where he favored greater media coverage, albeit subject to strict controls on the battlefield. Schwarzkopf favored the intense press surrounding the Gulf War conflict, feeling that blocking the news media as had been done in Grenada would contribute to negative public perception of the war in the United States. His dealings with the press were thus frequent and very personal, conducting regular briefings for journalists. He would usually not attack media coverage, even negative coverage, unless he felt it was blatantly incorrect. He staged visible media appearances which played to patriotism. In fact, Schwarzkopf believed extensive press coverage would help build public support for the war and raise morale. In some press conferences, he showed and explained advanced war-fighting technology the U.S. possessed to impress the public. These also had the side effect of distracting the public from focusing on U.S. casualty counts or the destruction wrought in the war.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nSchwarzkopf's strategy was to control the message being sent, he therefore ordered media on the battlefield to be escorted at all times. In spite of this, several high-profile reports publicized the CENTCOM strategy. After the war Schwarzkopf was very critical of military analysts who scrutinized his operation, feeling that some of them were poorly informed on the factors involved in his planning, and that others were violating operational security by revealing too much about how he might plan the operation.","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nAwards and decorations","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nSchwarzkopf was awarded the following military decorations:","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\nOther honors","Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\n\n*United States Republican Senatorial Medal of Freedom \n*Schwarzkopf Elementary School, named after him in Lutz, Florida, 1991. \n*Honorary First-Class Private in the French Foreign Legion, 1991. \n*Distinguished German-American of the Year, 2006. \n*Inducted in the New Jersey Hall of Fame, 2008. \n*Time Magazine cover on February 4, 1991, and April 1, 1996. \n*Trail at Telluride Ski Resort renamed \"Stormin' Normin\", 2012."],"string":"[\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe Gulf War (2 August 1990 – 28 February 1991), codenamed Operation Desert Shield (2 August 1990 – 17 January 1991), for operations leading to the buildup of troops and defense of Saudi Arabia and Operation Desert Storm (17 January 1991 – 28 February 1991) in its combat phase, was a war waged by coalition forces from 34 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe war is also known under other names, such as the Persian Gulf War, First Gulf War, Gulf War I, Kuwait War, First Iraq War, or Iraq War before the term \\\"Iraq War\\\" became identified instead with the 2003 Iraq War (also referred to in the U.S. as \\\"Operation Iraqi Freedom\\\"). \\nThe Iraqi Army's occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the U.N. Security Council. U.S. President George H. W. Bush deployed U.S. forces into Saudi Arabia, and urged other countries to send their own forces to the scene. An array of nations joined the Coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the Coalition's military forces were from the U.S., with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom and Egypt as leading contributors, in that order. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the U.S. network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board U.S. bombers during Operation Desert Storm.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991, continuing for five weeks. This was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a decisive victory for the Coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait and advanced into Iraqi territory. The Coalition ceased its advance, and declared a cease-fire 100 hours after the ground campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas on Saudi Arabia's border. Iraq launched Scud missiles against Coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nTerminology\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe following names have been used to describe the conflict itself:\\n*Gulf War and Persian Gulf War have been the most common terms for the conflict used within western countries. A problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts: see Gulf War (disambiguation). The use of the term Persian Gulf (as opposed to Arabian Gulf) is also disputed: see Persian Gulf naming dispute. With no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Some variants include:\\n**Gulf War (e.g. The Gulf War, BBC television series, 2005; Modern Conflicts: The Gulf War, Discovery Channel DVD set, 2010)\\n**Persian Gulf War (e.g. Encyclopedia of the Persian Gulf War, Mark Grossman, 1995; An Operational Analysis of the Persian Gulf War, U.S. Army War College, 2016)\\n**Gulf War (1990–1991) (e.g. The Gulf War 1991 (Essential Histories), Alastair Finlan, 2003; Gulf War, 1990-91, William Thomas Allison, 2012)\\n**First Gulf War (to distinguish it from the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the subsequent Iraq War) (e.g. Gulf War One: Real Voices from the Front Line, Hugh McManners, 2010)\\n**Second Gulf War (to distinguish it from the Iran–Iraq War) (e.g.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIraq and the Second Gulf War: State Building and Regime Security, Mohammad-Mahmoud Mohamedou, 1997)\\n*Liberation of Kuwait () (taḥrīr al-kuwayt) is the term used by Kuwait and most of the Coalition's Arab states including Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Egypt and the United Arab Emirates. *Other language terms include and (Gulf War); (Second Gulf War); (War of Kuwait)\\n*The mother of all battles () (umm al-ma‘ārik) is a term derived from Saddam Hussein (e.g. The Mother of All Battles: Saddam Hussein's Strategic Plan for the Persian Gulf War, Kevin M. Woods, 2008).\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOperational names\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nMost of the Coalition states used various names for their operations and the war's operational phases. These are sometimes incorrectly used as the conflict's overall name, especially the U.S. Desert Storm:\\n*Operation Desert Shield was the U.S. operational name for the U.S. buildup of forces and Saudi Arabia's defense from 2 August 1990, to 16 January 1991.\\n*Operation Desert Storm was the U.S. name of the airland conflict from 17 January 1991, through 11 April 1991.\\n**Operation Desert Sabre (early name Operation Desert Sword) was the U.S. name for the airland offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations (the \\\"100-hour war\\\") from 24–28 February 1991, in itself, part of Operation Desert Storm.\\n*Operation Desert Farewell was the name given to the return of U.S. units and equipment to the U.S. in 1991 after Kuwait's liberation, sometimes referred to as Operation Desert Calm.\\n*Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations and conflict.\\n*Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict.\\n*Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations\\n*Operazione Locusta (Italian for Locust) was the Italian name for the operations and conflict.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCampaign names\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe U.S. divided the conflict into three major campaigns:\\n*Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991.\\n*Liberation and Defense of Kuwait for the period 17 January 1991, through 11 April 1991.\\n*Southwest Asia Cease-Fire for the period 12 April 1991, through 30 November 1995, including Operation Provide Comfort.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nBackground\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThroughout the Cold War, Iraq had been an ally of the Soviet Union, and there was a history of friction between it and the United States. The U.S. was concerned with Iraq's position on Israeli–Palestinian politics, and its disapproval of the nature of the peace between Israel and Egypt. The U.S. also disliked Iraqi support for many Arab and Palestinian militant groups such as Abu Nidal, which led to Iraq's inclusion on the developing U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism on 29 December 1979. The U.S. remained officially neutral after Iraq's invasion of Iran in 1980, which became the Iran–Iraq War, although it provided resources, political support, and some \\\"non-military\\\" aircraft to Iraq. In March 1982, Iran began a successful counteroffensive (Operation Undeniable Victory), and the U.S. increased its support for Iraq to prevent Iran from forcing a surrender. In a U.S. bid to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the country was removed from the U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Ostensibly this was because of improvement in the regime's record, although former U.S. Assistant Defense Secretary Noel Koch later stated, \\\"No one had any doubts about [the Iraqis'] continued involvement in terrorism ...\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe real reason was to help them succeed in the war against Iran.\\\" With Iraq's newfound success in the war, and the Iranian rebuff of a peace offer in July, arms sales to Iraq reached a record spike in 1982. When Iraqi President Saddam Hussein expelled Abu Nidal to Syria at the U.S.' request in November 1983, the Reagan administration sent Donald Rumsfeld to meet Saddam as a special envoy and to cultivate ties. By the time the ceasefire with Iran was signed in August 1988, Iraq was heavily debt-ridden and tensions within society were rising. Most of its debt was owed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Iraq pressured both nations to forgive the debts, but they refused.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe Iraq–Kuwait dispute also involved Iraqi claims to Kuwait as Iraqi territory. Kuwait had been a part of the Ottoman Empire's province of Basra, something that Iraq claimed made it rightful Iraq territory. Its ruling dynasty, the al-Sabah family, had concluded a protectorate agreement in 1899 that assigned responsibility for its foreign affairs to the United Kingdom. The UK drew the border between the two countries in 1922, making Iraq virtually landlocked. Kuwait rejected Iraqi attempts to secure further provisions in the region.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIraq also accused Kuwait of exceeding its OPEC quotas for oil production. In order for the cartel to maintain its desired price of $18 a barrel, discipline was required. The United Arab Emirates and Kuwait were consistently overproducing; the latter at least in part to repair losses caused by Iranian attacks in the Iran–Iraq War and to pay for the losses of an economic scandal. The result was a slump in the oil price – as low as $10 a barrel – with a resulting loss of $7 billion a year to Iraq, equal to its 1989 balance of payments deficit. Resulting revenues struggled to support the government's basic costs, let alone repair Iraq's damaged infrastructure. Jordan and Iraq both looked for more discipline, with little success. The Iraqi government described it as a form of economic warfare, which it claimed was aggravated by Kuwait slant-drilling across the border into Iraq's Rumaila oil field. At the same time, Saddam looked for closer ties with those Arab states that had supported Iraq in the war.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThis was supported by the U.S., who believed that Iraqi ties with pro-Western Gulf states would help bring and maintain Iraq inside the U.S.' sphere of influence.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn 1989, it appeared that Saudi-Iraqi relations, strong during the war, would be maintained. A pact of non-interference and non-aggression was signed between the countries, followed by a Kuwaiti-Iraqi deal for Iraq to supply Kuwait with water for drinking and irrigation, although a request for Kuwait to lease Iraq Umm Qasr was rejected. Saudi-backed development projects were hampered by Iraq's large debts, even with the demobilization of 200,000 soldiers. Iraq also looked to increase arms production so as to become an exporter, although the success of these projects was also restrained by Iraq's obligations; in Iraq, resentment to OPEC's controls mounted.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIraq's relations with its Arab neighbors – in particular Egypt – were degraded by mounting violence in Iraq against expatriate groups, well-employed during the war, by Iraqi unemployed, among them demobilized soldiers. These events drew little notice outside the Arab world because of fast-moving events in Eastern Europe. The U.S. did, however, begin to condemn Iraq's human rights record, including the well-known use of torture. The UK also condemned the execution of Farzad Bazoft, a journalist working for the British newspaper The Observer. Following Saddam's declaration that \\\"binary chemical weapons\\\" would be used on Israel if it used military force against Iraq, Washington halted part of its funding. A U.N. mission to the Israeli-occupied territories, where riots had resulted in Palestinian deaths, was vetoed by the U.S., making Iraq deeply skeptical of U.S. foreign policy aims in the region, combined with the U.S.' reliance on Middle Eastern energy reserves.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn early July 1990, Iraq complained about Kuwait's behavior, such as not respecting their quota, and openly threatened to take military action. On the 23rd, the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border, and the U.S. naval fleet in the Persian Gulf was placed on alert. Saddam believed an anti-Iraq conspiracy was developing – Kuwait had begun talks with Iran, and Iraq's rival Syria had arranged a visit to Egypt. Upon review by the Secretary of Defense, it was found that Syria indeed planned a strike against Iraq in the coming days. Saddam immediately used funding to incorporate central intelligence into Syria and ultimate prevented the impending air strike. On 15 July 1990, Saddam's government laid out its combined objections to the Arab League, including that policy moves were costing Iraq $1 billion a year, that Kuwait was still using the Rumaila oil field, that loans made by the UAE and Kuwait could not be considered debts to its \\\"Arab brothers\\\". He threatened force against Kuwait and the UAE saying \\\"The policies of some Arab rulers are American ... They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security.\\\" The U.S.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nsent aerial refuelling planes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf in response to these threats. Discussions in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, mediated on the Arab League's behalf by Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, were held on 31 July and led Mubarak to believe that a peaceful course could be established.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn the 25th, Saddam met with April Glaspie, the U.S. Ambassador to Iraq, in Baghdad. The Iraqi leader attacked American policy with regards to Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates:\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nGlaspie replied:\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nSaddam stated that he would attempt last-ditch negotiations with the Kuwaitis but Iraq \\\"would not accept death\\\".\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAccording to Glaspie's own account, she stated in reference to the precise border between Kuwait and Iraq, \\\"... that she had served in Kuwait 20 years before; 'then, as now, we took no position on these Arab affairs'.\\\" Glaspie similarly believed that war was not imminent.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nInvasion of Kuwait\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe result of the Jeddah talks was an Iraqi demand for $10 billion to cover the lost revenues from Rumaila; the Kuwaiti response was to offer $9 billion. The Iraqi response was to immediately order the invasion. On 2 August 1990, Iraq launched the invasion by bombing Kuwait's capital, Kuwait City.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAt the time of the invasion, the Kuwaiti military was believed to have numbered 16,000 men, arranged into three armored, one mechanised infantry and one under-strength artillery brigade. The pre-war strength of the Kuwait Air Force was around 2,200 Kuwaiti personnel, with 80 aircraft and forty helicopters. In spite of Iraqi saber-rattling, Kuwait didn't have its forces on alert; the army had been stood down on 19 July.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nBy 1988, at the Iran–Iraq War's end, the Iraqi Army was the world's fourth largest army; it consisted of 955,000 standing soldiers and 650,000 paramilitary forces in the Popular Army. According to John Childs and André Corvisier, a low estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding 4,500 tanks, 484 combat aircraft and 232 combat helicopters. According to Michael Knights, a high estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding one million men and 850,000 reservists, 5,500 tanks, 3,000 artillery pieces, 700 combat aircraft and helicopters; and held 53 divisions, 20 special-forces brigades, and several regional militias, and had a strong air defense.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIraqi commandos infiltrated the Kuwaiti border first to prepare for the major units which began the attack at midnight. The Iraqi attack had two prongs, with the primary attack force driving south straight for Kuwait City down the main highway, and a supporting attack force entering Kuwait farther west, but then turning and driving east, cutting off Kuwait City from the country's southern half. The commander of a Kuwaiti armored battalion, 35th Armoured Brigade, deployed them against the Iraqi attack and was able to conduct a robust defense (Battle of the Bridges), near Al Jahra, west of Kuwait City.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nKuwaiti aircraft scrambled to meet the invading force, but approximately 20% were lost or captured. A few combat sorties were flown against Iraqi ground forces.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe main Iraqi thrust into Kuwait City was conducted by commandos deployed by helicopters and boats to attack the city from the sea, while other divisions seized the airports and two airbases. The Iraqis attacked the Dasman Palace, the Royal Residence of Kuwait's Emir, Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, which was defended by the Emiri Guard supported with M-84 tanks. In the process, the Iraqis killed Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, the Emir's youngest brother.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nWithin 12 hours, most resistance had ended within Kuwait and the royal family had fled, leaving Iraq in control of most of Kuwait. After two days of intense combat, most of the Kuwaiti military were either overrun by the Iraqi Republican Guard, or had escaped to Saudi Arabia. The Emir and key ministers were able to get out and head south along the highway for refuge in Saudi Arabia. Iraqi ground forces consolidated their control of Kuwait City, then headed south and redeployed along the Saudi border. After the decisive Iraqi victory, Saddam initially installed a puppet regime known as the \\\"Provisional Government of Free Kuwait\\\" before installing his cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid as Kuwait's governor on 8 August.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nKuwaiti resistance movement\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nKuwaitis founded a local armed resistance movement following the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. The Kuwaiti resistance's casualty rate far exceeded that of the coalition military forces and Western hostages. The resistance predominantly consisted of ordinary citizens who lacked any form of training and supervision.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nRun-up to the war\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nDiplomatic means\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nA key element of U.S. political-military and energy economic planning occurred in early 1984. The Iran–Iraq war had been going on for five years and there were significant casualties on both sides, reaching hundreds of thousands. Within President Ronald Reagan's National Security Council concern was growing that the war could spread beyond the boundaries of the two belligerents. A National Security Planning Group meeting was formed, chaired by then Vice President George H. W. Bush to review U.S. options. It was determined that there was a high likelihood that the conflict would spread into Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states, but that the United States had little capability to defend the region. Furthermore, it was determined that a prolonged war in the region would induce much higher oil prices and threaten the fragile recovery of the world economy which was just beginning to gain momentum. On 22 May 1984, President Reagan was briefed on the project conclusions in the Oval Office by William Flynn Martin who had served as the head of the NSC staff that organized the study. The full declassified presentation can be seen here.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe conclusions were threefold: first oil stocks needed to be increased among members of the International Energy Agency and, if necessary, released early in the event of oil market disruption; second the United States needed to beef up the security of friendly Arab states in the region and thirdly an embargo should be placed on sales of military equipment to Iran and Iraq. The Plan was approved by the President Reagan and later affirmed by the G-7 leaders headed by Great Britain's Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the London Summit of 1984. The plan was implemented and became the basis for U.S. preparedness to respond to the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in 1991.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nWithin hours of the invasion, Kuwait and U.S. delegations requested a meeting of the United Nations Security Council, which passed Resolution 660, condemning the invasion and demanding a withdrawal of Iraqi troops. On 3 August, the Arab League passed its own resolution, which called for a solution to the conflict from within the League, and warned against outside intervention; Iraq and Libya were the only two Arab League states which opposed a resolution for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait. The PLO opposed it as well. The Arab states of Yemen and Jordan – a Western ally which bordered Iraq and relied on the country for economic support – opposed military intervention from non-Arab states. The Arab state of Sudan aligned itself with Saddam.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn 6 August, Resolution 661 placed economic sanctions on Iraq. Resolution 665 followed soon after, which authorized a naval blockade to enforce the sanctions. It said the \\\"use of measures commensurate to the specific circumstances as may be necessary ... to halt all inward and outward maritime shipping in order to inspect and verify their cargoes and destinations and to ensure strict implementation of resolution 661.\\\"\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nFrom the beginning, U.S. officials insisted on a total Iraqi pullout from Kuwait, without any linkage to other Middle Eastern problems, fearing any concessions would strengthen Iraqi influence in the region for years to come.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn 12 August 1990, Saddam \\\"propose[d] that all cases of occupation, and those cases that have been portrayed as occupation, in the region, be resolved simultaneously\\\". Specifically, he called for Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon, Syria to withdraw from Lebanon, and \\\"mutual withdrawals by Iraq and Iran and arrangement for the situation in Kuwait.\\\" He also called for a replacement of U.S. troops that mobilized in Saudi Arabia in response to Kuwait's invasion with \\\"an Arab force\\\", as long as that force did not involve Egypt. Additionally, he requested an \\\"immediate freeze of all boycott and siege decisions\\\" and a general normalization of relations with Iraq. From the beginning of the crisis, President Bush was strongly opposed to any \\\"linkage\\\" between Iraq's occupation of Kuwait and the Palestinian issue.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn 23 August, Saddam appeared on state television with Western hostages to whom he had refused exit visas. In the video, he asks a young British boy, Stuart Lockwood, whether he is getting his milk, and goes on to say, through his interpreter, \\\"We hope your presence as guests here will not be for too long. Your presence here, and in other places, is meant to prevent the scourge of war.\\\"\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAnother Iraqi proposal communicated in August 1990 was delivered to U.S. National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft by an unidentified Iraqi official. The official communicated to the White House that Iraq would \\\"withdraw from Kuwait and allow foreigners to leave\\\" provided that the U.N. lifted sanctions, allowed \\\"guaranteed access to the Persian Gulf through the Kuwaiti islands of Bubiyan and Warbah\\\", and allowed Iraq to \\\"gain full control of the Rumaila oil field that extends slightly into Kuwaiti territory\\\". The proposal also \\\"include[d] offers to negotiate an oil agreement with the United States 'satisfactory to both nations' national security interests,' develop a joint plan 'to alleviate Iraq's economical and financial problems' and 'jointly work on the stability of the gulf.'\\\"\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn December 1990, Iraq made a proposal to withdraw from Kuwait provided that foreign troops left the region and that an agreement was reached regarding the Palestinian problem and the dismantlement of both Israel's and Iraq's weapons of mass destruction. The White House rejected the proposal. The PLO's Yasser Arafat expressed that neither he nor Saddam insisted that solving the Israel–Palestine issues should be a precondition to solving the issues in Kuwait, though he did acknowledge a \\\"strong link\\\" between these problems.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nUltimately, the U.S. stuck to its position that there would be no negotiations until Iraq withdrew from Kuwait and that they should not grant Iraq concessions, lest they give the impression that Iraq benefited from its military campaign. Also, when U.S. Secretary of State James Baker met with Tariq Aziz in Geneva, Switzerland, for last minute peace talks in early 1991, Aziz reportedly made no concrete proposals and did not outline any hypothetical Iraqi moves.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn 29 November 1990, the Security Council passed Resolution 678 which gave Iraq until 15 January 1991 to withdraw from Kuwait and empowered states to use \\\"all necessary means\\\" to force Iraq out of Kuwait after the deadline.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn 14 January 1991, France proposed that the U.N. Security Council call for \\\"a rapid and massive withdrawal\\\" from Kuwait along with a statement to Iraq that Council members would bring their \\\"active contribution\\\" to a settlement of the region's other problems, \\\"in particular, of the Arab–Israeli conflict and in particular to the Palestinian problem by convening, at an appropriate moment, an international conference\\\" to assure \\\"the security, stability and development of this region of the world.\\\" The French proposal was supported by Belgium (at the moment one of the rotating Council members), Germany, Spain, Italy, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and several non-aligned nations. The U.S., the UK, and the Soviet Union rejected it; U.S. Ambassador to the U.N. Thomas Pickering stated that the French proposal was unacceptable, because it went beyond previous Council resolutions on the Iraqi invasion. France dropped this proposal when it found \\\"no tangible sign of interest\\\" from Baghdad.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nMilitary means\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOne of the West's main concerns was the significant threat Iraq posed to Saudi Arabia. Following Kuwait's conquest, the Iraqi Army was within easy striking distance of Saudi oil fields. Control of these fields, along with Kuwaiti and Iraqi reserves, would have given Saddam control over the majority of the world's oil reserves. Iraq also had a number of grievances with Saudi Arabia. The Saudis had lent Iraq some 26 billion dollars during its war with Iran. The Saudis had backed Iraq in that war, as they feared the influence of Shia Iran's Islamic revolution on its own Shia minority. After the war, Saddam felt he shouldn't have to repay the loans due to the help he had given the Saudis by fighting Iran.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nSoon after his conquest of Kuwait, Saddam began verbally attacking the Saudis. He argued that the U.S.-supported Saudi state was an illegitimate and unworthy guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. He combined the language of the Islamist groups that had recently fought in Afghanistan with the rhetoric Iran had long used to attack the Saudis.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nActing on the Carter Doctrine's policy, and out of fear the Iraqi Army could launch an invasion of Saudi Arabia, U.S. President George H. W. Bush quickly announced that the U.S. would launch a \\\"wholly defensive\\\" mission to prevent Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia under the codename Operation Desert Shield. Operation Desert Shield began on 7 August 1990 when U.S. troops were sent to Saudi Arabia due also to the request of its monarch, King Fahd, who had earlier called for U.S. military assistance. This \\\"wholly defensive\\\" doctrine was quickly abandoned when, on 8 August, Iraq declared Kuwait to be Iraq's 19th province and Saddam named his cousin, Ali Hassan Al-Majid, as its military-governor.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe U.S. Navy dispatched two naval battle groups built around the aircraft carriers USS Dwight D. Eisenhower and USS Independence to the Persian Gulf, where they were ready by 8 August. The U.S. also sent the battleships USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin to the region. A total of 48 U.S. Air Force F-15s from the 1st Fighter Wing at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, landed in Saudi Arabia, and immediately commenced round the clock air patrols of the Saudi–Kuwait–Iraq border to discourage further Iraqi military advances. They were joined by 36 F-15 A-Ds from the 36th Tactical Fighter Wing at Bitburg, Germany. The Bitburg contingent was based at Al Kharj Air Base, approximately 1-hour southeast of Riyadh. The 36th TFW would be responsible for 11 confirmed Iraqi Air Force aircraft shot down during the war. There were also two Air National Guard units stationed at Al Kharj Air Base, the South Carolina Air National Guard's 169th Fighter Wing flew bombing missions with 24 F-16s flying 2,000 combat missions and dropping 4 million pounds of munitions, and the New York Air National Guard's 174th Fighter Wing from Syracuse flew 24 F-16s on bombing missions.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nMilitary buildup continued from there, eventually reaching 543,000 troops, twice the number used in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Much of the material was airlifted or carried to the staging areas via fast sealift ships, allowing a quick buildup.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCreating a coalition\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nA series of U.N. Security Council resolutions and Arab League resolutions were passed regarding Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. One of the most important was Resolution 678, passed on 29 November 1990, which gave Iraq a withdrawal deadline until 15 January 1991, and authorized \\\"all necessary means to uphold and implement Resolution 660\\\", and a diplomatic formulation authorizing the use of force if Iraq failed to comply.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nTo ensure that economic backing, Baker went on an eleven-day journey to nine countries that the press dubbed \\\"The Tin Cup Trip\\\". The first stop was Saudi Arabia, who a month before had already granted permission to the United States to use its facilities. However, Baker believed that Saudi Arabia, an immensely wealthy nation, should assume some of the cost of the military efforts, since one of the most decisive military objectives was defending Saudi Arabia. When Baker asked King Fahd for 15 billion dollars, the King readily agreed, with the promise that Baker ask Kuwait for the same amount.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe next day, 7 September, he did just that, and the Emir of Kuwait, displaced in a Sheraton hotel outside his invaded country, easily agreed. Baker then moved to enter talks with Egypt, whose leadership he considered to be \\\"the moderate voice of the middle east\\\". President Mubarak of Egypt was furious with Saddam for his invasion of Kuwait, and for the fact that Saddam had assured Mubarak that an invasion was not his intention. Therefore, he was willing to commit troops to the coalition forces to quell Saddam, as well as relieved the United States was willing to forgive his country's 7.1 billion dollar debt.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAfter stops in Helsinki and Moscow to smooth out Iraqi demands for a middle-eastern peace conference with Russia (then the Soviet Union), Baker traveled to Syria to discuss its role in the crisis with its President Hafez Assad. Assad had a deep personal enmity towards Saddam, which was defined by the fact that \\\"Saddam had been trying to kill him [Assad] for years\\\". Harboring this animosity and being impressed with Baker's diplomatic initiative to visit Damascus (relations had been severed since the 1983 bombing of U.S. Marine barracks in Beirut), Assad agreed to pledge up to 100,000 Syrian troops to the coalition effort. This was a vital step in ensuring Arab states were represented in the coalition.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nBaker flew to Rome for a brief visit with the Italians in which he was promised the use of some military equipment, before journeying to Germany to meet with American ally Chancellor Kohl. Although Germany's constitution (which was brokered essentially by the United States) prohibited military involvement in outside nations, Kohl was willing to repay his gratitude for the United States with a two billion dollar contribution to the coalition's war effort, as well as further economic and military support of coalition ally Turkey, and the execution of the transport of Egyptian soldiers and ships to the Persian Gulf.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nA coalition of forces opposing Iraq's aggression was formed, consisting of forces from 34 countries: Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Kuwait, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Portugal, Qatar, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Spain, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the U.S. itself. It was the largest coalition since World War II. U.S. Army General Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. was designated to be the commander of the Coalition forces in the Persian Gulf area. The Soviet Union also supported United States intervention.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAlthough they didn't contribute any forces, Japan and Germany made financial contributions totaling $10 billion and $6.6 billion respectively. U.S. troops represented 73% of the Coalition's 956,600 troops in Iraq.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nMany of the Coalition's forces were reluctant to join. Some felt that the war was an internal Arab affair, or didn't want to increase U.S. influence in the Middle East. In the end, however, many nations were persuaded by Iraq's belligerence towards other Arab states, offers of economic aid or debt forgiveness, and threats to withhold aid.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nJustification for intervention\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe U.S. and the U.N. gave several public justifications for involvement in the conflict, the most prominent being the Iraqi violation of Kuwaiti territorial integrity. In addition, the U.S. moved to support its ally Saudi Arabia, whose importance in the region, and as a key supplier of oil, made it of considerable geopolitical importance. Shortly after the Iraqi invasion, U.S. Defense Secretary Dick Cheney made the first of several visits to Saudi Arabia where King Fahd requested U.S. military assistance. During a speech in a special joint session of the U.S. Congress given on 11 September 1990, U.S. President George H. W. Bush summed up the reasons with the following remarks: \\\"Within three days, 120,000 Iraqi troops with 850 tanks had poured into Kuwait and moved south to threaten Saudi Arabia. It was then that I decided to act to check that aggression.\\\"\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe Pentagon stated that satellite photos showing a buildup of Iraqi forces along the border were this information's source, but this was later alleged to be false. A reporter for the St. Petersburg Times acquired two commercial Soviet satellite images made at the time in question, which showed nothing but empty desert.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOther justifications for foreign involvement included Iraq's history of human rights abuses under Saddam. Iraq was also known to possess biological weapons and chemical weapons, which Saddam had used against Iranian troops during the Iran–Iraq War and against his own country's Kurdish population in the Al-Anfal Campaign. Iraq was also known to have a nuclear weapons program, but the report about it from January 1991 was partially declassified by the CIA on 26 May 2001.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAlthough there were human rights abuses committed in Kuwait by the invading Iraqi military, the alleged incidents which received most publicity in the U.S. were inventions of the public relations firm hired by the government of Kuwait to influence U.S. opinion in favor of military intervention. Shortly after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the organization Citizens for a Free Kuwait was formed in the U.S. It hired the public relations firm Hill & Knowlton for about $11 million, paid by Kuwait's government.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAmong many other means of influencing U.S. opinion (distributing books on Iraqi atrocities to U.S. soldiers deployed in the region, 'Free Kuwait' T-shirts and speakers to college campuses, and dozens of video news releases to television stations), the firm arranged for an appearance before a group of members of the U.S. Congress in which a woman identifying herself as a nurse working in the Kuwait City hospital described Iraqi soldiers pulling babies out of incubators and letting them die on the floor.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe story was an influence in tipping both the public and Congress towards a war with Iraq: six Congressmen said the testimony was enough for them to support military action against Iraq and seven Senators referenced the testimony in debate. The Senate supported the military actions in a 52–47 vote. A year after the war, however, this allegation was revealed to be a fabrication. The woman who had testified was found to be a member of Kuwait's Royal Family, in fact the daughter of Kuwait's ambassador to the U.S. She hadn't lived in Kuwait during the Iraqi invasion.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe details of the Hill & Knowlton public relations campaign, including the incubator testimony, were published in John R. MacArthur's Second Front: Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992), and came to wide public attention when an Op-ed by MacArthur was published in The New York Times. This prompted a reexamination by Amnesty International, which had originally promoted an account alleging even greater numbers of babies torn from incubators than the original fake testimony. After finding no evidence to support it, the organization issued a retraction. President Bush then repeated the incubator allegations on television.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAt the same time, the Iraqi Army committed several well-documented crimes during its occupation of Kuwait, such as the summary execution without trial of three brothers after which their bodies were stacked in a pile and left to decay in a public street. Iraqi troops also ransacked and looted private Kuwaiti homes; one residence was repeatedly defecated in. A resident later commented, \\\"The whole thing was violence for the sake of violence, destruction for the sake of destruction ... Imagine a surrealistic painting by Salvador Dalí\\\".\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nEarly battles\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAir campaign\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe Gulf War began with an extensive aerial bombing campaign on 17 January 1991. The Coalition flew over 100,000 sorties, dropping 88,500 tons of bombs, and widely destroying military and civilian infrastructure. The air campaign was commanded by USAF Lieutenant General Chuck Horner, who briefly served as U.S. Central Command's Commander-in-Chief – Forward while General Schwarzkopf was still in the U.S.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nA day after the deadline set in Resolution 678, the Coalition launched a massive air campaign, which began the general offensive codenamed Operation Desert Storm. The first priority for Coalition forces was the destruction of Iraq's Air Force and anti-aircraft facilities. The sorties were launched mostly from Saudi Arabia and the six Coalition carrier battle groups (CVBG) in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe next Coalition targets were command and communication facilities. Saddam Hussein had closely micromanaged Iraqi forces in the Iran–Iraq War, and initiative at lower levels was discouraged. Coalition planners hoped that Iraqi resistance would quickly collapse if deprived of command and control.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe air campaign's third and largest phase targeted military targets throughout Iraq and Kuwait: Scud missile launchers, weapons research facilities, and naval forces. About one-third of the Coalition's air power was devoted to attacking Scuds, some of which were on trucks and therefore difficult to locate. U.S. and British special operations forces had been covertly inserted into western Iraq to aid in the search for and destruction of Scuds.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIraqi anti-aircraft defenses, including Man-portable air-defense systems, were surprisingly ineffective against Coalition aircraft and the Coalition suffered only 75 aircraft losses in over 100,000 sorties, 44 of which were the result of Iraqi action. Two of these losses are the result of aircraft colliding with the ground while evading Iraqi ground fired weapons. One of these losses is a confirmed air-air victory.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIraqi missile strikes on Israel and Saudi Arabia\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIraq's government made no secret that it would attack if invaded. Prior to the war's start, Tariq Aziz, Iraq's English-speaking Foreign Minister and Deputy Prime Minister, was asked in the aftermath of the failed U.S.–Iraq peace talks in Geneva, Switzerland, by a reporter. \\\"Mr. Foreign Minister, if war starts ... will you attack?\\\" His response was, \\\"Yes, absolutely, yes.\\\"\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nFive hours after the first attacks, Iraq's state radio broadcast declaring that \\\"The dawn of victory nears as this great showdown begins.\\\" Iraq fired eight missiles the next day. These missile attacks were to continue throughout the war. A total of 88 Scud missiles were fired by Iraq during the war's seven weeks.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIraq hoped to provoke a military response from Israel. The Iraqi government hoped that many Arab states would withdraw from the Coalition, as they would be reluctant to fight alongside Israel.Waldman, Shmuel (2005). Beyond a Reasonable Doubt. Feldheim Publishers, p. 179. ISBN 1-58330-806-7 Following the first attacks, Israeli Air Force jets were deployed to patrol the northern airspace with Iraq. Israel prepared to militarily retaliate, as its policy for the previous forty years had always been retaliation. However, President Bush pressured Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir not to retaliate and withdraw Israeli jets, fearing that if Israel attacked Iraq, the other Arab nations would either desert the Coalition or join Iraq. It was also feared that if Israel used Syrian or Jordanian airspace to attack Iraq, they would intervene in the war on Iraq's side or attack Israel. The Coalition promised to deploy Patriot missiles to defend Israel if it refrained from responding to the Scud attacks.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe Scud missiles targeting Israel were relatively ineffective, as firing at extreme range resulted in a dramatic reduction in accuracy and payload. According to the Jewish Virtual Library, a total of 74 Israelis died as a result of the Iraqi attacks: two directly and the rest from suffocation and heart attacks. Approximately 230 Israelis were injured. Extensive property damage was also caused, and according to Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, \\\"Damage to general property consisted of 1,302 houses, 6,142 apartments, 23 public buildings, 200 shops and 50 cars.\\\" It was feared that Iraq would fire missiles filled with nerve agents such as sarin. As a result, Israel's government issued gas masks to its citizens. When the first Iraqi missiles hit Israel, some people injected themselves with an antidote for nerve gas. It has been suggested that the sturdy construction techniques used in Israeli cities, coupled with the fact that Scuds were only launched at night, played an important role in limiting the number of casualties from Scud attacks.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn response to the threat of Scuds on Israel, the U.S. rapidly sent a Patriot missile air defense artillery battalion to Israel along with two batteries of MIM-104 Patriot missiles for the protection of civilians. The Royal Netherlands Air Force also deployed a Patriot missile squadron to Israel and Turkey. The Dutch Defense Ministry later stated that the military use of the Patriot missile system was largely ineffective, but its psychological value for the affected populations was high.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCoalition air forces were also extensively exercised in \\\"Scud hunts\\\" in the Iraqi desert, trying to locate the camouflaged trucks before they fired their missiles at Israel or Saudi Arabia. On the ground, special operations forces also infiltrated Iraq, tasked with locating and destroying Scuds. Once special operations were combined with air patrols, the number of attacks fell sharply, then increased slightly as Iraqi forces adjusted to Coalition tactics.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAs the Scud attacks continued, the Israelis grew increasingly impatient, and considered taking unilateral military action against Iraq. On 22 January 1991, a Scud missile and two Coalition Patriots that had been fired to intercept it but missed, and hit the Israeli city of Ramat Gan. The incident caused three elderly people to suffer fatal heart attacks. Another 96 people were injured, and 20 apartment buildings were damaged. After this attack, the Israelis warned that if the U.S. failed to stop the attacks, they would. At one point, Israeli commandos were loaded onto helicopters prepared to fly into Iraq, but the mission was called off after a phone call from U.S. Defense Secretary Dick Cheney, reporting on the extent of Coalition efforts to destroy Scuds and emphasizing that Israeli intervention could endanger U.S. forces.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn addition to the attacks on Israel, 47 Scud missiles were fired into Saudi Arabia, and one missile was fired at Bahrain and another at Qatar. The missiles were fired at both military and civilian targets. One Saudi civilian was killed, and 78 others were injured. No casualties were reported in Bahrain or Qatar. The Saudi government issued all its citizens and expatriates with gas masks in the event of Iraq using missiles with chemical or biological warheads. The government broadcast alerts and 'all clear' messages over television to warn citizens during Scud attacks.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn 25 February 1991, a Scud missile hit a U.S. Army barracks of the 14th Quartermaster Detachment, out of Greensburg, Pennsylvania, stationed in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 soldiers and injuring over 100.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIraqi invasion of Saudi Arabia (Battle of Khafji)\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn 29 January, Iraqi forces attacked and occupied the lightly defended Saudi city of Khafji with tanks and infantry. The Battle of Khafji ended two days later when the Iraqis were driven back by the Saudi Arabian National Guard, supported by Qatari forces and U.S. Marines. The allied forces used extensive artillery fire.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nBoth sides suffered casualties, although Iraqi forces sustained substantially more dead and captured than the allied forces. Eleven Americans were killed in two separate friendly fire incidents, an additional 14 U.S. airmen were killed when their AC-130 gunship was shot down by an Iraqi surface-to-air missile, and two U.S. soldiers were captured during the battle. Saudi and Qatari forces had a total of 18 dead. Iraqi forces in Khafji had 60–300 dead and 400 captured.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe Battle of Khafji was an example of how air power could single-handedly hinder the advance of enemy ground forces. Upon learning of Iraqi troop movements, 140 coalition aircraft were diverted to attack an advancing column consisting of two armored divisions in battalion-sized units. Precision stand-off attacks were conducted during the night and through to the next day. Iraqi vehicle losses included 357 tanks, 147 armored personnel carriers, and 89 mobile artillery pieces. Some crews simply abandoned their vehicles upon realizing that they could be destroyed by guided bombs without warning, stopping the divisions from massing for an organized attack on the town. One Iraqi soldier, who had fought in the Iran-Iraq War, remarked that his brigade \\\"had sustained more punishment from allied airpower in 30 minutes at Khafji than in eight years of fighting against Iran.\\\"\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCounter reconnaissance\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nTask Force 1-41 Infantry was a heavy battalion task force from the 2nd Armored Division (Forward). It consisted primarily of the 1st Battalion, 41st Infantry Regiment, 3rd Battalion, 66th Armor Regiment, and the 4th Battalion, 3rd Field Artillery Regiment. Task Force 1-41 was the first coalition force to breach the Saudi Arabian border on 15 February 1991 and conduct ground combat operations in Iraq engaging in direct and indirect fire fights with the enemy on 17 February 1991. Shortly after arrival in theatre Task Force 1-41 Infantry received a counter-reconnaissance mission. Counter-reconnaissance generally includes destroying or repelling the enemy's reconnaissance elements and denying their commander any observation of friendly forces. On 15 February 1991 4th Battalion of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment fired on a trailer and a few trucks in the Iraqi sector that was observing American forces. On 16 February 1991 several groups of Iraqi vehicles appeared to be performing reconnaissance on the Task Force and were driven away by fire from 4-3 FA. Another enemy platoon, including six vehicles, was reported as being to the northeast of the Task Force. They were engaged with artillery fire from 4-3 FA.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nLater that evening another group of Iraqi vehicles was spotted moving towards the center of the Task Force. They appeared to be Iraqi Soviet-made BTRs and tanks. For the next hour the Task Force fought several small battles with Iraqi reconnaissance units. TF 1-41 IN fired TOW missiles at the Iraqi formation destroying one tank. The rest of the formation was destroyed or driven away by artillery fire from 4-3 FA. On 17 February 1991 the Task Force took enemy mortar fire, however, the enemy forces managed to escape. Later that evening the Task Force received enemy artillery fire but suffered no casualties.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nBreach\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe breach was preceded by a heavy artillery barrage, led by 4th Battalion of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment and the 210th Field Artillery Brigade, to soften up Iraqi defenses. Around 300 guns from multiple nations participated in the barrage. Over 14,000 rounds of artillery and over 4,900 MLRS rockets were fired at Iraqi forces during these raids. Iraq lost close to 22 artillery battalions during the initial stages of this barrage. This would include the destruction of approximately 396 Iraqi artillery pieces. By the end of these raids Iraqi artillery assets had all but ceased to exist. These raids were supplemented by air attacks by B-52 Stratofortress bombers and C-130 cargo aircraft.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nTask Force 1-41 Infantry was given the task of breaching Iraq's initial defensive positions along the Iraq-Saudi Arabia border. Once into Iraqi territory the Task Force encountered multiple Iraqi defensive positions and bunkers. These defensive positions were occupied by a brigade-sized element. TF 1-41 IN elements dismounted and prepared to engage the enemy soldiers which occupied these well-prepared and heavily fortified bunkers. The Task Force found itself engaged in six hours of combat in order to clear the extensive bunker complex. The Iraqis engaged the Task Force with small arms fire, RPGs, mortar fire, and what was left of Iraqi artillery assets. A series of battles unfolded which resulted in heavy Iraqi casualties and the Iraqis being removed from their defensive positions with many becoming prisoners of war. Some escaped to be killed or captured by other coalition forces. In the process of clearing the bunkers Task Force 1-41 captured two brigade command posts and the command post of the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division. The Task Force also captured a brigade commander, several battalion commanders, company commanders, and staff officers. Task Force 1-41 earned a Valorous Unit Award for its efforts.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nGround campaign\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe Coalition forces dominated the air with their technological advantages. Coalition forces had the significant advantage of being able to operate under the protection of air supremacy that had been achieved by their air forces before the start of the main ground offensive. Coalition forces also had two key technological advantages:\\n#Coalition main battle tanks, such as the U.S. M1 Abrams, British Challenger 1, and Kuwaiti M-84AB were vastly superior to the Chinese Type 69 and export-model T-72 tanks used by the Iraqis. Coalition crews were better trained with more highly developed armored doctrine. Iraqi tanks were mainly employed as armored self-propelled artillery, rather than maneuver warfare roles employed by the Coalition.\\n# The use of GPS made it possible for Coalition forces to navigate without reference to roads or other fixed landmarks. This, along with aerial reconnaissance, allowed them to fight a battle of maneuver rather than a battle of encounter: they knew where they were and where the enemy was, so they could attack a specific target rather than searching on the ground for enemy forces.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nKuwait's Liberation\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nU.S. decoy attacks by air attacks and naval gunfire the night before Kuwait's liberation were designed to make the Iraqis believe the main Coalition ground attack would focus on central Kuwait.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nFor months, American units in Saudi Arabia had been under almost constant Iraqi artillery fire, as well as threats from Scud missile or chemical attacks. On 24 February 1991, the 1st and 2nd Marine Divisions, and the 1st Light Armored Infantry Battalion crossed into Kuwait and headed toward Kuwait City. They encountered trenches, barbed wire, and minefields. However, these positions were poorly defended, and were overrun in the first few hours. Several tank battles took place, but apart from that, Coalition troops encountered minimal resistance, as most Iraqi troops surrendered. The general pattern was that the Iraqis would put up a short fight before surrendering. However, Iraqi air defenses shot down nine U.S. aircraft. Meanwhile, forces from Arab states advanced into Kuwait from the east, encountering little resistance and suffering few casualties.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nDespite the successes of Coalition forces, it was feared that the Iraqi Republican Guard would escape into Iraq before it could be destroyed. It was decided to send British armored forces into Kuwait fifteen hours ahead of schedule, and to send U.S. forces after the Republican Guard. The Coalition advance was preceded by a heavy artillery and rocket barrage, after which 150,000 troops and 1,500 tanks began their advance. Iraqi forces in Kuwait counterattacked against U.S. troops, acting on a direct order from Saddam himself. Despite the intense combat, the Americans repulsed the Iraqis and continued to advance towards Kuwait City.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nKuwaiti forces were tasked with liberating the city. Iraqi troops offered only light resistance. The Kuwaitis lost one soldier and one plane that was shot down, and quickly liberated the city. On 27 February, Saddam ordered a retreat from Kuwait, and President Bush declared it liberated. However, an Iraqi unit at Kuwait International Airport appeared not to have gotten the message, and fiercely resisted. U.S. Marines had to fight for hours before securing the airport, after which Kuwait was declared secure. After four days of fighting, Iraqi forces were expelled from Kuwait. As part of a scorched earth policy, they set fire to nearly 700 oil wells, and placed land mines around the wells to make extinguishing the fires more difficult.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nInitial moves into Iraq\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe war's ground phase was officially designated Operation Desert Saber.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe first units to move into Iraq were three patrols of the British Special Air Service's B squadron, call signs Bravo One Zero, Bravo Two Zero, and Bravo Three Zero, in late January. These eight-man patrols landed behind Iraqi lines to gather intelligence on the movements of Scud mobile missile launchers, which couldn't be detected from the air, as they were hidden under bridges and camouflage netting during the day. Other objectives included the destruction of the launchers and their fiber-optic communications arrays that lay in pipelines and relayed coordinates to the TEL operators that were launching attacks against Israel. The operations were designed to prevent any possible Israeli intervention. Due to lack of sufficient ground cover to carry out their assignment, One Zero and Three Zero abandoned their operations, while Two Zero remained, and was later compromised, with only Sergeant Chris Ryan escaping to Syria.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nElements of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Battalion 5th Cavalry of the 1st Cavalry Division of the U.S. Army performed a direct attack into Iraq on 15 February 1991, followed by one in force on 20 February that led directly through 7 Iraqi divisions which were caught off guard. From 15–20 February, the Battle of Wadi Al-Batin took place inside Iraq; this was the first of two attacks by 1 Battalion 5th Cavalry of the 1st Cavalry Division. It was a feint attack, designed to make the Iraqis think that a Coalition invasion would take place from the south. The Iraqis fiercely resisted, and the Americans eventually withdrew as planned back into the Wadi Al-Batin. Three U.S. soldiers were killed and nine wounded as well with only one M2 Bradley IFV turret destroyed, but they had taken 40 prisoners and destroyed five tanks, and successfully deceived the Iraqis. This attack led the way for the XVIII Airborne Corps to sweep around behind the 1st Cav and attack Iraqi forces to the west. On 22 February 1991, Iraq agreed to a Soviet-proposed ceasefire agreement.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe agreement called for Iraq to withdraw troops to pre-invasion positions within six weeks following a total cease-fire, and called for monitoring of the cease-fire and withdrawal to be overseen by the UN Security Council.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe Coalition rejected the proposal, but said that retreating Iraqi forces wouldn't be attacked, and gave twenty-four hours for Iraq to begin withdrawing forces. On 23 February, fighting resulted in the capture of 500 Iraqi soldiers. On 24 February, British and American armored forces crossed the Iraq–Kuwait border and entered Iraq in large numbers, taking hundreds of prisoners. Iraqi resistance was light, and 4 Americans were killed.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCoalition forces enter Iraq\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nShortly afterwards, the U.S. VII Corps, in full strength and spearheaded by the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment, launched an armored attack into Iraq early on 24 February, just to the west of Kuwait, taking Iraqi forces by surprise. Simultaneously, the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps launched a sweeping \\\"left-hook\\\" attack across southern Iraq's largely undefended desert, led by the U.S. 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment and the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized). This movement's left flank was protected by France's 6th Light Armoured Division Daguet.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe French force quickly overcame Iraq's 45th Infantry Division, suffering light casualties and taking a large number of prisoners, and took up blocking positions to prevent an Iraqi counter-attack on the Coalition's flank. The movement's right flank was protected by the United Kingdom's 1st Armoured Division. Once the allies had penetrated deep into Iraqi territory, they turned eastward, launching a flank attack against the elite Republican Guard before it could escape. The Iraqis resisted fiercely from dug-in positions and stationary vehicles, and even mounted armored charges.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nUnlike many previous engagements, the destruction of the first Iraqi tanks did not result in a mass surrender. The Iraqis suffered massive losses and lost dozens of tanks and vehicles, while U.S. casualties were comparatively low, with a single Bradley knocked out. Coalition forces pressed another ten kilometers into Iraqi territory, and captured their objective within three hours. They took 500 prisoners and inflicted heavy losses, defeating Iraq's 26th Infantry Division. A U.S. soldier was killed by an Iraqi land mine, another five by friendly fire, and thirty wounded during the battle. Meanwhile, British forces attacked Iraq's Medina Division and a major Republican Guard logistics base. In nearly two days of some of the war's most intense fighting, the British destroyed 40 enemy tanks and captured a division commander.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nMeanwhile, U.S. forces attacked the village of Al Busayyah, meeting fierce resistance. They suffered no casualties, but destroyed a considerable amount of military hardware and took prisoners.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn 25 February 1991, Iraqi forces fired a Scud missile at an American barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. The missile attack killed 28 U.S. military personnel.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe Coalition's advance was much swifter than U.S. generals had expected. On 26 February, Iraqi troops began retreating from Kuwait, after they had set its oil fields on fire (737 oil wells were set on fire). A long convoy of retreating Iraqi troops formed along the main Iraq-Kuwait highway. Although they were retreating, this convoy was bombed so extensively by Coalition air forces that it came to be known as the Highway of Death. Hundreds of Iraqi troops were killed. American, British, and French forces continued to pursue retreating Iraqi forces over the border and back into Iraq, eventually moving to within 150 miles (240 km) of Baghdad before withdrawing back to Iraq's border with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOne hundred hours after the ground campaign started, on 28 February, President Bush declared a ceasefire, and he also declared that Kuwait had been liberated.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe end of active hostilities\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn Coalition-occupied Iraqi territory, a peace conference was held where a ceasefire agreement was negotiated and signed by both sides. At the conference, Iraq was approved to fly armed helicopters on their side of the temporary border, ostensibly for government transit due to the damage done to civilian infrastructure. Soon after, these helicopters and much of Iraq's military were used to fight an uprising in the south. The rebellions were encouraged by an airing of \\\"The Voice of Free Iraq\\\" on 2 February 1991, which was broadcast from a CIA-run radio station out of Saudi Arabia. The Arabic service of the Voice of America supported the uprising by stating that the rebellion was large, and that they soon would be liberated from Saddam.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn the North, Kurdish leaders took American statements that they would support an uprising to heart, and began fighting, hoping to trigger a coup d'état. However, when no U.S. support came, Iraqi generals remained loyal to Saddam and brutally crushed the Kurdish uprising. Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and Kurdish areas of Iran. These events later resulted in no-fly zones being established in northern and southern Iraq. In Kuwait, the Emir was restored, and suspected Iraqi collaborators were repressed. Eventually, over 400,000 people were expelled from the country, including a large number of Palestinians, due to PLO support of Saddam. Yasser Arafat didn't apologize for his support of Iraq, but after his death, the Fatah under Mahmoud Abbas' authority formally apologized in 2004.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThere was some criticism of the Bush administration, as they chose to allow Saddam to remain in power instead of pushing on to capture Baghdad and overthrowing his government. In their co-written 1998 book, A World Transformed, Bush and Brent Scowcroft argued that such a course would have fractured the alliance, and would have had many unnecessary political and human costs associated with it.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn 1992, the U.S. Defense Secretary during the war, Dick Cheney, made the same point:\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nInstead of a greater involvement of its own military, the U.S. hoped that Saddam would be overthrown in an internal coup d'état. The CIA used its assets in Iraq to organize a revolt, but the Iraqi government defeated the effort.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn 10 March 1991, 540,000 U.S. troops began moving out of the Persian Gulf.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCoalition involvement\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCoalition members included Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Honduras, Hungary, Italy, Kuwait, Malaysia, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nGermany and Japan provided financial assistance and donated military hardware, but didn't send direct military assistance. This later became known as checkbook diplomacy.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nUnited Kingdom\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe United Kingdom committed the largest contingent of any European state that participated in the war's combat operations. Operation Granby was the code name for the operations in the Persian Gulf. British Army regiments (mainly with the 1st Armoured Division), Royal Air Force squadrons and Royal Navy vessels were mobilized in the Persian Gulf. The Royal Air Force, using various aircraft, operated from airbases in Saudi Arabia. Almost 2,500 armored vehicles and 53,462 troops were shipped for action.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nChief Royal Navy vessels deployed to the Persian Gulf included Broadsword-class frigates, and Sheffield-class destroyers, other R.N. and R.F.A. ships were also deployed. The light aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal was deployed to the Mediterranean Sea.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nSpecial operations forces were deployed in the form of several SAS squadrons.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nFrance\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe second largest European contingent was from France, which committed 18,000 troops. Operating on the left flank of the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps, the main French Army force was the 6th Light Armoured Division, including troops from the French Foreign Legion. Initially, the French operated independently under national command and control, but coordinated closely with the Americans (via CENTCOM) and Saudis. In January, the Division was placed under the tactical control of the XVIII Airborne Corps. France also deployed several combat aircraft and naval units. The French called their contribution Opération Daguet.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCanada\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCanada was one of the first countries to condemn Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, and it quickly agreed to join the U.S.-led coalition. In August 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney committed the Canadian Forces to deploy a Naval Task Group. The destroyers and joined the maritime interdiction force supported by the supply ship in Operation Friction. The Canadian Task Group led the Coalition's maritime logistics forces in the Persian Gulf. A fourth ship, , arrived in-theater after hostilities had ceased and was the first allied ship to visit Kuwait.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nFollowing the U.N.-authorized use of force against Iraq, the Canadian Forces deployed a CF-18 Hornet and CH-124 Sea King squadron with support personnel, as well as a field hospital to deal with casualties from the ground war. When the air war began, the CF-18s were integrated into the Coalition force and were tasked with providing air cover and attacking ground targets. This was the first time since the Korean War that Canada's military had participated in offensive combat operations. The only CF-18 Hornet to record an official victory during the conflict was an aircraft involved in the beginning of the Battle of Bubiyan against the Iraqi Navy.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe Canadian Commander in the Middle East was Commodore Kenneth J. Summers.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAustralia\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAustralia contributed a Naval Task Group, which formed part of the multi-national fleet in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, under Operation Damask. In addition, medical teams were deployed aboard a U.S. hospital ship, and a naval clearance diving team took part in de-mining Kuwait's port facilities following the end of combat operations. While the Australian forces did not see combat, they did play a significant role in enforcing the sanctions put in place against Iraq following Kuwait's invasion, as well as other small support contributions to Operation Desert Storm. Following the war's end, Australia deployed a medical unit on Operation Habitat to northern Iraq as part of Operation Provide Comfort.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nArgentina\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nArgentina was the only Latin American country to participate in the 1991 Gulf War sending a destroyer, ARA Almirante Brown (D-10), a corvette, ARA Spiro (P-43) (later replaced by another corvette, ARA Rosales (P-42)) and a supply ship (ARA Bahía San Blas (B-4)) to participate on the United Nations blockade and sea control effort of the Persian Gulf. The success of Operación Alfil (\\\"English: Operation Bishop\\\") as it was known, with more than 700 interceptions and 25,000 miles sailed in the theatre of operations helped to overcome the so-called \\\"Malvinas syndrome\\\". Argentina was later classified as major non-NATO ally due to its contributions during the war.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCasualties\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCivilian\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOver 1,000 Kuwaiti civilians were killed by Iraqis. More than 600 Kuwaitis went missing during Iraq's occupation, and approximately 375 remains were found in mass graves in Iraq. The increased importance of air attacks from both Coalition warplanes and cruise missiles led to controversy over the number of civilian deaths caused during Desert Storm's initial stages. Within Desert Storm's first 24 hours, more than 1,000 sorties were flown, many against targets in Baghdad. The city was the target of heavy bombing, as it was the seat of power for Saddam and the Iraqi forces' command and control. This ultimately led to civilian casualties.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn one noted incident, two USAF stealth planes bombed a bunker in Amiriyah, causing the deaths of 408 Iraqi civilians who were in the shelter.Scott Peterson, [http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/1022/p01s01-wosc.htm \\\"'Smarter' bombs still hit civilians\\\"], Christian Science Monitor, 22 October 2002. Scenes of burned and mutilated bodies were subsequently broadcast, and controversy arose over the bunker's status, with some stating that it was a civilian shelter, while others contended that it was a center of Iraqi military operations, and that the civilians had been deliberately moved there to act as human shields.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nSaddam's government gave high civilian casualty figures in order to draw support from Islamic countries. The Iraqi government claimed that 2,300 civilians died during the air campaign. According to the Project on Defense Alternatives study, 3,664 Iraqi civilians were killed in the conflict. An investigation by Beth Osborne Daponte estimated total civilian fatalities at about 3,500 from bombing, and some 100,000 from the war's other effects.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIraqi\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe exact number of Iraqi combat casualties is unknown, but is believed to have been heavy. Some estimate that Iraq sustained between 20,000 and 35,000 fatalities. A report commissioned by the U.S. Air Force, estimated 10,000–12,000 Iraqi combat deaths in the air campaign, and as many as 10,000 casualties in the ground war. This analysis is based on Iraqi prisoner of war reports.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAccording to the Project on Defense Alternatives study, between 20,000 and 26,000 Iraqi military personnel were killed in the conflict while 75,000 others were wounded.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCoalition\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe DoD reports that U.S. forces suffered 148 battle-related deaths (35 to friendly fire), with one pilot listed as MIA (his remains were found and identified in August 2009). A further 145 Americans died in non-combat accidents. The U.K. suffered 47 deaths (9 to friendly fire, all by U.S. forces), France 2, and the other countries, not including Kuwait, suffered 37 deaths (18 Saudis, 1 Egyptian, 6 UAE, and 3 Qataris). At least 605 Kuwaiti soldiers were still missing 10 years after their capture.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe largest single loss of life among Coalition forces happened on 25 February 1991, when an Iraqi Al Hussein missile hit a U.S. military barrack in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 U.S. Army Reservists from Pennsylvania. In all, 190 Coalition troops were killed by Iraqi fire during the war, 113 of whom were American, out of a total of 358 Coalition deaths. Another 44 soldiers were killed, and 57 wounded, by friendly fire. 145 soldiers died of exploding munitions, or non-combat accidents.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe largest accident among Coalition forces happened on 21 March 1991, a Royal Saudi Air Force C-130H crashed in heavy smoke on approach to Ras Al-Mishab Airport, Saudi Arabia. 92 Senegalese soldiers and 6 Saudi crew members were killed.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe number of Coalition wounded in combat was 776, including 458 Americans.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\n190 Coalition troops were killed by Iraqi combatants, the rest of the 379 Coalition deaths being from friendly fire or accidents. This number was much lower than expected. Among the American dead were three female soldiers.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nFriendly fire\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nWhile the death toll among Coalition forces engaging Iraqi combatants was very low, a substantial number of deaths were caused by accidental attacks from other Allied units. Of the 148 U.S. troops who died in battle, 24% were killed by friendly fire, a total of 35 service personnel. A further 11 died in detonations of coalition munitions. Nine British military personnel were killed in a friendly fire incident when a USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II destroyed a group of two Warrior IFVs.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nControversies\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nGulf War Illness\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nMany returning Coalition soldiers reported illnesses following their action in the war, a phenomenon known as Gulf War syndrome or Gulf War illness. Common symptoms that were reported are chronic fatigue, Fibromyalgia, and Gastrointestinal disorder. There has been widespread speculation and disagreement about the causes of the illness and the reported birth defects. Researchers found that infants born to male veterans of the 1991 war had higher rates of two types of heart valve defects. Gulf War veterans' children born after the war had a certain kidney defect that was not found in Gulf War veterans' children born before the war. Researchers have said that they did not have enough information to link birth defects with exposure to toxic substances. Some factors considered as possibilities include exposure to depleted uranium, chemical weapons, anthrax vaccines given to deploying soldiers, and/or infectious diseases. Major Michael Donnelly, a USAF officer during the War, helped publicize the syndrome and advocated for veterans' rights in this regard.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nEffects of depleted uranium\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nDepleted uranium was used in the war in tank kinetic energy penetrators and 20–30 mm cannon ordnance. Significant controversy regarding the long term safety of depleted uranium exists, although detractors claim pyrophoric, genotoxic, and teratogenic heavy metal effects. Many have cited its use during the war as a contributing factor to a number of instances of health issues in the conflict's veterans and surrounding civilian populations. However, scientific opinion on the risk is mixed.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nSome say that depleted uranium is not a significant health hazard unless it is taken into the body. External exposure to radiation from depleted uranium is generally not a major concern because the alpha particles emitted by its isotopes travel only a few centimeters in air or can be stopped by a sheet of paper. Also, the uranium-235 that remains in depleted uranium emits only a small amount of low-energy gamma radiation. However, if allowed to enter the body, depleted uranium, like natural uranium, has the potential for both chemical and radiological toxicity with the two important target organs being the kidneys and the lungs\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nHighway of Death\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn the night of 26–27 February 1991, some Iraqi forces began leaving Kuwait on the main highway north of Al Jahra in a column of some 1,400 vehicles. A patrolling E-8 Joint STARS aircraft observed the retreating forces and relayed the information to the DDM-8 air operations center in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. These vehicles and the retreating soldiers were subsequently attacked, resulting in a 60 km stretch of highway strewn with debris—the Highway of Death. New York Times reporter Maureen Dowd wrote, \\\"With the Iraqi leader facing military defeat, Mr. Bush decided that he would rather gamble on a violent and potentially unpopular ground war than risk the alternative: an imperfect settlement hammered out by the Soviets and Iraqis that world opinion might accept as tolerable.\\\"\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nChuck Horner, Commander of U.S. and allied air operations has written:\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nBulldozer assault\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAnother incident during the war highlighted the question of large-scale Iraqi combat deaths. This was the \\\"bulldozer assault\\\", wherein two brigades from the U.S. 1st Infantry Division (Mechanized) were faced with a large and complex trench network, as part of the heavily fortified \\\"Saddam Hussein Line\\\". After some deliberation, they opted to use anti-mine plows mounted on tanks and combat earthmovers to simply plow over and bury alive the defending Iraqi soldiers. Not a single American was killed during the attack. Reporters were banned from witnessing the attack, near the neutral zone that touches the border between Saudi Arabia and Iraq. Every American in the assault was inside an armored vehicle. One newspaper story reported that U.S. commanders estimated thousands of Iraqi soldiers surrendered, escaping live burial during the two-day assault 24–26 February 1991. Patrick Day Sloyan of Newsday reported, \\\"Bradley Fighting Vehicles and Vulcan armored carriers straddled the trench lines and fired into the Iraqi soldiers as the tanks covered them with mounds of sand. 'I came through right after the lead company,' [Col. Anthony] Moreno said. 'What you saw was a bunch of buried trenches with peoples' arms and things sticking out of them... .\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nHowever, after the war, the Iraqi government said that only 44 bodies were found. In his book The Wars Against Saddam, John Simpson alleges that U.S. forces attempted to cover up the incident. After the incident, the commander of the 1st Brigade said: \\\"I know burying people like that sounds pretty nasty, but it would be even nastier if we had to put our troops in the trenches and clean them out with bayonets.\\\" Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney did not mention the First Division's tactics in an interim report to Congress on Operation Desert Storm. In the report, Cheney acknowledged that 457 enemy soldiers were buried during the ground war.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nPalestinian exodus from Kuwait\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nA Palestinian exodus from Kuwait took place during and after the Gulf War. During the Gulf War, more than 200,000 Palestinians voluntarily fled Kuwait during the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait due to harassment and intimidation by Iraqi security forces, in addition to getting fired from work by Iraqi authority figures in Kuwait. After the Gulf War, the Kuwaiti authorities forcibly pressured nearly 200,000 Palestinians to leave Kuwait in 1991. Kuwait's policy, which led to this exodus, was a response to alignment of Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and the PLO with Saddam Hussein.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe Palestinians who fled Kuwait were Jordanian citizens. In 2013, there were 280,000 Jordanian citizens of Palestinian origin in Kuwait. In 2012, 80,000 Palestinians (without Jordanian citizenship) lived in Kuwait.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nSaudi Arabia expelled Yemeni workers after Yemen supported Saddam during the Gulf War.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCoalition bombing of Iraq's civilian infrastructure\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn the 23 June 1991 edition of The Washington Post, reporter Bart Gellman wrote: \\\"Many of the targets were chosen only secondarily to contribute to the military defeat of [Iraq] ... Military planners hoped the bombing would amplify the economic and psychological impact of international sanctions on Iraqi society ... They deliberately did great harm to Iraq's ability to support itself as an industrial society ...\\\" In the Jan/Feb 1995 edition of Foreign Affairs, French diplomat Eric Rouleau wrote: \\\"[T]he Iraqi people, who were not consulted about the invasion, have paid the price for their government's madness ... Iraqis understood the legitimacy of a military action to drive their army from Kuwait, but they have had difficulty comprehending the Allied rationale for using air power to systematically destroy or cripple Iraqi infrastructure and industry: electric power stations (92 percent of installed capacity destroyed), refineries (80 percent of production capacity), petrochemical complexes, telecommunications centers (including 135 telephone networks), bridges (more than 100), roads, highways, railroads, hundreds of locomotives and boxcars full of goods, radio and television broadcasting stations, cement plants, and factories producing aluminum, textiles, electric cables, and medical supplies.\\\" However, the U.N.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nsubsequently spent billions rebuilding hospitals, schools, and water purification facilities throughout the country.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAbuse of Coalition POWs\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nDuring the conflict, Coalition aircrew shot down over Iraq were displayed as prisoners of war on TV, most with visible signs of abuse. Amongst several testimonies to poor treatment, Air Force Captain, Richard Storr was allegededly tortured by Iraqis during the Persian Gulf War. Iraqi secret police broke his nose, dislocated his shoulder and punctured his eardrum. Royal Air Force Tornado crew John Nichol and John Peters have both alleged that they were tortured during this time. Nichol and Peters were forced to make statements against the war in front of television cameras. Members of British Special Air Service Bravo Two Zero were captured while providing information about an Iraqi supply line of Scud missiles to Coalition forces. Only one, Chris Ryan, evaded capture while the group's other surviving members were violently tortured. Flight surgeon (later General) Rhonda Cornum was raped by one of her captors after the Black Hawk she was riding in was shot down while searching for a downed F-16 pilot.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOperation Southern Watch\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nSince the war, the U.S. has had a continued presence of 5,000 troops stationed in Saudi Arabia – a figure that rose to 10,000 during the 2003 conflict in Iraq. Operation Southern Watch enforced the no-fly zones over southern Iraq set up after 1991; oil exports through the Persian Gulf's shipping lanes were protected by the Bahrain-based U.S. Fifth Fleet.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nSince Saudi Arabia houses Mecca and Medina, Islam's holiest sites, many Muslims were upset at the permanent military presence. The continued presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia after the war was one of the stated motivations behind the 11 September terrorist attacks, the Khobar Towers bombing, and the date chosen for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings (7 August), which was eight years to the day that U.S. troops were sent to Saudi Arabia. Osama bin Laden interpreted the Islamic prophet Muhammad as banning the \\\"permanent presence of infidels in Arabia\\\". In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwa, calling for U.S. troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In a December 1999 interview with Rahimullah Yusufzai, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were \\\"too near to Mecca\\\" and considered this a provocation to the entire Islamic world.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nSanctions\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn 6 August 1990, after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the U.N. Security Council adopted Resolution 661 which imposed economic sanctions on Iraq, providing for a full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items of humanitarian necessity, these to be determined by the Council's sanctions committee. From 1991 until 2003, the effects of government policy and sanctions regime led to hyperinflation, widespread poverty and malnutrition.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nDuring the late 1990s, the U.N. considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nDraining of the Qurna Marshes\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe draining of the Qurna Marshes was an irrigation project in Iraq during and immediately after the war, to drain a large area of marshes in the Tigris–Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 3,000 square kilometers, the large complex of wetlands were almost completely emptied of water, and the local Shi'ite population relocated, following the war and 1991 uprisings. By 2000, United Nations Environment Programme estimated that 90% of the marshlands had disappeared, causing desertification of over 7500 sqmi.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe draining of the Qurna Marshes also called The Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes occurred in Iraq and to a smaller degree in Iran between the 1950s and 1990s to clear large areas of the marshes in the Tigris-Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi), the large complex of wetlands was 90% drained prior to the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. The marshes are typically divided into three main sub-marshes, the Hawizeh, Central, and Hammar Marshes and all three were drained at different times for different reasons. Initial draining of the Central Marshes was intended to reclaim land for agriculture but later all three marshes would become a tool of war and revenge.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nMany international organizations such as the U.N. Human Rights Commission, the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq, the Wetlands International, and Middle East Watch have described the project as a political attempt to force the Marsh Arabs out of the area through water diversion tactics.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOil spill\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn 23 January, Iraq dumped 400 e6USgal of crude oil into the Persian Gulf , causing the largest offshore oil spill in history at that time. It was reported as a deliberate natural resources attack to keep U.S. Marines from coming ashore (Missouri and Wisconsin had shelled Failaka Island during the war to reinforce the idea that there would be an amphibious assault attempt). About 30–40% of this came from allied raids on Iraqi coastal targets.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nKuwaiti oil fires\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to 700 oil wells as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by Coalition forces. The fires started in January and February 1991 and the last one was extinguished by November 1991.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe resulting fires burned out of control because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires could be put out. Somewhere around 6 Moilbbl of oil were lost each day. Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US$1.5 billion to Kuwait. By that time, however, the fires had burned for approximately ten months, causing widespread pollution.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nCost\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe cost of the war to the United States was calculated by the U.S. Congress to be $61.1 billion. About $52 billion of that amount was paid by other countries: $36 billion by Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf; $16 billion by Germany and Japan (which sent no combat forces due to their constitutions). About 25% of Saudi Arabia's contribution was paid in the form of in-kind services to the troops, such as food and transportation. U.S. troops represented about 74% of the combined force, and the global cost was therefore higher.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nEffect on developing countries\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nApart from the impact on Arab States of the Persian Gulf, the resulting economic disruptions after the crisis affected many states. The Overseas Development Institute (ODI) undertook a study in 1991 to assess the effects on developing states and the international community's response. A briefing paper finalized on the day that the conflict ended draws on their findings which had two main conclusions: Many developing states were severely affected and while there has been a considerable response to the crisis, the distribution of assistance was highly selective.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe ODI factored in elements of \\\"cost\\\" which included oil imports, remittance flows, re-settlement costs, loss of export earnings and tourism. For Egypt, the cost totaled $1 billion, 3% of GDP. Yemen had a cost of $830 million, 10% of GDP, while it cost Jordan $1.8 billion, 32% of GDP.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nInternational response to the crisis on developing states came with the channeling of aid through The Gulf Crisis Financial Co-ordination Group. They were 24 states, comprising most of the OECD countries plus some Gulf states: Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Kuwait. The members of this group agreed to disperse $14 billion in development assistance.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe World Bank responded by speeding up the disbursement of existing project and adjustment loans. The International Monetary Fund adopted two lending facilities – the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) and the Compensatory & Contingency Financing Facility (CCFF). The European Community offered $2 billion in assistance.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nMedia coverage\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe war was heavily televised. For the first time, people all over the world were able to watch live pictures of missiles hitting their targets and fighters departing from aircraft carriers. Allied forces were keen to demonstrate their weapons' accuracy.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn the United States, the \\\"big three\\\" network anchors led the war's network news coverage: ABC's Peter Jennings, CBS's Dan Rather, and NBC's Tom Brokaw were anchoring their evening newscasts when air strikes began on 16 January 1991. ABC News correspondent Gary Shepard, reporting live from Baghdad, told Jennings of the city's quietness. But, moments later, Shepard was back on the air as flashes of light were seen on the horizon and tracer fire was heard on the ground.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nOn CBS, viewers were watching a report from correspondent Allen Pizzey, who was also reporting from Baghdad, when the war began. Rather, after the report was finished, announced that there were unconfirmed reports of flashes in Baghdad and heavy air traffic at bases in Saudi Arabia. On the \\\"NBC Nightly News\\\", correspondent Mike Boettcher reported unusual air activity in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Moments later, Brokaw announced to his viewers that the air attack had begun.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nStill, it was CNN whose coverage gained the most popularity and indeed its wartime coverage is often cited as one of the landmark events in the network's history (ultimately leading to the establishment of CNN International). CNN correspondents John Holliman and Peter Arnett and CNN anchor Bernard Shaw relayed audio reports from Baghdad's Al-Rashid Hotel as the air strikes began. The network had previously convinced the Iraqi government to allow installation of a permanent audio circuit in their makeshift bureau. When the telephones of all of the other Western TV correspondents went dead during the bombing, CNN was the only service able to provide live reporting. After the initial bombing, Arnett remained behind and was, for a time, the only American TV correspondent reporting from Iraq.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nIn the United Kingdom, the BBC devoted the FM portion of its national speech radio station BBC Radio 4 to an eighteen-hour rolling news format creating Radio 4 News FM. The station was short lived, ending shortly after President Bush declared the ceasefire and Kuwait's liberation. However, it paved the way for the later introduction of Radio Five Live.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nTwo BBC journalists, John Simpson and Bob Simpson (no relation), defied their editors and remained in Baghdad to report on the war's progress. They were responsible for a report which included an \\\"infamous cruise missile that travelled down a street and turned left at a traffic light.\\\"\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nNewspapers all over the world also covered the war and Time magazine published a special issue dated 28 January 1991, the headline \\\"WAR IN THE GULF\\\" emblazoned on the cover over a picture of Baghdad taken as the war began.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nU.S. policy regarding media freedom was much more restrictive than in the Vietnam War. The policy had been spelled out in a Pentagon document entitled Annex Foxtrot. Most of the press information came from briefings organized by the military. Only selected journalists were allowed to visit the front lines or conduct interviews with soldiers. Those visits were always conducted in the presence of officers, and were subject to both prior approval by the military and censorship afterward. This was ostensibly to protect sensitive information from being revealed to Iraq. This policy was heavily influenced by the military's experience with the Vietnam War, in which public opposition within the U.S. grew throughout the war's course. It was not only the limitation of information in the Middle East; media were also restricting what was shown about the war with more graphic depictions like Ken Jarecke's image of a burnt Iraqi soldier being pulled from the American AP wire whereas in Europe it was given extensive coverage.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAt the same time, the war's coverage was new in its instantaneousness. About halfway through the war, Iraq's government decided to allow live satellite transmissions from the country by Western news organizations, and U.S. journalists returned en masse to Baghdad. NBC's Tom Aspell, ABC's Bill Blakemore, and CBS News' Betsy Aaron filed reports, subject to acknowledged Iraqi censorship. Throughout the war, footage of incoming missiles was broadcast almost immediately.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nA British crew from CBS News (David Green and Andy Thompson), equipped with satellite transmission equipment traveled with the front line forces and, having transmitted live TV pictures of the fighting en route, arrived the day before the forces in Kuwait City, broadcasting live television from the city and covering the entrance of the Arab forces the next day.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAlternative media outlets provided views in opposition to the war. Deep Dish Television compiled segments from independent producers in the U.S. and abroad, and produced a ten-hour series that was distributed internationally, called [https://web.archive.org/web/20100711090755/http://www.deepdishtv.org/Series/Default.aspx?id=4 The Gulf Crisis TV Project]. The series' first program [https://archive.org/details/ddtv_50_war_oil_and_power War, Oil and Power] was compiled and released in 1990, before the war broke out. [https://archive.org/details/ddtv_56_new_world_order News World Order] was the title of another program in the series; it focused on the media's complicity in promoting the war, as well as Americans' reactions to the media coverage. In San Francisco, as a local example, Paper Tiger Television West produced a weekly cable television show with highlights of mass demonstrations, artists' actions, lectures, and protests against mainstream media coverage at newspaper offices and television stations. Local media outlets in cities across the country screened similar oppositional media.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe organization Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) critically analyzed media coverage during the war in various articles and books, such as the 1991 Gulf War Coverage: The Worst Censorship was at Home.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nTechnology\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nPrecision-guided munitions, such as the U.S. Air Force's AGM-130 guided missile, were heralded as key in allowing military strikes to be made with a minimum of civilian casualties compared to previous wars, although they were not used as often as more traditional, less accurate bombs. Specific buildings in downtown Baghdad could be bombed while journalists in their hotels watched cruise missiles fly by.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nPrecision-guided munitions amounted to approximately 7.4% of all bombs dropped by the Coalition. Other bombs included cluster bombs, which disperse numerous submunitions, and daisy cutters, 15,000-pound bombs which can disintegrate everything within hundreds of yards.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nGlobal Positioning System units were relatively new at the time and were important in enabling Coalition units to easily navigate across the desert. Since military GPS receivers were not available for most troops, many used commercially available units. To permit these to be used to best effect, the \\\"selective availability\\\" feature of the GPS system was turned off for the duration of Desert Storm, allowing these commercial receivers to provide the same precision as the military equipment.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAirborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) and satellite communication systems were also important. Two examples of this are the U.S. Navy's Grumman E-2 Hawkeye and the U.S. Air Force's Boeing E-3 Sentry. Both were used in command and control area of operations. These systems provided essential communications links between air, ground, and naval forces. It is one of several reasons why Coalition forces dominated the air war.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nAmerican-made color photocopiers were used to produce some of Iraq's battle plans. Some of the copiers contained concealed high-tech transmitters that revealed their positions to American electronic warfare aircraft, leading to more precise bombings.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nScud and Patriot missiles\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe role of Iraq's Scud missiles featured prominently in the war. Scud is a tactical ballistic missile that the Soviet Union developed and deployed among the forward deployed Red Army divisions in East Germany. The role of the Scuds which were armed with nuclear and chemical warheads was to destroy command, control, and communication facilities and delay full mobilization of Western German and Allied Forces in Germany. It could also be used to directly target ground forces.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nScud missiles utilize inertial guidance which operates for the duration that the engines operate. Iraq used Scud missiles, launching them into both Saudi Arabia and Israel. Some missiles caused extensive casualties, while others caused little damage. Concerns were raised of possible chemical or biological warheads on these rockets, but if they existed, they were not used.\",\n \"Gulf War\\n\\nThe U.S. Patriot missile was used in combat for the first time. The U.S. military claimed a high effectiveness against Scuds at the time, but later analysis gives figures as low as nine percent, with forty-five percent of the 158 Patriot launches being against debris or false targets. The Dutch Ministry of Defense, which also sent Patriot missiles to protect civilians in Israel and Turkey, later disputed the higher claim. Further, there is at least one incident of a software error causing a Patriot missile's failure to engage an incoming Scud, resulting in deaths. Both the U.S. Army and the missile manufacturers maintained the Patriot delivered a \\\"miracle performance\\\" in the Gulf War.\",\n \"Stormin' Norman\\n\\nStormin' Norman is a rhyming nickname frequently used for anyone named Norman who is also seen as a dynamic or ditzy personality. The name is usually a media tag. Here are a few examples of public figures with that tag:\",\n \"Stormin' Norman\\n\\n* Norm Sloan (1926–2003), American college basketball coach\\n* Norm Cash (1934–1986), major league baseball player\\n* Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. (1934–2012), American military figure\\n* Norm Stewart (born 1935), American college basketball coach (University of Missouri)\\n* Norman Siegel (born 1943), American civil rights attorney\\n* Norman Moore (born 1945), State President Liberal Party of Australia (WA Division)\\n* Norm Van Lier (1947–2009), American basketball player\",\n \"Stormin' Norman\\n\\n* Norman Ligairi (born 1976), a Fijian rugby union player\\n* Norman Parke (born 1986) Northern Ireland born MMA fighter known as \\\"Stormin' Norman Parke.\\\"\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nH. Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. (; August 22, 1934 – December 27, 2012) was a United States Army general. While serving as Commander-in-Chief, United States Central Command, he led all coalition forces in the Persian Gulf War.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nBorn in Trenton, New Jersey, Schwarzkopf grew up in the United States and later in Iran. He was accepted into the U.S. Military Academy at West Point and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the United States Army in 1956. After a number of initial training programs, Schwarzkopf interrupted a stint as an academy teacher, and served in the Vietnam War first as an adviser to the South Vietnamese Army and later as a battalion commander. Schwarzkopf was highly decorated in Vietnam, being awarded three Silver Star Medals, two Purple Hearts, and the Legion of Merit. Rising through the ranks after the conflict, he later commanded the U.S. 24th Infantry Division and was one of the commanders of the Invasion of Grenada in 1983.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nAssuming command of United States Central Command in 1988, Schwarzkopf was called on to respond to the Invasion of Kuwait in 1990 by the forces of Iraq under Saddam Hussein. Initially tasked with defending Saudi Arabia from Iraqi aggression, Schwarzkopf's command eventually grew to an international force of over 750,000 troops. After diplomatic relations broke down, he planned and led Operation Desert Storm—an extended air campaign followed by a highly successful 100-hour ground offensive—which defeated the Iraqi Army and liberated Kuwait in early 1991. Schwarzkopf was presented with military honors.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nSchwarzkopf retired shortly after the end of the war and undertook a number of philanthropic ventures, only occasionally stepping into the political spotlight before his death from complications of pneumonia in late 2012. Known for being a hard-driving military commander with a strong temper, Schwarzkopf was nonetheless considered an exceptional leader by biographers and was noted for his abilities as a military diplomat and in dealing with the press.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nEarly life and education\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nSchwarzkopf was born Herbert Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. on August 22, 1934 in Trenton, New Jersey, to Herbert Norman Schwarzkopf Sr. and Ruth Alice (née Bowman). His father was a German-American 1917 graduate of the United States Military Academy and veteran of World War I. His mother was a housewife from West Virginia who was distantly related to Thomas Jefferson. The senior Schwarzkopf later became the Superintendent of the New Jersey State Police, where he worked as a lead investigator on the 1932 Lindbergh baby kidnapping case. In January 1952, the younger Schwarzkopf's birth certificate was amended to make his name \\\"H. Norman Schwarzkopf\\\", reportedly because his father detested his first name. The younger Schwarzkopf had two older sisters, Ruth Ann and Sally Joan.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nNorman Schwarzkopf was described by childhood friends as active and assertive, protective of his sisters and a skilled athlete. He spent his childhood attached to his father, who subsequently became the narrator for the Gang Busters radio program. When Norman Schwarzkopf was eight years old, his father returned to the military amid World War II. His continuous absence made home life difficult, particularly for his wife. As a 10-year-old cadet at Bordentown Military Institute, near Trenton, he posed for his official photograph wearing a stern expression because – as he said afterwards – \\\"Some day when I become a general, I want people to know that I’m serious.\\\" In 1946, when Norman Schwarzkopf was 12, he moved with his father to Tehran, Iran. In Iran, Norman learned shooting, horseback riding, and hunting. Schwarzkopf developed a lifelong interest in Middle Eastern culture. The family moved to Geneva, Switzerland, in 1947, following a new military assignment for Herbert Schwarzkopf. The senior Schwarzkopf visited Italy, Heidelberg, Frankfurt, and Berlin, Germany during his military duties, and the younger Schwarzkopf accompanied him. By 1951 he had returned to Iran briefly before returning to the United States. Herbert Schwarzkopf died in 1958.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nFrom a young age, Norman wanted to be a military officer, following his father's example.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nHe attended the Community High School in Tehran, later the International School of Geneva, and briefly Frankfurt American High School, in Frankfurt, Germany (1948–49), and Heidelberg American High School, in Heidelberg, Germany (1949–50). He finally graduated from Valley Forge Military Academy. He was also a member of Mensa. Schwarzkopf graduated valedictorian out of his class of 150, and his IQ was tested at 168. Schwarzkopf then attended the United States Military Academy, where he played football, wrestled, sang and conducted the West Point Chapel choir. His large frame, 6 ft in height and weighing 240 lb, was advantageous in athletics. In his plebe year he was given the nickname \\\"Schwarzie,\\\" the same as his father, and he was often pushed by older cadets to imitate his father's radio show as a traditional act of hazing. Schwarzkopf also gained a great respect for certain military leaders at West Point, notably Ulysses S. Grant, William Tecumseh Sherman and Creighton Abrams, believing them excellent commanders who nonetheless did not glorify war. He graduated 43rd of 480 in the class of 1956 with a Bachelor of Engineering degree. Norman earned a Masters of Engineering at the University of Southern California. [http://www.biography.com/people/norman-schwarzkopf-9476401#early-life]\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nCareer\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nJunior officer\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nCommissioned as a second lieutenant in the Infantry Branch, Schwarzkopf spent October 1956 to March 1957 at United States Army Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia, where he earned his Parachutist Badge. His first assignment was as platoon leader, later executive officer, of E Company, 2nd Airborne Battle Group, 187th Airborne Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. He was promoted to first lieutenant in 1958. In July 1959, Schwarzkopf was assigned his first overseas assignment; as a staff officer alternating with duties as a platoon leader, liaison officer, and reconnaissance platoon leader with the 6th Infantry Division in West Germany. In July 1960, Schwarzkopf was assigned as aide-de-camp to Brigadier General Charles Johnson, who commanded the Berlin Brigade in West Berlin.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nSchwarzkopf was promoted to captain in July 1961 and reassigned for Advanced Infantry School at Fort Benning for eight months. He also earned his Master Parachutist Badge in that time. In June 1962, Schwarzkopf enrolled at the University of Southern California in a Master of Science in Engineering course studying missile mechanics. He graduated in June 1964, having earned a Master of Science in mechanical and aerospace engineering. He then returned to West Point to serve as an instructor in the Department of Mechanics. He was originally intended to teach at the Military Academy for three years, but after his first year he volunteered for service in South Vietnam because he thought that career advancement could be most quickly earned in combat. West Point approved his request in early 1965 with the stipulation that he return and teach the remaining two years after his tour.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nVietnam War\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nIn the Vietnam War, Schwarzkopf served as a task force adviser to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam Airborne Division. He was promoted to major shortly after arriving in Vietnam. After an initial orientation at Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), headquartered in Saigon, Schwarzkopf was sent north to Pleiku in the central highlands, in the II Corps Tactical Zone. He got his first combat experience on August 3, when he was the senior adviser to a force of 1,000 South Vietnamese paratroopers sent to relieve a beleaguered South Vietnamese Army force at Đức Cơ Camp. The paratroopers took heavy casualties and a second, larger force was required to relieve them. That force too came into heavy contact. Schwarzkopf and his group fought continuously for several days. At one point, he braved heavy North Vietnamese fire to recover and treat a handful of wounded South Vietnamese soldiers and escort them to safety. By August 17 the 173rd Airborne Brigade arrived and broke the siege, ending the Battle of Đức Cơ. General William Westmoreland later arrived to review the incident and congratulate Schwarzkopf. For his leadership in the battle, Schwarzkopf was awarded the Silver Star.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nOn February 14, 1966, Schwarzkopf led an ARVN paratrooper assault on a Viet Cong position, during which he was wounded four times by small arms fire. In spite of this, he refused medical evacuation or to relinquish command until the objective had been captured. For this, he was awarded a second Silver Star and a Purple Heart.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nAfter ten months of combat duty, Schwarzkopf was pulled from the front by MACV and reassigned as senior staff adviser for civil affairs to the ARVN Airborne Division. Then, he returned to the United States and finished his teaching assignment at West Point, where he was an associate professor in the Department of Mechanics. In 1968, he attended the Army's Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, completing the course in June 1969. In this time back home, he also met Brenda Holsinger, a flight attendant for Trans World Airlines. They were introduced at a West Point football game in 1967 and married the next year. The couple would later have three children: Cynthia, born in 1970; Jessica, born in 1972; and Christian, born in 1977.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nSchwarzkopf was promoted to lieutenant colonel and ordered to a second tour in Vietnam, leaving in June 1969. He was assigned as executive officer to the chief of staff at MACV headquarters, based at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in Saigon. Schwarzkopf later recalled this second tour of duty was very different from his first; there were 500,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam, the Vietnamization strategy was in effect, and recent events such as the Tet Offensive and My Lai Massacre put troops under increased political scrutiny. In December 1969 he gained his first field command, taking over the 1st Battalion, 6th Infantry, 198th Infantry Brigade at Chu Lai. He later said these troops were initially demoralized and in poor condition, racked with rampant drug use and disciplinary problems as well as a lack of support from home. Despite the brigade's otherwise controversial performance record, Schwarzkopf was quickly regarded as one of its best combat commanders. He aggressively stepped up patrols and operations to counter Viet Cong infiltration in the battalion's sector. He developed his leadership attitudes during this command.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nFellow commander Hal Moore later wrote that during his time in Vietnam Schwarzkopf acquired his well-known temper, while arguing via radio for passing American helicopters to land and pick up his wounded men. He also showed a preference of leading from the front and prided himself on avoiding the rear areas, which he called a \\\"cesspool.\\\"\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nDuring this second tour, Schwarzkopf noted two incidents which haunted him. On February 17, 1970, two men in C Company, 1st Battalion, 6th Infantry were killed by friendly fire from an American artillery shell that had been ordered by Schwarzkopf, but which had struck a tree near their position on its way to a target. The parents of one soldier blamed him for the death of their son, a claim which Schwarzkopf strongly denied and termed an accident of war. On May 28, 1970, Schwarzkopf landed his helicopter when discovering troops of B Company who had stumbled into a minefield. Two company officers had been wounded and two soldiers were trapped, fearful of setting off more mines. Although a medevac was on its way, Schwarzkopf ordered his UH-1 Huey to remove the wounded. As he attempted to help the troops back out of the field, one soldier struck a landmine, breaking a leg, and began to panic. Fearing he would set off another landmine, Schwarzkopf pinned the soldier to the ground while another soldier put a splint on the wounded man's leg. In doing so, another mine was set off, killing three and wounding Schwarzkopf's artillery officer.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nReturning to the United States in 1970, Schwarzkopf was awarded a third Silver Star and a second Purple Heart for risking his life to protect the soldiers, as well as three Bronze Star Medals and a Legion of Merit for his command performance. Still, his experiences in Vietnam embittered him to U.S. foreign policy. Upon returning to the United States, he remarked of a wariness of future conflicts to author C. D. B. Bryan in 1971: He related these experiences under the assumed name of Lieutenant Colonel Byron Schindler.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nRise to general\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nDisgruntled by the treatment of Vietnam veterans in the United States after the war, Schwarzkopf considered leaving the military, but ultimately decided to stay, hoping to fix some of the problems encountered by the military during the war. He underwent surgery at Walter Reed Army Hospital shortly after his return from Vietnam to repair longstanding back problems exacerbated by parachute jumps.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nBetween 1970 and 1983, Schwarzkopf and his family lived primarily in Washington, D.C., as he took on a number of different assignments. Promoted to colonel, Schwarzkopf volunteered for an assignment in Alaska, and in late 1974 became deputy commander of the 172nd Infantry Brigade at Fort Richardson, Alaska. In October 1976, he moved to Fort Lewis, Washington, to command the 1st Brigade of the 9th Infantry Division, where he impressed his division commander, Major General Richard E. Cavazos. The two frequently hunted together and developed a close friendship. Having been very successful improving the combat readiness of the 1st Brigade, he was nominated to receive his first star as a brigadier general. His promotion ceremony occurred at Fort Lewis shortly after relinquishing command of the brigade.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nIn July 1978, Schwarzkopf became deputy director of plans at the U.S. Pacific Command in Hawaii. He then served a two-year stint as assistant division commander of the 8th Infantry Division (Mechanized) in Germany. He returned to Washington D.C. for an assignment as director of personnel management for the Army, subordinate to the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, General Maxwell R. Thurman. Schwarzkopf was promoted to major general. In June 1983, he became commanding general of the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized) at Fort Stewart, Georgia. He immediately established an extremely rigorous training regimen and became well known among the troops of the command for his strict training and aggressive personality.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nOn October 25, 1983, Schwarzkopf was appointed to the command group for the Invasion of Grenada. He was the chief army adviser to the overall operation commander, Vice Admiral Joseph Metcalf III, Commander, United States Second Fleet/Commander Joint Task Force 120. The operation was plagued by logistical difficulties, exacerbated by poor communication and lack of cooperation between the branches of the United States military. Schwarzkopf was named deputy commander of the invasion at the last minute, leaving him with little say in the planning. Schwarzkopf helped lead the initial landing operations while aboard . He was involved in an incident where the colonel commanding the 22nd Marine Amphibious Unit initially refused to fly Army troops in Marine helicopters. He flew into St. George's on the second day of the operation. While he initially did not think the U.S. should have been involved in the conflict, he later said he considered the mission a success because it re-asserted the dominance of the U.S. military after the Vietnam War. Following the invasion, Schwarzkopf returned to the 24th Infantry Division and completed his tour as its commander.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nHe was subsequently among those leaders who were criticized for the poor inter-service cooperation in the operation, particularly poor communication between forces of the different branches in combat. The operation was a learning experience for Schwarzkopf, who saw the need to develop greater cooperation between the services for future joint operations. He would later push for more policies to make joint warfare and inter-service cooperation standard practice in warfare. Specifically, the operation demonstrated a need for greater joint roles in planning, deploying troops, and communicating operations. Subsequent operations gave more authority to joint commanders in operations and doctrine emphasized joint warfare doctrine over service-centered doctrine.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nIn July 1985, Schwarzkopf began an 11-month assignment as Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans at the Pentagon. On July 1, 1986, he was promoted to lieutenant general, and was reassigned to Fort Lewis as commander of I Corps. He held this post for 14 months before returning to the Pentagon as Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans in August 1987. In a second role, Schwarzkopf served as the Army's senior member on the Military Staff Committee at the United Nations Security Council, where he began to build diplomatic skills in dealings with representatives from other countries. As a part of his duties during the posting, he sat in on arms reduction talks with leaders from the Soviet Union.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nCENTCOM commander\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nIn November 1988, Schwarzkopf was named commander of United States Central Command (CENTCOM), succeeding General George B. Crist. Schwarzkopf was selected over a more popular choice, Vice Admiral Henry C. Mustin, because commanders considered him an accomplished strategic thinker who had experience both in combat and with diplomacy, and who had great knowledge of the Middle East from his childhood experiences there. He assumed command of CENTCOM, with his headquarters at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida, and was promoted to general. At the time of this appointment, CENTCOM had overall responsibility for U.S. military operations in 19 countries, and had 200,000 servicemen on call should a crisis arise. Schwarzkopf immediately took to changing the focus of the command, which to that point had focused on the \\\"Zagros Doctrine\\\", a hypothetical ground invasion by the Soviet Union through the Zagros Mountains which the U.S. would counter in Iran. Schwarzkopf was more concerned with the effects of the Iran–Iraq War on the stability of the region than of an external threat posed by the Soviet Union.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nIn testimony before the Senate Armed Services Committee in March 1989, Schwarzkopf maintained that the Soviet Union was a threat to the region, but when giving an overview of the countries in the region, noted that Iraq posed a threat to its weaker neighbors. He implored that the U.S. \\\"seek to assert a moderating influence in Iraq.\\\" With regional turmoil growing, Schwarzkopf became concerned about the threat posed by Saddam Hussein, focusing the attention of his command to prepare to respond to what he thought was a \\\"more realistic scenario.\\\" That year, his command began planning to counter an Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, seeing it as a likely conflict which would threaten the interests of the United States. In early 1990 he testified again before the Senate Armed Services Committee in threat-assessment hearings that the Cold War was ending and it was less likely the Soviet Union would exert military force in the region. Though he declined to identify Iraq specifically as a threat, he noted a regional conflict was the most likely event to destabilize the region, and noted Iraq's ceasefire with Iran meant it was continuing to grow and modernize its military.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nIn early 1990, he drafted a war plan, Operations Plan 1002-90, titled \\\"Defense of the Arabian Peninsula,\\\" which envisioned an Iraqi invasion of Saudi Arabia through Kuwait.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nDuring CENTCOM military exercises in July 1990 termed Internal Look '90, Schwarzkopf wrote up a scenario that tested how the command would respond to a regional dictator invading a neighboring country and threatening oil fields there, a scenario which closely mirrored the rising tension between Iraq and Kuwait. One week after the end of these exercises, Iraq invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nPersian Gulf War\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nInitially believing the Iraqi Army would only advance to the Ramallah oil field, Schwarzkopf was surprised when the Iraqis captured Kuwait City. Fearing Iraq would next invade Saudi Arabia, Schwarzkopf ordered contingency plans put in motion, with the 82nd Airborne Division, 101st Airborne Division and 24th Infantry Division put on alert. He was then called to an emergency meeting with President George H. W. Bush (also a combat veteran), where his Internal Look '90 strategic plans were made the basis of a potential counteroffensive plan. By August 5, Bush opted for an aggressive response to the invasion. Schwarzkopf then accompanied Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney to meet with Saudi King Fahd to convince him to allow U.S. troops into Saudi Arabia to counter the Iraqi military. With Fahd's consent, Bush ordered troops into Saudi Arabia on August 7, initially tasked to defend Saudi Arabia should Iraq attack. U.S. commanders from the beginning wanted a quick conflict characterized by decisive, overwhelming force, as opposed to the gradual escalation of U.S. involvement as had been seen in Vietnam.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nSchwarzkopf in particular was very adamant that many of the policies governing military operations in Vietnam, especially slow escalation of air power and troop force, not reoccur. His plan for direct and overwhelming force was initially criticized in Washington as uncreative. By August 13, the news media began to closely cover Schwarzkopf, who had been named to lead the operation.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nOperation Desert Shield\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nFrom his headquarters in Tampa, Schwarzkopf began planning the operations to defend Saudi Arabia. Lieutenant General Charles Horner, USAF, ran the headquarters in Riyadh. Schwarzkopf planned supply lines for the 50,000 troops initially sent to Saudi Arabia, tapping Major General William G. Pagonis as director of the logistical operations, with U.S. Air Force cargo aircraft landing supplies at Dhahran and U.S. Navy ships offloading troops and supplies at Dammam. By August 20, 20,000 U.S. troops were in Saudi Arabia, with another 80,000 preparing to deploy, and a further 40,000 reserves tapped to augment them. Schwarzkopf arrived at the CENTCOM command in Riyadh on August 25, and on August 29 he conducted his first front-line tour of the potential combat zone, accompanied by reporters. Over the next several weeks, Schwarzkopf spoke frequently with both reporters and troops under his command, conducting many high-profile press conferences and updates to the situation in Saudi Arabia. Schwarzkopf worked to help coordinate the contributions of the different nations contributing military forces to the effort. By mid-October, Schwarzkopf indicated he was confident the forces were of a sufficient level that they could defend Saudi Arabia if it was attacked.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nThrough October, Schwarzkopf and his command were occupied with setting up facilities and supply lines for the troops streaming into Saudi Arabia. He also worked to minimize the culture clash among foreigners in sharia-dominated Saudi Arabia, such as the high visibility of women in military roles. Schwarzkopf remained at his command in Riyadh through December, making frequent frontline visits to the troops. On December 29, 1990, he received a warning order from The Pentagon to be ready to attack into Iraq and Kuwait by January 17.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nInitially, Operation Desert Shield involved a sea interdiction campaign that saw international warships detaining and inspecting tankers from Iraq. As the buildup continued, Schwarzkopf was occupied with planning an offensive operation against the Iraqi units along the border, sometimes working 18-hour days in planning, assisted by a close group of aides. He frequently met with subordinates and Saudi commanders. Schwarzkopf planned counters both for Iraq's large armored forces and air forces, as well as its elite Republican Guard forces. While planning, Schwarzkopf remained in frequent contact with Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell (both Vietnam veterans) concerning Schwarzkopf's plans for the offensive. Schwarzkopf devised an operational plan, dubbed \\\"Operation Desert Storm,\\\" to be based on overwhelming force and strong infantry attacks supported by artillery and armor. It incorporated the desert warfare strategies used by British commander Bernard Montgomery in his defeat of German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel at the Second Battle of El Alamein in World War II. By November 8, Bush agreed to commit 400,000 U.S. troops to Saudi Arabia at Schwarzkopf's insistence. Schwarzkopf believed larger numbers of troops would reduce the likelihood of high casualties.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nHe planned a strategic bombing campaign to precede an offensive into Kuwait, simultaneously striking the forward Iraqi forces and their supply lines. In the meantime, diplomatic solutions began to break down, and the deadline established by the United Nations Security Council, January 15, 1991, passed without a solution.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nBy this time, Schwarzkopf commanded an international army of 750,000, comprising 500,000 U.S. troops and 250,000 troops from other nations, as well as thousands of main battle tanks, combat aircraft and six carrier battle groups. Most of the U.S. and allied forces, however, were not combat veterans, and Schwarzkopf and the other allied commanders wanted to fight cautiously to minimize casualties. Schwarzkopf's experience in the Middle East allowed him to understand the factors surrounding the conflict, including allied commanders, with greater ease. He had a good relationship with Saudi commander Khalid bin Sultan, who in turn helped Schwarzkopf win over the Saudi Arabian populace. In spite of the cooperation, he later said he considered the Arab troops to be the least effective of the war. Schwarzkopf also had an agreeable relationship with his deputy commander, Lieutenant General Cal Waller, who handled much of the administrative burden. Peter de la Billière, commander of the British contingent, and Michel Roquejeoffre, commander of the French contingent, also cooperated well with Schwarzkopf. The good relationship between the allied commanders meant their forces were able to cooperate effectively during the operation.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nOperation Desert Storm\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nThe air campaign against Iraq began on January 17, 1991, after 139 days of planning and buildup. Schwarzkopf sent a prepared statement to the troops ahead of the first airstrikes, which were timed to hit their targets at 02:40. He oversaw the strikes from his war room in Riyadh, then emerged from his command center late in the day on January 18 to speak to the press, saying the air war had gone \\\"just about exactly as we had intended it to go\\\". He then began making frequent briefings to the media to increase press coverage of the results. He declined to measure the success of the campaign by counting suspected Iraqi casualties, believing this would undermine his credibility. The air campaign proved to be a success by achieving air superiority and destroying the Iraqi military's communications network, supplies, as well as many tanks and armored vehicles. By January 20 he announced Iraq's nuclear test reactors had been destroyed, and by January 27 he announced that the coalition had total air superiority in Iraq. Bush then gave Hussein an ultimatum to withdraw from Kuwait by 12:00 on February 23 or Schwarzkopf's ground forces would attack.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nSchwarzkopf began his ground campaign in earnest at 04:00 on February 24, with the Saudi-led Arab forces attacking into Kuwait City, while two U.S. Marine Corps divisions struck at the oil fields, and the VII Corps and XVIII Airborne Corps on the left flank struck quickly to cut off the Iraqi forces from the west, which would later be known as his \\\"Left Hook\\\" strategy. Schwarzkopf expected the war to last several weeks, and had anticipated chemical weapon attacks by the Iraqi forces, which did not occur. Resistance was lighter than Schwarzkopf expected, and Iraqi troops surrendered in large numbers. Within 90 hours, his force had destroyed 42 of 50 Iraqi Army divisions at a cost of about 125 killed and 200 wounded among American troops, and about 482 killed, 458 wounded among all of the coalition. He ordered his forces to destroy as much Iraqi armor and equipment as possible in order to ensure the country's military would be weakened in the long term. Schwarzkopf, who had ordered a media blackout during the ground offensive, finally appeared before journalists on February 27 to explain his strategy.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nOn March 3 he arrived in Kuwait City to survey the aftermath of the Iraqi occupation and negotiate a ceasefire with Iraqi military leaders, as well as work out the return of prisoners of war on both sides. With this in place, he then began the process of overseeing U.S. troops returning from the conflict.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nFor his services during the war, he was welcomed back to America with a large parade down Broadway in New York, along with other honors. Schwarzkopf led a highly publicized homecoming parade in Washington, D.C., on June 8, 1991, where he was greeted by Bush amid thousands of onlookers. His accomplishments were praised in a manner much differently from commanders who returned from the Vietnam and Korean Wars. He became an instant national celebrity and the source of great curiosity by the general public. He was quick to award praise and medals to the troops, part of what he saw as restoring pride in the U.S. armed forces after the Vietnam War.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nLater life\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nRetirement\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nSchwarzkopf returned to the United States after the Persian Gulf War as a national hero, and his ability to effectively deal with the press left him a positive image. Schwarzkopf indicated a desire to retire from the military in mid-1991. He was initially considered for promotion alternatively to General of the Army or to Army Chief of Staff, and was ultimately asked to assume the latter post, but he declined. He was later questioned about running for political office, but, considering himself an independent, expressed little interest in doing so. Schwarzkopf was not vocal about his political opinions during his military career. He retired from the military in August 1991, moving to Tampa, Florida.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nFollowing his retirement, Schwarzkopf attained a status as celebrity, and was highly praised in the news media. He was profiled by the Associated Press, the Washington Post, and Newsday, People, as well as praised in a Random House publication on the war, Triumph in the Desert. Schwarzkopf's speaking fees topped $60,000 per public appearance.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nIn 1992, Schwarzkopf published a memoir, It Doesn't Take a Hero, about his life; it became a bestseller. Schwarzkopf sold the rights to his memoirs to Bantam Books for $5,000,000. In 1993, Schwarzkopf was found to have prostate cancer, for which he was successfully treated. Among the many honors he received was the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2002. Queen Elizabeth II honorarily knighted Schwarzkopf and he was awarded many other military accolades from foreign countries. He led the Pegasus Parade at the Kentucky Derby and was an honorary guest at the Indianapolis 500. He supported several children's charities and national philanthropic causes, and he was a spokesperson for prostate cancer awareness, recovery of the grizzly bear from endangered species status, and served on the Nature Conservancy board of governors. Schwarzkopf otherwise sought to live out a low-profile retirement in Tampa, though he briefly served as a military commentator for NBC.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nAt first, Schwarzkopf was ambivalent during the run-up to the Iraq War in 2003. He initially endorsed an invasion after Colin Powell's presentation to the United Nations on February 6, 2003. When weapons of mass destruction were not located in the country after the invasion, he changed his stance. He was critical of the lack of a reconstruction plan after the fall of Baghdad, feeling the initial offensive operations plans did not take into account the cultural complexities of Iraq. In 2004, he was critical of Donald Rumsfeld and his handling of Operation Iraqi Freedom. He felt it was a mistake to send U.S. Army Reserve troops into the country without adequate training.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nSchwarzkopf endorsed George W. Bush in the 2000 U.S. presidential election and the 2004 U.S. presidential election. He supported John McCain in the 2008 U.S. presidential election. He was on several occasions encouraged to run for United States Senate or President of the United States as a member of the Republican Party, but showed no interest.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nDeath\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nSchwarzkopf died at age 78 on December 27, 2012 of complications following a bout of pneumonia. A memorial service was conducted on February 28, 2013 at the Cadet Chapel at West Point, which was attended by Colin Powell, Schwarzkopf's family, and others. Schwarzkopf was cremated and his remains were buried near those of his father in the West Point Cemetery in a ceremony attended by cadets, military leaders, and New Jersey State Police officers.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nAmong reactions to Schwarzkopf's death, George H. W. Bush said of him; \\\"General Norm Schwarzkopf, to me, epitomized the 'duty, service, country' creed that has defended our freedom and seen this great Nation through our most trying international crises. More than that, he was a good and decent man and a dear friend.\\\" In a statement, President Barack Obama said \\\"From his decorated service in Vietnam to the historic liberation of Kuwait and his leadership of United States Central Command, General Schwarzkopf stood tall for the country and Army he loved.\\\" In a letter, Secretary of the Army John McHugh and Army Chief of Staff General Raymond T. Odierno wrote in a joint statement, \\\"Our nation owes a great debt of gratitude to General Schwarzkopf and our Soldiers will hold a special place in their hearts for this great leader. While much will be written in coming days of his many accomplishments, his most lasting and important legacies are the tremendous Soldiers he trained and led.\\\"\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nDuring his tour of duty in Vietnam, Schwarzkopf developed a reputation as a commander who preferred to lead from the front, even willing to risk his own life for his subordinates. His leadership style stressed preparedness, discipline and rigorous training, but also allowed his troops to enjoy the luxuries they had. His rehabilitation of the 1st Battalion, 6th Infantry stressed survival as well as offense. Like Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel and General George S. Patton, Schwarzkopf highly regarded decisiveness and valued determination among his commanders. He pushed for offensive combat over defensive operations in the Gulf War. He was known to be extremely critical of staff officers who were unprepared, but was even more contentious with other generals whom he felt were not aggressive enough. His frequently short temper with subordinates was well known in his command. His leadership style was sometimes criticized by subordinates who felt it reduced their ability to solve problems creatively. Army Chief of Staff Carl E. Vuono, a lifelong friend of Schwarzkopf, described him as \\\"competent, compassionate, egotistical, loyal, opinionated, funny, emotional, sensitive to any slight.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nAt times he can be an overbearing bastard, but not with me.\\\" While Colin Powell would say Schwarzkopf's strengths outweighed his weaknesses, Dick Cheney personally disliked what he considered Schwarzkopf's pretentious behavior with subordinates. Cheney doubted Schwarzkopf's ability to lead the Gulf War, and so Powell dealt with Schwarzkopf instead.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nThe quick and decisive results of the Persian Gulf War were attributed to Schwarzkopf's leadership. Historian Rick Atkinson considered Schwarzkopf \\\"the most theatrical American in uniform since Douglas MacArthur.\\\" Atkinson further contended that in his leadership during the Persian Gulf War, Schwarzkopf conducted one of the greatest military campaigns of all time, providing the United States with its \\\"first battlefield hero in decades.\\\" His accomplishments were later compared favorably to that of General Tommy Franks during Operation Enduring Freedom. However, in an analysis of the effects of the Gulf War, several historians, including Spencer C. Tucker, contended that Schwarzkopf's ceasefire agreement allowed Iraq to continue to fly armed helicopters, which allowed it to later conduct operations against its Shia Arab and Kurdish populations. Schwarzkopf later wrote it would have been a mistake to continue the offensive and capture all of Iraq, noting that the U.S. would likely have had to pay the entire cost of rebuilding the country. In a 2012 book, historian Thomas E. Ricks wrote Schwarzkopf's lack of experience with politics were disadvantageous to his conduct of the war.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nRicks said that Schwarzkopf was overly cautious in the execution of his plans because of his fear of repeating mistakes in Vietnam, which meant his troops failed to destroy the Iraqi Republican Guard. Ricks further criticized Schwarzkopf for failing to relieve General Frederick M. Franks Jr., as well as other subordinates who Schwarzkopf later said in his memoirs were ineffective. Ricks concluded that the Gulf War was a \\\"tactical triumph but a strategic draw at best.\\\" In his memoirs, Schwarzkopf responded to these kinds of criticisms by saying his mandate had only been to liberate and safeguard Kuwait, and that an invasion of Iraq would have been highly controversial, particularly among Middle Eastern military allies.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nSchwarzkopf sought to change the relationship between journalists and the military, feeling that the news media's negative portrayal of the Vietnam War had degraded troops there. When he took command during the Persian Gulf War, he sought an entirely different strategy which was ultimately successful, where he favored greater media coverage, albeit subject to strict controls on the battlefield. Schwarzkopf favored the intense press surrounding the Gulf War conflict, feeling that blocking the news media as had been done in Grenada would contribute to negative public perception of the war in the United States. His dealings with the press were thus frequent and very personal, conducting regular briefings for journalists. He would usually not attack media coverage, even negative coverage, unless he felt it was blatantly incorrect. He staged visible media appearances which played to patriotism. In fact, Schwarzkopf believed extensive press coverage would help build public support for the war and raise morale. In some press conferences, he showed and explained advanced war-fighting technology the U.S. possessed to impress the public. These also had the side effect of distracting the public from focusing on U.S. casualty counts or the destruction wrought in the war.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nSchwarzkopf's strategy was to control the message being sent, he therefore ordered media on the battlefield to be escorted at all times. In spite of this, several high-profile reports publicized the CENTCOM strategy. After the war Schwarzkopf was very critical of military analysts who scrutinized his operation, feeling that some of them were poorly informed on the factors involved in his planning, and that others were violating operational security by revealing too much about how he might plan the operation.\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nAwards and decorations\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nSchwarzkopf was awarded the following military decorations:\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\nOther honors\",\n \"Norman Schwarzkopf Jr.\\n\\n*United States Republican Senatorial Medal of Freedom \\n*Schwarzkopf Elementary School, named after him in Lutz, Florida, 1991. \\n*Honorary First-Class Private in the French Foreign Legion, 1991. \\n*Distinguished German-American of the Year, 2006. \\n*Inducted in the New Jersey Hall of Fame, 2008. \\n*Time Magazine cover on February 4, 1991, and April 1, 1996. \\n*Trail at Telluride Ski Resort renamed \\\"Stormin' Normin\\\", 2012.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137393,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2881"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Jimmy Choo, Manolo Blahnik, and Christian Louboutin are all makers of what?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Women's shoes"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["women s shoes"],"string":"[\n \"women s shoes\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Jimmy Choo\n\nDatuk Jimmy Choo, OBE Jimmy Choo Yeang Keat (), (born 15 November 1948) is a Malaysian fashion designer based in the United Kingdom. He is best known for co-founding Jimmy Choo Ltd that became known for its handmade women's shoes.","Jimmy Choo\n\nEarly life","Jimmy Choo\n\nChoo was born in Penang, Malaysia, into a family of shoemakers. His family name is Chow but was misspelled on his birth certificate as Choo. He studied at Shih Chung Primary School in Love Lane, Penang. His father taught him how to make shoes, and it is often reported that he made his first shoe when he was 11 years old.","Jimmy Choo\n\nEducation and career","Jimmy Choo\n\nChoo graduated from Cordwainers Technical College in Hackney (now part of the London College of Fashion) in 1983. Choo worked part-time at restaurants and as a cleaner at a shoe factory to help fund his college education. After graduation Choo began work at a shop in Hackney which he opened in 1986 by renting an old hospital building. His craftsmanship and designs were soon noticed and his creations became featured in eight pages in a 1988 issue of Vogue. Patronage from Diana, Princess of Wales from 1990 further boosted his image.","Jimmy Choo\n\nIn 1996 he co-founded Jimmy Choo Ltd with British Vogue magazine accessories editor Tamara Mellon. In April 2001, Choo sold his 50% stake in the company for £10 million. He has since concentrated his work on the exclusive Jimmy Choo Couture line produced under license from Jimmy Choo Ltd. The Jimmy Choo London line, also known as Jimmy Choo Ready-To-Wear or, simply, Jimmy Choo, is under the purview of Tamara Mellon. The ready-to-wear line has expanded to include accessories such as handbags.","Jimmy Choo\n\nPersonal life","Jimmy Choo\n\nChoo lives in London and is currently involved in a project to set up a shoemaking institute in Malaysia. His company continues to produce expensive high-end shoes.","Jimmy Choo\n\nHe is married to Rebecca Choo (née Choi) from Hong Kong. The couple have a son, Danny, and a daughter, Emily. A niece of the couple, Lucy Choi, followed her uncle's footstep into shoe designing.","Jimmy Choo\n\nHe is referenced in Fetty Wap's 2015 hit titled \"Jimmy Choo\".","Jimmy Choo\n\nAwards and honours","Jimmy Choo\n\n* 2000: Bestowed a state award carrying the title of Dato' by the Sultan of Pahang state in Malaysia\n* 2002: Conferred an OBE (Order of the British Empire) in recognition of his services to the shoe and fashion industry in the UK\n* 2004: Awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri by the Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of his home state of Penang, which also carries the title Dato' \n* 2004: Awarded an honorary doctorate in art by De Montfort University, Leicester, UK, for his contribution to their unique Single Honours Footwear Design degree\n* 2009: Awarded an Honorary Fellowship by University of the Arts London \n* 2011: Winner of \"The World’s Outstanding Malaysian Designer 2011\" Design for Asia Award for the \"Daniel\" part\n* 2012: Received You Bring Charm to the World – the Most Influential Malaysian Award\n* 2013: Became a member of the Red Dot product design jury.","Christian Louboutin\n\nChristian Louboutin (; born 7 January 1964) is a French luxury footwear and fashion designer whose footwear has incorporated shiny, red-lacquered soles that have become his signature.","Christian Louboutin\n\nEarly life","Christian Louboutin\n\nLouboutin was born and raised in Paris's 12th arrondissement. He was the only son of Roger, an ébeniste (cabinet-maker), and Irene, a homemaker, both French, from Brittany. He has three sisters. Louboutin said in a 2012 interview that he was \"much darker-skinned than everyone else in his family. You know, I felt I wasn't French. My family was very French and so I decided they had probably adopted me. But instead of feeling it was terrible and that I was an outsider who had to go and find my real family, I invented my own history, full of characters from Egypt because I was very into the pharaohs.\" He ironically discovered, following a revelation by one of his sisters in 2014 that his biological father was in fact an Egyptian, with whom his mother Irene had been having a secret affair.","Christian Louboutin\n\nLouboutin was expelled from school three times and then decided to run away from home at the age of 12, at which point his mother allowed him to move out to live at a friend's house. He faced much opposition when he decided to drop out from school. However, he claims that what helped him make up his mind was an interview on TV with Sophia Loren, in which she introduced her sister, saying she had to leave school when she was only 12, but when she turned 50, she got her degree. He later remarked, \"Everybody applauded! And I thought, 'Well, at least if I regret it I'm going to be like the sister of Sophia Loren!'\"","Christian Louboutin\n\nPersonal life","Christian Louboutin\n\nLandscape architect Louis Benech has been his partner since 1997. Louboutin and his partner spend time between their homes in Paris's 1st arrondissement, a fisherman's cottage in Lisbon, a palace in Aleppo, a houseboat on the Nile christened Dahabibi-my love boat, and a house in Luxor. The Luxor domicile is a former craftsman's workshop, made of earthen bricks, to which he has added an additional floor and a rooftop belvedere. Additionally, he shares a 13th-century castle in the Vendée with his business partner Bruno Chamberlain.","Christian Louboutin\n\nCareer","Christian Louboutin\n\nLouboutin began sketching shoes in his early teens, ignoring his academic studies. Going through a punk phase, he was in a few films, including 1979 cult classic Race d'ep and The Homosexual Century, which attracted an English-language audience. His first job was at the Folies Bergères, the cabaret where he assisted the entertainers backstage. He was also a fixture on the city's party scene, clubbing his nights away alongside Mick Jagger and Andy Warhol.","Christian Louboutin\n\nHis little formal training included drawing and the decorative arts at the Académie d'Art Roederer. Louboutin claims his fascination with shoes began in 1976, when he visited the Musée national des Arts d'Afrique et d'Océanie on the avenue Daumesnil. It was there that he saw a sign from Africa forbidding women wearing sharp stilettos from entering a building for fear of damage to the extensive wood flooring. This image stayed in his mind, and he later used this idea in his designs. \"I wanted to defy that,\" Louboutin said. \"I wanted to create something that broke rules and made women feel confident and empowered.\"","Christian Louboutin\n\nFascinated by world cultures, he ran away in his teens to Egypt and spent a year in India. Louboutin returned to Paris in 1981, where he assembled a portfolio of drawings of elaborate high heels. He brought it to the top couture houses. The effort resulted in employment with Charles Jourdan. Subsequently, Louboutin met Roger Vivier, who claims to have invented the stiletto, or spiked-heel shoe. Louboutin became an apprentice in Vivier's atelier.","Christian Louboutin\n\nGoing on to serve as a freelance designer, Louboutin designed women's shoes for Chanel, Yves Saint Laurent, and Maud Frizon. In the late 1980s, he turned away from fashion to become a landscape gardener and to contribute to Vogue but missed working with shoes and set up his company in 1991.","Christian Louboutin\n\nWith funds from two backers, he opened a Paris shoe salon in 1991 with Princess Caroline of Monaco as his first customer. She complimented the store one day when a fashion journalist was present, and the journalist's subsequent publication of Princess' comments helped greatly to increase Louboutin's renown. Clients such as Diane von Fürstenberg and Catherine Deneuve followed. Later, those interested in his stiletto heels have included Christina Aguilera, Joan Collins, Jennifer Lopez, Madonna, Tina Turner, Marion Cotillard, Nicki Minaj, Gwyneth Paltrow, and Blake Lively. Sarah Jessica Parker wore a pair of shoes by Louboutin for her wedding. Britney Spears wears a pair of high-heeled Louboutins in her music video \"If U Seek Amy\" that were not available for sale until a month after the video was released.","Christian Louboutin\n\nLouboutin has topped the Luxury Institute's annual Luxury Brand Status Index (LBSI) for three years; the brand's offerings were declared the Most Prestigious Women's Shoes in 2007, 2008, and 2009. By 2011, Louboutin became the most searched-for shoe brand online.","Christian Louboutin\n\nShoes","Christian Louboutin\n\nLouboutin helped bring stilettos back into fashion in the 1990s and 2000s, designing dozens of styles with heel heights of 120 mm (4.72 inches) and higher. The designer's professed goal has been to \"make a woman look sexy, beautiful, to make her legs look as long as [he] can\". While he does offer some lower-heeled styles, Louboutin is generally associated with his dressier evening-wear designs incorporating jeweled straps, bows, feathers, patent leather, red soles, and other similar decorative touches. He is most popularly known for the red leather soles on his high heel shoes, commonly referred to as \"sammy red-bottoms\". Christian Louboutin's red-bottom colour code is Pantone 18-1663 TPX.","Christian Louboutin\n\nHis single biggest client is Danielle Steel, who is reputed to own over 6,000 pairs and is known to have purchased up to 80 pairs at a time when shopping at his stores. Ms. Steel is an American novelist, currently the best selling author alive and the fourth bestselling author of all time, with over 800 million copies sold.","Christian Louboutin\n\nTrademark litigation","Christian Louboutin\n\nThe red sole is protected as a trademark in several countries, and litigation has taken place in various disputes in which Louboutin claimed infringement of its rights. Litigation generally also involved discussion of the validity or the scope of protection of the trademark.","Christian Louboutin\n\n;Belgium - Louboutin vs. Dr. Adams Footwear\nIn 2013, Louboutin filed a trademark infringement claim of the Benelux trademark against Dr. Adams. The Court of First Instance of Brussels declared the trademark however invalid. That decision was overturned by the Brussels Court of Appeal, who forbade the sale of shoes with a red sole by Dr. Adams.","Christian Louboutin\n\n;France - Louboutin vs. Zara\nIn France, in first instance the trademark of Louboutin was held valid, but not infringed by Zara. The Court of Appeal however considered the French trademark invalid. The latter decision was upheld by the French Supreme Court in 2012.","Christian Louboutin\n\n;Netherlands - Louboutin vs. Van Haren\nAlso in 2013, in The Netherlands, Louboutin initiated litigation against Van Haren, seeking it to stop selling the red soled shoe \"5th Avenue by Halle Berry\", based also on the Benelux trademark. Litigation in this case is still ongoing, and the District Court of The Hague has proposed in 2015 to ask preliminary questions to the Court of Justice of the European Union that it considers necessary in order to determine whether the trademark is valid.","Christian Louboutin\n\n;United States - Christian Louboutin vs. Yves Saint Laurent \nIn 2011, Christian Louboutin company filed a US trademark infringement claim of its red-soled shoes against designer Yves Saint Laurent. The firm is expecting that the YSL shoe design will be revoked and is seeking US$1 million in damages. However, in August 2011, U.S. District Judge Victor Marrero denied the firm's request to stop the sale of women's shoes with red soles by Yves Saint Laurent.","Christian Louboutin\n\nThe judge questioned the validity of the trademark, writing, \"Louboutin's claim would cast a red cloud over the whole industry, cramping what other designers do, while allowing Louboutin to paint with a full palette.\" Judge Marrero also wrote, \"Louboutin is unlikely to be able to prove its red outsole brand is entitled to trademark protection, even if it has gained enough public recognition in the market to have acquired secondary meaning.\" In his thirty-two-page decision, Judge Marrero compared fashion designers to painters and noted how creativity for both is dependent upon using color as \"an indispensable medium\" that \"plays a unique role.\" The Court observed that: \"The law should not countenance restraints that would interfere with creativity and stifle competition by one designer, while granting another a monopoly invested with the right to exclude use of an ornamental or functional medium necessary for freest and most productive artistic expression by all engaged in the same enterprise.\" Jewelry company Tiffany & Co., which has its blue box trademarked, filed an amicus curiae brief supporting the right to trademark a color.","Christian Louboutin\n\nIn September 2012, the court finally ruled that Louboutin retains the exclusive right to use the color red on the bottom of its shoes whenever the outer portion of the shoe is any color besides red, while Yves Saint Laurent can continue to sell its shoes with red soles as long as the whole shoe is red. The YSL monochromatic shoe – red upper, red outsole – over which the lawsuit originally had been brought and against which Louboutin had tried and failed to get a preliminary injunction, therefore won't infringe the trimmed-down trademark.","Christian Louboutin\n\nTurnover and pricing","Christian Louboutin\n\nIn his first year of business, Louboutin sold 200 pairs of shoes. In 2012, he sold 700,000 a year and expected revenue to grow at an annual rate of 40 percent. In terms of market share, the U.S. accounts for 52 percent of Louboutin's sales; Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 30 percent; and Asia & Japan, 18 percent. 95% of the firm's $300 million in annual revenue comes from shoes, with the remainder derived from purses and handbags. They expect the volume of handbags to eventually represent 20% of their annual sales.","Christian Louboutin\n\nWholesale purchases represented in 2009 88% of the business. Overseas, the company has partnered with Pedder Group of Hong Kong for distribution in their Asian markets and the Chalhoub Group of the United Arab Emirates for their representation in the Middle East.","Christian Louboutin\n\nAs of March 2012, the firm employed 420 staff members (referred to as Loubi's Angels) around the world. Most of the footwear is manufactured and produced at his factory in Milan, but he also maintains a small atelier on Rue Jean-Jacques Rousseau, for private clients and one of a kind creations.","Christian Louboutin\n\nLouboutins can sell from $495 and up, with crystal-encrusted pairs costing up to $6,000. The base price for a custom-made pair of Louboutin is $4,000. If the style already exists, it is standard price tag plus 30%.","Christian Louboutin\n\nBrand extensions and projects","Christian Louboutin\n\nLouboutin has said over the past decade, he has been offered licensing deals on everything from cars and glasses to swimwear and ready-to-wear, but has turned them down as he does not want his name to be one that can be licensed. In 2003, his first extension outside of shoes was the introduction of his handbags and purses line.","Christian Louboutin\n\nIn 2011, he launched a collection of men's footwear at a new exclusive store in Paris. Two explanations were given why Louboutin started a men's line. The first was a story of a French woman who asked him to make her a pair of shoes for her very large feet. He custom-created the size 13 1/2 shoes for her, but she didn't end up buying them. Instead, he passed them along to a friend who gave them to her husband. The second story was that the idea of starting a men's line came from musician Mika, who asked Louboutin to design all the shoes for his show for his tour. He also noticed, \"There is a group of men that is thinking a little bit more like women. They're super-excited to buy the 'new thing.' I've noticed on blogs, for example, that men are very serious about their shoes now. They treat shoes very much as objects, as collectors' items. Of course, there is still a group that is more conservative in their tastes. They like to pass their shoes down to their son or say they have had a pair for 25 years\".","Christian Louboutin\n\nA unique feature introduced was the Tattoo Parlor, where customers could have digital photos taken of their ink and embroidered onto their shoes or, embroider the signature brogues in addition to selecting designs by Christian Louboutin with prices starting at around $8,000.","Christian Louboutin\n\nIn 2007, he collaborated with the filmmaker David Lynch on Fetish, an exhibition of his shoes in Lynch's photographs as erotic sculptural objects including ballet pumps made vertical by an impossible heel, or shoes with heels projecting inches beyond the sole (Viennese heel). He partnered once again with Lynch and Swizz Beats to compose music when Louboutin directed a show at Crazy Horse, called Feu, which ran from 5 March to 31 May 2012.","Christian Louboutin\n\nIn 2012, Louboutin partnered with Batallure Beauty LLC to launch Christian Louboutin Beauté to enter the luxury beauty market. It is expected to hit shelves in late 2013. Catherine Roggero is the New York-based general manager for Christian Louboutin Beauté, a venture between Christian Louboutin SAS and Batallure Beauty. Roggero \"will be responsible for developing Louboutin's beauty business.\"","Christian Louboutin\n\nAt the 2012, Grey Goose Winter Ball, he designed his dream cocktail bar to benefit the Elton John foundation. Dubbed the Crazy Luxor bar, the sculptural piece is shaped like a stiletto and is finished in a high-shine black lacquer with, it stands to reason, a red trim to echo the designer's signature red sole. The ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics on the facade of the bar are in honour of his love of Egypt. The bar was later auctioned at the Architecture of Taste-themed ball on 29 October 2012 in Battersea Park, London.","Christian Louboutin\n\nTo celebrate his twentieth anniversary, Louboutin celebrated the occasion by hosting several special events across the globe.","Christian Louboutin\n\nIn 2011, Louboutin celebrated his 20th anniversary with a new self-titled book, published by Rizzoli. Bound in pink faux leather with gilded pages and a five-piece fold-out cover, the book covers the designer's most iconic styles as well as an insight into his influences and photos from his personal archives. American actor John Malkovich, who is a close friend of Louboutin's, provides the book's foreword, while some of the photography is courtesy of David Lynch. The book is divided into six chapters: the first documents Louboutin's biography, noting his early work for Chanel and Yves Saint Laurent; the second looks at the various interiors of the label's international stores; the third charts 20 years of Louboutin design, the fourth features intimate photographs of the designer's Paris and Egypt homes, while the fifth and sixth explore his collaborations. The retail price of the book on launch was US$150.","Christian Louboutin\n\nLouboutin, in conjunction with Bergdorf Goodman, held a competition for design students at the Parsons New School for Design who graduated in 2010 and 2011, encouraging them to create apparel inspired by Louboutin's silhouettes of the past two decades, as well as the brand's new capsule collection.","Christian Louboutin\n\nIn 2012, he was commissioned by Disney to create a modern-day Cinderella-inspired pair of slippers limited to just 20 pieces, to complement release of the Cinderella: Diamond Edition Blu-ray Combo Pack in the fall. Louboutin also makes his acting debut in a Disney-produced 10-minute short called The Magic of the Glass Slipper: A Cinderella Story and will appear as a bonus feature on the Cinderella Blu-ray DVD. He also partnered with Mattel that same year to create a limited edition \"Louboutin Barbie\". The first in the series was a cat burglar themed Barbie, which retailed for $150 and sold out the first day.","Christian Louboutin\n\nAn iPhone app was launched in 2012, allowing users to: view seasonal collections, watch brand videos, make a brand wish list, find a store, and a feature called '20 Ans' ('20 years'), which shows the hand drawn designs of the Louboutin shoes and the finished product.","Christian Louboutin\n\nLouboutin was also one of the judges at the Martini Royale Casting Party to find the new face of the drinks brand.","Christian Louboutin\n\nIn 2013, Louboutin was celebrated at Toronto's Design Exchange with a comprehensive exhibit featuring themes of showgirls, fetish, construction and travel.","Christian Louboutin\n\nOn 23 July 2014, Christian Louboutin Beaute launched a range of nail lacquers, exclusively debuting the signature red shade, Rouge Louboutin, at the Saks Fifth Avenue flagship in New York and its 15 US boutiques. In support of this launch, the high-end department store created Loubiville, a five-window visual merchandising display. The range will be more widely distributed on 6 August 2014 to Bergdorf Goodman, Neiman Marcus, Nordstrom, and select Sephora boutiques. Additional shades are expected to reach retail on 31 August 2014. It only seems fitting that Louboutin would enter the beauty market, as an assistant's nail polish was the impetus for those famously-red soles. And much like the shoes, this luxury beauty product is receiving attention for its provocative shape, a long spiky cap, resembling a calligrapher's brush or a spire.","Christian Louboutin\n\nStores","Christian Louboutin\n\nIn the spring of 2012, the company opened its first men's store in New York City, with over 1,000 square feet of space and located next to its existing Horatio Street store. From previous experience in his Paris store, Louboutin claimed that women feel uncomfortable when men stare at them while they try on shoes, hence the separate stores.","Christian Louboutin\n\nThe first Louboutin Men's Boutique, Christian Louboutin Boutique Homme on Rue Jean-Jacques Rousseau in Paris, opened in the summer of 2012.","Christian Louboutin\n\nChristian Louboutin Miami is located on 40th Street in the Design District of Miami, Florida. Louboutin chose to open a store in Miami because of the mix of businesses, the small urban scale, and his obvious following there. During Miami Basel art fair when the store opened in 2009, he said, \"You don't get this with Europeans—but Americans actually come into my office in Paris to meet me, and a lot of those people are from Miami.\" The boutique stocks Louboutin's most colorful, strappy, precarious styles, on account of the subtropical climate and the fact that, Louboutin says, \"people barely walk in the street.\"","Christian Louboutin\n\nThe 2,400-square-foot space was designed by Eric Clough and 212box. Above a steel awning shaped like a Louboutin shoe in profile, with a red underside to boot, pink orchids sprout from the coral-stone facade. Still more orchids project from a wall in the entry gallery. Pantyhose have been recycled by Dutch artist Madeleine Berkhemer into a multi-colored sculpture that stretches over the empty concrete floor with some of Louboutin's signature shoes dangling in the overhead tangle of nylon \"like insects trapped in a psychedelic spider's web.\" This L-shape space wraps two sides of a rectangular volume clad almost entirely in one-way mirror: a box that contains the merchandise for sale while allowing people who've just come in the front door to \"witness other people falling in love with the shoes,\" Clough says.","Christian Louboutin\n\nThe inside areas in the store are defined by lush red carpeting. Blue, blown-glass chandeliers hang from the ceilings. Hieroglyphics, symbols and Braille are carved onto wooden Codebox Tiles that line some of the store's interior walls. hiding the words of a poem by contemporary American poet Lyn Hejinian in plain sight, in the etched wooden tiles lining the gallery wall behind the orchids. \"This is the way I / Want to go in and / Out of heaven... / Windows full at 5pm / My skull a place / Except that I think of space as the more exciting,\" the lines read. These coded tiles appear in many Louboutin stores designed by Clough around the world, including São Paulo, Brazil.","Christian Louboutin\n\nCounterfeiting","Christian Louboutin\n\nLouboutin's own website sells some of their products online, and contains a statement that it is the only legitimate online source with the word Louboutin in the domain name to do so. Legitimate Louboutin shoes can also be purchased in-store and online from several high-end retailers such as Harrods, Harvey Nichols, Selfridges, Joseph, Browns, Matches, Cricket and Cruise and online through Net-a-Porter and The Outnet in the UK. Barneys, Saks Fifth Avenue, Neiman Marcus, Bergdorf Goodman, and Nordstrom sell genuine Louboutin in the US. In Canada, Christian Louboutin shoes are available from Holt Renfrew and Davids.","Christian Louboutin\n\nOnline, counterfeit Louboutin shoes are available In the last few years, the company has served hundreds of DMCA notices on Google to remove many sites selling fake goods from their search results.","Christian Louboutin\n\nThe company set up a separate website focused on protecting the brand and detailing more than 3,000 websites that sell fake goods, many of which have been closed down.","Christian Louboutin\n\nIn popular culture","Christian Louboutin\n\n*The Sex and the City character Carrie Bradshaw portrayed by Sarah Jessica Parker wore many pairs of Louboutins from season 3 to 6 most notably in season 3 in the LA scene with two different color metallic Red Bottoms.\n*In Breaking Bad, Lydia frequently wears black Louboutin stilettos. Camera angles often focus on the shoes and trademark soles, particularly during the Buried episode as she is led blindfold through a post-gunfight scene. \n*Jennifer Lopez's single \"Louboutins\" (2009) was inspired by the footwear, and the visual imagery associated with the song—such as the album art—features a woman wearing a pair of Louboutin heels with red bottoms. Above her in red writing are written the name of the artist and song.\n*The brand was mentioned twice in Iggy Azalea's song \"Work\".\n*The corrupted brand name \"Labuten\" appears in the chorus of the song \"Экспонат\" by the Russian ska band Leningrad. Apparently counterfeit pair of shoes can be seen in the music video that became one of the most watched Russian music videos in January 2016. After numerous mentions in the media, the representatives of Christian Louboutin in Russia asked to stop making inappropriate references to the brand."],"string":"[\n \"Jimmy Choo\\n\\nDatuk Jimmy Choo, OBE Jimmy Choo Yeang Keat (), (born 15 November 1948) is a Malaysian fashion designer based in the United Kingdom. He is best known for co-founding Jimmy Choo Ltd that became known for its handmade women's shoes.\",\n \"Jimmy Choo\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Jimmy Choo\\n\\nChoo was born in Penang, Malaysia, into a family of shoemakers. His family name is Chow but was misspelled on his birth certificate as Choo. He studied at Shih Chung Primary School in Love Lane, Penang. His father taught him how to make shoes, and it is often reported that he made his first shoe when he was 11 years old.\",\n \"Jimmy Choo\\n\\nEducation and career\",\n \"Jimmy Choo\\n\\nChoo graduated from Cordwainers Technical College in Hackney (now part of the London College of Fashion) in 1983. Choo worked part-time at restaurants and as a cleaner at a shoe factory to help fund his college education. After graduation Choo began work at a shop in Hackney which he opened in 1986 by renting an old hospital building. His craftsmanship and designs were soon noticed and his creations became featured in eight pages in a 1988 issue of Vogue. Patronage from Diana, Princess of Wales from 1990 further boosted his image.\",\n \"Jimmy Choo\\n\\nIn 1996 he co-founded Jimmy Choo Ltd with British Vogue magazine accessories editor Tamara Mellon. In April 2001, Choo sold his 50% stake in the company for £10 million. He has since concentrated his work on the exclusive Jimmy Choo Couture line produced under license from Jimmy Choo Ltd. The Jimmy Choo London line, also known as Jimmy Choo Ready-To-Wear or, simply, Jimmy Choo, is under the purview of Tamara Mellon. The ready-to-wear line has expanded to include accessories such as handbags.\",\n \"Jimmy Choo\\n\\nPersonal life\",\n \"Jimmy Choo\\n\\nChoo lives in London and is currently involved in a project to set up a shoemaking institute in Malaysia. His company continues to produce expensive high-end shoes.\",\n \"Jimmy Choo\\n\\nHe is married to Rebecca Choo (née Choi) from Hong Kong. The couple have a son, Danny, and a daughter, Emily. A niece of the couple, Lucy Choi, followed her uncle's footstep into shoe designing.\",\n \"Jimmy Choo\\n\\nHe is referenced in Fetty Wap's 2015 hit titled \\\"Jimmy Choo\\\".\",\n \"Jimmy Choo\\n\\nAwards and honours\",\n \"Jimmy Choo\\n\\n* 2000: Bestowed a state award carrying the title of Dato' by the Sultan of Pahang state in Malaysia\\n* 2002: Conferred an OBE (Order of the British Empire) in recognition of his services to the shoe and fashion industry in the UK\\n* 2004: Awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri by the Yang di-Pertua Negeri (Governor) of his home state of Penang, which also carries the title Dato' \\n* 2004: Awarded an honorary doctorate in art by De Montfort University, Leicester, UK, for his contribution to their unique Single Honours Footwear Design degree\\n* 2009: Awarded an Honorary Fellowship by University of the Arts London \\n* 2011: Winner of \\\"The World’s Outstanding Malaysian Designer 2011\\\" Design for Asia Award for the \\\"Daniel\\\" part\\n* 2012: Received You Bring Charm to the World – the Most Influential Malaysian Award\\n* 2013: Became a member of the Red Dot product design jury.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nChristian Louboutin (; born 7 January 1964) is a French luxury footwear and fashion designer whose footwear has incorporated shiny, red-lacquered soles that have become his signature.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nLouboutin was born and raised in Paris's 12th arrondissement. He was the only son of Roger, an ébeniste (cabinet-maker), and Irene, a homemaker, both French, from Brittany. He has three sisters. Louboutin said in a 2012 interview that he was \\\"much darker-skinned than everyone else in his family. You know, I felt I wasn't French. My family was very French and so I decided they had probably adopted me. But instead of feeling it was terrible and that I was an outsider who had to go and find my real family, I invented my own history, full of characters from Egypt because I was very into the pharaohs.\\\" He ironically discovered, following a revelation by one of his sisters in 2014 that his biological father was in fact an Egyptian, with whom his mother Irene had been having a secret affair.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nLouboutin was expelled from school three times and then decided to run away from home at the age of 12, at which point his mother allowed him to move out to live at a friend's house. He faced much opposition when he decided to drop out from school. However, he claims that what helped him make up his mind was an interview on TV with Sophia Loren, in which she introduced her sister, saying she had to leave school when she was only 12, but when she turned 50, she got her degree. He later remarked, \\\"Everybody applauded! And I thought, 'Well, at least if I regret it I'm going to be like the sister of Sophia Loren!'\\\"\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nPersonal life\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nLandscape architect Louis Benech has been his partner since 1997. Louboutin and his partner spend time between their homes in Paris's 1st arrondissement, a fisherman's cottage in Lisbon, a palace in Aleppo, a houseboat on the Nile christened Dahabibi-my love boat, and a house in Luxor. The Luxor domicile is a former craftsman's workshop, made of earthen bricks, to which he has added an additional floor and a rooftop belvedere. Additionally, he shares a 13th-century castle in the Vendée with his business partner Bruno Chamberlain.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nCareer\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nLouboutin began sketching shoes in his early teens, ignoring his academic studies. Going through a punk phase, he was in a few films, including 1979 cult classic Race d'ep and The Homosexual Century, which attracted an English-language audience. His first job was at the Folies Bergères, the cabaret where he assisted the entertainers backstage. He was also a fixture on the city's party scene, clubbing his nights away alongside Mick Jagger and Andy Warhol.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nHis little formal training included drawing and the decorative arts at the Académie d'Art Roederer. Louboutin claims his fascination with shoes began in 1976, when he visited the Musée national des Arts d'Afrique et d'Océanie on the avenue Daumesnil. It was there that he saw a sign from Africa forbidding women wearing sharp stilettos from entering a building for fear of damage to the extensive wood flooring. This image stayed in his mind, and he later used this idea in his designs. \\\"I wanted to defy that,\\\" Louboutin said. \\\"I wanted to create something that broke rules and made women feel confident and empowered.\\\"\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nFascinated by world cultures, he ran away in his teens to Egypt and spent a year in India. Louboutin returned to Paris in 1981, where he assembled a portfolio of drawings of elaborate high heels. He brought it to the top couture houses. The effort resulted in employment with Charles Jourdan. Subsequently, Louboutin met Roger Vivier, who claims to have invented the stiletto, or spiked-heel shoe. Louboutin became an apprentice in Vivier's atelier.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nGoing on to serve as a freelance designer, Louboutin designed women's shoes for Chanel, Yves Saint Laurent, and Maud Frizon. In the late 1980s, he turned away from fashion to become a landscape gardener and to contribute to Vogue but missed working with shoes and set up his company in 1991.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nWith funds from two backers, he opened a Paris shoe salon in 1991 with Princess Caroline of Monaco as his first customer. She complimented the store one day when a fashion journalist was present, and the journalist's subsequent publication of Princess' comments helped greatly to increase Louboutin's renown. Clients such as Diane von Fürstenberg and Catherine Deneuve followed. Later, those interested in his stiletto heels have included Christina Aguilera, Joan Collins, Jennifer Lopez, Madonna, Tina Turner, Marion Cotillard, Nicki Minaj, Gwyneth Paltrow, and Blake Lively. Sarah Jessica Parker wore a pair of shoes by Louboutin for her wedding. Britney Spears wears a pair of high-heeled Louboutins in her music video \\\"If U Seek Amy\\\" that were not available for sale until a month after the video was released.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nLouboutin has topped the Luxury Institute's annual Luxury Brand Status Index (LBSI) for three years; the brand's offerings were declared the Most Prestigious Women's Shoes in 2007, 2008, and 2009. By 2011, Louboutin became the most searched-for shoe brand online.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nShoes\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nLouboutin helped bring stilettos back into fashion in the 1990s and 2000s, designing dozens of styles with heel heights of 120 mm (4.72 inches) and higher. The designer's professed goal has been to \\\"make a woman look sexy, beautiful, to make her legs look as long as [he] can\\\". While he does offer some lower-heeled styles, Louboutin is generally associated with his dressier evening-wear designs incorporating jeweled straps, bows, feathers, patent leather, red soles, and other similar decorative touches. He is most popularly known for the red leather soles on his high heel shoes, commonly referred to as \\\"sammy red-bottoms\\\". Christian Louboutin's red-bottom colour code is Pantone 18-1663 TPX.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nHis single biggest client is Danielle Steel, who is reputed to own over 6,000 pairs and is known to have purchased up to 80 pairs at a time when shopping at his stores. Ms. Steel is an American novelist, currently the best selling author alive and the fourth bestselling author of all time, with over 800 million copies sold.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nTrademark litigation\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nThe red sole is protected as a trademark in several countries, and litigation has taken place in various disputes in which Louboutin claimed infringement of its rights. Litigation generally also involved discussion of the validity or the scope of protection of the trademark.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\n;Belgium - Louboutin vs. Dr. Adams Footwear\\nIn 2013, Louboutin filed a trademark infringement claim of the Benelux trademark against Dr. Adams. The Court of First Instance of Brussels declared the trademark however invalid. That decision was overturned by the Brussels Court of Appeal, who forbade the sale of shoes with a red sole by Dr. Adams.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\n;France - Louboutin vs. Zara\\nIn France, in first instance the trademark of Louboutin was held valid, but not infringed by Zara. The Court of Appeal however considered the French trademark invalid. The latter decision was upheld by the French Supreme Court in 2012.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\n;Netherlands - Louboutin vs. Van Haren\\nAlso in 2013, in The Netherlands, Louboutin initiated litigation against Van Haren, seeking it to stop selling the red soled shoe \\\"5th Avenue by Halle Berry\\\", based also on the Benelux trademark. Litigation in this case is still ongoing, and the District Court of The Hague has proposed in 2015 to ask preliminary questions to the Court of Justice of the European Union that it considers necessary in order to determine whether the trademark is valid.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\n;United States - Christian Louboutin vs. Yves Saint Laurent \\nIn 2011, Christian Louboutin company filed a US trademark infringement claim of its red-soled shoes against designer Yves Saint Laurent. The firm is expecting that the YSL shoe design will be revoked and is seeking US$1 million in damages. However, in August 2011, U.S. District Judge Victor Marrero denied the firm's request to stop the sale of women's shoes with red soles by Yves Saint Laurent.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nThe judge questioned the validity of the trademark, writing, \\\"Louboutin's claim would cast a red cloud over the whole industry, cramping what other designers do, while allowing Louboutin to paint with a full palette.\\\" Judge Marrero also wrote, \\\"Louboutin is unlikely to be able to prove its red outsole brand is entitled to trademark protection, even if it has gained enough public recognition in the market to have acquired secondary meaning.\\\" In his thirty-two-page decision, Judge Marrero compared fashion designers to painters and noted how creativity for both is dependent upon using color as \\\"an indispensable medium\\\" that \\\"plays a unique role.\\\" The Court observed that: \\\"The law should not countenance restraints that would interfere with creativity and stifle competition by one designer, while granting another a monopoly invested with the right to exclude use of an ornamental or functional medium necessary for freest and most productive artistic expression by all engaged in the same enterprise.\\\" Jewelry company Tiffany & Co., which has its blue box trademarked, filed an amicus curiae brief supporting the right to trademark a color.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nIn September 2012, the court finally ruled that Louboutin retains the exclusive right to use the color red on the bottom of its shoes whenever the outer portion of the shoe is any color besides red, while Yves Saint Laurent can continue to sell its shoes with red soles as long as the whole shoe is red. The YSL monochromatic shoe – red upper, red outsole – over which the lawsuit originally had been brought and against which Louboutin had tried and failed to get a preliminary injunction, therefore won't infringe the trimmed-down trademark.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nTurnover and pricing\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nIn his first year of business, Louboutin sold 200 pairs of shoes. In 2012, he sold 700,000 a year and expected revenue to grow at an annual rate of 40 percent. In terms of market share, the U.S. accounts for 52 percent of Louboutin's sales; Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 30 percent; and Asia & Japan, 18 percent. 95% of the firm's $300 million in annual revenue comes from shoes, with the remainder derived from purses and handbags. They expect the volume of handbags to eventually represent 20% of their annual sales.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nWholesale purchases represented in 2009 88% of the business. Overseas, the company has partnered with Pedder Group of Hong Kong for distribution in their Asian markets and the Chalhoub Group of the United Arab Emirates for their representation in the Middle East.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nAs of March 2012, the firm employed 420 staff members (referred to as Loubi's Angels) around the world. Most of the footwear is manufactured and produced at his factory in Milan, but he also maintains a small atelier on Rue Jean-Jacques Rousseau, for private clients and one of a kind creations.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nLouboutins can sell from $495 and up, with crystal-encrusted pairs costing up to $6,000. The base price for a custom-made pair of Louboutin is $4,000. If the style already exists, it is standard price tag plus 30%.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nBrand extensions and projects\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nLouboutin has said over the past decade, he has been offered licensing deals on everything from cars and glasses to swimwear and ready-to-wear, but has turned them down as he does not want his name to be one that can be licensed. In 2003, his first extension outside of shoes was the introduction of his handbags and purses line.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nIn 2011, he launched a collection of men's footwear at a new exclusive store in Paris. Two explanations were given why Louboutin started a men's line. The first was a story of a French woman who asked him to make her a pair of shoes for her very large feet. He custom-created the size 13 1/2 shoes for her, but she didn't end up buying them. Instead, he passed them along to a friend who gave them to her husband. The second story was that the idea of starting a men's line came from musician Mika, who asked Louboutin to design all the shoes for his show for his tour. He also noticed, \\\"There is a group of men that is thinking a little bit more like women. They're super-excited to buy the 'new thing.' I've noticed on blogs, for example, that men are very serious about their shoes now. They treat shoes very much as objects, as collectors' items. Of course, there is still a group that is more conservative in their tastes. They like to pass their shoes down to their son or say they have had a pair for 25 years\\\".\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nA unique feature introduced was the Tattoo Parlor, where customers could have digital photos taken of their ink and embroidered onto their shoes or, embroider the signature brogues in addition to selecting designs by Christian Louboutin with prices starting at around $8,000.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nIn 2007, he collaborated with the filmmaker David Lynch on Fetish, an exhibition of his shoes in Lynch's photographs as erotic sculptural objects including ballet pumps made vertical by an impossible heel, or shoes with heels projecting inches beyond the sole (Viennese heel). He partnered once again with Lynch and Swizz Beats to compose music when Louboutin directed a show at Crazy Horse, called Feu, which ran from 5 March to 31 May 2012.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nIn 2012, Louboutin partnered with Batallure Beauty LLC to launch Christian Louboutin Beauté to enter the luxury beauty market. It is expected to hit shelves in late 2013. Catherine Roggero is the New York-based general manager for Christian Louboutin Beauté, a venture between Christian Louboutin SAS and Batallure Beauty. Roggero \\\"will be responsible for developing Louboutin's beauty business.\\\"\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nAt the 2012, Grey Goose Winter Ball, he designed his dream cocktail bar to benefit the Elton John foundation. Dubbed the Crazy Luxor bar, the sculptural piece is shaped like a stiletto and is finished in a high-shine black lacquer with, it stands to reason, a red trim to echo the designer's signature red sole. The ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics on the facade of the bar are in honour of his love of Egypt. The bar was later auctioned at the Architecture of Taste-themed ball on 29 October 2012 in Battersea Park, London.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nTo celebrate his twentieth anniversary, Louboutin celebrated the occasion by hosting several special events across the globe.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nIn 2011, Louboutin celebrated his 20th anniversary with a new self-titled book, published by Rizzoli. Bound in pink faux leather with gilded pages and a five-piece fold-out cover, the book covers the designer's most iconic styles as well as an insight into his influences and photos from his personal archives. American actor John Malkovich, who is a close friend of Louboutin's, provides the book's foreword, while some of the photography is courtesy of David Lynch. The book is divided into six chapters: the first documents Louboutin's biography, noting his early work for Chanel and Yves Saint Laurent; the second looks at the various interiors of the label's international stores; the third charts 20 years of Louboutin design, the fourth features intimate photographs of the designer's Paris and Egypt homes, while the fifth and sixth explore his collaborations. The retail price of the book on launch was US$150.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nLouboutin, in conjunction with Bergdorf Goodman, held a competition for design students at the Parsons New School for Design who graduated in 2010 and 2011, encouraging them to create apparel inspired by Louboutin's silhouettes of the past two decades, as well as the brand's new capsule collection.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nIn 2012, he was commissioned by Disney to create a modern-day Cinderella-inspired pair of slippers limited to just 20 pieces, to complement release of the Cinderella: Diamond Edition Blu-ray Combo Pack in the fall. Louboutin also makes his acting debut in a Disney-produced 10-minute short called The Magic of the Glass Slipper: A Cinderella Story and will appear as a bonus feature on the Cinderella Blu-ray DVD. He also partnered with Mattel that same year to create a limited edition \\\"Louboutin Barbie\\\". The first in the series was a cat burglar themed Barbie, which retailed for $150 and sold out the first day.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nAn iPhone app was launched in 2012, allowing users to: view seasonal collections, watch brand videos, make a brand wish list, find a store, and a feature called '20 Ans' ('20 years'), which shows the hand drawn designs of the Louboutin shoes and the finished product.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nLouboutin was also one of the judges at the Martini Royale Casting Party to find the new face of the drinks brand.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nIn 2013, Louboutin was celebrated at Toronto's Design Exchange with a comprehensive exhibit featuring themes of showgirls, fetish, construction and travel.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nOn 23 July 2014, Christian Louboutin Beaute launched a range of nail lacquers, exclusively debuting the signature red shade, Rouge Louboutin, at the Saks Fifth Avenue flagship in New York and its 15 US boutiques. In support of this launch, the high-end department store created Loubiville, a five-window visual merchandising display. The range will be more widely distributed on 6 August 2014 to Bergdorf Goodman, Neiman Marcus, Nordstrom, and select Sephora boutiques. Additional shades are expected to reach retail on 31 August 2014. It only seems fitting that Louboutin would enter the beauty market, as an assistant's nail polish was the impetus for those famously-red soles. And much like the shoes, this luxury beauty product is receiving attention for its provocative shape, a long spiky cap, resembling a calligrapher's brush or a spire.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nStores\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nIn the spring of 2012, the company opened its first men's store in New York City, with over 1,000 square feet of space and located next to its existing Horatio Street store. From previous experience in his Paris store, Louboutin claimed that women feel uncomfortable when men stare at them while they try on shoes, hence the separate stores.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nThe first Louboutin Men's Boutique, Christian Louboutin Boutique Homme on Rue Jean-Jacques Rousseau in Paris, opened in the summer of 2012.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nChristian Louboutin Miami is located on 40th Street in the Design District of Miami, Florida. Louboutin chose to open a store in Miami because of the mix of businesses, the small urban scale, and his obvious following there. During Miami Basel art fair when the store opened in 2009, he said, \\\"You don't get this with Europeans—but Americans actually come into my office in Paris to meet me, and a lot of those people are from Miami.\\\" The boutique stocks Louboutin's most colorful, strappy, precarious styles, on account of the subtropical climate and the fact that, Louboutin says, \\\"people barely walk in the street.\\\"\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nThe 2,400-square-foot space was designed by Eric Clough and 212box. Above a steel awning shaped like a Louboutin shoe in profile, with a red underside to boot, pink orchids sprout from the coral-stone facade. Still more orchids project from a wall in the entry gallery. Pantyhose have been recycled by Dutch artist Madeleine Berkhemer into a multi-colored sculpture that stretches over the empty concrete floor with some of Louboutin's signature shoes dangling in the overhead tangle of nylon \\\"like insects trapped in a psychedelic spider's web.\\\" This L-shape space wraps two sides of a rectangular volume clad almost entirely in one-way mirror: a box that contains the merchandise for sale while allowing people who've just come in the front door to \\\"witness other people falling in love with the shoes,\\\" Clough says.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nThe inside areas in the store are defined by lush red carpeting. Blue, blown-glass chandeliers hang from the ceilings. Hieroglyphics, symbols and Braille are carved onto wooden Codebox Tiles that line some of the store's interior walls. hiding the words of a poem by contemporary American poet Lyn Hejinian in plain sight, in the etched wooden tiles lining the gallery wall behind the orchids. \\\"This is the way I / Want to go in and / Out of heaven... / Windows full at 5pm / My skull a place / Except that I think of space as the more exciting,\\\" the lines read. These coded tiles appear in many Louboutin stores designed by Clough around the world, including São Paulo, Brazil.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nCounterfeiting\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nLouboutin's own website sells some of their products online, and contains a statement that it is the only legitimate online source with the word Louboutin in the domain name to do so. Legitimate Louboutin shoes can also be purchased in-store and online from several high-end retailers such as Harrods, Harvey Nichols, Selfridges, Joseph, Browns, Matches, Cricket and Cruise and online through Net-a-Porter and The Outnet in the UK. Barneys, Saks Fifth Avenue, Neiman Marcus, Bergdorf Goodman, and Nordstrom sell genuine Louboutin in the US. In Canada, Christian Louboutin shoes are available from Holt Renfrew and Davids.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nOnline, counterfeit Louboutin shoes are available In the last few years, the company has served hundreds of DMCA notices on Google to remove many sites selling fake goods from their search results.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nThe company set up a separate website focused on protecting the brand and detailing more than 3,000 websites that sell fake goods, many of which have been closed down.\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\nIn popular culture\",\n \"Christian Louboutin\\n\\n*The Sex and the City character Carrie Bradshaw portrayed by Sarah Jessica Parker wore many pairs of Louboutins from season 3 to 6 most notably in season 3 in the LA scene with two different color metallic Red Bottoms.\\n*In Breaking Bad, Lydia frequently wears black Louboutin stilettos. Camera angles often focus on the shoes and trademark soles, particularly during the Buried episode as she is led blindfold through a post-gunfight scene. \\n*Jennifer Lopez's single \\\"Louboutins\\\" (2009) was inspired by the footwear, and the visual imagery associated with the song—such as the album art—features a woman wearing a pair of Louboutin heels with red bottoms. Above her in red writing are written the name of the artist and song.\\n*The brand was mentioned twice in Iggy Azalea's song \\\"Work\\\".\\n*The corrupted brand name \\\"Labuten\\\" appears in the chorus of the song \\\"Экспонат\\\" by the Russian ska band Leningrad. Apparently counterfeit pair of shoes can be seen in the music video that became one of the most watched Russian music videos in January 2016. After numerous mentions in the media, the representatives of Christian Louboutin in Russia asked to stop making inappropriate references to the brand.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137394,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2882"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Connect Four, Battleship, Twister, Yahtzee, Hungry Hungry Hippos, and The Game of Life are all games produced by what US game company?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Milton Bradley"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["milton bradley"],"string":"[\n \"milton bradley\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Connect Four\n\nConnect Four (also known as Captain's Mistress, Four Up, Plot Four, Find Four, Fourplay, Four in a Row, Four in a Line and Gravitrips (in Soviet Union) ) is a two-player connection game in which the players first choose a color and then take turns dropping colored discs from the top into a seven-column, six-row vertically suspended grid. The pieces fall straight down, occupying the next available space within the column. The objective of the game is to connect four of one's own discs of the same color next to each other vertically, horizontally, or diagonally before your opponent.\nConnect Four is a strongly solved game. The first player can always win by playing the right moves.","Connect Four\n\nThe game was first sold under the famous Connect Four trademark by Milton Bradley in February 1974.","Connect Four\n\nMathematical solution","Connect Four\n\nConnect Four is a two-player game with \"perfect information\". This term describes games where one player at a time plays, players have all the information about moves that have taken place, and all moves that can take place, for a given game state. Connect Four also belongs to the classification of an adversarial, zero-sum game, since a player's advantage is an opponent's disadvantage.","Connect Four\n\nOne measure of complexity of the Connect Four game is the number of possible games board positions.\nFor classic Connect Four played on 6 high, 7 wide grid, there are 4,531,985,219,092 positions \nfor all game boards populated with 0 to 42 pieces.","Connect Four\n\nThe game was first solved by James Dow Allen (October 1, 1988), and independently by Victor Allis (October 16, 1988). \nAllis describes a knowledge based approach, with nine strategies, as a solution for Connect Four.\nAllen also describes winning strategies \nin his analysis of the game. At the time of the initial solutions for Connect Four, brute force analysis was not deemed feasible given the game's complexity and the computer technology available at the time.","Connect Four\n\nConnect Four has since been solved with brute force methods beginning with John Tromp's work in compiling an 8-ply database (Feb 4, 1995). The artificial intelligence algorithms able to strongly solve Connect Four are minimax or negamax, with optimizations that include alpha-beta pruning, dynamic history ordering of game player moves, and transposition tables. The code for solving Connect Four with these methods is also the basis for the Fhourstones integer performance benchmark.","Connect Four\n\nThe solved conclusion for Connect Four is first player win. With perfect play, the first player can force a win, on or before the 41st move by starting in the middle column. The game is a theoretical draw when the first player starts in the columns adjacent to the center. For the edges of the game board, column 1 and 2 on left, and column 7 and 6 on right, the exact move-value score for first player start is loss on the 40th move, and loss on the 42nd move, respectively. In other words, by starting with the four outer columns, the first player allows the second player to force a win.","Connect Four\n\nRule variations","Connect Four\n\nThere are many variations of Connect Four with differing game board sizes, board arrangements, game pieces, and/or gameplay rules. Many variations are popular with game theory and artificial intelligence research, rather than with physical game boards and gameplay by persons.","Connect Four\n\nThe most commonly used Connect Four board size is 7 columns × 6 rows. Size variations include 8×7, 9×7, 10×7, 8×8, and Infinite Connect-Four. \nAlternate board arrangements include Cylinder-Infinite Connect-Four. One board variation available as a physical game is Hasbro's Connect 4x4.","Connect Four\n\nSeveral versions of Hasbro's Connect Four physical gameboard make it easy to remove game pieces from the bottom one at a time. Along with traditional gameplay, this feature allows for variations of the game.","Connect Four\n\nPop Out","Connect Four\n\nPop Out starts the same as traditional gameplay, with an empty board and players alternating turns placing their own colored discs into the board. During each turn, a player can either add another disc from the top or, if one has any discs of his or her own color on the bottom row, remove (or \"pop out\") a disc of one's own color from the bottom. Popping a disc out from the bottom drops every disc above it down one space, changing their relationship with the rest of the board and changing the possibilities for a connection. The first player to connect four of their discs horizontally, vertically, or diagonally wins the game.","Connect Four\n\nPop 10","Connect Four\n\nBefore play begins, Pop 10 is set up differently from the traditional game. Taking turns, each player places their opponent's color discs into the slots filling up only the bottom row, then moving on to the next row until it is filled and so forth until all rows have been filled.","Connect Four\n\nGameplay works by players taking turns removing a disc of one's own color through the bottom of the board. If the disc that was removed was part of a four-disc connection at the time of its removal, the player sets it aside out of play and immediately takes another turn. If it was not part of a \"connect four\", then it must be placed back on the board through a slot at the top into any open space and the turn ends, switching to the other player. The first player to set aside ten discs of his or her color wins the game.","Connect Four\n\n5-in-a-Row","Connect Four\n\nThe 5-in-a-Row variation for Connect Four is a game played on a 6 high, 9 wide, grid. Hasbro adds two additional board columns, already filled with player pieces in an alternating pattern, to the left and right sides of their standard 6 by 7 game board. The game plays similarly to the original Connect Four, except players must now get five pieces in a row to win. Notice this is still a 42-ply game, since the two new columns added to the game represent twelve game pieces already played, before the start of a game.","Connect Four\n\nPower Up","Connect Four\n\nIn this variation of Connect Four, players begin a game with one or more specially marked, \"Power Checkers\" game pieces, which each player may choose to play once per game. When playing a piece marked with an anvil icon, for example, the player may immediately pop out all pieces below it, leaving the anvil piece at the bottom row of the game board. Other marked game pieces include one with a wall icon, allowing a player to play a second consecutive non winning turn with an unmarked piece, a \"×2\" icon, allowing for an unrestricted second turn with an unmarked piece, and a bomb icon, allowing a player to immediately pop out an opponent's piece.","Connect Four\n\nOther versions","Connect Four\n\nHasbro also produce various sizes of Giant Connect Four, suitable for outdoor use. The largest is built from weather-resistant wood, and measures 120 cm in both width and height. Connect Four was released for the Microvision video game console in 1979, developed by Robert Hoffberg. It was also released for the Texas Instruments 99/4 computer the same year.","Connect Four\n\nWith the proliferation of mobile devices, Connect Four has regained popularity as a game that can be played quickly and against another person over an Internet connection.","Connect Four\n\nIn 2015 Winning Moves published Connect 4 Twist & Turn. This game variant features a game tower instead of the flat game grid. The tower has 5 rings that twist independently. Game play is similar to standard Connect 4 where players try to get 4 in a row of their own colored discs. However, with Twist & Turn, players have the choice to twist a ring after they have played a piece. It adds a subtle layer of strategy to game play.","Connect Four\n\nAlgorithms","Connect Four\n\nAs opposed to calculating perfect play, computer algorithms that play Connect Four must be able to run in real time and find good moves in just a few seconds. The most common real-time algorithm for Connect Four is alpha-beta pruning, usually run at a depth of around 10 plies. While this method can play strongly against humans, ultimately a more efficient way to get a fast and strong solution is using a Monte Carlo tree search. This method has a particular advantage in Connect Four since many games last close to the end when one player is forced to play a move that will allow their opponent to play a winning move. Monte Carlo uses simulations of the whole game when building its tree, and thus statistically provides moves that are not only good in the present, but would also bring about good end game positions.","Connect Four\n\nDue to fact that the Monte Carlo tree search was first popularized in 2006 for a Computer Go program, implementation of the method for Connect Four is rare. The few examples that exist generally outplay their alpha-beta pruning counterparts in the end game, view the external links for examples.","Connect Four\n\nPopular culture","Connect Four\n\n*Broadcaster and writer Stuart Maconie—while working at the NME—started a rumour that Connect 4 was invented by David Bowie, which became an urban myth. \n*On The Hub's game show Family Game Night, there is a game under the name \"Connect 4 Basketball\" in which teams use colored balls.","Battleship (game)\n\nBattleship (also Battleships or Sea Battle ) is a guessing game for two players. It is known worldwide as a pencil and paper game which dates from World War I. It was published by various companies as a pad-and-pencil game in the 1930s, and was released as a plastic board game by Milton Bradley in 1967.","Battleship (game)\n\nHistory","Battleship (game)\n\nThe game of Battleship is thought to have its origins in the French game L'Attaque played during World War I, although parallels have also been drawn to E. I. Horseman's 1890 game Baslinda, and the game is said to have been played by Russian officers before World War I. The first commercial version of the game was Salvo, published in 1931 in the United States by the Starex company. Other versions of the game were printed in the 1930s and 1940s, including the Strathmore Company's Combat: The Battleship Game, Milton Bradley's Broadsides: A Game of Naval Strategy and Maurice L. Freedman's Warfare Naval Combat. Strategy Games Co. produced a version called Wings which pictured planes flying over the Los Angeles Coliseum. All of these early editions of the game consisted of pre-printed pads of paper.","Battleship (game)\n\nIn 1967 Milton Bradley introduced a version of the game that used plastic boards and pegs. The method of play involved using pegboards and miniaturized plastic ships, and was thought of by Ed Hutchins. In 1977, Milton Bradley also released a computerized Electronic Battleship, followed in 1989 by Electronic Talking Battleship. In 2008, an updated version of Battleship was released, using hexagonal tiles. In the updated version, each player's board contains several islands on which \"captured man\" figurines can be placed. Ships may be placed only around the islands, and only in the player's half of the board. When the movie Battleship was released, the board game reverted to the original 1967 style. The 2008 updated version is still available as Battleship Islands.","Battleship (game)\n\nBattleship was one of the earliest games to be produced as a computer game, with a version being released for the Z80 Compucolor in 1979. Many computer editions of the game have been produced since. In Clubhouse Games for the Nintendo DS, Battleship is known as Grid Attack. It is played on an 8×8 grid, and includes slight variations, such as 4-player gameplay, various ship sizes and shapes, as well as the option to make the ships touch each other. Iterations of Battleship appear as applications on numerous social networking services.","Battleship (game)\n\nBattleship was also part of Hasbro Family Game Night for the PlayStation 2 and Wii, as well as the Xbox 360 (Xbox Live Arcade). These alter the rules, including the size of the grid (8×12 in the NES version, 8×8 in the Game Boy version), size of ships (it is common to feature a submarine that takes up a single square) and special shot missiles for each ship (for example, in the NES version the cruiser has a 5-shot missile which strikes 5 squares in an X pattern on the grid in one turn. Submarine-tracking sonar and aerial reconnaissance to spot ships are also features).","Battleship (game)\n\nA minigame version of Battleship was used in the third season of The Hub's Family Game Night, which uses a 5×5 grid and the first team to sink three ships wins the game.","Battleship (game)\n\nIn 2012 the science fiction action movie Battleship was released, which was inspired by the board game.","Battleship (game)\n\nDescription","Battleship (game)\n\nThe game is played on four grids, two for each player. The grids are typically square – usually 10×10 – and the individual squares in the grid are identified by letter and number.[http://boardgames.about.com/od/salvo/a/rules.htm Salvo – Battleships – Complete Rules – Paper and Pencil Game] On one grid the player arranges ships and records the shots by the opponent. On the other grid the player records their own shots.","Battleship (game)\n\nBefore play begins, each player secretly arranges their ships on their primary grid. Each ship occupies a number of consecutive squares on the grid, arranged either horizontally or vertically. The number of squares for each ship is determined by the type of the ship. The ships cannot overlap (i.e., only one ship can occupy any given square in the grid). The types and numbers of ships allowed are the same for each player. These may vary depending on the rules.","Battleship (game)\n\nThere are two typical complements of ships, as given in the Milton Bradley version of the rules:","Battleship (game)\n\nAfter the ships have been positioned, the game proceeds in a series of rounds. In each round, each player takes a turn to announce a target square in the opponent's grid which is to be shot at. The opponent announces whether or not the square is occupied by a ship, and if it is a \"miss\", the player marks their primary grid with a white peg; if a \"hit\" they mark this on their own primary grid with a red peg. The attacking player notes the hit or miss on their own \"tracking\" grid with the appropriate color peg (red for \"hit\", white for \"miss\"), in order to build up a picture of the opponent's fleet.","Battleship (game)\n\nWhen all of the squares of a ship have been hit, the ship is sunk, and the ship's owner announces this (e.g. \"You sank my battleship!\"). If all of a player's ships have been sunk, the game is over and their opponent wins.","Battleship (game)\n\nVariations","Battleship (game)\n\n* In the 1931 Salvo edition of the game, players target a specified number of squares at one time, and all of the squares are attacked simultaneously. A player may initially target six squares per turn, and this is decreased as ships are lost. In other variants of this mechanic, the number of shots a player is allowed to fire each turn may either be fixed at five for the whole game, be equal to the number of unsunk ships belonging to the player, or be equal to the size of the player's largest undamaged ship. The receiving player may either call the result of each shot in turn, or simply announce, say, \"two hits and three misses\", leaving their opponent to work out the consequences of the salvo. In the modern Milton Bradley rules for Battleship, Salvo is listed as a variation \"for more experienced players\", with the number of shots being equal to the number of ships that the firing player has remaining. * One variant allows players to decline to announce that a ship has been sunk, requiring their opponent to take further shots in order to confirm that an area is clear.","Battleship (game)\n\nAnother house rule allows a player to move one of their ships to a new, uncalled location every fourth or fifth move. * A slightly different version of the game is played in India. Instead of announcing whether a shot is a hit or miss immediately, the players simply say how many of their opponent's three shots were hits, and if so on what kind of vessel. This allows for more strategy in game play and loosens the game's dependency on luck. A slightly different recording system is used in this variation as there is a new importance on what turn a player hit something on. The ships themselves are also slightly different: the Indian version uses two submarines (two spaces), two destroyers (three spaces), one battleship (five spaces), and one aircraft carrier (five spaces arranged in a 'T'). * Ship Attack is a development of the game that stresses analytical thought over (relatively) blind guessing. The players use intelligence collecting tools in order to pinpoint the location of each and every vessels in the enemy fleet.","Battleship (game)\n\nA reconnaissance airplane reports sequences of ship parts in a row or column, a satellite image can be taken to count ship parts on a 3×3 square, and a paratrooper can determine if one tile is populated by a ship part or sea. This variation can be played with the same board drawing on the pen and pencil version. Ship Attack rules are a platform to Bimaru-style puzzles, in which one is presented with a minimal intelligence report required to decipher an entire board. * The Japanese variation of the game differs in several key aspects. It uses a 5×5 grid, on which each ship takes up one space. Each player has 3 ships, distinguished only by the number of hits they can sustain before sinking. Ships may move in orthogonal directions in lieu of firing, but the type of ship, distance, and direction of the move must be announced to one's opponent. Ships may only fire on neighbouring squares, including diagonals, but a near-miss (when a square next to one's own ship is hit) must be declared as such. Regional variations include rules for multiple shots, limited ammunition, no consecutive moves, and friendly fire, among others.","Battleship (game)\n\nWith the increasing popularity of the international version of the game, the Japanese version has apparently lapsed into comparative obscurity even in its native country. * The customary Russian version known as Морской Бой (\"Sea Battle\") is comparatively simple and is mostly pen-and-paper. It is almost always played on a 10×10 grid (with Cyrillic lettering, with letters «й» and «ё» normally omitted). Depending on the rules, a player may or may not take another shot on the same turn if an enemy ship is hit. Ships cannot occupy squares next to each other, horizontally, vertically or diagonally. Also, the set of ships is noticeably different (see table below). The alternate designations are based on dated distinctions of ship classes, namely the number of gun decks for Age of Sail and number of funnels for earlier steam-powered ships. Note the matching size and number of decks/funnels. * The Slovenian version from 2001 takes the game into 3D space, yet it maintains the pen&paper simple format. The 3D grid is 5×5×5 space and each ship must be placed with the three coordinates. No diagonal placing is allowed. The game was developed by Blaž Branc and Matej Avsenak.","Twister (game)\n\nTwister is a game of physical skill produced by Milton Bradley Company and Winning Moves, that has been inducted into the American National Toy Hall of Fame. It is played on a large plastic mat that is spread on the floor or ground. The mat has six rows of large colored circles on it with a different color in each row: red, yellow, blue and green. A spinner is attached to a square board and is used to determine where the player has to put their hand or foot. The spinner is divided into four labeled sections: right foot left foot, right hand and left hand. Each of those four sections is divided into the four colors (red, yellow, blue and green). After spinning, the combination is called (for example: \"right hand yellow\") and players must move their matching hand or foot to a circle of the correct color. In a two-player game, no two people can have a hand or foot on the same circle; the rules are different for more players. Due to the scarcity of colored circles, players will often be required to put themselves in unlikely or precarious positions, eventually causing someone to fall.","Twister (game)\n\nA person is eliminated when they fall or when their elbow or knee touches the mat. There is no limit to how many can play at once, but more than four is a tight fit.","Twister (game)\n\nHistory and analysis","Twister (game)\n\nIn 1964 Reyn Winsor Guyer and his father owned a design company that made in-store displays for Fortune 500 companies. While working on designing a promotion for his client, the S.C. Johnson Company, Reyn developed the idea that a game could utilize people as playing pieces on a life-sized game board: a mat on the floor. His first attempt he called “Kings Footsie”, but when he showed it to the 3M Company, who had a line of up-scale board games, they rejected the idea.","Twister (game)\n\nCo-inventor Charles Foley was a salesman for a printing company calling on the Guyer Company's purchasing agent when he saw a model of Kings' Footsie on display in the office. Foley went to Reyn claiming he had some experience and connections in the toy business. Guyer and his father discussed the possibility of starting a small division of the company to explore the ‘people are the players' concept. His father agreed to take out a sizable bank loan to underwrite the idea. Guyer hired Foley and Chuck Rabens, Guyers artist friend, and the three men worked together to develop eight new game ideas for presentation. The game ideas ranged from small kids' games to word games for adults. When the three men were working with colored circles on the floor, Foley suggested they place them in rows by color, and Rabens suggested they use their hands and feet. A game they called PRETZEL took shape.","Twister (game)\n\nSubmitted for patent and marketed by Milton Bradley in 1966, Twister became a success when actress Eva Gabor played it with Johnny Carson on television's The Tonight Show on May 3, 1966. However, in its success, Twister was also controversial. The company that produced the game, Milton Bradley, was accused by its competitors of selling \"sex in a box\". That accusation was probably because Twister was the first popular American game to use human bodies as playing pieces.","Twister (game)\n\nEarly timeline","Twister (game)\n\nIn 1964 Guyer and Foley took the games to Mel Taft, the Vice President of the Milton Bradley Co.. Mel immediately saw the possibilities in a line of games where the people were the players, and the game he chose to lead with was \"Pretzel\". When it was discovered that the name was not available, the Milton Bradley Co. chose \"Twister\".","Twister (game)\n\nIn the fall of 1965, Reyn and Chuck took the game to the Milton Bradley Company in Springfield, MA where Mel Taft, the senior vice-president of R & D, chose PRETZEL as the best of the eight game ideas. Mel found there was a trademark problem, so he changed the game’s name to TWISTER, and Milton Bradley began to market Twister in 1966. It was the first game on store shelves that used players as the playing pieces. .","Twister (game)\n\nWhen the Milton Bradley Company found that several major retailers refused to stock the game, Mel called Reyn to tell him that they were cancelling their television advertising and pulling the product from the store shelves. What executives at Milton Bradley did not know was the public relations company Mel had hired had already been paid. So, he let the plan to have TWISTER played on the Tonight Show go forward.","Twister (game)\n\nOn May 3, 1966 Johnny Carson, the host of the show, was enticed by the TWISTER mat and demonstrated the game along with the gorgeous Eva Gabor. The next morning there were 50 people standing in line to buy the game at Abercrombie & Fitch where a few games had not been returned. Three million TWISTER games were sold in the following year. Several fun spin-off games have followed over the years such as: TWISTER MOVES, TWISTER DANCE, TWISTER HOOPLA and many others.","Twister (game)\n\nIn 1967 Twister was named the \"Game of the Year\". With this success, Guyer offered Foley and Raabens a chance to run their new toy and game development division. However, they had already arranged to form their own company with an outside investor. Subsequently, they threatened to sue Guyer and his father. An out-of-court settlement in the form of 2.5% of Twister's gross profit for 3 years was arranged. When the patent was issued, Guyer's name was omitted because \"people being the players'\" was not one of the patent claim. Guyer remains the owner of the trademark.","Twister (game)\n\nOn May 3, 2016, the Hasbro Company will begin the celebration of TWISTER’s 50th anniversary following Reyn Guyer’s introduction of his book, “RIGHT BRAIN RED”, which tells the whole tale of the game’s exciting beginnings.","Twister (game)\n\nIn 1985 Hasbro acquired the Milton Bradley Company, becoming Twister's parent company. The Reyn Guyer Creative Group continues to work closely with Hasbro to develop and market new additions to the line of Twister products.","Twister (game)\n\n*2003 Hasbro adds Twister Moves to the line. With two and three CDs players are encouraged to listen to the music and occupy the colored circle that is called for in the lyrics. The product helps to double overall Twister sales to 2 million units by 2004.\n*2006 Twister Dance is added. Players dance on small Twister mats to 40 different tunes.\n*2007 Hasbro adds Twister Scram to the line. Players spin the spinner and run to different colored dot mats before all of them are taken.\n*2008 Twister Hopscotch is added. In a variation of hopscotch, multi-colored rings are attached together. As one player spins the spinner, the rest of the players must do different actions on each different colored ring as they skip through them. \n*2010 Twister Hoopla is added to the line. This version is very similar to the original Twister. The same gameplay is used, but miniature multi-colored hoops are used instead of the original dot mat.\n*2012 Hasbro brings in Britney Spears to promote updated Twister Dance Rave.\n*2013 Hasbro adds Twister Rave Skip-it Game","Twister (game)\n\nCo-inventor Charles Foley died on July 1, 2013 at age 82.","Twister (game)\n\nPhenomenon","Twister (game)\n\nTwister, much like its counterpart the hula hoop, was one of the many toy fad phenomena that came about in the second half of the 20th century. Microsoft Encarta labels Twister as being an \"industry phenomenon\" that \"briefly captures the public's imagination, and sells in the millions\".http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761585920_4/Toys.html#p72 Being one of the earliest toy fads and a \"national craze for a short time,\" Twister was a game that was able to bring all age groups together, whether children or adults. Twister being both globally spread and highly popular is unlike other games of its stature, in the sense that it is accepted by all social classes. In an article by Peterson and Simkus, they state, \"While the evidence of the first half of this century suggests strong links between social status and cultural taste, there is growing evidence that there is no longer a one-to-one correspondence between taste and status group membership in advanced postindustrial societies like the United States.\"","Twister (game)\n\nGlobalization","Twister (game)\n\nTwister has been seen as a prime example of how globalization is able to influence culture, and how the different variations of the game reflect elements of cultural diversity. In an article by sociologists Ben Carrington, David L. Andrews, Steven J. Jackson and Zbigniew Mazur, they state, \"…interpretations of the cultural impact of globalization can be classified into two distinct theoretical camps: the economic and the cultural camps.\" From an economic standpoint, Twister does not exclude any socioeconomic demographic, and has very little cultural resistance, seeing as it can be easily understood globally by all cultures.","Twister (game)\n\nRecords","Twister (game)\n\nSince its release, many active participants have tried and succeeded in setting records for the most contestants in a game, and the largest combined amount of Twister game mats. The World's Largest Twister Mat was put together on June 18, 2010 in Belchertown, MA on the Belchertown High School football field. It consisted of 1008 Twister mats donated by Hasbro and measured 244.7 feet X 99.10 feet for 24156 sqft. The purpose of the record breaking Twister Mat was to kick off a fundraising drive for Jessica's Boundless Playground.","Twister (game)\n\nThe previous record, as cited by the Guinness Book of World Records, the largest game of Twister included 4699 sqft of mats that were combined together. Prior to that, the largest game was played in the Netherlands in April 2005 with 2453 sqft of mats. The record for the largest number of contestants in a game of Twister was once bestowed in 1987 with 4,160 contestants tangling themselves at the University of Massachusetts in Amherst. However, this 1987 Amherst claim was later disqualified upon evidence of officiating inconsistencies. As a result, the category of \"Most Contestants\" was temporarily banned from the Guinness Book.","Twister (game)\n\nRobert Bucci, a determined Engineering student at Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech), successfully entreated Guinness World Records to reinstate the category in 1992 by providing a comprehensively documented event plan prior to their subsequent world record setting event during the 1992 SAA/SF National Convention at Stone Mountain, Georgia.","Twister (game)\n\nUse in fundraising","Twister (game)\n\nTwister tournaments are used as a source of philanthropic events put on by college fraternities and sororities to raise money for a charitable cause. Many of these Greek tournaments are held annually, and are a good way to get involved with the community. Some of the Greek organizations that partake in these tournaments include Alpha Xi Delta of Cornell University, Tau Kappa Epsilon of Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Sigma Nu at Villanova, Kappa Delta at Ball State University, Alpha Chi Omega at Missouri State University, and Sigma Sigma Sigma at Florida International University.","Twister (game)\n\nAccessibility","Twister (game)\n\nThere are publicly available instructions on how to alter a Twister game to make it accessible to color-blind individuals and to completely blind individuals.","Twister (game)\n\nIn popular culture","Twister (game)\n\n*Musician \"Weird Al\" Yankovic has a song \"Twister\" on his Even Worse album about the board game, done in a style parody of the early Beastie Boys. *In Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey, the title characters challenge Death to a series of games in order to escape Hell, one of which is Twister, where Bill and Ted ultimately defeat Death. *R.E.M.'s song \"Man on the Moon\" features the lyrics \"let's play Twister, let's play Risk\". *In Type O Negative's \"My Girlfriend's Girlfriend\" video the game is being played. *In the TV show Friends, Monica, Phoebe, Rachel, Joey, Ross and Chandler play Twister at the end of the 4th episode of season 1 (\"The One with George Stephanopoulos\"). *The music video for the hit song \"Un-Break My Heart\" by Toni Braxton features scenes in which her and Tyson Beckford play this game. *In Honey and Clover, Morita decides to make his own version of a Twister mat with far too many colors. *The TV game show Family Game Night on The Hub uses the game \"Twister Lights Out\" – a combination of Twister and \"Lights Out\" – as one of their minigames.","Twister (game)\n\n* The 2009 Britney Spears song \"3\" features the lyrics \"Twister on the floor, what do you say\". Later, Spears was the face of \"Twister Dance\" in 2012. * Lady Gaga's 2008 hit Just Dance features the lyrics \"A dizzy Twister dance, can't find my drink or man\". * In the CW's Supernatural, the character of Castiel makes a reference to the game and later appeared playing it in the 23rd episode of season 7. *In the August 28, 2014 installment of the comic strip Get Fuzzy, ferret Fungo Squiggly, the sole entrant (and thus winner) of Bucky Katt's \"Spend-a-Day-with-Bucky Contest\" arrives wanting to play \"Twister\" with Bucky. Bucky does not approve. *On the April 13, 2015 episode of Let's Make a Deal, a contestant wore a Twister costume. *In the episode \"Mother Daughter Laser Razor\", of the animated TV show\"Bob's Burgers\", Linda has a Twister mat set up for family game night."],"string":"[\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nConnect Four (also known as Captain's Mistress, Four Up, Plot Four, Find Four, Fourplay, Four in a Row, Four in a Line and Gravitrips (in Soviet Union) ) is a two-player connection game in which the players first choose a color and then take turns dropping colored discs from the top into a seven-column, six-row vertically suspended grid. The pieces fall straight down, occupying the next available space within the column. The objective of the game is to connect four of one's own discs of the same color next to each other vertically, horizontally, or diagonally before your opponent.\\nConnect Four is a strongly solved game. The first player can always win by playing the right moves.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nThe game was first sold under the famous Connect Four trademark by Milton Bradley in February 1974.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nMathematical solution\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nConnect Four is a two-player game with \\\"perfect information\\\". This term describes games where one player at a time plays, players have all the information about moves that have taken place, and all moves that can take place, for a given game state. Connect Four also belongs to the classification of an adversarial, zero-sum game, since a player's advantage is an opponent's disadvantage.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nOne measure of complexity of the Connect Four game is the number of possible games board positions.\\nFor classic Connect Four played on 6 high, 7 wide grid, there are 4,531,985,219,092 positions \\nfor all game boards populated with 0 to 42 pieces.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nThe game was first solved by James Dow Allen (October 1, 1988), and independently by Victor Allis (October 16, 1988). \\nAllis describes a knowledge based approach, with nine strategies, as a solution for Connect Four.\\nAllen also describes winning strategies \\nin his analysis of the game. At the time of the initial solutions for Connect Four, brute force analysis was not deemed feasible given the game's complexity and the computer technology available at the time.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nConnect Four has since been solved with brute force methods beginning with John Tromp's work in compiling an 8-ply database (Feb 4, 1995). The artificial intelligence algorithms able to strongly solve Connect Four are minimax or negamax, with optimizations that include alpha-beta pruning, dynamic history ordering of game player moves, and transposition tables. The code for solving Connect Four with these methods is also the basis for the Fhourstones integer performance benchmark.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nThe solved conclusion for Connect Four is first player win. With perfect play, the first player can force a win, on or before the 41st move by starting in the middle column. The game is a theoretical draw when the first player starts in the columns adjacent to the center. For the edges of the game board, column 1 and 2 on left, and column 7 and 6 on right, the exact move-value score for first player start is loss on the 40th move, and loss on the 42nd move, respectively. In other words, by starting with the four outer columns, the first player allows the second player to force a win.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nRule variations\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nThere are many variations of Connect Four with differing game board sizes, board arrangements, game pieces, and/or gameplay rules. Many variations are popular with game theory and artificial intelligence research, rather than with physical game boards and gameplay by persons.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nThe most commonly used Connect Four board size is 7 columns × 6 rows. Size variations include 8×7, 9×7, 10×7, 8×8, and Infinite Connect-Four. \\nAlternate board arrangements include Cylinder-Infinite Connect-Four. One board variation available as a physical game is Hasbro's Connect 4x4.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nSeveral versions of Hasbro's Connect Four physical gameboard make it easy to remove game pieces from the bottom one at a time. Along with traditional gameplay, this feature allows for variations of the game.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nPop Out\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nPop Out starts the same as traditional gameplay, with an empty board and players alternating turns placing their own colored discs into the board. During each turn, a player can either add another disc from the top or, if one has any discs of his or her own color on the bottom row, remove (or \\\"pop out\\\") a disc of one's own color from the bottom. Popping a disc out from the bottom drops every disc above it down one space, changing their relationship with the rest of the board and changing the possibilities for a connection. The first player to connect four of their discs horizontally, vertically, or diagonally wins the game.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nPop 10\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nBefore play begins, Pop 10 is set up differently from the traditional game. Taking turns, each player places their opponent's color discs into the slots filling up only the bottom row, then moving on to the next row until it is filled and so forth until all rows have been filled.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nGameplay works by players taking turns removing a disc of one's own color through the bottom of the board. If the disc that was removed was part of a four-disc connection at the time of its removal, the player sets it aside out of play and immediately takes another turn. If it was not part of a \\\"connect four\\\", then it must be placed back on the board through a slot at the top into any open space and the turn ends, switching to the other player. The first player to set aside ten discs of his or her color wins the game.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\n5-in-a-Row\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nThe 5-in-a-Row variation for Connect Four is a game played on a 6 high, 9 wide, grid. Hasbro adds two additional board columns, already filled with player pieces in an alternating pattern, to the left and right sides of their standard 6 by 7 game board. The game plays similarly to the original Connect Four, except players must now get five pieces in a row to win. Notice this is still a 42-ply game, since the two new columns added to the game represent twelve game pieces already played, before the start of a game.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nPower Up\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nIn this variation of Connect Four, players begin a game with one or more specially marked, \\\"Power Checkers\\\" game pieces, which each player may choose to play once per game. When playing a piece marked with an anvil icon, for example, the player may immediately pop out all pieces below it, leaving the anvil piece at the bottom row of the game board. Other marked game pieces include one with a wall icon, allowing a player to play a second consecutive non winning turn with an unmarked piece, a \\\"×2\\\" icon, allowing for an unrestricted second turn with an unmarked piece, and a bomb icon, allowing a player to immediately pop out an opponent's piece.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nOther versions\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nHasbro also produce various sizes of Giant Connect Four, suitable for outdoor use. The largest is built from weather-resistant wood, and measures 120 cm in both width and height. Connect Four was released for the Microvision video game console in 1979, developed by Robert Hoffberg. It was also released for the Texas Instruments 99/4 computer the same year.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nWith the proliferation of mobile devices, Connect Four has regained popularity as a game that can be played quickly and against another person over an Internet connection.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nIn 2015 Winning Moves published Connect 4 Twist & Turn. This game variant features a game tower instead of the flat game grid. The tower has 5 rings that twist independently. Game play is similar to standard Connect 4 where players try to get 4 in a row of their own colored discs. However, with Twist & Turn, players have the choice to twist a ring after they have played a piece. It adds a subtle layer of strategy to game play.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nAlgorithms\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nAs opposed to calculating perfect play, computer algorithms that play Connect Four must be able to run in real time and find good moves in just a few seconds. The most common real-time algorithm for Connect Four is alpha-beta pruning, usually run at a depth of around 10 plies. While this method can play strongly against humans, ultimately a more efficient way to get a fast and strong solution is using a Monte Carlo tree search. This method has a particular advantage in Connect Four since many games last close to the end when one player is forced to play a move that will allow their opponent to play a winning move. Monte Carlo uses simulations of the whole game when building its tree, and thus statistically provides moves that are not only good in the present, but would also bring about good end game positions.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nDue to fact that the Monte Carlo tree search was first popularized in 2006 for a Computer Go program, implementation of the method for Connect Four is rare. The few examples that exist generally outplay their alpha-beta pruning counterparts in the end game, view the external links for examples.\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\nPopular culture\",\n \"Connect Four\\n\\n*Broadcaster and writer Stuart Maconie—while working at the NME—started a rumour that Connect 4 was invented by David Bowie, which became an urban myth. \\n*On The Hub's game show Family Game Night, there is a game under the name \\\"Connect 4 Basketball\\\" in which teams use colored balls.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nBattleship (also Battleships or Sea Battle ) is a guessing game for two players. It is known worldwide as a pencil and paper game which dates from World War I. It was published by various companies as a pad-and-pencil game in the 1930s, and was released as a plastic board game by Milton Bradley in 1967.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nThe game of Battleship is thought to have its origins in the French game L'Attaque played during World War I, although parallels have also been drawn to E. I. Horseman's 1890 game Baslinda, and the game is said to have been played by Russian officers before World War I. The first commercial version of the game was Salvo, published in 1931 in the United States by the Starex company. Other versions of the game were printed in the 1930s and 1940s, including the Strathmore Company's Combat: The Battleship Game, Milton Bradley's Broadsides: A Game of Naval Strategy and Maurice L. Freedman's Warfare Naval Combat. Strategy Games Co. produced a version called Wings which pictured planes flying over the Los Angeles Coliseum. All of these early editions of the game consisted of pre-printed pads of paper.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nIn 1967 Milton Bradley introduced a version of the game that used plastic boards and pegs. The method of play involved using pegboards and miniaturized plastic ships, and was thought of by Ed Hutchins. In 1977, Milton Bradley also released a computerized Electronic Battleship, followed in 1989 by Electronic Talking Battleship. In 2008, an updated version of Battleship was released, using hexagonal tiles. In the updated version, each player's board contains several islands on which \\\"captured man\\\" figurines can be placed. Ships may be placed only around the islands, and only in the player's half of the board. When the movie Battleship was released, the board game reverted to the original 1967 style. The 2008 updated version is still available as Battleship Islands.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nBattleship was one of the earliest games to be produced as a computer game, with a version being released for the Z80 Compucolor in 1979. Many computer editions of the game have been produced since. In Clubhouse Games for the Nintendo DS, Battleship is known as Grid Attack. It is played on an 8×8 grid, and includes slight variations, such as 4-player gameplay, various ship sizes and shapes, as well as the option to make the ships touch each other. Iterations of Battleship appear as applications on numerous social networking services.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nBattleship was also part of Hasbro Family Game Night for the PlayStation 2 and Wii, as well as the Xbox 360 (Xbox Live Arcade). These alter the rules, including the size of the grid (8×12 in the NES version, 8×8 in the Game Boy version), size of ships (it is common to feature a submarine that takes up a single square) and special shot missiles for each ship (for example, in the NES version the cruiser has a 5-shot missile which strikes 5 squares in an X pattern on the grid in one turn. Submarine-tracking sonar and aerial reconnaissance to spot ships are also features).\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nA minigame version of Battleship was used in the third season of The Hub's Family Game Night, which uses a 5×5 grid and the first team to sink three ships wins the game.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nIn 2012 the science fiction action movie Battleship was released, which was inspired by the board game.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nDescription\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nThe game is played on four grids, two for each player. The grids are typically square – usually 10×10 – and the individual squares in the grid are identified by letter and number.[http://boardgames.about.com/od/salvo/a/rules.htm Salvo – Battleships – Complete Rules – Paper and Pencil Game] On one grid the player arranges ships and records the shots by the opponent. On the other grid the player records their own shots.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nBefore play begins, each player secretly arranges their ships on their primary grid. Each ship occupies a number of consecutive squares on the grid, arranged either horizontally or vertically. The number of squares for each ship is determined by the type of the ship. The ships cannot overlap (i.e., only one ship can occupy any given square in the grid). The types and numbers of ships allowed are the same for each player. These may vary depending on the rules.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nThere are two typical complements of ships, as given in the Milton Bradley version of the rules:\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nAfter the ships have been positioned, the game proceeds in a series of rounds. In each round, each player takes a turn to announce a target square in the opponent's grid which is to be shot at. The opponent announces whether or not the square is occupied by a ship, and if it is a \\\"miss\\\", the player marks their primary grid with a white peg; if a \\\"hit\\\" they mark this on their own primary grid with a red peg. The attacking player notes the hit or miss on their own \\\"tracking\\\" grid with the appropriate color peg (red for \\\"hit\\\", white for \\\"miss\\\"), in order to build up a picture of the opponent's fleet.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nWhen all of the squares of a ship have been hit, the ship is sunk, and the ship's owner announces this (e.g. \\\"You sank my battleship!\\\"). If all of a player's ships have been sunk, the game is over and their opponent wins.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nVariations\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\n* In the 1931 Salvo edition of the game, players target a specified number of squares at one time, and all of the squares are attacked simultaneously. A player may initially target six squares per turn, and this is decreased as ships are lost. In other variants of this mechanic, the number of shots a player is allowed to fire each turn may either be fixed at five for the whole game, be equal to the number of unsunk ships belonging to the player, or be equal to the size of the player's largest undamaged ship. The receiving player may either call the result of each shot in turn, or simply announce, say, \\\"two hits and three misses\\\", leaving their opponent to work out the consequences of the salvo. In the modern Milton Bradley rules for Battleship, Salvo is listed as a variation \\\"for more experienced players\\\", with the number of shots being equal to the number of ships that the firing player has remaining. * One variant allows players to decline to announce that a ship has been sunk, requiring their opponent to take further shots in order to confirm that an area is clear.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nAnother house rule allows a player to move one of their ships to a new, uncalled location every fourth or fifth move. * A slightly different version of the game is played in India. Instead of announcing whether a shot is a hit or miss immediately, the players simply say how many of their opponent's three shots were hits, and if so on what kind of vessel. This allows for more strategy in game play and loosens the game's dependency on luck. A slightly different recording system is used in this variation as there is a new importance on what turn a player hit something on. The ships themselves are also slightly different: the Indian version uses two submarines (two spaces), two destroyers (three spaces), one battleship (five spaces), and one aircraft carrier (five spaces arranged in a 'T'). * Ship Attack is a development of the game that stresses analytical thought over (relatively) blind guessing. The players use intelligence collecting tools in order to pinpoint the location of each and every vessels in the enemy fleet.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nA reconnaissance airplane reports sequences of ship parts in a row or column, a satellite image can be taken to count ship parts on a 3×3 square, and a paratrooper can determine if one tile is populated by a ship part or sea. This variation can be played with the same board drawing on the pen and pencil version. Ship Attack rules are a platform to Bimaru-style puzzles, in which one is presented with a minimal intelligence report required to decipher an entire board. * The Japanese variation of the game differs in several key aspects. It uses a 5×5 grid, on which each ship takes up one space. Each player has 3 ships, distinguished only by the number of hits they can sustain before sinking. Ships may move in orthogonal directions in lieu of firing, but the type of ship, distance, and direction of the move must be announced to one's opponent. Ships may only fire on neighbouring squares, including diagonals, but a near-miss (when a square next to one's own ship is hit) must be declared as such. Regional variations include rules for multiple shots, limited ammunition, no consecutive moves, and friendly fire, among others.\",\n \"Battleship (game)\\n\\nWith the increasing popularity of the international version of the game, the Japanese version has apparently lapsed into comparative obscurity even in its native country. * The customary Russian version known as Морской Бой (\\\"Sea Battle\\\") is comparatively simple and is mostly pen-and-paper. It is almost always played on a 10×10 grid (with Cyrillic lettering, with letters «й» and «ё» normally omitted). Depending on the rules, a player may or may not take another shot on the same turn if an enemy ship is hit. Ships cannot occupy squares next to each other, horizontally, vertically or diagonally. Also, the set of ships is noticeably different (see table below). The alternate designations are based on dated distinctions of ship classes, namely the number of gun decks for Age of Sail and number of funnels for earlier steam-powered ships. Note the matching size and number of decks/funnels. * The Slovenian version from 2001 takes the game into 3D space, yet it maintains the pen&paper simple format. The 3D grid is 5×5×5 space and each ship must be placed with the three coordinates. No diagonal placing is allowed. The game was developed by Blaž Branc and Matej Avsenak.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nTwister is a game of physical skill produced by Milton Bradley Company and Winning Moves, that has been inducted into the American National Toy Hall of Fame. It is played on a large plastic mat that is spread on the floor or ground. The mat has six rows of large colored circles on it with a different color in each row: red, yellow, blue and green. A spinner is attached to a square board and is used to determine where the player has to put their hand or foot. The spinner is divided into four labeled sections: right foot left foot, right hand and left hand. Each of those four sections is divided into the four colors (red, yellow, blue and green). After spinning, the combination is called (for example: \\\"right hand yellow\\\") and players must move their matching hand or foot to a circle of the correct color. In a two-player game, no two people can have a hand or foot on the same circle; the rules are different for more players. Due to the scarcity of colored circles, players will often be required to put themselves in unlikely or precarious positions, eventually causing someone to fall.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nA person is eliminated when they fall or when their elbow or knee touches the mat. There is no limit to how many can play at once, but more than four is a tight fit.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nHistory and analysis\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nIn 1964 Reyn Winsor Guyer and his father owned a design company that made in-store displays for Fortune 500 companies. While working on designing a promotion for his client, the S.C. Johnson Company, Reyn developed the idea that a game could utilize people as playing pieces on a life-sized game board: a mat on the floor. His first attempt he called “Kings Footsie”, but when he showed it to the 3M Company, who had a line of up-scale board games, they rejected the idea.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nCo-inventor Charles Foley was a salesman for a printing company calling on the Guyer Company's purchasing agent when he saw a model of Kings' Footsie on display in the office. Foley went to Reyn claiming he had some experience and connections in the toy business. Guyer and his father discussed the possibility of starting a small division of the company to explore the ‘people are the players' concept. His father agreed to take out a sizable bank loan to underwrite the idea. Guyer hired Foley and Chuck Rabens, Guyers artist friend, and the three men worked together to develop eight new game ideas for presentation. The game ideas ranged from small kids' games to word games for adults. When the three men were working with colored circles on the floor, Foley suggested they place them in rows by color, and Rabens suggested they use their hands and feet. A game they called PRETZEL took shape.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nSubmitted for patent and marketed by Milton Bradley in 1966, Twister became a success when actress Eva Gabor played it with Johnny Carson on television's The Tonight Show on May 3, 1966. However, in its success, Twister was also controversial. The company that produced the game, Milton Bradley, was accused by its competitors of selling \\\"sex in a box\\\". That accusation was probably because Twister was the first popular American game to use human bodies as playing pieces.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nEarly timeline\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nIn 1964 Guyer and Foley took the games to Mel Taft, the Vice President of the Milton Bradley Co.. Mel immediately saw the possibilities in a line of games where the people were the players, and the game he chose to lead with was \\\"Pretzel\\\". When it was discovered that the name was not available, the Milton Bradley Co. chose \\\"Twister\\\".\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nIn the fall of 1965, Reyn and Chuck took the game to the Milton Bradley Company in Springfield, MA where Mel Taft, the senior vice-president of R & D, chose PRETZEL as the best of the eight game ideas. Mel found there was a trademark problem, so he changed the game’s name to TWISTER, and Milton Bradley began to market Twister in 1966. It was the first game on store shelves that used players as the playing pieces. .\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nWhen the Milton Bradley Company found that several major retailers refused to stock the game, Mel called Reyn to tell him that they were cancelling their television advertising and pulling the product from the store shelves. What executives at Milton Bradley did not know was the public relations company Mel had hired had already been paid. So, he let the plan to have TWISTER played on the Tonight Show go forward.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nOn May 3, 1966 Johnny Carson, the host of the show, was enticed by the TWISTER mat and demonstrated the game along with the gorgeous Eva Gabor. The next morning there were 50 people standing in line to buy the game at Abercrombie & Fitch where a few games had not been returned. Three million TWISTER games were sold in the following year. Several fun spin-off games have followed over the years such as: TWISTER MOVES, TWISTER DANCE, TWISTER HOOPLA and many others.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nIn 1967 Twister was named the \\\"Game of the Year\\\". With this success, Guyer offered Foley and Raabens a chance to run their new toy and game development division. However, they had already arranged to form their own company with an outside investor. Subsequently, they threatened to sue Guyer and his father. An out-of-court settlement in the form of 2.5% of Twister's gross profit for 3 years was arranged. When the patent was issued, Guyer's name was omitted because \\\"people being the players'\\\" was not one of the patent claim. Guyer remains the owner of the trademark.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nOn May 3, 2016, the Hasbro Company will begin the celebration of TWISTER’s 50th anniversary following Reyn Guyer’s introduction of his book, “RIGHT BRAIN RED”, which tells the whole tale of the game’s exciting beginnings.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nIn 1985 Hasbro acquired the Milton Bradley Company, becoming Twister's parent company. The Reyn Guyer Creative Group continues to work closely with Hasbro to develop and market new additions to the line of Twister products.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\n*2003 Hasbro adds Twister Moves to the line. With two and three CDs players are encouraged to listen to the music and occupy the colored circle that is called for in the lyrics. The product helps to double overall Twister sales to 2 million units by 2004.\\n*2006 Twister Dance is added. Players dance on small Twister mats to 40 different tunes.\\n*2007 Hasbro adds Twister Scram to the line. Players spin the spinner and run to different colored dot mats before all of them are taken.\\n*2008 Twister Hopscotch is added. In a variation of hopscotch, multi-colored rings are attached together. As one player spins the spinner, the rest of the players must do different actions on each different colored ring as they skip through them. \\n*2010 Twister Hoopla is added to the line. This version is very similar to the original Twister. The same gameplay is used, but miniature multi-colored hoops are used instead of the original dot mat.\\n*2012 Hasbro brings in Britney Spears to promote updated Twister Dance Rave.\\n*2013 Hasbro adds Twister Rave Skip-it Game\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nCo-inventor Charles Foley died on July 1, 2013 at age 82.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nPhenomenon\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nTwister, much like its counterpart the hula hoop, was one of the many toy fad phenomena that came about in the second half of the 20th century. Microsoft Encarta labels Twister as being an \\\"industry phenomenon\\\" that \\\"briefly captures the public's imagination, and sells in the millions\\\".http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761585920_4/Toys.html#p72 Being one of the earliest toy fads and a \\\"national craze for a short time,\\\" Twister was a game that was able to bring all age groups together, whether children or adults. Twister being both globally spread and highly popular is unlike other games of its stature, in the sense that it is accepted by all social classes. In an article by Peterson and Simkus, they state, \\\"While the evidence of the first half of this century suggests strong links between social status and cultural taste, there is growing evidence that there is no longer a one-to-one correspondence between taste and status group membership in advanced postindustrial societies like the United States.\\\"\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nGlobalization\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nTwister has been seen as a prime example of how globalization is able to influence culture, and how the different variations of the game reflect elements of cultural diversity. In an article by sociologists Ben Carrington, David L. Andrews, Steven J. Jackson and Zbigniew Mazur, they state, \\\"…interpretations of the cultural impact of globalization can be classified into two distinct theoretical camps: the economic and the cultural camps.\\\" From an economic standpoint, Twister does not exclude any socioeconomic demographic, and has very little cultural resistance, seeing as it can be easily understood globally by all cultures.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nRecords\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nSince its release, many active participants have tried and succeeded in setting records for the most contestants in a game, and the largest combined amount of Twister game mats. The World's Largest Twister Mat was put together on June 18, 2010 in Belchertown, MA on the Belchertown High School football field. It consisted of 1008 Twister mats donated by Hasbro and measured 244.7 feet X 99.10 feet for 24156 sqft. The purpose of the record breaking Twister Mat was to kick off a fundraising drive for Jessica's Boundless Playground.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nThe previous record, as cited by the Guinness Book of World Records, the largest game of Twister included 4699 sqft of mats that were combined together. Prior to that, the largest game was played in the Netherlands in April 2005 with 2453 sqft of mats. The record for the largest number of contestants in a game of Twister was once bestowed in 1987 with 4,160 contestants tangling themselves at the University of Massachusetts in Amherst. However, this 1987 Amherst claim was later disqualified upon evidence of officiating inconsistencies. As a result, the category of \\\"Most Contestants\\\" was temporarily banned from the Guinness Book.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nRobert Bucci, a determined Engineering student at Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech), successfully entreated Guinness World Records to reinstate the category in 1992 by providing a comprehensively documented event plan prior to their subsequent world record setting event during the 1992 SAA/SF National Convention at Stone Mountain, Georgia.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nUse in fundraising\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nTwister tournaments are used as a source of philanthropic events put on by college fraternities and sororities to raise money for a charitable cause. Many of these Greek tournaments are held annually, and are a good way to get involved with the community. Some of the Greek organizations that partake in these tournaments include Alpha Xi Delta of Cornell University, Tau Kappa Epsilon of Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Sigma Nu at Villanova, Kappa Delta at Ball State University, Alpha Chi Omega at Missouri State University, and Sigma Sigma Sigma at Florida International University.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nAccessibility\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nThere are publicly available instructions on how to alter a Twister game to make it accessible to color-blind individuals and to completely blind individuals.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\nIn popular culture\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\n*Musician \\\"Weird Al\\\" Yankovic has a song \\\"Twister\\\" on his Even Worse album about the board game, done in a style parody of the early Beastie Boys. *In Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey, the title characters challenge Death to a series of games in order to escape Hell, one of which is Twister, where Bill and Ted ultimately defeat Death. *R.E.M.'s song \\\"Man on the Moon\\\" features the lyrics \\\"let's play Twister, let's play Risk\\\". *In Type O Negative's \\\"My Girlfriend's Girlfriend\\\" video the game is being played. *In the TV show Friends, Monica, Phoebe, Rachel, Joey, Ross and Chandler play Twister at the end of the 4th episode of season 1 (\\\"The One with George Stephanopoulos\\\"). *The music video for the hit song \\\"Un-Break My Heart\\\" by Toni Braxton features scenes in which her and Tyson Beckford play this game. *In Honey and Clover, Morita decides to make his own version of a Twister mat with far too many colors. *The TV game show Family Game Night on The Hub uses the game \\\"Twister Lights Out\\\" – a combination of Twister and \\\"Lights Out\\\" – as one of their minigames.\",\n \"Twister (game)\\n\\n* The 2009 Britney Spears song \\\"3\\\" features the lyrics \\\"Twister on the floor, what do you say\\\". Later, Spears was the face of \\\"Twister Dance\\\" in 2012. * Lady Gaga's 2008 hit Just Dance features the lyrics \\\"A dizzy Twister dance, can't find my drink or man\\\". * In the CW's Supernatural, the character of Castiel makes a reference to the game and later appeared playing it in the 23rd episode of season 7. *In the August 28, 2014 installment of the comic strip Get Fuzzy, ferret Fungo Squiggly, the sole entrant (and thus winner) of Bucky Katt's \\\"Spend-a-Day-with-Bucky Contest\\\" arrives wanting to play \\\"Twister\\\" with Bucky. Bucky does not approve. *On the April 13, 2015 episode of Let's Make a Deal, a contestant wore a Twister costume. *In the episode \\\"Mother Daughter Laser Razor\\\", of the animated TV show\\\"Bob's Burgers\\\", Linda has a Twister mat set up for family game night.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137395,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2885"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Shamu, caught in 1965, was what type of animal?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Orca"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["orca cetacean","transient killerwhale","killer whales","orca gladiator","orca whale","killer whales in native culture","orcinus","orcinus orca","killer whale","whale killer","orca","san juan orcas","orcas","killer whales in kwakiutl culture","orca whales","killer whales in relation to culture","o orca","killer whale population"],"string":"[\n \"orca cetacean\",\n \"transient killerwhale\",\n \"killer whales\",\n \"orca gladiator\",\n \"orca whale\",\n \"killer whales in native culture\",\n \"orcinus\",\n \"orcinus orca\",\n \"killer whale\",\n \"whale killer\",\n \"orca\",\n \"san juan orcas\",\n \"orcas\",\n \"killer whales in kwakiutl culture\",\n \"orca whales\",\n \"killer whales in relation to culture\",\n \"o orca\",\n \"killer whale population\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nThis article refers to the SeaWorld killer whale shows. For the original killer whale (orca) named Shamu, see Shamu","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nShamu is the name used for several SeaWorld orca (killer whale) shows and is the stage name given to the \"star\" of those shows, beginning with the original Shamu in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The orca Shamu died in 1971, but the name Shamu was trademarked by SeaWorld (as well as the names \"Namu\" and \"Ramu\") and has been given to different orcas at different times when performing in Shamu shows.\nIn March, 2016, SeaWorld announced they are ending their orca breeding programs making their current orcas, \"the last generation of orcas in SeaWorld's care.\" SeaWorld also announced they will be phasing out their theatrical orca whale shows and will introduce, \"new, inspiring, natural orca encounters rather than theatrical shows,…[focussing] on orca enrichment, exercise and overall health\"","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nBaby Shamu","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nThe first \"Baby Shamu\" was named Kalina. She was the first surviving orca born in captivity on September 26, 1985. Ten orca calves had been born in captivity before 1985, but five were stillborn and the others all died within two months of their births. Kalina's parents, Katina and Winston, were bestowed the names Kandu VI (Katina) and Ramu (Winston). The stage name \"Grandbaby Shamu\" was given to Kalina's first calf, which was born on February 2, 1993 – a male named Keet. The first \"Great Grandbaby Shamu\" was Keet's first calf, born on December 21, 2004 – a female named Kalia. Kalia gave birth to the first \"Great Great Grandbaby Shamu\" Amaya, on December 2, 2014. The father is Ulises.","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nShamu shows","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nShamu shows have been presented at the following SeaWorld parks:\n*SeaWorld San Diego in California \n*SeaWorld Ohio (closed in 2001)\n*SeaWorld Orlando in Florida\n*SeaWorld San Antonio in Texas","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nThe orca performances have been held in SeaWorld's Shamu Stadium(s), which each seat 5,500, and all of the shows have involved a part where one or more whales splash the audience. The San Diego show has usually ended with a hangglider landing at or near the stadium.","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nShamu Shows throughout the years:","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nNight shows performed during the spring and summer;","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nSeaWorld Orlando & SeaWorld San Antonio presents \"Shamu Christmas Miracles\" during \"SeaWorld's Christmas Celebration\", a yearly holiday event. SeaWorld San Diego presented \"Shamu's Christmas\" until the 2014 season, when \"Shamu Christmas Miracles\" débuted at the park.","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nShamu Educational Shows throughout the years :","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nShow incidents","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\n*On February 23, 1984, a 7-year-old female orca by the name of Kandu V grabbed a SeaWorld San Diego trainer, Joanne Hay, and pinned her against a tank wall during a performance.The San Diego Union-Tribune. [http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/2010/feb/24/seaworld-san-diego-suspends-shamu-show-after/ \"SeaWorld San Diego suspends Shamu show\"]. Retrieved 2011-07-08. *On March 4, 1987, 20-year-old SeaWorld San Diego trainer, Jonathan Smith, was grabbed by one of the park’s 6-ton killer whales. The orca dragged the trainer to the bottom of the tank, then carried him bleeding all the way back to the surface and then spat him out. Smith gallantly waved to the crowd when a second orca slammed into him. He continued to pretend he was unhurt as the whales repeatedly dragged him to the bottom of the stadium pool. Smith was cut all around his torso, had a ruptured kidney and a six-inch laceration of his liver, yet he managed to escape the pool with his life. Later reports indicated that the whales involved in the attack were the 10-year-old female Kenau and the 9-year-old female Kandu V, who had previously attacked the trainer Joanne Hay in 1984.","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\n*In November, 1987, Orky (II) was involved in an accident that injured trainer John Sillick during a show for the public. Sillick was riding on the back of a female orca when Orky breached. Sillick's back, leg, and pelvis were broken when Orky landed on top of him. A lawsuit ensued. According to Sillick's lawyer, after several operations Sillick can again walk but his activity is limited. Orky may have been responding to another trainer's (perceived) signal to breach. Court documents are sealed but the judge's remarks, which were not sealed, revealed that Orky may have had \"visual limitations\" that had not been disclosed to the trainer. *On June 12, 1999, 22-year-old Kasatka grabbed her trainer Ken Peters by the leg and attempted to throw him from the pool during a public show at SeaWorld San Diego.USA Today. [http://www.usatoday.com/printedition/news/20100415/v2animalattackschart_tb.art.htm \"A rap sheet of captive animals\"]. Retrieved 2011-07-08.Orlando Sentinel. [http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2010-04-25/business/os-seaworld-list-trainer-accidents-20100425_1_killer-whale-named-kasatka-trainer-steve-aibel \"Feds detail 5 earlier SeaWorld killer-whale incidents\"]. Retrieved 2011-07-09. *In late July 2004, during a show at the SeaWorld park in San Antonio, Texas, a male orca named Kyuquot (nickname Ky) repeatedly jumped on top of his trainer, Steve Aibel, forcing him underwater and barred the trainer from escaping the water.","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nAfter several minutes the trainer was able to calm the animal and he exited the pool unhurt. \"Veterinarians believe the whale… felt threatened by the trainer, perhaps a result of the effects of adolescent hormones.\"\n*On April 4, 2005, SeaWorld Orlando trainer Sam Davis was repeatedly \"bumped\" by an 11-year-old male orca named Taku. The show continued uninterrupted but the trainer was later taken to Sand Lake Hospital for unspecified minor injuries and released the same day. Additional eyewitness account: \"The trainer and Taku were about to slide on the slide out at the end of the show when Taku completely stopped and started \"bumping\" the trainer. The trainer was male and he finally swam out of the tank. I knew something was wrong because none of the whales except Kalina wanted to perform.","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nThen they finally got Taku out to splash people at the end of the show, when this incident took place.\"\n*On November 15, 2006, a SeaWorld San Diego trainer was injured when the park's 18-year-old female killer whale, Orkid, grabbed veteran trainer Brian Rokeach by the foot and pulled him to the bottom of the tank, refusing to release him for an extended period of time. Orkid released Rokeach only after heeding fellow trainer Kenneth Peters's repeated attempts to call the animal’s attention back to the stage. Rokeach suffered a torn ligament in his ankle but was not taken to the hospital. In response to the incident, SeaWorld increased the number of trainers who must be available during performances and in water training to five staff members but this however was ineffective because no more than two weeks later trainer Kenneth Peters was involved in a similar incident with different orca.USA Today. [http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2010-04-14-animal-attacks-inside_N.htm \"Orcas and trainers under OSHA scrutiny\"]. Retrieved 2011-07-09.","Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\n*On November 29, 2006, Kasatka, one of SeaWorld San Diego's then seven orcas, grabbed her trainer, Ken Peters, by the foot and dragged him to the bottom of the tank not once but twice during an evening show at Shamu Stadium. The senior trainer escaped only after staff members managed to separate the two with safety nets. This was the second documented incident of Kasatka attacking Peters; the first attack had occurred in 1999. *On February 24, 2010, toward the end of a \"Dine with Shamu\" show, the orca \"Tilikum\" pulled down an experienced female trainer. Dawn Brancheau, a 40-year-old with extensive training experience, drowned as at least two dozen tourists looked on from above a whale tank and from an underwater viewing area. Brancheau was finishing up a session with Tilikum, the largest orca in SeaWorld's collection, following the Dine with Shamu show. Following this accident, trainers no longer go into the water with the orcas at SeaWorld parks shows."],"string":"[\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nThis article refers to the SeaWorld killer whale shows. For the original killer whale (orca) named Shamu, see Shamu\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nShamu is the name used for several SeaWorld orca (killer whale) shows and is the stage name given to the \\\"star\\\" of those shows, beginning with the original Shamu in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The orca Shamu died in 1971, but the name Shamu was trademarked by SeaWorld (as well as the names \\\"Namu\\\" and \\\"Ramu\\\") and has been given to different orcas at different times when performing in Shamu shows.\\nIn March, 2016, SeaWorld announced they are ending their orca breeding programs making their current orcas, \\\"the last generation of orcas in SeaWorld's care.\\\" SeaWorld also announced they will be phasing out their theatrical orca whale shows and will introduce, \\\"new, inspiring, natural orca encounters rather than theatrical shows,…[focussing] on orca enrichment, exercise and overall health\\\"\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nBaby Shamu\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nThe first \\\"Baby Shamu\\\" was named Kalina. She was the first surviving orca born in captivity on September 26, 1985. Ten orca calves had been born in captivity before 1985, but five were stillborn and the others all died within two months of their births. Kalina's parents, Katina and Winston, were bestowed the names Kandu VI (Katina) and Ramu (Winston). The stage name \\\"Grandbaby Shamu\\\" was given to Kalina's first calf, which was born on February 2, 1993 – a male named Keet. The first \\\"Great Grandbaby Shamu\\\" was Keet's first calf, born on December 21, 2004 – a female named Kalia. Kalia gave birth to the first \\\"Great Great Grandbaby Shamu\\\" Amaya, on December 2, 2014. The father is Ulises.\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nShamu shows\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nShamu shows have been presented at the following SeaWorld parks:\\n*SeaWorld San Diego in California \\n*SeaWorld Ohio (closed in 2001)\\n*SeaWorld Orlando in Florida\\n*SeaWorld San Antonio in Texas\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nThe orca performances have been held in SeaWorld's Shamu Stadium(s), which each seat 5,500, and all of the shows have involved a part where one or more whales splash the audience. The San Diego show has usually ended with a hangglider landing at or near the stadium.\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nShamu Shows throughout the years:\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nNight shows performed during the spring and summer;\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nSeaWorld Orlando & SeaWorld San Antonio presents \\\"Shamu Christmas Miracles\\\" during \\\"SeaWorld's Christmas Celebration\\\", a yearly holiday event. SeaWorld San Diego presented \\\"Shamu's Christmas\\\" until the 2014 season, when \\\"Shamu Christmas Miracles\\\" débuted at the park.\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nShamu Educational Shows throughout the years :\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nShow incidents\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\n*On February 23, 1984, a 7-year-old female orca by the name of Kandu V grabbed a SeaWorld San Diego trainer, Joanne Hay, and pinned her against a tank wall during a performance.The San Diego Union-Tribune. [http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/2010/feb/24/seaworld-san-diego-suspends-shamu-show-after/ \\\"SeaWorld San Diego suspends Shamu show\\\"]. Retrieved 2011-07-08. *On March 4, 1987, 20-year-old SeaWorld San Diego trainer, Jonathan Smith, was grabbed by one of the park’s 6-ton killer whales. The orca dragged the trainer to the bottom of the tank, then carried him bleeding all the way back to the surface and then spat him out. Smith gallantly waved to the crowd when a second orca slammed into him. He continued to pretend he was unhurt as the whales repeatedly dragged him to the bottom of the stadium pool. Smith was cut all around his torso, had a ruptured kidney and a six-inch laceration of his liver, yet he managed to escape the pool with his life. Later reports indicated that the whales involved in the attack were the 10-year-old female Kenau and the 9-year-old female Kandu V, who had previously attacked the trainer Joanne Hay in 1984.\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\n*In November, 1987, Orky (II) was involved in an accident that injured trainer John Sillick during a show for the public. Sillick was riding on the back of a female orca when Orky breached. Sillick's back, leg, and pelvis were broken when Orky landed on top of him. A lawsuit ensued. According to Sillick's lawyer, after several operations Sillick can again walk but his activity is limited. Orky may have been responding to another trainer's (perceived) signal to breach. Court documents are sealed but the judge's remarks, which were not sealed, revealed that Orky may have had \\\"visual limitations\\\" that had not been disclosed to the trainer. *On June 12, 1999, 22-year-old Kasatka grabbed her trainer Ken Peters by the leg and attempted to throw him from the pool during a public show at SeaWorld San Diego.USA Today. [http://www.usatoday.com/printedition/news/20100415/v2animalattackschart_tb.art.htm \\\"A rap sheet of captive animals\\\"]. Retrieved 2011-07-08.Orlando Sentinel. [http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2010-04-25/business/os-seaworld-list-trainer-accidents-20100425_1_killer-whale-named-kasatka-trainer-steve-aibel \\\"Feds detail 5 earlier SeaWorld killer-whale incidents\\\"]. Retrieved 2011-07-09. *In late July 2004, during a show at the SeaWorld park in San Antonio, Texas, a male orca named Kyuquot (nickname Ky) repeatedly jumped on top of his trainer, Steve Aibel, forcing him underwater and barred the trainer from escaping the water.\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nAfter several minutes the trainer was able to calm the animal and he exited the pool unhurt. \\\"Veterinarians believe the whale… felt threatened by the trainer, perhaps a result of the effects of adolescent hormones.\\\"\\n*On April 4, 2005, SeaWorld Orlando trainer Sam Davis was repeatedly \\\"bumped\\\" by an 11-year-old male orca named Taku. The show continued uninterrupted but the trainer was later taken to Sand Lake Hospital for unspecified minor injuries and released the same day. Additional eyewitness account: \\\"The trainer and Taku were about to slide on the slide out at the end of the show when Taku completely stopped and started \\\"bumping\\\" the trainer. The trainer was male and he finally swam out of the tank. I knew something was wrong because none of the whales except Kalina wanted to perform.\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\nThen they finally got Taku out to splash people at the end of the show, when this incident took place.\\\"\\n*On November 15, 2006, a SeaWorld San Diego trainer was injured when the park's 18-year-old female killer whale, Orkid, grabbed veteran trainer Brian Rokeach by the foot and pulled him to the bottom of the tank, refusing to release him for an extended period of time. Orkid released Rokeach only after heeding fellow trainer Kenneth Peters's repeated attempts to call the animal’s attention back to the stage. Rokeach suffered a torn ligament in his ankle but was not taken to the hospital. In response to the incident, SeaWorld increased the number of trainers who must be available during performances and in water training to five staff members but this however was ineffective because no more than two weeks later trainer Kenneth Peters was involved in a similar incident with different orca.USA Today. [http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2010-04-14-animal-attacks-inside_N.htm \\\"Orcas and trainers under OSHA scrutiny\\\"]. Retrieved 2011-07-09.\",\n \"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\\n\\n*On November 29, 2006, Kasatka, one of SeaWorld San Diego's then seven orcas, grabbed her trainer, Ken Peters, by the foot and dragged him to the bottom of the tank not once but twice during an evening show at Shamu Stadium. The senior trainer escaped only after staff members managed to separate the two with safety nets. This was the second documented incident of Kasatka attacking Peters; the first attack had occurred in 1999. *On February 24, 2010, toward the end of a \\\"Dine with Shamu\\\" show, the orca \\\"Tilikum\\\" pulled down an experienced female trainer. Dawn Brancheau, a 40-year-old with extensive training experience, drowned as at least two dozen tourists looked on from above a whale tank and from an underwater viewing area. Brancheau was finishing up a session with Tilikum, the largest orca in SeaWorld's collection, following the Dine with Shamu show. Following this accident, trainers no longer go into the water with the orcas at SeaWorld parks shows.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137396,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2886"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Those poor “Three Blind Mice” of nursery rhyme fame had their tails cut off by the farmer’s wife using what sharp instrument?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"A carving knife"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["kitchen knife","paring knife","knife bolster","kitchen knives","carving knife","bolster knife","oyster knife","chinese chef s knife"],"string":"[\n \"kitchen knife\",\n \"paring knife\",\n \"knife bolster\",\n \"kitchen knives\",\n \"carving knife\",\n \"bolster knife\",\n \"oyster knife\",\n \"chinese chef s knife\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Three Blind Mice\n\n\"Three Blind Mice\" is an English-language nursery rhyme and musical round.I. Opie and P. Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997), p. 306. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 3753.","Three Blind Mice\n\nLyrics","Three Blind Mice\n\nThe modern words are:","Three Blind Mice\n\nThree blind mice. Three blind mice.\nSee how they run. See how they run.\nThey all ran after the farmer's wife,\nWho cut off their tails with a carving knife,\nDid you ever see such a sight in your life,\nAs three blind mice?W. S. Baring-Gould and C. Baring-Gould, The Annotated Mother Goose: Nursery Rhymes Old and New (Bramhall House, 1962), p. 156.","Three Blind Mice\n\n\"Complete version\"","Three Blind Mice\n\nPublished by Frederick Warne & Co., an illustrated children's book by John W. Ivimey entitled The Complete Version of Ye Three Blind Mice, fleshes the mice out into mischievous characters who seek adventure, eventually being taken in by a farmer whose wife chases them from the house and into a bramble bush, which blinds them. Soon after, their tails are removed by \"the butcher's wife\" when the complete version incorporates the original verse. The story ends with them using a tonic to grow new tails and recover their eyesight, learning a trade (making wood chips, according to the accompanying illustration), buying a house and living happily ever after. Published perhaps in 1900, the book is now in the public domain.","Three Blind Mice\n\nOrigins and meaning","Three Blind Mice\n\nA version of this rhyme, together with music, was published in Deuteromelia or The Seconde part of Musicks melodie (1609). The editor of the book, and possible author of the rhyme, was Thomas Ravenscroft, who in 1609 was still a teenager. The original lyrics are:","Three Blind Mice\n\nThree Blinde Mice,\nThree Blinde Mice,\nDame Iulian,\nDame Iulian,\nthe Miller and his merry olde Wife,\nshe scrapte her tripe licke thou the knife.","Three Blind Mice\n\nAttempts to read historical significance into the words have led to the speculation that this musical round was written earlier and refers to Queen Mary I of England blinding and executing three Protestant bishops, but problematically the Oxford Martyrs, Ridley, Latimer and Cranmer, were burned at the stake, not blinded; although if the rhyme was made by crypto-Catholics, the mice's \"blindness\" could refer to their Protestantism.","Three Blind Mice\n\nThe rhyme only entered children's literature in 1842 when it was published in a collection by James Orchard Halliwell.","Three Blind Mice\n\nVariations","Three Blind Mice\n\nAmateur music composer Thomas Oliphant (1799–1873) noted in 1843 that:\nThis absurd old round is frequently brought to mind in the present day, from the circumstance of there being an instrumental Quartet by Weiss, through which runs a musical phrase accidentally the same as the notes applied to the word Three Blind Mice. They form a third descending, C, B, A.","Three Blind Mice\n\nRobert Schumann's Kreisleriana #7, which is arguably about a cat (Murr), appears to be based upon \"Three Blind Mice\", but in a predominantly minor key. \"Three Blind Mice\" is to be found in the fugue which is the centerpiece of #7.","Three Blind Mice\n\nJoseph Holbrooke (1878–1958) composed his Symphonic Variations, opus 37, based on Three Blind Mice. Also, Joseph Haydn used its theme in the Finale (4th Mvt) of his Symphony 83 (La Poule) (1785–86); one of the 6 Paris Symphonies, and the music also appears in the final movement of English composer Eric Coates' suite The Three Men. \"Three Blind Mice\" was also used as a theme song for The Three Stooges and a Curtis Fuller arrangement of the rhyme is featured on the Art Blakey live album of the same name. The song is also the basis for Leroy Anderson's orchestral \"Fiddle Faddle\".","Three Blind Mice\n\nThe theme of the second movement of Sergei Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 4 (1926, revised 1928 and 1941) was criticized as resembling Three Blind Mice.","Three Blind Mice\n\nColorado rock band Sawatch recorded a version of Three Blind Mice on their new cd \"Another Gin.'","Three Blind Mice\n\nUse in popular culture","Three Blind Mice\n\nThe soundtrack for the 1962 James Bond film Dr. No features \"Kingston Calypso\", a calypso version of \"Three Blind Mice\" with new lyrics, in reference to three villainous characters in the film.","Three Blind Mice\n\nIn several sports (basketball and hockey, for example, which have three referees), \"Three Blind Mice\" is used as a derogatory phrase for poor referees. Bands also play the song to mock referees in similar cases. Such references, however, are frowned upon officially by both sports as unsportsmanlike. [http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=2709823 ESPN – Frank not fined; Kidd docked $20K for postgame rant - NBA], Sports.ESPN.Go.com. Before Major League Baseball required four umpires at every game, there were regularly three. The Brooklyn Dodgers had a fan band called the \"Sym-Phoney Band\", led by Shorty Laurice, which started playing \"Three Blind Mice\" when the umpires came out onto the field until the league office ordered the team to stop, around the same time a fourth umpire was added. In 1985, Wilbur Snapp, the organist for the Clearwater Phillies, was thrown out of the game for playing \"Three Blind Mice\" after what he considered a bad call. In 1992, Jason Patrick, keyboardist for the Amarillo Texans independent baseball team, was also ejected for playing the song after a disputed call.","Three Blind Mice\n\nOn August 1, 2012, during a Daytona Cubs – Fort Myers Miracle minor-league baseball game, umpire Mario Seneca tossed the public address announcer Derek Dye for playing the song \"Three Blind Mice\" after a disputed call at first base.","Three Blind Mice\n\nCanadian rock trio Rush often played \"Three Blind Mice\" as an intro to their own songs in concert, notably during their \"Hold Your Fire\" tour of 1987–1988. An elaborate parody of the rhyme, arranged as if it were a piece of jazz-music, occurs in an act by Ronnie Corbett and Ronnie Barker, poking fun at Johnny Dankworth and Cleo Laine."],"string":"[\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\n\\\"Three Blind Mice\\\" is an English-language nursery rhyme and musical round.I. Opie and P. Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997), p. 306. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 3753.\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nLyrics\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nThe modern words are:\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nThree blind mice. Three blind mice.\\nSee how they run. See how they run.\\nThey all ran after the farmer's wife,\\nWho cut off their tails with a carving knife,\\nDid you ever see such a sight in your life,\\nAs three blind mice?W. S. Baring-Gould and C. Baring-Gould, The Annotated Mother Goose: Nursery Rhymes Old and New (Bramhall House, 1962), p. 156.\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\n\\\"Complete version\\\"\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nPublished by Frederick Warne & Co., an illustrated children's book by John W. Ivimey entitled The Complete Version of Ye Three Blind Mice, fleshes the mice out into mischievous characters who seek adventure, eventually being taken in by a farmer whose wife chases them from the house and into a bramble bush, which blinds them. Soon after, their tails are removed by \\\"the butcher's wife\\\" when the complete version incorporates the original verse. The story ends with them using a tonic to grow new tails and recover their eyesight, learning a trade (making wood chips, according to the accompanying illustration), buying a house and living happily ever after. Published perhaps in 1900, the book is now in the public domain.\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nOrigins and meaning\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nA version of this rhyme, together with music, was published in Deuteromelia or The Seconde part of Musicks melodie (1609). The editor of the book, and possible author of the rhyme, was Thomas Ravenscroft, who in 1609 was still a teenager. The original lyrics are:\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nThree Blinde Mice,\\nThree Blinde Mice,\\nDame Iulian,\\nDame Iulian,\\nthe Miller and his merry olde Wife,\\nshe scrapte her tripe licke thou the knife.\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nAttempts to read historical significance into the words have led to the speculation that this musical round was written earlier and refers to Queen Mary I of England blinding and executing three Protestant bishops, but problematically the Oxford Martyrs, Ridley, Latimer and Cranmer, were burned at the stake, not blinded; although if the rhyme was made by crypto-Catholics, the mice's \\\"blindness\\\" could refer to their Protestantism.\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nThe rhyme only entered children's literature in 1842 when it was published in a collection by James Orchard Halliwell.\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nVariations\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nAmateur music composer Thomas Oliphant (1799–1873) noted in 1843 that:\\nThis absurd old round is frequently brought to mind in the present day, from the circumstance of there being an instrumental Quartet by Weiss, through which runs a musical phrase accidentally the same as the notes applied to the word Three Blind Mice. They form a third descending, C, B, A.\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nRobert Schumann's Kreisleriana #7, which is arguably about a cat (Murr), appears to be based upon \\\"Three Blind Mice\\\", but in a predominantly minor key. \\\"Three Blind Mice\\\" is to be found in the fugue which is the centerpiece of #7.\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nJoseph Holbrooke (1878–1958) composed his Symphonic Variations, opus 37, based on Three Blind Mice. Also, Joseph Haydn used its theme in the Finale (4th Mvt) of his Symphony 83 (La Poule) (1785–86); one of the 6 Paris Symphonies, and the music also appears in the final movement of English composer Eric Coates' suite The Three Men. \\\"Three Blind Mice\\\" was also used as a theme song for The Three Stooges and a Curtis Fuller arrangement of the rhyme is featured on the Art Blakey live album of the same name. The song is also the basis for Leroy Anderson's orchestral \\\"Fiddle Faddle\\\".\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nThe theme of the second movement of Sergei Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 4 (1926, revised 1928 and 1941) was criticized as resembling Three Blind Mice.\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nColorado rock band Sawatch recorded a version of Three Blind Mice on their new cd \\\"Another Gin.'\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nUse in popular culture\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nThe soundtrack for the 1962 James Bond film Dr. No features \\\"Kingston Calypso\\\", a calypso version of \\\"Three Blind Mice\\\" with new lyrics, in reference to three villainous characters in the film.\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nIn several sports (basketball and hockey, for example, which have three referees), \\\"Three Blind Mice\\\" is used as a derogatory phrase for poor referees. Bands also play the song to mock referees in similar cases. Such references, however, are frowned upon officially by both sports as unsportsmanlike. [http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=2709823 ESPN – Frank not fined; Kidd docked $20K for postgame rant - NBA], Sports.ESPN.Go.com. Before Major League Baseball required four umpires at every game, there were regularly three. The Brooklyn Dodgers had a fan band called the \\\"Sym-Phoney Band\\\", led by Shorty Laurice, which started playing \\\"Three Blind Mice\\\" when the umpires came out onto the field until the league office ordered the team to stop, around the same time a fourth umpire was added. In 1985, Wilbur Snapp, the organist for the Clearwater Phillies, was thrown out of the game for playing \\\"Three Blind Mice\\\" after what he considered a bad call. In 1992, Jason Patrick, keyboardist for the Amarillo Texans independent baseball team, was also ejected for playing the song after a disputed call.\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nOn August 1, 2012, during a Daytona Cubs – Fort Myers Miracle minor-league baseball game, umpire Mario Seneca tossed the public address announcer Derek Dye for playing the song \\\"Three Blind Mice\\\" after a disputed call at first base.\",\n \"Three Blind Mice\\n\\nCanadian rock trio Rush often played \\\"Three Blind Mice\\\" as an intro to their own songs in concert, notably during their \\\"Hold Your Fire\\\" tour of 1987–1988. An elaborate parody of the rhyme, arranged as if it were a piece of jazz-music, occurs in an act by Ronnie Corbett and Ronnie Barker, poking fun at Johnny Dankworth and Cleo Laine.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137397,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2888"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"August 21st was the anniversary of Hawaii joining the union, the last state to do so, in what year?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"1959"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["one thousand nine hundred and fifty nine"],"string":"[\n \"one thousand nine hundred and fifty nine\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Hawaii\n\nHawaii ( ; locally,; ) is the 50th and most recent state of the United States of America, receiving statehood on August 21, 1959. Hawaii is the only U.S. state located in Oceania and the only one composed entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U.S. state not located in the Americas. The state does not observe daylight saving time.","Hawaii\n\nThe state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1500 mi. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast: Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lānai, Kahoolawe, Maui and the Island of Hawaii. The last is the largest island in the group; it is often called the \"Big Island\" or \"Hawaii Island\" to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania.","Hawaii\n\nHawaii's diverse natural scenery, warm tropical climate, abundance of public beaches, oceanic surroundings, and active volcanoes make it a popular destination for tourists, surfers, biologists, and volcanologists. Because of its central location in the Pacific and 19th-century labor migration, Hawaii's culture is strongly influenced by North American and Asian cultures, in addition to its indigenous Hawaiian culture. Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U.S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oahu.","Hawaii\n\nHawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U.S. states. It is the only state with an Asian plurality. The state's coastline is about 750 mi long, the fourth longest in the U.S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida and California.","Hawaii\n\nEtymology","Hawaii\n\nThe state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaii. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaii is that was named for Hawaiiloa, a legendary figure from Hawaiian myth. He is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled.","Hawaii\n\nThe Hawaiian language word Hawaii is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, with the reconstructed meaning \"homeland\". Cognates of Hawaii are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori (Hawaiki), Rarotongan (ʻAvaiki) and Samoan (Savaii) . According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, \"[e]lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaii or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the ancestral home, but in Hawaii, the name has no meaning\".","Hawaii\n\nSpelling of state name","Hawaii\n\nA somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as a second official state language. The title of the state constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. ArticleXV, Section1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii. Diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina () and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the state's name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaii. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the federal government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the traditional spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length. In contrast, the National and State Parks Services, the University of Hawaii and some private enterprises implement these symbols. No precedent for changes to U.S. state names exists since the adoption of the United States Constitution in 1789.","Hawaii\n\nHowever, the Constitution of Massachusetts formally changed the Province of Massachusetts Bay to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 1780, and in the 1819 the Territory of Arkansaw was created but was later admitted to statehood as State of Arkansas.","Hawaii\n\nGeography and environment","Hawaii\n\nThere are eight main Hawaiian islands, seven of which are permanently inhabited. The island of Niihau is privately managed by brothers Bruce and Keith Robinson; access is restricted to those who have permission from the island's owners.","Hawaii\n\nTopography","Hawaii\n\nThe Hawaiian archipelago is located 2000 mi southwest of the continental United States. Hawaii is the southernmost U.S. state and the second westernmost after Alaska. Hawaii, along with Alaska, does not border any other U.S. state. It is the only U.S. state that is not geographically located in North America, the only state completely surrounded by water and that is entirely an archipelago, and the only state in which coffee is cultivable.","Hawaii\n\nIn addition to the eight main islands, the state has many smaller islands and islets. Kaula is a small island near Niihau that is often overlooked. The Northwest Hawaiian Islands is a group of nine small, older islands to the northwest of Kauai that extend from Nihoa to Kure Atoll; these are remnants of once much larger volcanic mountains. Across the archipelago are around 130 small rocks and islets, such as Molokini, which are either volcanic, marine sedimentary or erosional in origin.","Hawaii\n\nHawaii's tallest mountain Mauna Kea is 13796 ft above mean sea level; it is taller than Mount Everest if measured from the base of the mountain, which lies on the floor of the Pacific Ocean and rises about 33500 ft.","Hawaii\n\nGeology","Hawaii\n\nThe Hawaiian islands were formed by volcanic activity initiated at an undersea magma source called the Hawaii hotspot. The process is continuing to build islands; the tectonic plate beneath much of the Pacific Ocean continually moves northwest and the hot spot remains stationary, slowly creating new volcanoes. Because of the hotspot's location, all currently active land volcanoes are located on the southern half of Hawaii Island. The newest volcano, Lōihi Seamount, is located south of the coast of Hawaii Island.","Hawaii\n\nThe last volcanic eruption outside Hawaii Island occurred at Haleakalā on Maui before the late 18thcentury, though it could have been hundreds of years earlier. In 1790, Kīlauea exploded; it was the deadliest eruption known to have occurred in the modern era in what is now the United States. Up to 5,405 warriors and their families marching on Kīlauea were killed by the eruption. Volcanic activity and subsequent erosion have created impressive geological features. Hawaii Island has the third-highest point among the world's islands.","Hawaii\n\nOn the flanks of the volcanoes, slope instability has generated damaging earthquakes and related tsunamis, particularly in 1868 and 1975. Steep cliffs have been created by catastrophic debris avalanches on the submerged flanks of ocean island volcanoes.","Hawaii\n\nFlora and fauna","Hawaii\n\nBecause the islands of Hawaii are distant from other land habitats, life is thought to have arrived there by wind, waves (i.e. by ocean currents) and wings (i.e. birds, insects, and any seeds they may have carried on their feathers). This isolation, in combination with the diverse environment (including extreme altitudes, tropical climates, and arid shorelines), produced an array of endemic flora and fauna. Hawaii has more endangered species and has lost a higher percentage of its endemic species than any other U.S. state. One endemic plant, Brighamia, now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct. The two species of Brighamia—B. rockii and B. insignis—are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas.","Hawaii\n\nThe extant main islands of the archipelago have been above the surface of the ocean for fewer than 10million years; a fraction of the time biological colonization and evolution have occurred there. The islands are well known for the environmental diversity that occurs on high mountains within a trade winds field. On a single island, the climate around the coasts can range from dry tropical (less than 20 in annual rainfall) to wet tropical; on the slopes, envionments range from tropical rainforest (more than 200 in per year), through a temperate climate, to alpine conditions with a cold, dry climate. The rainy climate impacts soil development, which largely determines ground permeability, affecting the distribution of streams and wetlands.","Hawaii\n\nProtected areas","Hawaii\n\nSeveral areas in Hawaii are under the protection of the National Park Service. Hawaii has two national parks: Haleakalā National Park located near Kula on the island of Maui, which features the dormant volcano Haleakalā that formed east Maui, and Hawaii Volcanoes National Park in the southeast region of the Hawaii Island, which includes the active volcano Kīlauea and its rift zones.","Hawaii\n\nThere are three national historical parks; Kalaupapa National Historical Park in Kalaupapa, Molokai, the site of a former leper colony; Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historical Park in Kailua-Kona on Hawaii Island; and Puuhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park, an ancient place of refuge on Hawaii Island's west coast. Other areas under the control of the National Park Service include Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail on Hawaii Island and the USS Arizona Memorial at Pearl Harbor on Oahu.","Hawaii\n\nThe Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument was proclaimed by President George W. Bush on June 15, 2006. The monument covers roughly 140000 mi2 of reefs, atolls, and shallow and deep sea out to 50 mi offshore in the Pacific Ocean—an area larger than all of the national parks in the U.S. combined.","Hawaii\n\nClimate","Hawaii\n\nHawaii's climate is typical for the tropics, although temperatures and humidity tend to be less extreme because of near-constant trade winds from the east. Summer highs usually reach around during the day and at night. Winter day temperatures are usually around ; at low elevation they seldom dip below at night. Snow, not usually associated with the tropics, falls at 4200 m on Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on Hawaii Island in some winter months. Snow rarely falls on Haleakalā. Mount Waialeale on Kauai has the second-highest average annual rainfall on Earth, about 460 in per year. Most of Hawaii experiences only two seasons; the dry season runs from May to October and the wet season is from October to April.","Hawaii\n\nThe warmest temperature recorded in the state, in Pahala on April 27, 1931, is 100 °F, making it tied with Alaska as the lowest record high temperature observed in a U.S. state. Hawaii's record low temperature is 12 °F observed in May1979 on the summit of Mauna Kea. Hawaii is the only state to have never recorded sub-zero Fahrenheit temperatures.","Hawaii\n\nClimates vary considerably on each island; they can be divided into windward and leeward (koolau and kona, respectively) areas based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face cloud cover.","Hawaii\n\nAntipodes","Hawaii\n\nHawaii is the only U.S. state that is antipodal to inhabited land. Most of the state lies opposite Botswana, though Niihau's antipode aligns with Namibia, and Kauai's straddles the Botswana–Namibia border. This area of Africa near Maun, Botswana and Ghanzi includes nature reserves and small settlements near the Okavango Delta.","Hawaii\n\nHistory","Hawaii\n\nHawaii is one of four U.S. states—apart from the original thirteen—the Vermont Republic (1791), the Republic of Texas (1845), and the California Republic (1846)—that were independent nations prior to statehood. Along with Texas, Hawaii had formal, international diplomatic recognition as a nation.","Hawaii\n\nThe Kingdom of Hawaii was sovereign from 1810 until 1893 when the monarchy was overthrown by resident American and European capitalists and landholders in a coup d'état. Hawaii was an independent republic from 1894 until August 12, 1898, when it officially became a territory of the United States. Hawaii was admitted as a U.S. state on August 21, 1959.","Hawaii\n\nFirst human settlement – Ancient Hawaii (800–1778)","Hawaii\n\nBased on archaeological evidence, the earliest habitation of the Hawaiian Islands dates to around 300 CE, probably by Polynesian settlers from the Marquesas Islands. A second wave of migration from Raiatea and Bora Bora took place in the century. The date of the human discovery and habitation of the Hawaiian Islands is the subject of academic debate. Some archaeologists and historians believe there was an early settlement from the Marquesas. They think it was a later wave of immigrants from Tahiti around 1000 CE who introduced a new line of high chiefs, the kapu system, the practice of human sacrifice, and the building of heiau. This later immigration is detailed in Hawaiian mythology (moolelo) about Paao. Other authors say there is no archaeological or linguistic evidence for a later influx of Tahitian settlers and that Paao must be regarded as a myth.","Hawaii\n\nThe history of the islands is marked by a slow, steady growth in population and the size of the chiefdoms, which grew to encompass whole islands. Local chiefs, called alii, ruled their settlements, and launched wars to extend their influence and defend their communities from predatory rivals. Ancient Hawaii was a caste-based society, much like that of Hindus in India.","Hawaii\n\nEuropean arrival","Hawaii\n\nIt is possible that Spanish explorers arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in the 16th century—200 years before Captain James Cook's first documented visit in 1778. Ruy López de Villalobos commanded a fleet of six ships that left Acapulco in 1542 bound for the Philippines with a Spanish sailor named Juan Gaetano aboard as pilot. Depending on the interpretation, Gaetano's reports describe an encounter with either Hawaii or the Marshall Islands. If de Villalobos' crew spotted Hawaii, Gaetano would be considered the first European to see the islands. Some scholars have dismissed these claims due to a lack of credibility.","Hawaii\n\nSpanish archives contain a chart that depicts islands at the same latitude as Hawaii but with a longitude ten degrees east of the islands. In this manuscript, the island of Maui is named La Desgraciada (The Unfortunate Island), and what appears to be Hawaii Island is named La Mesa (The Table). Islands resembling Kahoolawe, Lanai, and Molokai are named Los Monjes (The Monks). For two-and-a-half centuries, Spanish galleons crossed the Pacific from Mexico along a route that passed south of Hawaii on their way to Manila. The exact route was kept secret to protect the Spanish trade monopoly against competing powers.","Hawaii\n\nThe 1778 arrival of British explorer James Cook was the first documented contact by a European explorer with Hawaii. Cook named the archipelago as the Sandwich Islands in honor of his sponsor John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. Cook published the islands' location and rendered the native name as Owyhee. This spelling lives on in Owyhee County, Idaho. It was named after three native Hawaiian members of a trapping party who went missing in that area. The Owyhee Mountains were also named for them.","Hawaii\n\nCook visited the Hawaiian Islands twice. As he prepared for departure after his second visit in 1779, a quarrel ensued as Cook took temple idols and fencing as \"firewood\", and a minor chief and his men took a ship's boat. Cook abducted the King of Hawaii Island, Kalaniōpuu, and held him for ransom aboard his ship in order to gain return of Cook's boat. This tactic had worked in Tahiti and other islands. Instead, Kalaniōpuu's supporters fought back, killing Cook and four marines as Cook's party retreated along the beach to their ship. They departed without the ship's boat.","Hawaii\n\nAfter Cook's visit and the publication of several books relating his voyages, the Hawaiian islands attracted many European visitors: explorers, traders, and eventually whalers, who found the islands to be a convenient harbor and source of supplies. Early British influence can be seen in the design of the flag of Hawaii, which bears the Union Jack in the top-left corner. These visitors introduced diseases to the once-isolated islands, causing the Hawaiian population to drop precipitously. Native Hawaiians had no resistance to Eurasian diseases, such as influenza, smallpox and measles. By 1820, disease, famine and wars between the chiefs killed more than half of the Native Hawaiian population. During the 1850s, measles killed a fifth of Hawaii's people.","Hawaii\n\nHistorical records indicated the earliest Chinese immigrants to Hawaii originated from Guangdong Province; a few sailors arrived in 1778 with Captain Cook's journey and more arrived in 1789 with an American trader, who settled in Hawaii in the late 18th century. It appears that leprosy was introduced by Chinese workers by 1830; as with the other new infectious diseases, it proved damaging to the Hawaiians.","Hawaii\n\nKingdom of Hawaii","Hawaii\n\nHouse of Kamehameha","Hawaii\n\nDuring the 1780s and 1790s, chiefs often fought for power. After a series of battles that ended in 1795, all inhabited islands were subjugated under a single ruler, who became known as King Kamehameha the Great. He established the House of Kamehameha, a dynasty that ruled the kingdom until 1872.","Hawaii\n\nAfter Kamehameha II inherited the throne in 1819, American Protestant missionaries to Hawaii converted many Hawaiians to Christianity. They used their influence to end many traditional practices of the people. The islands' first Christan king was Kamehameha III. Hiram Bingham I, a prominent Protestant missionary, was a trusted adviser to the monarchy during this period. Other missionaries and their descendants became active in commercial and political affairs, leading to conflicts between the monarchy and its restive American subjects. Catholic and Mormon missionaries were also active in the kingdom, but they converted a minority of the Native Hawaiian population. Missionaries from each major group administered to the leper colony at Kalaupapa on Molokai, which was established in 1866 and operated well into the 20th century. The best known were Father Damien and Mother Marianne Cope, both of whom were canonized in the early 21st century as Roman Catholic saints.","Hawaii\n\nThe death of the bachelor King Kamehameha V—who did not name an heir—resulted in the popular election of Lunalilo over Kalākaua. Lunalilo died the next year, also without naming an heir. In 1874, the election was contested within the legislature between Kalākaua and Emma, Queen Consort of Kamehameha IV. After riots broke out, the United States and Britain landed troops on the islands to restore order. Governance passed to the House of Kalākaua.","Hawaii\n\n1887 Constitution and overthrow preparations","Hawaii\n\nIn 1887, Kalākaua was forced to sign the 1887 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Drafted by white businessmen and lawyers, the document stripped the king of much of his authority. It established a property qualification for voting that effectively disenfranchised most Hawaiians and immigrant laborers and favored the wealthier, white elite. Resident whites were allowed to vote but resident Asians were not. Because the 1887 Constitution was signed under threat of violence, it is known as the Bayonet Constitution. King Kalākaua, reduced to a figurehead, reigned until his death in 1891. His sister, Queen Liliuokalani, succeeded him; she was the last monarch of Hawaii.","Hawaii\n\nIn 1893, Queen Liliuokalani announced plans for a new constitution. On January 14, 1893, a group of mostly Euro-American business leaders and residents formed the Committee of Safety to stage a coup d'état against the kingdom and seek annexation by the United States. United States Government Minister John L. Stevens, responding to a request from the Committee of Safety, summoned a company of U.S. Marines. According to historian William Russ, these troops effectively rendered the monarchy unable to protect itself.","Hawaii\n\nOverthrow of 1893—the Republic of Hawaii (1894–1898)","Hawaii\n\nIn January 1893, Queen Liliuokalani was overthrown and replaced by a provisional government composed of members of the American Committee of Safety. American lawyer Sanford B. Dole became President of the Republic when the Provisional Government of Hawaii ended on July 4, 1894. Controversy ensued in the following years as the Queen tried to regain her throne. The administration of President Grover Cleveland commissioned the Blount Report, which concluded that the removal of Liliuokalani had been illegal. The U.S. government first demanded that Queen Liliuokalani be reinstated, but the Provisional Government refused.","Hawaii\n\nCongress conducted an independent investigation, and on February 26, 1894, submitted the Morgan Report, which found all parties, including Minister Stevens—with the exception of the Queen—\"not guilty\" and not responsible for the coup. Partisans on both sides of the debate questioned the accuracy and impartiality of both the Blount and Morgan reports over the events of 1893.","Hawaii\n\nIn 1993, the US Congress passed a joint Apology Resolution regarding the overthrow; it was signed by President Bill Clinton. The resolution apologized for the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom and acknowledged that the United States had annexed Hawaii unlawfully.","Hawaii\n\nAnnexation—the Territory of Hawaii (1898–1959)","Hawaii\n\nAfter William McKinley won the 1896 U.S. presidential election, advocates pressed to annex the Republic of Hawaii. The previous president, Grover Cleveland, was a friend of Queen Liliuokalani. McKinley was open to persuasion by U.S. expansionists and by annexationists from Hawaii. He met with three annexationists: Lorrin A. Thurston, Francis March Hatch and William Ansel Kinney. After negotiations in June 1897, Secretary of State John Sherman agreed to a treaty of annexation with these representatives of the Republic of Hawaii. The U.S. Senate never ratified the treaty. Despite the opposition of most native Hawaiians, the Newlands Resolution was used to annex the Republic to the U.S.; it became the Territory of Hawaii. The Newlands Resolution was passed by the House on June 15, 1898, by 209 votes in favor to 91 against, and by the Senate on July 6, 1898, by a vote of 42 to 21.","Hawaii\n\nIn 1900, Hawaii was granted self-governance and retained Iolani Palace as the territorial capitol building. Despite several attempts to become a state, Hawaii remained a territory for sixty years. Plantation owners and capitalists, who maintained control through financial institutions such as the Big Five, found territorial status convenient because they remained able to import cheap, foreign labor. Such immigration and labor practices were prohibited in many states.","Hawaii\n\nPuerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1899 when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by two hurricanes, causing a worldwide shortage of sugar and a huge demand for sugar from Hawaii. Hawaiian sugarcane plantation owners began to recruit experienced, unemployed laborers in Puerto Rico. Two waves of Korean immigration to Hawaii occurred in the 20th century. The first wave arrived between 1903 and 1924; the second wave began in 1965 after President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 into law.","Hawaii\n\nOahu was the target of a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor by Imperial Japan on December 7, 1941. The attack on Pearl Harbor and other military and naval installations, carried out by aircraft and by midget submarines, brought the United States into World War II.","Hawaii\n\nPolitical changes of 1954—the State of Hawaii (1959–present)","Hawaii\n\nIn the 1950s, the power of the plantation owners was broken by the descendants of immigrant laborers, who were born in the incorporated U.S. territory and were U.S. citizens. They voted against the Hawaii Republican Party, strongly supported by plantation owners. The new majority voted for the Democratic Party of Hawaii, which dominated territorial and state politics for more than 40 years. Eager to gain full voting rights, Hawaii's residents actively campaigned for statehood. There was concern from both political parties in the U.S. that Hawaii would be a permanent Republican Party stronghold so the admission of Alaska, thought to be a permanent Democratic Party stronghold, was to happen the same year. These predictions turned out to be inaccurate; today, Hawaii votes Democratic predominately, and Alaska votes Republican.","Hawaii\n\nIn March 1959, Congress passed the Hawaii Admission Act, which U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed into law. The act excluded Palmyra Atoll from statehood; it had been part of the Kingdom and Territory of Hawaii. On June 27, 1959, a referendum asked residents of Hawaii to vote on the statehood bill; 94.3% voted in favor of statehood and 5.7% opposed it. The referendum asked voters to choose between accepting the Act and remaining a U.S. territory. The United Nations' Special Committee on Decolonization later removed Hawaii from its list of self-governing territories.","Hawaii\n\nAfter attaining statehood, Hawaii quickly modernized through construction and a rapidly growing tourism economy. Later, state programs promoted Hawaiian culture. The Hawaii State Constitutional Convention of 1978 created institutions such as the Office of Hawaiian Affairs to promote indigenous language and culture.","Hawaii\n\nDemographics","Hawaii\n\nPopulation","Hawaii\n\nAfter the arrival of Europeans and Americans, the population of Hawaii fell dramatically until an influx of primarily Asian settlers arrived as migrant laborers at the end of the 19thcentury.","Hawaii\n\nThe United States Census Bureau estimates the population of Hawaii was 1,431,603 on July 1, 2015; an increase of 5.24% since the 2010 United States Census. , Hawaii had an estimated population of 1,431,603; an increase of 12,042 from the previous year and an increase of 71,302 (5.24%) since 2010. This includes a natural increase of 48,111 (96,028 births minus 47,917 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 16,956 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 30,068; migration within the country produced a net loss of 13,112 people. The center of population of Hawaii is located between the two islands of O'ahu and Moloka'i. Large numbers of Native Hawaiians have moved to Las Vegas, which has been called the \"ninth island\" of Hawaii.","Hawaii\n\nHawaii has a de facto population of over 1.4million, due in part to a large number of military personnel and tourist residents. O'ahu is the most populous island; it has the highest population density with a resident population of just under one million in 597 sqmi, about 1,650 people per square mile. Hawaii's 1.4million residents, spread across 6000 mi2 of land, results in an average population density of 188.6 persons per square mile. The state has a lower population density than Ohio and Illinois.","Hawaii\n\nThe average projected lifespan of people born in Hawaii in 2000 is 79.8 years; 77.1 years if male, 82.5 if female—longer than the average lifespan of any other U.S. state. the U.S. military reported it had 42,371 personnel on the islands.","Hawaii\n\nRace and ethnicity","Hawaii\n\nAccording to the 2010 United States Census, Hawaii had a population of 1,360,301. The state's population identified as 38.6% Asian; 24.7% White (22.7% Non-Hispanic White Alone); 23.6% from two or more races; 10.0% Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders; 8.9% Hispanics and Latinos of any race; 1.6% Black or African American; 1.2% from some other race; and 0.3% Native American and Alaska Native.","Hawaii\n\nHawaii has the highest percentage of Asian Americans and multiracial Americans and the lowest percentage of White Americans of any state. It is the only state where Asian Americans identify as the largest ethnic group. In 2011, 14.5% of births were to white, non-Hispanic parents. Hawaii's Asian population consists mainly of 198,000 (14.6%) Filipino Americans, 185,000 (13.6%) Japanese Americans, roughly 55,000 (4.0%) Chinese Americans, and 24,000 (1.8%) Korean Americans. There are over 80,000 Indigenous Hawaiians—5.9% of the population. Including those with partial ancestry, Samoan Americans comprise 2.8% of Hawaii's population, and Tongan Americans comprise 0.6%.","Hawaii\n\nOver 120,000 (8.8%) of Hispanic and Latino Americans live in Hawaii. Mexican Americans number over 35,000 (2.6%); Puerto Ricans exceed 44,000 (3.2%). Multiracial Americans comprise almost 25% of Hawaii's population, exceeding 320,000 people. Eurasian Americans are a prominent mixed-race group, numbering about 66,000 (4.9%). The Non-Hispanic White population numbers around 310,000—just over 20% of the population. The multi-racial population outnumbers the non-Hispanic white population by about 10,000 people. In 1970, the Census Bureau reported Hawaii's population was 38.8% white and 57.7% Asian and Pacific Islander.","Hawaii\n\nThe five largest European ancestries in Hawaii are German (7.4%), Irish (5.2%), English (4.6%), Portuguese (4.3%) and Italian (2.7%). About 82.2% of the state's residents were born in the United States. Roughly 75% of foreign-born residents originate in Asia. Hawaii is a majority-minority state. It is expected to be one of three states that will not have a non-Hispanic white plurality in 2014; the other two are California and New Mexico.","Hawaii\n\nAncestry groups","Hawaii\n\nThe third group of foreigners to arrive in Hawaii were from China. Chinese workers on Western trading ships settled in Hawaii starting in 1789. In 1820, the first American missionaries arrived to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians Western ways. , a large proportion of Hawaii's population have Asian ancestry—especially Filipino, Japanese and Chinese. Many are descendants of immigrants brought to work on the sugarcane plantations in the mid-to-late 19th century. The first 153 Japanese immigrants arrived in Hawaii on June 19, 1868. They were not approved by the then-current Japanese government because the contract was between a broker and the Tokugawa shogunate—by then replaced by the Meiji Restoration. The first Japanese current-government-approved immigrants arrived on February 9, 1885, after Kalākaua's petition to Emperor Meiji when Kalākaua visited Japan in 1881.","Hawaii\n\nAlmost 13,000 Portuguese migrants had arrived by 1899; they also worked on the sugarcane plantations. By 1901, over 5,000 Puerto Ricans were living in Hawaii.","Hawaii\n\nLanguages","Hawaii\n\nEnglish (General American) and Hawaiian are listed as Hawaii's \"official languages\" in the state's 1978 constitution. Article XV, Section 4 specifies that \"Hawaiian shall be required for public acts and transactions only as provided by law\". Hawaii Creole English, locally referred to as \"Pidgin\", is the native language of many native residents and is a second language for many others.","Hawaii\n\nAs of the 2000 Census, 73.44% of Hawaii residents aged five and older exclusively speak English at home. According to the 2008 American Community Survey, 74.6% of Hawaii's residents over the age of five speak only English at home. In their homes, 21.0% of state residents speak an additional Asian language, 2.6% speak Spanish, 1.6% speak other Indo-European languages and 0.2% speak an other language.","Hawaii\n\nAfter English, other languages popularly spoken in the state are Tagalog, Japanese and Ilokano. Significant numbers of European immigrants and their descendants also speak their native languages; the most numerous are German, Portuguese, Italian and French. 5.37% of residents speak Tagalog—which includes non-native speakers of Filipino language, the national, co-official, Tagalog-based language; 4.96% speak Japanese and 4.05% speak Ilokano; 1.2% speak Chinese, 1.68% speak Hawaiian; 1.66% speak Spanish; 1.61% speak Korean; and 1.01% speak Samoan.","Hawaii\n\nFinally, Hawai'i Sign Language is spoken on the islands, but is dwindling in numbers due to American Sign Language supplanting HSL through schooling and various other domains.","Hawaii\n\nThe keyboard layout used for Hawaiian is QWERTY.","Hawaii\n\nHawaiian","Hawaii\n\nThe Hawaiian language has about 2,000 native speakers, less than 0.1% of the total population. According to the United States Census, there were over 24,000 total speakers of the language in Hawaii in 2006–2008. Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family. It is closely related to other Polynesian languages, such as Marquesan, Tahitian, Māori, Rapa Nui (the language of Easter Island), and less closely to Samoan and Tongan.","Hawaii\n\nAccording to Schütz, the Marquesans colonized the archipelago in roughly 300 CE and were later followed by waves of seafarers from the Society Islands, Samoa and Tonga.","Hawaii\n\nThese Polynesians remained in the islands; they eventually became the Hawaiian people and their languages evolved into the Hawaiian language. Kimura and Wilson say, \"[l]inguists agree that Hawaiian is closely related to Eastern Polynesian, with a particularly strong link in the Southern Marquesas, and a secondary link in Tahiti, which may be explained by voyaging between the Hawaiian and Society Islands\". Before the arrival of Captain James Cook, the Hawaiian language had no written form. That form was developed mainly by American Protestant |missionaries between 1820 and 1826. They assigned to the Hawaiian phonemes letters from the Latin alphabet.","Hawaii\n\nInterest in Hawaiian increased significantly in the late 20th century. With the help of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, specially designated immersion schools in which all subjects would be taught in Hawaiian were established. The University of Hawaii developed a Hawaiian language graduate studies program. Municipal codes were altered to favor Hawaiian place and street names for new civic developments. A sign language for the deaf, based on the Hawaiian language, has been in use in the islands since the early 1800s. Hawaiʻi Sign Language is now nearly extinct.","Hawaii\n\nHawaiian distinguishes between long and short vowel sounds. In modern practice, vowel length is indicated with a macron (kahakō). Hawaiian-language newspapers (nūpepa) published from 1834 to 1948 and traditional native speakers of Hawaiian generally omit the marks in their own writing. The okina and kahakō are intended to help non-native speakers. The Hawaiian language uses the glottal stop (okina) as a consonant. It is written as a symbol similar to the apostrophe or left-hanging (opening) single quotation mark.","Hawaii\n\nHawaiian Pidgin","Hawaii\n\nSome residents of Hawaii speak Hawaii Creole English (HCE), endonymically called pidgin or pidgin English. The lexicon of HCE derives mainly from English but also uses words that have derived from Hawaiian, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Ilocano and Tagalog. During the 19th century, the increase in immigration—mainly from China, Japan, Portugal—especially from the Azores and Madeira, and Spain—catalyzed the development of a hybrid variant of English known to its speakers as pidgin. By the early 20th century, pidgin speakers had children who acquired it as their first language. HCE speakers use some Hawaiian words without those words being considered archaic. Most place names are retained from Hawaiian, as are some names for plants and animals. For example, tuna fish is often called by its Hawaiian name, ahi.","Hawaii\n\nHCE speakers have modified the meanings of some English words. For example, \"aunty\" and \"uncle\" may either refer to any adult who is a friend or be used to show respect to an elder. Syntax and grammar follow distinctive rules different from those of General American English. For example, instead of \"it is hot today, isn't it?\", an HCE speaker would say simply \"stay hot, eh?\" The term da kine is used as a filler; a substitute for virtually any word or phrase. During the surfing boom in Hawaii, HCE was influenced by surfer slang. Some HCE expressions, such as brah and da kine, have found their ways elsewhere through surfing communities.","Hawaii\n\nReligion","Hawaii\n\nThe largest denominations by number of adherents were the Catholic Church with 249,619 adherents in 2010 and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 68,128 adherents in 2009. The third-largest religious group includes all non-denominational churches, with 128 congregations and 32,000 members. The third-largest denominational group is the United Church of Christ, with 115 congregations and 20,000 members. The Southern Baptist Convention has 108 congregations and 18,000 members in Hawaii.","Hawaii\n\nAccording to data provided by religious establishments, religion in Hawaii in 2000 was distributed as follows:","Hawaii\n\n* Christianity: 351,000 (29%)\n* Buddhism: 110,000 (9%)\n* Judaism: 10,000 (0.8%)\n* Other: 100,000 (10%)\n* Unaffiliated: 650,000 (51%)","Hawaii\n\nA Pew poll found that the religious composition was as follows:","Hawaii\n\n* 44% – Protestantism\n* 22% – Catholicism\n* 6% – Buddhism\n* 5% – The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\n* 1% – Hinduism\n* 0.5% – Judaism\n* 0.5% – Islam\n* 17% – Irreligion (including agnostics, atheists and deists)","Hawaii\n\nA 2010 Glenmary Research Center study also places the Roman Catholic population as greater than 22%.","Hawaii\n\nReligion notes","Hawaii\n\nLGBT","Hawaii\n\nHawaii has had a long history of queer identities. Māhū people, who often traversed gender as defined by Western standards, were a respected group of pre-colonization people who were widely known in society as healers. Another Hawaiian word, aikāne, referred to same-sex relationships. According to journals written by Captain Cook's crew, it is widely believed that many alii engaged in aikāne relationships. Hawaiian scholar Lilikalā Kameeleihiwa said, \"If you didn't sleep with a man, how could you trust him when you went into battle? How would you know if he was going to be the warrior that would protect you at all costs, if he wasn't your lover?\"","Hawaii\n\nA 2012 poll by Gallup found that Hawaii had the largest proportion of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) adults in the U.S., at 5.1%, comprising an estimated adult LGBT population of 53,966 individuals. The number of same-sex couple households in 2010 was 3,239; a 35.45% increase of figures from a decade earlier. In 2013, Hawaii became the fifteenth U.S. state to legalize same-sex marriage; a University of Hawaii researcher said the law may boost tourism by $217 million.","Hawaii\n\nEconomy","Hawaii\n\nThe history of Hawaii's economy can be traced through a succession of dominant industries; sandalwood, whaling, sugarcane, pineapple, military, tourism and education. Since statehood in 1959, tourism has been the largest industry, contributing 24.3% of the gross state product (GSP) in 1997, despite efforts to diversify. The state's gross output for 2003 was billion; per capita income for Hawaii residents was . Hawaiian exports include food and clothing. These industries play a small role in the Hawaiian economy, due to the shipping distance to viable markets, such as the West Coast of the continental U.S. The state's food exports include coffee, macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, sugarcane and honey.","Hawaii\n\nBy weight, honey bees may be the state's most valuable export. According to the Hawaii Agricultural Statistics Service, agricultural sales were million from diversified agriculture, million from pineapple, and million from sugarcane. Hawaii's relatively consistent climate has attracted the seed industry, which is able to test three generations of crops per year on the islands, compared with one or two on the mainland. Seeds yielded million in 2012, supporting 1,400 workers.","Hawaii\n\nAs of December 2015, the state's unemployment rate was 3.2%.","Hawaii\n\nIn 2009, the United States military spent billion in Hawaii, accounting for 18% of spending in the state for that year. 75,000 United States Department of Defense personnel live in Hawaii.","Hawaii\n\nAccording to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Hawaii had the fourth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 7.18%.","Hawaii\n\nTaxation","Hawaii\n\nHawaii residents pay the most per person in state taxes in the United States. Millions of tourists pay general excise tax and hotel room tax.","Hawaii\n\nThe Hawaii Tax Foundation considers the state's tax burden too high, which it says contributes to higher prices and the perception of an unfriendly business climate.","Hawaii\n\nState Senator Sam Slom says state taxes are comparatively higher than other states because the state government handles education, health care, and social services that are usually handled at a county or municipal level in most other states.","Hawaii\n\nCost of living","Hawaii\n\nThe cost of living in Hawaii, specifically Honolulu, is high compared to that of most major U.S. cities. However, the cost of living in Honolulu is 6.7% lower than in New York City and 3.6% lower than in San Francisco. These numbers may not take some costs, such as increased travel costs for flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers outside the continental U.S., into account. While some online stores offer free shipping on orders to Hawaii, many merchants exclude Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico and certain other U.S. territories.","Hawaii\n\nHawaiian Electric Industries, a privately owned company, provides 95% of the state's population with electricity, mostly from fossil-fuel power stations. Average electricity prices in October 2014 () were nearly three times the national average () and 80% higher than the second-highest state, Connecticut.","Hawaii\n\nThe median home value in Hawaii in the 2000 U.S. Census was , while the national median home value was . Hawaii home values were the highest of all states, including California with a median home value of . Research from the National Association of Realtors places the 2010 median sale price of a single family home in Honolulu, Hawaii, at and the U.S. median sales price at . The sale price of single family homes in Hawaii was the highest of any U.S. city in 2010, just above that of the Silicon Valley area of California ().","Hawaii\n\nHawaii's very high cost of living is the result of several interwoven factors of the global economy in addition to domestic U.S. government trade policy. Like other regions with desirable weather throughout the year, such as areas of California, Arizona and Florida, Hawaii's residents can be considered to be subject to a \"Sunshine tax\". This situation is further exacerbated by the natural factors of geography and world distribution that lead to higher prices for goods due to increased shipping costs, a problem which many island states and territories suffer from as well. The situation is compounded even further by what could possibly be the single largest contributor to the high costs of living in Hawaii, a U.S. trade law known as the Jones Act, or the Merchant Marine Act of 1920. This trade regulation prohibits any foreign-flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports—a practice known as cabotage. Most consumer goods in the United States are manufactured by outsourced labor in East Asia, then transported by container ships to ports on the U.S. mainland, and Hawaii also receives the same goods.","Hawaii\n\nBeing located in the central Pacific Ocean, right between major Pacific shipping lanes, it would be very economical to unload Hawaiian-bound goods in Honolulu, before continuing on to the mainland. However, this would effectively make the second leg of the voyage between Hawaii and the mainland a domestic route between two American ports. Because most large cargo ships operate under foreign \"flags of convenience\" such as Liberia, Vanuatu or Papua New Guinea, allowing them to avoid the more stringent, and thus more costly, regulations of developed nations' ports, the domestic leg of the voyage would be disallowed by the Jones Act. Instead, those cargo ships must proceed directly to the West Coast, where distributors break bulk and transport the Hawaiian-bound, Asian-manufactured goods back across the ocean by U.S.-flagged ships and increasing the length of the voyage by more than 50%. This highly-inefficient system of shipping Hawaii's consumer cargo comes at a very hefty price for the average Hawaiian citizen, and makes the cost of living in Hawaii much, much higher than it would otherwise be.","Hawaii\n\nHawaiian consumers ultimately bear the expense of transporting goods imposed by the Jones Act. This law makes Hawaii less competitive than West Coast ports as a shopping destination for tourists from countries with much higher taxes like Japan, even though prices for Asian-manufactured goods should be cheaper because Hawaii is much closer than mainland states to Asia.","Hawaii\n\nCulture","Hawaii\n\nThe aboriginal culture of Hawaii is Polynesian. Hawaii represents the northernmost extension of the vast Polynesian Triangle of the south and central Pacific Ocean. While traditional Hawaiian culture remains as vestiges in modern Hawaiian society, there are re-enactments of the ceremonies and traditions throughout the islands. Some of these cultural influences, including the popularity (in greatly modified form) of lūau and hula, are strong enough to affect the wider United States.","Hawaii\n\nCuisine","Hawaii\n\nThe cuisine of Hawaii is a fusion of many foods brought by immigrants to the Hawaiian Islands, including the earliest Polynesians and Native Hawaiian cuisine, and American, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Polynesian and Portuguese origins. Plant and animal food sources are imported from around the world for agricultural use in Hawaii. Poi, a starch made by pounding taro, is one of the traditional foods of the islands. Many local restaurants serve the ubiquitous plate lunch, which features two scoops of rice, a simplified version of American macaroni salad and a variety of toppings including hamburger patties, a fried egg, and gravy of a loco moco, Japanese style tonkatsu or the traditional lūau favorites, including kālua pork and laulau. Spam musubi is an example of the fusion of ethnic cuisine that developed on the islands among the mix of immigrant groups and military personnel. In the 1990s, a group of chefs developed Hawaii regional cuisine as a contemporary fusion cuisine.","Hawaii\n\nCustoms and etiquette","Hawaii\n\nSome key customs and etiquette in Hawaii are as follows: when visiting a home, it is considered good manners to bring a small gift for one's host (for example, a dessert). Thus, parties are usually in the form of potlucks. Most locals take their shoes off before entering a home. It is customary for Hawaiian families, regardless of ethnicity, to hold a luau to celebrate a child's first birthday. It is also customary at Hawaiian weddings, especially at Filipino weddings, for the bride and groom to do a money dance (also called the pandanggo). Print media and local residents recommend that one refer to non-Hawaiians as \"locals of Hawaii\" or \"people of Hawaii\".","Hawaii\n\nHawaiian mythology","Hawaii\n\nHawaiian mythology comprises the legends, historical tales, and sayings of the ancient Hawaiian people. It is considered a variant of a more general Polynesian mythology that developed a unique character for several centuries before about 1800. It is associated with the Hawaiian religion, which was officially suppressed in the 19th century but was kept alive by some practitioners to the modern day. Prominent figures and terms include Aumakua, the spirit of an ancestor or family god and Kāne, the highest of the four major Hawaiian deities.","Hawaii\n\nPolynesian mythology","Hawaii\n\nPolynesian mythology is the oral traditions of the people of Polynesia, a grouping of Central and South Pacific Ocean island archipelagos in the Polynesian triangle together with the scattered cultures known as the Polynesian outliers. Polynesians speak languages that descend from a language reconstructed as Proto-Polynesian that was probably spoken in the area around Tonga and Samoa in around 1000 BCE.","Hawaii\n\nPrior to the 15th century, Polynesian people migrated east to the Cook Islands, and from there to other island groups such as Tahiti and the Marquesas. Their descendants later discovered the islands Tahiti, Rapa Nui and later the Hawaiian Islands and New Zealand.","Hawaii\n\nThe Polynesian languages are part of the Austronesian language family. Many are close enough in terms of vocabulary and grammar to be mutually intelligible. There are also substantial cultural similarities between the various groups, especially in terms of social organization, childrearing, horticulture, building and textile technologies. Their mythologies in particular demonstrate local reworkings of commonly shared tales. The Polynesian cultures each have distinct but related oral traditions; legends or myths are traditionally considered to recount ancient history (the time of \"pō\") and the adventures of gods (\"atua\") and deified ancestors.","Hawaii\n\nList of state parks","Hawaii\n\nThere are many Hawaiian state parks. \n*The Island of Hawaii has state parks, recreation areas, and historical parks.\n*Kauai has the Ahukini State Recreation Pier, six state parks, and the Russian Fort Elizabeth State Historical Park. \n*Maui has two state monuments, several state parks, and the Polipoli Spring State Recreation Area. Moloka‘i has the Pala'au State Park. *Oahu has several state parks, a number of state recreation areas, and a number of monuments, including the Ulu Pō Heiau State Monument.","Hawaii\n\nLiterature","Hawaii\n\nThe literature of Hawaii is diverse and includes authors Kiana Davenport, Lois-Ann Yamanaka, and Kaui Hart Hemmings. Hawaiian magazines include Hana Hou!, Hawaii Business Magazine and Honolulu, among others.","Hawaii\n\nMusic","Hawaii\n\nThe music of Hawaii includes traditional and popular styles, ranging from native Hawaiian folk music to modern rock and hip hop. Hawaii's musical contributions to the music of the United States are out of proportion to the state's small size. Styles such as slack-key guitar are well-known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of Hollywood soundtracks. Hawaii also made a major contribution to country music with the introduction of the steel guitar.","Hawaii\n\nTraditional Hawaiian folk music is a major part of the state's musical heritage. The Hawaiian people have inhabited the islands for centuries and have retained much of their traditional musical knowledge. Their music is largely religious in nature, and includes chanting and dance music. Hawaiian music has had an enormous impact on the music of other Polynesian islands; according to Peter Manuel, the influence of Hawaiian music a \"unifying factor in the development of modern Pacific musics\".","Hawaii\n\nTourism","Hawaii\n\nTourism is an important part of the Hawaiian economy. In 2003, according to state government data, there were over 6.4 million visitors, with expenditures of over $10 billion, to the Hawaiian Islands. Due to the mild year-round weather, tourist travel is popular throughout the year. The major holidays are the most popular times for outsiders to visit, especially in the winter months. Substantial numbers of Japanese tourists still visit the islands but have now been surpassed by Chinese and Koreans due to the collapse of the value of the Yen and the weak Japanese economy. The average Japanese stays only 5 days while other Asians spend over 9.5 days and spend 25% more.","Hawaii\n\nHawaii hosts numerous cultural events. The annual Merrie Monarch Festival is an international Hula competition. The Hawaii International Film Festival is the premier film festival for Pacific rim cinema. Honolulu hosts the state's long-running LGBT film festival, the Rainbow Film Festival.","Hawaii\n\nHealth","Hawaii\n\n, Hawaii's health care system insures 92% of residents. Under the state's plan, businesses are required to provide insurance to employees who work more than twenty hours per week. Heavy regulation of insurance companies helps reduce the cost to employers. Due in part to heavy emphasis on preventive care, Hawaiians require hospital treatment less frequently than the rest of the United States, while total health care expenses measured as a percentage of state GDP are substantially lower. Proponents of universal health care elsewhere in the U.S. sometimes use Hawaii as a model for proposed federal and state health care plans.","Hawaii\n\nEducation","Hawaii\n\nPublic schools","Hawaii\n\nHawaii has the only school system within the U.S. that is unified statewide. Policy decisions are made by the fourteen-member state Board of Education, which sets policy and hires the superintendent of schools, who oversees the state Department of Education. The Department of Education is divided into seven districts; four on Oahu and one for each of the other three counties. The main rationale for centralization is to combat inequalities between highly populated Oahu and the more rural Neighbor Islands, and between lower-income and more affluent areas. In most of the U.S., schools are funded from local property taxes. Educators struggle with children of non-native-English-speaking immigrants, whose cultures are different from those of the mainland, where most course materials and testing standards originate.","Hawaii\n\nPublic elementary, middle and high school test scores in Hawaii are below national averages on tests mandated under the No Child Left Behind Act. The Hawaii Board of Education requires all eligible students to take these tests and report all student test scores; some other states—Texas and Michigan, for example—do not. This may have unbalanced the results that reported in August 2005 that of 282 schools across the state, 185 failed to reach federal minimum performance standards in mathematics and reading. The ACT college placement tests show that in 2005, seniors scored slightly above the national average (21.9 compared with 20.9), but in the widely accepted SAT examinations, Hawaii's college-bound seniors tend to score below the national average in all categories except mathematics.","Hawaii\n\nPrivate schools","Hawaii\n\nHawaii has the highest rates of private school attendance in the nation. During the 2011-2012 school year, Hawaii public and charter schools had an enrollment of 181,213, while private schools had 37,695. Private schools educated over 17% of students in Hawaii that school year, nearly three times the approximate national average of 6%. It has four of the largest independent schools; Iolani School, Kamehameha Schools, Mid-Pacific Institute and Punahou School. Pacific Buddhist Academy, the second Buddhist high school in the U.S. and first such school in Hawaii, was founded in 2003. The first native controlled public charter school was the Kanu O Ka Aina New Century Charter School.","Hawaii\n\nIndependent and charter schools can select their students, while the public schools are open to all students in their district. The Kamehameha Schools are the only schools in the U.S. that openly grant admission to students based on ancestry; collectively, they are one of the wealthiest schools in the United States, if not the world, having over eleven billion US dollars in estate assets. In 2005, Kamehameha enrolled 5,398 students, 8.4% of the Native Hawaiian children in the state.","Hawaii\n\nColleges and universities","Hawaii\n\nGraduates of secondary schools in Hawaii often enter directly into the workforce. Some attend colleges and universities on the mainland or other countries, and the rest attend an institution of higher learning in Hawaii. The largest is the University of Hawaii System, which consists of: the research university at Mānoa, two comprehensive campuses at Hilo and West Oahu, and seven community colleges. Private universities include Brigham Young University–Hawaii, Chaminade University of Honolulu, Hawaii Pacific University, and Wayland Baptist University. Saint Stephen Diocesan Center is a seminary of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu. Kona hosts the University of the Nations, which is not an accredited university.","Hawaii\n\nPūnana Leo","Hawaii\n\nFirst opened in 1984 illegally in Kekaha, Kaua'i, the Pūnana Leo or \"Language Nest\" (lit. \"Nest of Voices\") were the first indigenous language immersion schools in the United States. Modelled after the Māori language Kōhanga reo of New Zealand, they provide preschool aged children the opportunity to engage in early education through a Hawaiian language medium, generally taught by elders. Graduates from the Pūnana Leo schools have achieved several measures of academic success in later life. As of 2006, there were a total of eleven Pūnana Leo preschools, with locations on five of the islands.","Hawaii\n\nTransportation","Hawaii\n\nA system of state highways encircles each main island. Only Oahu has federal highways, and is the only area outside the contiguous 48 states to have signed Interstate highways. Narrow, winding roads and congestion in populated places can slow traffic. Each major island has a public bus system.","Hawaii\n\nHonolulu International Airport (IATA:HNL), which shares runways with the adjacent Hickam Field (IATA:HIK), is the major commercial aviation hub of Hawaii. The commercial aviation airport offers intercontinental service to North America, Asia, Australia and Oceania. Hawaiian Airlines, Mokulele Airlines and go! use jets to provide services between the large airports in Honolulu, Līhue, Kahului, Kona and Hilo. Island Air and Pacific Wings serve smaller airports. These airlines also provide air freight services between the islands.","Hawaii\n\nUntil air passenger services began in the 1920s, private boats were the sole means of traveling between the islands. Seaflite operated hydrofoils between the major islands in the mid-1970s.","Hawaii\n\nThe Hawaii Superferry operated between Oahu and Maui between December 2007 and March 2009, with additional routes planned for other islands. Protests and legal problems over environmental impact statements ended the service, though the company operating Superferry has expressed a wish to recommence ferry services in the future. Currently there are passenger ferry services in Maui County between Molokai and Maui, and between Lanai and Maui, though neither of these take vehicles. Currently Norwegian Cruise Lines and Princess Cruises provide passenger cruise ship services between the larger islands.","Hawaii\n\nRail","Hawaii\n\nAt one time Hawaii had a network of railroads on each of the larger islands that transported farm commodities and passengers. Most were narrow gauge systems but there were some gauge on some of the smaller islands. The standard gauge in the U.S. is . By far the largest railroad was the Oahu Railway and Land Company (OR&L) that ran lines from Honolulu across the western and northern part of Oahu.","Hawaii\n\nThe OR&L was important for moving troops and goods during World War II. Traffic on this line was busy enough for signals to be used to facilitate movement of trains and to require wigwag signals at some railroad crossings for the protection of motorists. The main line was officially abandoned in 1947, although part of it was bought by the U.S. Navy and operated until 1970. 13 mi of track remain; preservationists occasionally run trains over a portion of this line. The Honolulu High-Capacity Transit Corridor Project aims to add elevated passenger rail on Oahu to relieve highway congestion.","Hawaii\n\nGovernance","Hawaii\n\nState government","Hawaii\n\nThe state government of Hawaii is modeled after the federal government with adaptations originating from the kingdom era of Hawaiian history. As codified in the Constitution of Hawaii, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch is led by the Governor of Hawaii, who is assisted by the Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii, both of whom are elected on the same ticket. The governor is the only state public official elected statewide; all others are appointed by the governor. The lieutenant governor acts as the Secretary of State. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee twenty agencies and departments from offices in the State Capitol. The official residence of the governor is Washington Place.","Hawaii\n\nThe legislative branch consists of the bicameral Hawaii State Legislature, which is composed of the 51-member Hawaii House of Representatives led by the Speaker of the House, and the 25-member Hawaii Senate led by the President of the Senate. The Legislature meets at the State Capitol. The unified judicial branch of Hawaii is the Hawaii State Judiciary. The state's highest court is the Supreme Court of Hawaii, which uses Aliiōlani Hale as its chambers.","Hawaii\n\nPolitical subdivisions and local government","Hawaii\n\nThe movement of the Hawaiian royal family from Hawaii Island to Maui, and subsequently to Oahu, explains the modern-day distribution of population centers. Kamehameha III chose the largest city, Honolulu, as his capital because of its natural harbor—the present-day Honolulu Harbor. Now the state capital, Honolulu is located along the southeast coast of Oahu. The previous capital was Lahaina, Maui, and before that Kailua-Kona, Hawaii. Some major towns are Hilo; Kāneohe; Kailua; Pearl City; Waipahu; Kahului; Kailua-Kona. Kīhei; and Līhue.","Hawaii\n\nHawaii comprises five counties: the City and County of Honolulu, Hawaii County, Maui County, Kauai County, and Kalawao County.","Hawaii\n\nHawaii has the fewest local governments among U.S. states. Unique to this state is the lack of municipal governments. All local governments are generally administered at the county level. The only incorporated area in the state is Honolulu County, a consolidated city–county that governs the entire island of Oahu. County executives are referred to as mayors; these are the Mayor of Hawaii County, Mayor of Honolulu, Mayor of Kauai, and the Mayor of Maui. The mayors are all elected in nonpartisan elections. Kalawao County has no elected government, and as mentioned above there are no local school districts and instead all local public education is administered at the state level by the Hawaii Department of Education. The remaining local governments are special districts.","Hawaii\n\nFederal government","Hawaii\n\nHawaii is represented in the United States Congress by two senators and two representatives. Mark Takai represented the 1st congressional district in the House, representing southeastern Oahu, including central Honolulu, before passing away July 20, 2016. His seat is currently vacant. , all three other seats are held by Democrats. Tulsi Gabbard represents the 2nd congressional district, representing the rest of the state, which is largely rural and semi-rural.","Hawaii\n\nBrian Schatz is the senior United States Senator from Hawaii. He was appointed to the office on December 26, 2012, by Governor Neil Abercrombie, following the death of former senator Daniel Inouye. The state's junior senator is Mazie Hirono, the former representative from the second congressional district. Hirono is the first female Asian American senator and the first Buddhist senator. Hawaii incurred the biggest seniority shift between the 112th and 113th Congresses. The state went from a delegation consisting of senators who were first and twenty-first in seniority to their respective replacements, relative newcomers Schatz and Hirono.","Hawaii\n\nFederal officials in Hawaii are based at the Prince Kūhiō Federal Building near the Aloha Tower and Honolulu Harbor. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, Internal Revenue Service and the Secret Service maintain their offices there; the building is also the site of the federal District Court for the District of Hawaii and the United States Attorney for the District of Hawaii.","Hawaii\n\nNational politics","Hawaii\n\nSince gaining statehood and participating in its first election in1960, Hawaii has supported Democrats in all but two presidential elections; 1972 and1984, both of which were landslide victories for Republicans Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan respectively. In Hawaii's statehood tenure, only Minnesota has supported Republican candidates fewer times in presidential elections.","Hawaii\n\nHawaii hasn't elected a Republican to represent the state in the U.S. Senate since Hiram Fong in 1970; since 1977, both of the state's U.S. Senators have been Democrats.","Hawaii\n\nIn 2004, John Kerry won the state's four electoral votes by a margin of nine percentage points with 54% of the vote. Every county supported the Democratic candidate. In 1964, favorite son candidate senator Hiram Fong of Hawaii sought the Republican presidential nomination, while Patsy Mink ran in the Oregon primary in 1972.","Hawaii\n\nHonolulu-born Barack Obama, then serving as United States Senator from Illinois, was elected the 44th President of the United States on November 4, 2008 and was re-elected for a second term on November 6, 2012. Obama had won the Hawaii Democratic caucus on February 19, 2008, with 76% of the vote. He was the third Hawaii-born candidate to seek the nomination of a major party and the first presidential nominee from Hawaii.","Hawaii\n\nLegal status of Hawaii","Hawaii\n\nWhile Hawaii is internationally recognized as a state of the United States of America while also being broadly accepted as such in mainstream understanding, the legality of this status has been raised in U.S. District Court, the U.N., and other international forums. Domestically, the debate is a topic covered in the Kamehameha Schools curriculum. On September 29, 2015 the Department of the Interior announced a procedure to recognize a Native Hawaiian government.","Hawaii\n\nHawaiian sovereignty movement","Hawaii\n\nPolitical organizations seeking some form of sovereignty for Hawaii have been active since the 1880s. Generally, their focus is on self-determination and self-governance, either for Hawaii as an independent nation (in many proposals, for \"Hawaiian nationals\" descended from subjects of the Hawaiian Kingdom or declaring themselves as such by choice), or for people of whole or part native Hawaiian ancestry in an indigenous \"nation to nation\" relationship akin to tribal sovereignty with US federal recognition of Native Hawaiians.","Hawaii\n\nSome groups also advocate some form of redress from the United States for the 1893 overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani, and for what is described as a prolonged military occupation beginning with the 1898 annexation. The movement generally views both the overthrow and annexation as illegal, with the Apology Resolution passed by US Congress in 1993 cited as a major impetus by the movement for Hawaiian sovereignty. The sovereignty movement considers Hawaii to be an illegally occupied nation.","Hawaii\n\nGallery"],"string":"[\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii ( ; locally,; ) is the 50th and most recent state of the United States of America, receiving statehood on August 21, 1959. Hawaii is the only U.S. state located in Oceania and the only one composed entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U.S. state not located in the Americas. The state does not observe daylight saving time.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1500 mi. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast: Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lānai, Kahoolawe, Maui and the Island of Hawaii. The last is the largest island in the group; it is often called the \\\"Big Island\\\" or \\\"Hawaii Island\\\" to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii's diverse natural scenery, warm tropical climate, abundance of public beaches, oceanic surroundings, and active volcanoes make it a popular destination for tourists, surfers, biologists, and volcanologists. Because of its central location in the Pacific and 19th-century labor migration, Hawaii's culture is strongly influenced by North American and Asian cultures, in addition to its indigenous Hawaiian culture. Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U.S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oahu.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U.S. states. It is the only state with an Asian plurality. The state's coastline is about 750 mi long, the fourth longest in the U.S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida and California.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaii. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaii is that was named for Hawaiiloa, a legendary figure from Hawaiian myth. He is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe Hawaiian language word Hawaii is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, with the reconstructed meaning \\\"homeland\\\". Cognates of Hawaii are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori (Hawaiki), Rarotongan (ʻAvaiki) and Samoan (Savaii) . According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, \\\"[e]lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaii or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the ancestral home, but in Hawaii, the name has no meaning\\\".\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nSpelling of state name\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nA somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as a second official state language. The title of the state constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. ArticleXV, Section1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii. Diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina () and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the state's name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaii. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the federal government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the traditional spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length. In contrast, the National and State Parks Services, the University of Hawaii and some private enterprises implement these symbols. No precedent for changes to U.S. state names exists since the adoption of the United States Constitution in 1789.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHowever, the Constitution of Massachusetts formally changed the Province of Massachusetts Bay to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 1780, and in the 1819 the Territory of Arkansaw was created but was later admitted to statehood as State of Arkansas.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nGeography and environment\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThere are eight main Hawaiian islands, seven of which are permanently inhabited. The island of Niihau is privately managed by brothers Bruce and Keith Robinson; access is restricted to those who have permission from the island's owners.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nTopography\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe Hawaiian archipelago is located 2000 mi southwest of the continental United States. Hawaii is the southernmost U.S. state and the second westernmost after Alaska. Hawaii, along with Alaska, does not border any other U.S. state. It is the only U.S. state that is not geographically located in North America, the only state completely surrounded by water and that is entirely an archipelago, and the only state in which coffee is cultivable.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nIn addition to the eight main islands, the state has many smaller islands and islets. Kaula is a small island near Niihau that is often overlooked. The Northwest Hawaiian Islands is a group of nine small, older islands to the northwest of Kauai that extend from Nihoa to Kure Atoll; these are remnants of once much larger volcanic mountains. Across the archipelago are around 130 small rocks and islets, such as Molokini, which are either volcanic, marine sedimentary or erosional in origin.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii's tallest mountain Mauna Kea is 13796 ft above mean sea level; it is taller than Mount Everest if measured from the base of the mountain, which lies on the floor of the Pacific Ocean and rises about 33500 ft.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nGeology\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe Hawaiian islands were formed by volcanic activity initiated at an undersea magma source called the Hawaii hotspot. The process is continuing to build islands; the tectonic plate beneath much of the Pacific Ocean continually moves northwest and the hot spot remains stationary, slowly creating new volcanoes. Because of the hotspot's location, all currently active land volcanoes are located on the southern half of Hawaii Island. The newest volcano, Lōihi Seamount, is located south of the coast of Hawaii Island.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe last volcanic eruption outside Hawaii Island occurred at Haleakalā on Maui before the late 18thcentury, though it could have been hundreds of years earlier. In 1790, Kīlauea exploded; it was the deadliest eruption known to have occurred in the modern era in what is now the United States. Up to 5,405 warriors and their families marching on Kīlauea were killed by the eruption. Volcanic activity and subsequent erosion have created impressive geological features. Hawaii Island has the third-highest point among the world's islands.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nOn the flanks of the volcanoes, slope instability has generated damaging earthquakes and related tsunamis, particularly in 1868 and 1975. Steep cliffs have been created by catastrophic debris avalanches on the submerged flanks of ocean island volcanoes.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nFlora and fauna\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nBecause the islands of Hawaii are distant from other land habitats, life is thought to have arrived there by wind, waves (i.e. by ocean currents) and wings (i.e. birds, insects, and any seeds they may have carried on their feathers). This isolation, in combination with the diverse environment (including extreme altitudes, tropical climates, and arid shorelines), produced an array of endemic flora and fauna. Hawaii has more endangered species and has lost a higher percentage of its endemic species than any other U.S. state. One endemic plant, Brighamia, now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct. The two species of Brighamia—B. rockii and B. insignis—are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe extant main islands of the archipelago have been above the surface of the ocean for fewer than 10million years; a fraction of the time biological colonization and evolution have occurred there. The islands are well known for the environmental diversity that occurs on high mountains within a trade winds field. On a single island, the climate around the coasts can range from dry tropical (less than 20 in annual rainfall) to wet tropical; on the slopes, envionments range from tropical rainforest (more than 200 in per year), through a temperate climate, to alpine conditions with a cold, dry climate. The rainy climate impacts soil development, which largely determines ground permeability, affecting the distribution of streams and wetlands.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nProtected areas\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nSeveral areas in Hawaii are under the protection of the National Park Service. Hawaii has two national parks: Haleakalā National Park located near Kula on the island of Maui, which features the dormant volcano Haleakalā that formed east Maui, and Hawaii Volcanoes National Park in the southeast region of the Hawaii Island, which includes the active volcano Kīlauea and its rift zones.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThere are three national historical parks; Kalaupapa National Historical Park in Kalaupapa, Molokai, the site of a former leper colony; Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historical Park in Kailua-Kona on Hawaii Island; and Puuhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park, an ancient place of refuge on Hawaii Island's west coast. Other areas under the control of the National Park Service include Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail on Hawaii Island and the USS Arizona Memorial at Pearl Harbor on Oahu.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument was proclaimed by President George W. Bush on June 15, 2006. The monument covers roughly 140000 mi2 of reefs, atolls, and shallow and deep sea out to 50 mi offshore in the Pacific Ocean—an area larger than all of the national parks in the U.S. combined.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii's climate is typical for the tropics, although temperatures and humidity tend to be less extreme because of near-constant trade winds from the east. Summer highs usually reach around during the day and at night. Winter day temperatures are usually around ; at low elevation they seldom dip below at night. Snow, not usually associated with the tropics, falls at 4200 m on Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on Hawaii Island in some winter months. Snow rarely falls on Haleakalā. Mount Waialeale on Kauai has the second-highest average annual rainfall on Earth, about 460 in per year. Most of Hawaii experiences only two seasons; the dry season runs from May to October and the wet season is from October to April.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe warmest temperature recorded in the state, in Pahala on April 27, 1931, is 100 °F, making it tied with Alaska as the lowest record high temperature observed in a U.S. state. Hawaii's record low temperature is 12 °F observed in May1979 on the summit of Mauna Kea. Hawaii is the only state to have never recorded sub-zero Fahrenheit temperatures.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nClimates vary considerably on each island; they can be divided into windward and leeward (koolau and kona, respectively) areas based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face cloud cover.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAntipodes\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii is the only U.S. state that is antipodal to inhabited land. Most of the state lies opposite Botswana, though Niihau's antipode aligns with Namibia, and Kauai's straddles the Botswana–Namibia border. This area of Africa near Maun, Botswana and Ghanzi includes nature reserves and small settlements near the Okavango Delta.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii is one of four U.S. states—apart from the original thirteen—the Vermont Republic (1791), the Republic of Texas (1845), and the California Republic (1846)—that were independent nations prior to statehood. Along with Texas, Hawaii had formal, international diplomatic recognition as a nation.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe Kingdom of Hawaii was sovereign from 1810 until 1893 when the monarchy was overthrown by resident American and European capitalists and landholders in a coup d'état. Hawaii was an independent republic from 1894 until August 12, 1898, when it officially became a territory of the United States. Hawaii was admitted as a U.S. state on August 21, 1959.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nFirst human settlement – Ancient Hawaii (800–1778)\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nBased on archaeological evidence, the earliest habitation of the Hawaiian Islands dates to around 300 CE, probably by Polynesian settlers from the Marquesas Islands. A second wave of migration from Raiatea and Bora Bora took place in the century. The date of the human discovery and habitation of the Hawaiian Islands is the subject of academic debate. Some archaeologists and historians believe there was an early settlement from the Marquesas. They think it was a later wave of immigrants from Tahiti around 1000 CE who introduced a new line of high chiefs, the kapu system, the practice of human sacrifice, and the building of heiau. This later immigration is detailed in Hawaiian mythology (moolelo) about Paao. Other authors say there is no archaeological or linguistic evidence for a later influx of Tahitian settlers and that Paao must be regarded as a myth.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe history of the islands is marked by a slow, steady growth in population and the size of the chiefdoms, which grew to encompass whole islands. Local chiefs, called alii, ruled their settlements, and launched wars to extend their influence and defend their communities from predatory rivals. Ancient Hawaii was a caste-based society, much like that of Hindus in India.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nEuropean arrival\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nIt is possible that Spanish explorers arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in the 16th century—200 years before Captain James Cook's first documented visit in 1778. Ruy López de Villalobos commanded a fleet of six ships that left Acapulco in 1542 bound for the Philippines with a Spanish sailor named Juan Gaetano aboard as pilot. Depending on the interpretation, Gaetano's reports describe an encounter with either Hawaii or the Marshall Islands. If de Villalobos' crew spotted Hawaii, Gaetano would be considered the first European to see the islands. Some scholars have dismissed these claims due to a lack of credibility.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nSpanish archives contain a chart that depicts islands at the same latitude as Hawaii but with a longitude ten degrees east of the islands. In this manuscript, the island of Maui is named La Desgraciada (The Unfortunate Island), and what appears to be Hawaii Island is named La Mesa (The Table). Islands resembling Kahoolawe, Lanai, and Molokai are named Los Monjes (The Monks). For two-and-a-half centuries, Spanish galleons crossed the Pacific from Mexico along a route that passed south of Hawaii on their way to Manila. The exact route was kept secret to protect the Spanish trade monopoly against competing powers.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe 1778 arrival of British explorer James Cook was the first documented contact by a European explorer with Hawaii. Cook named the archipelago as the Sandwich Islands in honor of his sponsor John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. Cook published the islands' location and rendered the native name as Owyhee. This spelling lives on in Owyhee County, Idaho. It was named after three native Hawaiian members of a trapping party who went missing in that area. The Owyhee Mountains were also named for them.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nCook visited the Hawaiian Islands twice. As he prepared for departure after his second visit in 1779, a quarrel ensued as Cook took temple idols and fencing as \\\"firewood\\\", and a minor chief and his men took a ship's boat. Cook abducted the King of Hawaii Island, Kalaniōpuu, and held him for ransom aboard his ship in order to gain return of Cook's boat. This tactic had worked in Tahiti and other islands. Instead, Kalaniōpuu's supporters fought back, killing Cook and four marines as Cook's party retreated along the beach to their ship. They departed without the ship's boat.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAfter Cook's visit and the publication of several books relating his voyages, the Hawaiian islands attracted many European visitors: explorers, traders, and eventually whalers, who found the islands to be a convenient harbor and source of supplies. Early British influence can be seen in the design of the flag of Hawaii, which bears the Union Jack in the top-left corner. These visitors introduced diseases to the once-isolated islands, causing the Hawaiian population to drop precipitously. Native Hawaiians had no resistance to Eurasian diseases, such as influenza, smallpox and measles. By 1820, disease, famine and wars between the chiefs killed more than half of the Native Hawaiian population. During the 1850s, measles killed a fifth of Hawaii's people.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHistorical records indicated the earliest Chinese immigrants to Hawaii originated from Guangdong Province; a few sailors arrived in 1778 with Captain Cook's journey and more arrived in 1789 with an American trader, who settled in Hawaii in the late 18th century. It appears that leprosy was introduced by Chinese workers by 1830; as with the other new infectious diseases, it proved damaging to the Hawaiians.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nKingdom of Hawaii\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHouse of Kamehameha\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nDuring the 1780s and 1790s, chiefs often fought for power. After a series of battles that ended in 1795, all inhabited islands were subjugated under a single ruler, who became known as King Kamehameha the Great. He established the House of Kamehameha, a dynasty that ruled the kingdom until 1872.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAfter Kamehameha II inherited the throne in 1819, American Protestant missionaries to Hawaii converted many Hawaiians to Christianity. They used their influence to end many traditional practices of the people. The islands' first Christan king was Kamehameha III. Hiram Bingham I, a prominent Protestant missionary, was a trusted adviser to the monarchy during this period. Other missionaries and their descendants became active in commercial and political affairs, leading to conflicts between the monarchy and its restive American subjects. Catholic and Mormon missionaries were also active in the kingdom, but they converted a minority of the Native Hawaiian population. Missionaries from each major group administered to the leper colony at Kalaupapa on Molokai, which was established in 1866 and operated well into the 20th century. The best known were Father Damien and Mother Marianne Cope, both of whom were canonized in the early 21st century as Roman Catholic saints.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe death of the bachelor King Kamehameha V—who did not name an heir—resulted in the popular election of Lunalilo over Kalākaua. Lunalilo died the next year, also without naming an heir. In 1874, the election was contested within the legislature between Kalākaua and Emma, Queen Consort of Kamehameha IV. After riots broke out, the United States and Britain landed troops on the islands to restore order. Governance passed to the House of Kalākaua.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\n1887 Constitution and overthrow preparations\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nIn 1887, Kalākaua was forced to sign the 1887 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Drafted by white businessmen and lawyers, the document stripped the king of much of his authority. It established a property qualification for voting that effectively disenfranchised most Hawaiians and immigrant laborers and favored the wealthier, white elite. Resident whites were allowed to vote but resident Asians were not. Because the 1887 Constitution was signed under threat of violence, it is known as the Bayonet Constitution. King Kalākaua, reduced to a figurehead, reigned until his death in 1891. His sister, Queen Liliuokalani, succeeded him; she was the last monarch of Hawaii.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nIn 1893, Queen Liliuokalani announced plans for a new constitution. On January 14, 1893, a group of mostly Euro-American business leaders and residents formed the Committee of Safety to stage a coup d'état against the kingdom and seek annexation by the United States. United States Government Minister John L. Stevens, responding to a request from the Committee of Safety, summoned a company of U.S. Marines. According to historian William Russ, these troops effectively rendered the monarchy unable to protect itself.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nOverthrow of 1893—the Republic of Hawaii (1894–1898)\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nIn January 1893, Queen Liliuokalani was overthrown and replaced by a provisional government composed of members of the American Committee of Safety. American lawyer Sanford B. Dole became President of the Republic when the Provisional Government of Hawaii ended on July 4, 1894. Controversy ensued in the following years as the Queen tried to regain her throne. The administration of President Grover Cleveland commissioned the Blount Report, which concluded that the removal of Liliuokalani had been illegal. The U.S. government first demanded that Queen Liliuokalani be reinstated, but the Provisional Government refused.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nCongress conducted an independent investigation, and on February 26, 1894, submitted the Morgan Report, which found all parties, including Minister Stevens—with the exception of the Queen—\\\"not guilty\\\" and not responsible for the coup. Partisans on both sides of the debate questioned the accuracy and impartiality of both the Blount and Morgan reports over the events of 1893.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nIn 1993, the US Congress passed a joint Apology Resolution regarding the overthrow; it was signed by President Bill Clinton. The resolution apologized for the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom and acknowledged that the United States had annexed Hawaii unlawfully.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAnnexation—the Territory of Hawaii (1898–1959)\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAfter William McKinley won the 1896 U.S. presidential election, advocates pressed to annex the Republic of Hawaii. The previous president, Grover Cleveland, was a friend of Queen Liliuokalani. McKinley was open to persuasion by U.S. expansionists and by annexationists from Hawaii. He met with three annexationists: Lorrin A. Thurston, Francis March Hatch and William Ansel Kinney. After negotiations in June 1897, Secretary of State John Sherman agreed to a treaty of annexation with these representatives of the Republic of Hawaii. The U.S. Senate never ratified the treaty. Despite the opposition of most native Hawaiians, the Newlands Resolution was used to annex the Republic to the U.S.; it became the Territory of Hawaii. The Newlands Resolution was passed by the House on June 15, 1898, by 209 votes in favor to 91 against, and by the Senate on July 6, 1898, by a vote of 42 to 21.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nIn 1900, Hawaii was granted self-governance and retained Iolani Palace as the territorial capitol building. Despite several attempts to become a state, Hawaii remained a territory for sixty years. Plantation owners and capitalists, who maintained control through financial institutions such as the Big Five, found territorial status convenient because they remained able to import cheap, foreign labor. Such immigration and labor practices were prohibited in many states.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nPuerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1899 when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by two hurricanes, causing a worldwide shortage of sugar and a huge demand for sugar from Hawaii. Hawaiian sugarcane plantation owners began to recruit experienced, unemployed laborers in Puerto Rico. Two waves of Korean immigration to Hawaii occurred in the 20th century. The first wave arrived between 1903 and 1924; the second wave began in 1965 after President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 into law.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nOahu was the target of a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor by Imperial Japan on December 7, 1941. The attack on Pearl Harbor and other military and naval installations, carried out by aircraft and by midget submarines, brought the United States into World War II.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nPolitical changes of 1954—the State of Hawaii (1959–present)\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nIn the 1950s, the power of the plantation owners was broken by the descendants of immigrant laborers, who were born in the incorporated U.S. territory and were U.S. citizens. They voted against the Hawaii Republican Party, strongly supported by plantation owners. The new majority voted for the Democratic Party of Hawaii, which dominated territorial and state politics for more than 40 years. Eager to gain full voting rights, Hawaii's residents actively campaigned for statehood. There was concern from both political parties in the U.S. that Hawaii would be a permanent Republican Party stronghold so the admission of Alaska, thought to be a permanent Democratic Party stronghold, was to happen the same year. These predictions turned out to be inaccurate; today, Hawaii votes Democratic predominately, and Alaska votes Republican.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nIn March 1959, Congress passed the Hawaii Admission Act, which U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed into law. The act excluded Palmyra Atoll from statehood; it had been part of the Kingdom and Territory of Hawaii. On June 27, 1959, a referendum asked residents of Hawaii to vote on the statehood bill; 94.3% voted in favor of statehood and 5.7% opposed it. The referendum asked voters to choose between accepting the Act and remaining a U.S. territory. The United Nations' Special Committee on Decolonization later removed Hawaii from its list of self-governing territories.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAfter attaining statehood, Hawaii quickly modernized through construction and a rapidly growing tourism economy. Later, state programs promoted Hawaiian culture. The Hawaii State Constitutional Convention of 1978 created institutions such as the Office of Hawaiian Affairs to promote indigenous language and culture.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nPopulation\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAfter the arrival of Europeans and Americans, the population of Hawaii fell dramatically until an influx of primarily Asian settlers arrived as migrant laborers at the end of the 19thcentury.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe United States Census Bureau estimates the population of Hawaii was 1,431,603 on July 1, 2015; an increase of 5.24% since the 2010 United States Census. , Hawaii had an estimated population of 1,431,603; an increase of 12,042 from the previous year and an increase of 71,302 (5.24%) since 2010. This includes a natural increase of 48,111 (96,028 births minus 47,917 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 16,956 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 30,068; migration within the country produced a net loss of 13,112 people. The center of population of Hawaii is located between the two islands of O'ahu and Moloka'i. Large numbers of Native Hawaiians have moved to Las Vegas, which has been called the \\\"ninth island\\\" of Hawaii.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii has a de facto population of over 1.4million, due in part to a large number of military personnel and tourist residents. O'ahu is the most populous island; it has the highest population density with a resident population of just under one million in 597 sqmi, about 1,650 people per square mile. Hawaii's 1.4million residents, spread across 6000 mi2 of land, results in an average population density of 188.6 persons per square mile. The state has a lower population density than Ohio and Illinois.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe average projected lifespan of people born in Hawaii in 2000 is 79.8 years; 77.1 years if male, 82.5 if female—longer than the average lifespan of any other U.S. state. the U.S. military reported it had 42,371 personnel on the islands.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nRace and ethnicity\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAccording to the 2010 United States Census, Hawaii had a population of 1,360,301. The state's population identified as 38.6% Asian; 24.7% White (22.7% Non-Hispanic White Alone); 23.6% from two or more races; 10.0% Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders; 8.9% Hispanics and Latinos of any race; 1.6% Black or African American; 1.2% from some other race; and 0.3% Native American and Alaska Native.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii has the highest percentage of Asian Americans and multiracial Americans and the lowest percentage of White Americans of any state. It is the only state where Asian Americans identify as the largest ethnic group. In 2011, 14.5% of births were to white, non-Hispanic parents. Hawaii's Asian population consists mainly of 198,000 (14.6%) Filipino Americans, 185,000 (13.6%) Japanese Americans, roughly 55,000 (4.0%) Chinese Americans, and 24,000 (1.8%) Korean Americans. There are over 80,000 Indigenous Hawaiians—5.9% of the population. Including those with partial ancestry, Samoan Americans comprise 2.8% of Hawaii's population, and Tongan Americans comprise 0.6%.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nOver 120,000 (8.8%) of Hispanic and Latino Americans live in Hawaii. Mexican Americans number over 35,000 (2.6%); Puerto Ricans exceed 44,000 (3.2%). Multiracial Americans comprise almost 25% of Hawaii's population, exceeding 320,000 people. Eurasian Americans are a prominent mixed-race group, numbering about 66,000 (4.9%). The Non-Hispanic White population numbers around 310,000—just over 20% of the population. The multi-racial population outnumbers the non-Hispanic white population by about 10,000 people. In 1970, the Census Bureau reported Hawaii's population was 38.8% white and 57.7% Asian and Pacific Islander.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe five largest European ancestries in Hawaii are German (7.4%), Irish (5.2%), English (4.6%), Portuguese (4.3%) and Italian (2.7%). About 82.2% of the state's residents were born in the United States. Roughly 75% of foreign-born residents originate in Asia. Hawaii is a majority-minority state. It is expected to be one of three states that will not have a non-Hispanic white plurality in 2014; the other two are California and New Mexico.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAncestry groups\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe third group of foreigners to arrive in Hawaii were from China. Chinese workers on Western trading ships settled in Hawaii starting in 1789. In 1820, the first American missionaries arrived to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians Western ways. , a large proportion of Hawaii's population have Asian ancestry—especially Filipino, Japanese and Chinese. Many are descendants of immigrants brought to work on the sugarcane plantations in the mid-to-late 19th century. The first 153 Japanese immigrants arrived in Hawaii on June 19, 1868. They were not approved by the then-current Japanese government because the contract was between a broker and the Tokugawa shogunate—by then replaced by the Meiji Restoration. The first Japanese current-government-approved immigrants arrived on February 9, 1885, after Kalākaua's petition to Emperor Meiji when Kalākaua visited Japan in 1881.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAlmost 13,000 Portuguese migrants had arrived by 1899; they also worked on the sugarcane plantations. By 1901, over 5,000 Puerto Ricans were living in Hawaii.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nLanguages\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nEnglish (General American) and Hawaiian are listed as Hawaii's \\\"official languages\\\" in the state's 1978 constitution. Article XV, Section 4 specifies that \\\"Hawaiian shall be required for public acts and transactions only as provided by law\\\". Hawaii Creole English, locally referred to as \\\"Pidgin\\\", is the native language of many native residents and is a second language for many others.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAs of the 2000 Census, 73.44% of Hawaii residents aged five and older exclusively speak English at home. According to the 2008 American Community Survey, 74.6% of Hawaii's residents over the age of five speak only English at home. In their homes, 21.0% of state residents speak an additional Asian language, 2.6% speak Spanish, 1.6% speak other Indo-European languages and 0.2% speak an other language.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAfter English, other languages popularly spoken in the state are Tagalog, Japanese and Ilokano. Significant numbers of European immigrants and their descendants also speak their native languages; the most numerous are German, Portuguese, Italian and French. 5.37% of residents speak Tagalog—which includes non-native speakers of Filipino language, the national, co-official, Tagalog-based language; 4.96% speak Japanese and 4.05% speak Ilokano; 1.2% speak Chinese, 1.68% speak Hawaiian; 1.66% speak Spanish; 1.61% speak Korean; and 1.01% speak Samoan.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nFinally, Hawai'i Sign Language is spoken on the islands, but is dwindling in numbers due to American Sign Language supplanting HSL through schooling and various other domains.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe keyboard layout used for Hawaiian is QWERTY.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaiian\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe Hawaiian language has about 2,000 native speakers, less than 0.1% of the total population. According to the United States Census, there were over 24,000 total speakers of the language in Hawaii in 2006–2008. Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family. It is closely related to other Polynesian languages, such as Marquesan, Tahitian, Māori, Rapa Nui (the language of Easter Island), and less closely to Samoan and Tongan.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAccording to Schütz, the Marquesans colonized the archipelago in roughly 300 CE and were later followed by waves of seafarers from the Society Islands, Samoa and Tonga.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThese Polynesians remained in the islands; they eventually became the Hawaiian people and their languages evolved into the Hawaiian language. Kimura and Wilson say, \\\"[l]inguists agree that Hawaiian is closely related to Eastern Polynesian, with a particularly strong link in the Southern Marquesas, and a secondary link in Tahiti, which may be explained by voyaging between the Hawaiian and Society Islands\\\". Before the arrival of Captain James Cook, the Hawaiian language had no written form. That form was developed mainly by American Protestant |missionaries between 1820 and 1826. They assigned to the Hawaiian phonemes letters from the Latin alphabet.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nInterest in Hawaiian increased significantly in the late 20th century. With the help of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, specially designated immersion schools in which all subjects would be taught in Hawaiian were established. The University of Hawaii developed a Hawaiian language graduate studies program. Municipal codes were altered to favor Hawaiian place and street names for new civic developments. A sign language for the deaf, based on the Hawaiian language, has been in use in the islands since the early 1800s. Hawaiʻi Sign Language is now nearly extinct.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaiian distinguishes between long and short vowel sounds. In modern practice, vowel length is indicated with a macron (kahakō). Hawaiian-language newspapers (nūpepa) published from 1834 to 1948 and traditional native speakers of Hawaiian generally omit the marks in their own writing. The okina and kahakō are intended to help non-native speakers. The Hawaiian language uses the glottal stop (okina) as a consonant. It is written as a symbol similar to the apostrophe or left-hanging (opening) single quotation mark.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaiian Pidgin\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nSome residents of Hawaii speak Hawaii Creole English (HCE), endonymically called pidgin or pidgin English. The lexicon of HCE derives mainly from English but also uses words that have derived from Hawaiian, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Ilocano and Tagalog. During the 19th century, the increase in immigration—mainly from China, Japan, Portugal—especially from the Azores and Madeira, and Spain—catalyzed the development of a hybrid variant of English known to its speakers as pidgin. By the early 20th century, pidgin speakers had children who acquired it as their first language. HCE speakers use some Hawaiian words without those words being considered archaic. Most place names are retained from Hawaiian, as are some names for plants and animals. For example, tuna fish is often called by its Hawaiian name, ahi.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHCE speakers have modified the meanings of some English words. For example, \\\"aunty\\\" and \\\"uncle\\\" may either refer to any adult who is a friend or be used to show respect to an elder. Syntax and grammar follow distinctive rules different from those of General American English. For example, instead of \\\"it is hot today, isn't it?\\\", an HCE speaker would say simply \\\"stay hot, eh?\\\" The term da kine is used as a filler; a substitute for virtually any word or phrase. During the surfing boom in Hawaii, HCE was influenced by surfer slang. Some HCE expressions, such as brah and da kine, have found their ways elsewhere through surfing communities.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe largest denominations by number of adherents were the Catholic Church with 249,619 adherents in 2010 and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 68,128 adherents in 2009. The third-largest religious group includes all non-denominational churches, with 128 congregations and 32,000 members. The third-largest denominational group is the United Church of Christ, with 115 congregations and 20,000 members. The Southern Baptist Convention has 108 congregations and 18,000 members in Hawaii.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAccording to data provided by religious establishments, religion in Hawaii in 2000 was distributed as follows:\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\n* Christianity: 351,000 (29%)\\n* Buddhism: 110,000 (9%)\\n* Judaism: 10,000 (0.8%)\\n* Other: 100,000 (10%)\\n* Unaffiliated: 650,000 (51%)\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nA Pew poll found that the religious composition was as follows:\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\n* 44% – Protestantism\\n* 22% – Catholicism\\n* 6% – Buddhism\\n* 5% – The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\\n* 1% – Hinduism\\n* 0.5% – Judaism\\n* 0.5% – Islam\\n* 17% – Irreligion (including agnostics, atheists and deists)\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nA 2010 Glenmary Research Center study also places the Roman Catholic population as greater than 22%.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nReligion notes\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nLGBT\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii has had a long history of queer identities. Māhū people, who often traversed gender as defined by Western standards, were a respected group of pre-colonization people who were widely known in society as healers. Another Hawaiian word, aikāne, referred to same-sex relationships. According to journals written by Captain Cook's crew, it is widely believed that many alii engaged in aikāne relationships. Hawaiian scholar Lilikalā Kameeleihiwa said, \\\"If you didn't sleep with a man, how could you trust him when you went into battle? How would you know if he was going to be the warrior that would protect you at all costs, if he wasn't your lover?\\\"\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nA 2012 poll by Gallup found that Hawaii had the largest proportion of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) adults in the U.S., at 5.1%, comprising an estimated adult LGBT population of 53,966 individuals. The number of same-sex couple households in 2010 was 3,239; a 35.45% increase of figures from a decade earlier. In 2013, Hawaii became the fifteenth U.S. state to legalize same-sex marriage; a University of Hawaii researcher said the law may boost tourism by $217 million.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe history of Hawaii's economy can be traced through a succession of dominant industries; sandalwood, whaling, sugarcane, pineapple, military, tourism and education. Since statehood in 1959, tourism has been the largest industry, contributing 24.3% of the gross state product (GSP) in 1997, despite efforts to diversify. The state's gross output for 2003 was billion; per capita income for Hawaii residents was . Hawaiian exports include food and clothing. These industries play a small role in the Hawaiian economy, due to the shipping distance to viable markets, such as the West Coast of the continental U.S. The state's food exports include coffee, macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, sugarcane and honey.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nBy weight, honey bees may be the state's most valuable export. According to the Hawaii Agricultural Statistics Service, agricultural sales were million from diversified agriculture, million from pineapple, and million from sugarcane. Hawaii's relatively consistent climate has attracted the seed industry, which is able to test three generations of crops per year on the islands, compared with one or two on the mainland. Seeds yielded million in 2012, supporting 1,400 workers.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAs of December 2015, the state's unemployment rate was 3.2%.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nIn 2009, the United States military spent billion in Hawaii, accounting for 18% of spending in the state for that year. 75,000 United States Department of Defense personnel live in Hawaii.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAccording to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Hawaii had the fourth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 7.18%.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nTaxation\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii residents pay the most per person in state taxes in the United States. Millions of tourists pay general excise tax and hotel room tax.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe Hawaii Tax Foundation considers the state's tax burden too high, which it says contributes to higher prices and the perception of an unfriendly business climate.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nState Senator Sam Slom says state taxes are comparatively higher than other states because the state government handles education, health care, and social services that are usually handled at a county or municipal level in most other states.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nCost of living\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe cost of living in Hawaii, specifically Honolulu, is high compared to that of most major U.S. cities. However, the cost of living in Honolulu is 6.7% lower than in New York City and 3.6% lower than in San Francisco. These numbers may not take some costs, such as increased travel costs for flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers outside the continental U.S., into account. While some online stores offer free shipping on orders to Hawaii, many merchants exclude Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico and certain other U.S. territories.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaiian Electric Industries, a privately owned company, provides 95% of the state's population with electricity, mostly from fossil-fuel power stations. Average electricity prices in October 2014 () were nearly three times the national average () and 80% higher than the second-highest state, Connecticut.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe median home value in Hawaii in the 2000 U.S. Census was , while the national median home value was . Hawaii home values were the highest of all states, including California with a median home value of . Research from the National Association of Realtors places the 2010 median sale price of a single family home in Honolulu, Hawaii, at and the U.S. median sales price at . The sale price of single family homes in Hawaii was the highest of any U.S. city in 2010, just above that of the Silicon Valley area of California ().\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii's very high cost of living is the result of several interwoven factors of the global economy in addition to domestic U.S. government trade policy. Like other regions with desirable weather throughout the year, such as areas of California, Arizona and Florida, Hawaii's residents can be considered to be subject to a \\\"Sunshine tax\\\". This situation is further exacerbated by the natural factors of geography and world distribution that lead to higher prices for goods due to increased shipping costs, a problem which many island states and territories suffer from as well. The situation is compounded even further by what could possibly be the single largest contributor to the high costs of living in Hawaii, a U.S. trade law known as the Jones Act, or the Merchant Marine Act of 1920. This trade regulation prohibits any foreign-flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports—a practice known as cabotage. Most consumer goods in the United States are manufactured by outsourced labor in East Asia, then transported by container ships to ports on the U.S. mainland, and Hawaii also receives the same goods.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nBeing located in the central Pacific Ocean, right between major Pacific shipping lanes, it would be very economical to unload Hawaiian-bound goods in Honolulu, before continuing on to the mainland. However, this would effectively make the second leg of the voyage between Hawaii and the mainland a domestic route between two American ports. Because most large cargo ships operate under foreign \\\"flags of convenience\\\" such as Liberia, Vanuatu or Papua New Guinea, allowing them to avoid the more stringent, and thus more costly, regulations of developed nations' ports, the domestic leg of the voyage would be disallowed by the Jones Act. Instead, those cargo ships must proceed directly to the West Coast, where distributors break bulk and transport the Hawaiian-bound, Asian-manufactured goods back across the ocean by U.S.-flagged ships and increasing the length of the voyage by more than 50%. This highly-inefficient system of shipping Hawaii's consumer cargo comes at a very hefty price for the average Hawaiian citizen, and makes the cost of living in Hawaii much, much higher than it would otherwise be.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaiian consumers ultimately bear the expense of transporting goods imposed by the Jones Act. This law makes Hawaii less competitive than West Coast ports as a shopping destination for tourists from countries with much higher taxes like Japan, even though prices for Asian-manufactured goods should be cheaper because Hawaii is much closer than mainland states to Asia.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe aboriginal culture of Hawaii is Polynesian. Hawaii represents the northernmost extension of the vast Polynesian Triangle of the south and central Pacific Ocean. While traditional Hawaiian culture remains as vestiges in modern Hawaiian society, there are re-enactments of the ceremonies and traditions throughout the islands. Some of these cultural influences, including the popularity (in greatly modified form) of lūau and hula, are strong enough to affect the wider United States.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe cuisine of Hawaii is a fusion of many foods brought by immigrants to the Hawaiian Islands, including the earliest Polynesians and Native Hawaiian cuisine, and American, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Polynesian and Portuguese origins. Plant and animal food sources are imported from around the world for agricultural use in Hawaii. Poi, a starch made by pounding taro, is one of the traditional foods of the islands. Many local restaurants serve the ubiquitous plate lunch, which features two scoops of rice, a simplified version of American macaroni salad and a variety of toppings including hamburger patties, a fried egg, and gravy of a loco moco, Japanese style tonkatsu or the traditional lūau favorites, including kālua pork and laulau. Spam musubi is an example of the fusion of ethnic cuisine that developed on the islands among the mix of immigrant groups and military personnel. In the 1990s, a group of chefs developed Hawaii regional cuisine as a contemporary fusion cuisine.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nCustoms and etiquette\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nSome key customs and etiquette in Hawaii are as follows: when visiting a home, it is considered good manners to bring a small gift for one's host (for example, a dessert). Thus, parties are usually in the form of potlucks. Most locals take their shoes off before entering a home. It is customary for Hawaiian families, regardless of ethnicity, to hold a luau to celebrate a child's first birthday. It is also customary at Hawaiian weddings, especially at Filipino weddings, for the bride and groom to do a money dance (also called the pandanggo). Print media and local residents recommend that one refer to non-Hawaiians as \\\"locals of Hawaii\\\" or \\\"people of Hawaii\\\".\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaiian mythology\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaiian mythology comprises the legends, historical tales, and sayings of the ancient Hawaiian people. It is considered a variant of a more general Polynesian mythology that developed a unique character for several centuries before about 1800. It is associated with the Hawaiian religion, which was officially suppressed in the 19th century but was kept alive by some practitioners to the modern day. Prominent figures and terms include Aumakua, the spirit of an ancestor or family god and Kāne, the highest of the four major Hawaiian deities.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nPolynesian mythology\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nPolynesian mythology is the oral traditions of the people of Polynesia, a grouping of Central and South Pacific Ocean island archipelagos in the Polynesian triangle together with the scattered cultures known as the Polynesian outliers. Polynesians speak languages that descend from a language reconstructed as Proto-Polynesian that was probably spoken in the area around Tonga and Samoa in around 1000 BCE.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nPrior to the 15th century, Polynesian people migrated east to the Cook Islands, and from there to other island groups such as Tahiti and the Marquesas. Their descendants later discovered the islands Tahiti, Rapa Nui and later the Hawaiian Islands and New Zealand.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe Polynesian languages are part of the Austronesian language family. Many are close enough in terms of vocabulary and grammar to be mutually intelligible. There are also substantial cultural similarities between the various groups, especially in terms of social organization, childrearing, horticulture, building and textile technologies. Their mythologies in particular demonstrate local reworkings of commonly shared tales. The Polynesian cultures each have distinct but related oral traditions; legends or myths are traditionally considered to recount ancient history (the time of \\\"pō\\\") and the adventures of gods (\\\"atua\\\") and deified ancestors.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nList of state parks\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThere are many Hawaiian state parks. \\n*The Island of Hawaii has state parks, recreation areas, and historical parks.\\n*Kauai has the Ahukini State Recreation Pier, six state parks, and the Russian Fort Elizabeth State Historical Park. \\n*Maui has two state monuments, several state parks, and the Polipoli Spring State Recreation Area. Moloka‘i has the Pala'au State Park. *Oahu has several state parks, a number of state recreation areas, and a number of monuments, including the Ulu Pō Heiau State Monument.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nLiterature\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe literature of Hawaii is diverse and includes authors Kiana Davenport, Lois-Ann Yamanaka, and Kaui Hart Hemmings. Hawaiian magazines include Hana Hou!, Hawaii Business Magazine and Honolulu, among others.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe music of Hawaii includes traditional and popular styles, ranging from native Hawaiian folk music to modern rock and hip hop. Hawaii's musical contributions to the music of the United States are out of proportion to the state's small size. Styles such as slack-key guitar are well-known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of Hollywood soundtracks. Hawaii also made a major contribution to country music with the introduction of the steel guitar.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nTraditional Hawaiian folk music is a major part of the state's musical heritage. The Hawaiian people have inhabited the islands for centuries and have retained much of their traditional musical knowledge. Their music is largely religious in nature, and includes chanting and dance music. Hawaiian music has had an enormous impact on the music of other Polynesian islands; according to Peter Manuel, the influence of Hawaiian music a \\\"unifying factor in the development of modern Pacific musics\\\".\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nTourism\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nTourism is an important part of the Hawaiian economy. In 2003, according to state government data, there were over 6.4 million visitors, with expenditures of over $10 billion, to the Hawaiian Islands. Due to the mild year-round weather, tourist travel is popular throughout the year. The major holidays are the most popular times for outsiders to visit, especially in the winter months. Substantial numbers of Japanese tourists still visit the islands but have now been surpassed by Chinese and Koreans due to the collapse of the value of the Yen and the weak Japanese economy. The average Japanese stays only 5 days while other Asians spend over 9.5 days and spend 25% more.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii hosts numerous cultural events. The annual Merrie Monarch Festival is an international Hula competition. The Hawaii International Film Festival is the premier film festival for Pacific rim cinema. Honolulu hosts the state's long-running LGBT film festival, the Rainbow Film Festival.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHealth\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\n, Hawaii's health care system insures 92% of residents. Under the state's plan, businesses are required to provide insurance to employees who work more than twenty hours per week. Heavy regulation of insurance companies helps reduce the cost to employers. Due in part to heavy emphasis on preventive care, Hawaiians require hospital treatment less frequently than the rest of the United States, while total health care expenses measured as a percentage of state GDP are substantially lower. Proponents of universal health care elsewhere in the U.S. sometimes use Hawaii as a model for proposed federal and state health care plans.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nPublic schools\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii has the only school system within the U.S. that is unified statewide. Policy decisions are made by the fourteen-member state Board of Education, which sets policy and hires the superintendent of schools, who oversees the state Department of Education. The Department of Education is divided into seven districts; four on Oahu and one for each of the other three counties. The main rationale for centralization is to combat inequalities between highly populated Oahu and the more rural Neighbor Islands, and between lower-income and more affluent areas. In most of the U.S., schools are funded from local property taxes. Educators struggle with children of non-native-English-speaking immigrants, whose cultures are different from those of the mainland, where most course materials and testing standards originate.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nPublic elementary, middle and high school test scores in Hawaii are below national averages on tests mandated under the No Child Left Behind Act. The Hawaii Board of Education requires all eligible students to take these tests and report all student test scores; some other states—Texas and Michigan, for example—do not. This may have unbalanced the results that reported in August 2005 that of 282 schools across the state, 185 failed to reach federal minimum performance standards in mathematics and reading. The ACT college placement tests show that in 2005, seniors scored slightly above the national average (21.9 compared with 20.9), but in the widely accepted SAT examinations, Hawaii's college-bound seniors tend to score below the national average in all categories except mathematics.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nPrivate schools\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii has the highest rates of private school attendance in the nation. During the 2011-2012 school year, Hawaii public and charter schools had an enrollment of 181,213, while private schools had 37,695. Private schools educated over 17% of students in Hawaii that school year, nearly three times the approximate national average of 6%. It has four of the largest independent schools; Iolani School, Kamehameha Schools, Mid-Pacific Institute and Punahou School. Pacific Buddhist Academy, the second Buddhist high school in the U.S. and first such school in Hawaii, was founded in 2003. The first native controlled public charter school was the Kanu O Ka Aina New Century Charter School.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nIndependent and charter schools can select their students, while the public schools are open to all students in their district. The Kamehameha Schools are the only schools in the U.S. that openly grant admission to students based on ancestry; collectively, they are one of the wealthiest schools in the United States, if not the world, having over eleven billion US dollars in estate assets. In 2005, Kamehameha enrolled 5,398 students, 8.4% of the Native Hawaiian children in the state.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nColleges and universities\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nGraduates of secondary schools in Hawaii often enter directly into the workforce. Some attend colleges and universities on the mainland or other countries, and the rest attend an institution of higher learning in Hawaii. The largest is the University of Hawaii System, which consists of: the research university at Mānoa, two comprehensive campuses at Hilo and West Oahu, and seven community colleges. Private universities include Brigham Young University–Hawaii, Chaminade University of Honolulu, Hawaii Pacific University, and Wayland Baptist University. Saint Stephen Diocesan Center is a seminary of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu. Kona hosts the University of the Nations, which is not an accredited university.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nPūnana Leo\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nFirst opened in 1984 illegally in Kekaha, Kaua'i, the Pūnana Leo or \\\"Language Nest\\\" (lit. \\\"Nest of Voices\\\") were the first indigenous language immersion schools in the United States. Modelled after the Māori language Kōhanga reo of New Zealand, they provide preschool aged children the opportunity to engage in early education through a Hawaiian language medium, generally taught by elders. Graduates from the Pūnana Leo schools have achieved several measures of academic success in later life. As of 2006, there were a total of eleven Pūnana Leo preschools, with locations on five of the islands.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nTransportation\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nA system of state highways encircles each main island. Only Oahu has federal highways, and is the only area outside the contiguous 48 states to have signed Interstate highways. Narrow, winding roads and congestion in populated places can slow traffic. Each major island has a public bus system.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHonolulu International Airport (IATA:HNL), which shares runways with the adjacent Hickam Field (IATA:HIK), is the major commercial aviation hub of Hawaii. The commercial aviation airport offers intercontinental service to North America, Asia, Australia and Oceania. Hawaiian Airlines, Mokulele Airlines and go! use jets to provide services between the large airports in Honolulu, Līhue, Kahului, Kona and Hilo. Island Air and Pacific Wings serve smaller airports. These airlines also provide air freight services between the islands.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nUntil air passenger services began in the 1920s, private boats were the sole means of traveling between the islands. Seaflite operated hydrofoils between the major islands in the mid-1970s.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe Hawaii Superferry operated between Oahu and Maui between December 2007 and March 2009, with additional routes planned for other islands. Protests and legal problems over environmental impact statements ended the service, though the company operating Superferry has expressed a wish to recommence ferry services in the future. Currently there are passenger ferry services in Maui County between Molokai and Maui, and between Lanai and Maui, though neither of these take vehicles. Currently Norwegian Cruise Lines and Princess Cruises provide passenger cruise ship services between the larger islands.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nRail\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nAt one time Hawaii had a network of railroads on each of the larger islands that transported farm commodities and passengers. Most were narrow gauge systems but there were some gauge on some of the smaller islands. The standard gauge in the U.S. is . By far the largest railroad was the Oahu Railway and Land Company (OR&L) that ran lines from Honolulu across the western and northern part of Oahu.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe OR&L was important for moving troops and goods during World War II. Traffic on this line was busy enough for signals to be used to facilitate movement of trains and to require wigwag signals at some railroad crossings for the protection of motorists. The main line was officially abandoned in 1947, although part of it was bought by the U.S. Navy and operated until 1970. 13 mi of track remain; preservationists occasionally run trains over a portion of this line. The Honolulu High-Capacity Transit Corridor Project aims to add elevated passenger rail on Oahu to relieve highway congestion.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nGovernance\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nState government\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe state government of Hawaii is modeled after the federal government with adaptations originating from the kingdom era of Hawaiian history. As codified in the Constitution of Hawaii, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch is led by the Governor of Hawaii, who is assisted by the Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii, both of whom are elected on the same ticket. The governor is the only state public official elected statewide; all others are appointed by the governor. The lieutenant governor acts as the Secretary of State. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee twenty agencies and departments from offices in the State Capitol. The official residence of the governor is Washington Place.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe legislative branch consists of the bicameral Hawaii State Legislature, which is composed of the 51-member Hawaii House of Representatives led by the Speaker of the House, and the 25-member Hawaii Senate led by the President of the Senate. The Legislature meets at the State Capitol. The unified judicial branch of Hawaii is the Hawaii State Judiciary. The state's highest court is the Supreme Court of Hawaii, which uses Aliiōlani Hale as its chambers.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nPolitical subdivisions and local government\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nThe movement of the Hawaiian royal family from Hawaii Island to Maui, and subsequently to Oahu, explains the modern-day distribution of population centers. Kamehameha III chose the largest city, Honolulu, as his capital because of its natural harbor—the present-day Honolulu Harbor. Now the state capital, Honolulu is located along the southeast coast of Oahu. The previous capital was Lahaina, Maui, and before that Kailua-Kona, Hawaii. Some major towns are Hilo; Kāneohe; Kailua; Pearl City; Waipahu; Kahului; Kailua-Kona. Kīhei; and Līhue.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii comprises five counties: the City and County of Honolulu, Hawaii County, Maui County, Kauai County, and Kalawao County.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii has the fewest local governments among U.S. states. Unique to this state is the lack of municipal governments. All local governments are generally administered at the county level. The only incorporated area in the state is Honolulu County, a consolidated city–county that governs the entire island of Oahu. County executives are referred to as mayors; these are the Mayor of Hawaii County, Mayor of Honolulu, Mayor of Kauai, and the Mayor of Maui. The mayors are all elected in nonpartisan elections. Kalawao County has no elected government, and as mentioned above there are no local school districts and instead all local public education is administered at the state level by the Hawaii Department of Education. The remaining local governments are special districts.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nFederal government\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii is represented in the United States Congress by two senators and two representatives. Mark Takai represented the 1st congressional district in the House, representing southeastern Oahu, including central Honolulu, before passing away July 20, 2016. His seat is currently vacant. , all three other seats are held by Democrats. Tulsi Gabbard represents the 2nd congressional district, representing the rest of the state, which is largely rural and semi-rural.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nBrian Schatz is the senior United States Senator from Hawaii. He was appointed to the office on December 26, 2012, by Governor Neil Abercrombie, following the death of former senator Daniel Inouye. The state's junior senator is Mazie Hirono, the former representative from the second congressional district. Hirono is the first female Asian American senator and the first Buddhist senator. Hawaii incurred the biggest seniority shift between the 112th and 113th Congresses. The state went from a delegation consisting of senators who were first and twenty-first in seniority to their respective replacements, relative newcomers Schatz and Hirono.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nFederal officials in Hawaii are based at the Prince Kūhiō Federal Building near the Aloha Tower and Honolulu Harbor. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, Internal Revenue Service and the Secret Service maintain their offices there; the building is also the site of the federal District Court for the District of Hawaii and the United States Attorney for the District of Hawaii.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nNational politics\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nSince gaining statehood and participating in its first election in1960, Hawaii has supported Democrats in all but two presidential elections; 1972 and1984, both of which were landslide victories for Republicans Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan respectively. In Hawaii's statehood tenure, only Minnesota has supported Republican candidates fewer times in presidential elections.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaii hasn't elected a Republican to represent the state in the U.S. Senate since Hiram Fong in 1970; since 1977, both of the state's U.S. Senators have been Democrats.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nIn 2004, John Kerry won the state's four electoral votes by a margin of nine percentage points with 54% of the vote. Every county supported the Democratic candidate. In 1964, favorite son candidate senator Hiram Fong of Hawaii sought the Republican presidential nomination, while Patsy Mink ran in the Oregon primary in 1972.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHonolulu-born Barack Obama, then serving as United States Senator from Illinois, was elected the 44th President of the United States on November 4, 2008 and was re-elected for a second term on November 6, 2012. Obama had won the Hawaii Democratic caucus on February 19, 2008, with 76% of the vote. He was the third Hawaii-born candidate to seek the nomination of a major party and the first presidential nominee from Hawaii.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nLegal status of Hawaii\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nWhile Hawaii is internationally recognized as a state of the United States of America while also being broadly accepted as such in mainstream understanding, the legality of this status has been raised in U.S. District Court, the U.N., and other international forums. Domestically, the debate is a topic covered in the Kamehameha Schools curriculum. On September 29, 2015 the Department of the Interior announced a procedure to recognize a Native Hawaiian government.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nHawaiian sovereignty movement\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nPolitical organizations seeking some form of sovereignty for Hawaii have been active since the 1880s. Generally, their focus is on self-determination and self-governance, either for Hawaii as an independent nation (in many proposals, for \\\"Hawaiian nationals\\\" descended from subjects of the Hawaiian Kingdom or declaring themselves as such by choice), or for people of whole or part native Hawaiian ancestry in an indigenous \\\"nation to nation\\\" relationship akin to tribal sovereignty with US federal recognition of Native Hawaiians.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nSome groups also advocate some form of redress from the United States for the 1893 overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani, and for what is described as a prolonged military occupation beginning with the 1898 annexation. The movement generally views both the overthrow and annexation as illegal, with the Apology Resolution passed by US Congress in 1993 cited as a major impetus by the movement for Hawaiian sovereignty. The sovereignty movement considers Hawaii to be an illegally occupied nation.\",\n \"Hawaii\\n\\nGallery\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137398,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2889"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"5W-20, 10W-30, and 20W-20 are common weights of what commodity?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Motor Oil"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["turbine oil","10w 40","engine lubrication","motoroil","sae viscosity number","motor oils","engine oil","engine oil life monitor","car oil","5w 20","api service sm","5w 30","motor oil","pcmo","oil change","10w 30","oil viscosity","motorcycle oil"],"string":"[\n \"turbine oil\",\n \"10w 40\",\n \"engine lubrication\",\n \"motoroil\",\n \"sae viscosity number\",\n \"motor oils\",\n \"engine oil\",\n \"engine oil life monitor\",\n \"car oil\",\n \"5w 20\",\n \"api service sm\",\n \"5w 30\",\n \"motor oil\",\n \"pcmo\",\n \"oil change\",\n \"10w 30\",\n \"oil viscosity\",\n \"motorcycle oil\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Motor oil\n\nMotor oil, engine oil, or engine lubricant is any of various substances (comprising oil enhanced with additives, for example, in many cases, extreme pressure additives) that are used for lubrication of internal combustion engines. The main function of motor oil is to reduce wear on moving parts; it also cleans, inhibits corrosion, improves sealing, and cools the engine by carrying heat away from moving parts.","Motor oil\n\nMotor oils are derived from petroleum-based and non-petroleum-synthesized chemical compounds. Motor oils today are mainly blended by using base oils composed of hydrocarbons, polyalphaolefins (PAO), and polyinternal olefins (PIO), thus organic compounds consisting entirely of carbon and hydrogen. The base oils of some high-performance motor oils contain up to 20% by weight of esters.","Motor oil\n\nHistory","Motor oil\n\nOn September 6, 1866 American John Ellis founded the Continuous Oil Refining Company (Later to become Valvoline). While studying the possible healing powers of crude oil, Dr. Ellis was disappointed to find no real medicinal value, but was intrigued by its potential lubricating properties. He eventually abandoned the medical practice to devote his time to the development of an all-petroleum, high viscosity lubricant for steam engines – then using inefficient combinations of petroleum and animal and vegetable fats. He made his breakthrough when he developed an oil that worked effectively in high temperatures. This meant no more gummed valves, corroded cylinders or leaking seals. In 1873 Ellis officially renamed the company to Valvoline after the steam engine valves the product lubricated.","Motor oil\n\nUse","Motor oil\n\nMotor oil is a lubricant used in internal combustion engines, which power cars, motorcycles, lawnmowers, engine-generators, and many other machines. In engines, there are parts which move against each other, and the friction wastes otherwise useful power by converting the kinetic energy to heat. It also wears away those parts, which could lead to lower efficiency and degradation of the engine. This increases fuel consumption, decreases power output, and can lead to engine failure.","Motor oil\n\nLubricating oil creates a separating film between surfaces of adjacent moving parts to minimize direct contact between them, decreasing heat caused by friction and reducing wear, thus protecting the engine. In use, motor oil transfers heat through convection as it flows through the engine by means of air flow over the surface of the oil pan, an oil cooler and through the buildup of oil gases evacuated by the Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system.","Motor oil\n\nIn petrol (gasoline) engines, the top piston ring can expose the motor oil to temperatures of 160 °C (320 °F). In diesel engines the top ring can expose the oil to temperatures over 315 °C (600 °F). Motor oils with higher viscosity indices thin less at these higher temperatures.","Motor oil\n\nCoating metal parts with oil also keeps them from being exposed to oxygen, inhibiting oxidation at elevated operating temperatures preventing rust or corrosion. Corrosion inhibitors may also be added to the motor oil. Many motor oils also have detergents and dispersants added to help keep the engine clean and minimize oil sludge build-up. The oil is able to trap soot from combustion in itself, rather than leaving it deposited on the internal surfaces. It is a combination of this, and some singeing that turns used oil black after some running.","Motor oil\n\nRubbing of metal engine parts inevitably produces some microscopic metallic particles from the wearing of the surfaces. Such particles could circulate in the oil and grind against moving parts, causing wear. Because particles accumulate in the oil, it is typically circulated through an oil filter to remove harmful particles. An oil pump, a vane or gear pump powered by the engine, pumps the oil throughout the engine, including the oil filter. Oil filters can be a full flow or bypass type.","Motor oil\n\nIn the crankcase of a vehicle engine, motor oil lubricates rotating or sliding surfaces between the crankshaft journal bearings (main bearings and big-end bearings), and rods connecting the pistons to the crankshaft. The oil collects in an oil pan, or sump, at the bottom of the crankcase. In some small engines such as lawn mower engines, dippers on the bottoms of connecting rods dip into the oil at the bottom and splash it around the crankcase as needed to lubricate parts inside. In modern vehicle engines, the oil pump takes oil from the oil pan and sends it through the oil filter into oil galleries, from which the oil lubricates the main bearings holding the crankshaft up at the main journals and camshaft bearings operating the valves. In typical modern vehicles, oil pressure-fed from the oil galleries to the main bearings enters holes in the main journals of the crankshaft. From these holes in the main journals, the oil moves through passageways inside the crankshaft to exit holes in the rod journals to lubricate the rod bearings and connecting rods.","Motor oil\n\nSome simpler designs relied on these rapidly moving parts to splash and lubricate the contacting surfaces between the piston rings and interior surfaces of the cylinders. However, in modern designs, there are also passageways through the rods which carry oil from the rod bearings to the rod-piston connections and lubricate the contacting surfaces between the piston rings and interior surfaces of the cylinders. This oil film also serves as a seal between the piston rings and cylinder walls to separate the combustion chamber in the cylinder head from the crankcase. The oil then drips back down into the oil pan.","Motor oil\n\nMotor oil may also serve as a cooling agent. In some constructions oil is sprayed through a nozzle inside the crankcase onto the piston to provide cooling of specific parts that undergo high temperature strain. On the other hand, the thermal capacity of the oil pool has to be filled, i.e. the oil has to reach its designed temperature range before it can protect the engine under high load. This typically takes longer than heating the main cooling agent — water or mixtures thereof — up to its operating temperature. In order to inform the driver about the oil temperature, some older and most high performance or racing engines feature an oil thermometer.","Motor oil\n\nDue to its high viscosity, motor oil is not always the preferred oil for certain applications. Some applications make use of lighter products such as WD-40, when a lighter oil is desired, or honing oil if the desired viscosity needs to be mid-range.","Motor oil\n\nNon-vehicle motor oils","Motor oil\n\nAn example is lubricating oil for four-stroke or four-cycle internal combustion engines such as those used in portable electricity generators and \"walk behind\" lawn mowers. Another example is two-stroke oil for lubrication of two-stroke or two-cycle internal combustion engines found in snow blowers, chain saws, model air planes, gasoline powered gardening equipment like hedge trimmers, leaf blowers and soil cultivators. Often, these motors are not exposed to as wide service temperature ranges as in vehicles, so these oils may be single viscosity oils.","Motor oil\n\nIn small two-stroke engines, the oil may be pre-mixed with the gasoline or fuel, often in a rich gasoline:oil ratio of 25:1, 40:1 or 50:1, and burned in use along with the gasoline. Larger two-stroke engines used in boats and motorcycles may have a more economical oil injection system rather than oil pre-mixed into the gasoline. The oil injection system is not used on small engines used in applications like snowblowers and trolling motors as the oil injection system is too expensive for small engines and would take up too much room on the equipment. The oil properties will vary according to the individual needs of these devices. Non-smoking two-stroke oils are composed of esters or polyglycols. Environmental legislation for leisure marine applications, especially in Europe, encouraged the use of ester-based two cycle oil.","Motor oil\n\nProperties","Motor oil\n\nMost motor oils are made from a heavier, thicker petroleum hydrocarbon base stock derived from crude oil, with additives to improve certain properties. The bulk of a typical motor oil consists of hydrocarbons with between 18 and 34 carbon atoms per molecule. One of the most important properties of motor oil in maintaining a lubricating film between moving parts is its viscosity. The viscosity of a liquid can be thought of as its \"thickness\" or a measure of its resistance to flow. The viscosity must be high enough to maintain a lubricating film, but low enough that the oil can flow around the engine parts under all conditions. The viscosity index is a measure of how much the oil's viscosity changes as temperature changes. A higher viscosity index indicates the viscosity changes less with temperature than a lower viscosity index.","Motor oil\n\nMotor oil must be able to flow adequately at the lowest temperature it is expected to experience in order to minimize metal to metal contact between moving parts upon starting up the engine. The pour point defined first this property of motor oil, as defined by ASTM D97 as \"... an index of the lowest temperature of its utility ...\" for a given application, but the \"cold cranking simulator\" (CCS, see ASTM D5293-08) and \"Mini-Rotary Viscometer\" (MRV, see ASTM D3829-02(2007), ASTM D4684-08) are today the properties required in motor oil specs and define the SAE classifications.","Motor oil\n\nOil is largely composed of hydrocarbons which can burn if ignited. Still another important property of motor oil is its flash point, the lowest temperature at which the oil gives off vapors which can ignite. It is dangerous for the oil in a motor to ignite and burn, so a high flash point is desirable. At a petroleum refinery, fractional distillation separates a motor oil fraction from other crude oil fractions, removing the more volatile components, and therefore increasing the oil's flash point (reducing its tendency to burn).","Motor oil\n\nAnother manipulated property of motor oil is its Total base number (TBN), which is a measurement of the reserve alkalinity of an oil, meaning its ability to neutralize acids. The resulting quantity is determined as mg KOH/ (gram of lubricant). Analogously, Total acid number (TAN) is the measure of a lubricant's acidity. Other tests include zinc, phosphorus, or sulfur content, and testing for excessive foaming.","Motor oil\n\nThe NOACK volatility (ASTM D-5800) Test determines the physical evaporation loss of lubricants in high temperature service. A maximum of 14% evaporation loss is allowable to meet API SL and ILSAC GF-3 specifications. Some automotive OEM oil specifications require lower than 10%.","Motor oil\n\nGrades","Motor oil\n\nThe Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has established a numerical code system for grading motor oils according to their viscosity characteristics. SAE viscosity gradings include the following, from low to high viscosity: 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50 or 60. The numbers 0, 5, 10, 15 and 25 are suffixed with the letter W, designating they are \"winter\" (not \"weight\") or cold-start viscosity, at lower temperature. The number 20 comes with or without a W, depending on whether it is being used to denote a cold or hot viscosity grade. The document SAE J300 defines the viscometrics related to these grades.","Motor oil\n\nKinematic viscosity is graded by measuring the time it takes for a standard amount of oil to flow through a standard orifice, at standard temperatures. The longer it takes, the higher the viscosity and thus higher SAE code.","Motor oil\n\nThe SAE has a separate viscosity rating system for gear, axle, and manual transmission oils, SAE J306, which should not be confused with engine oil viscosity. The higher numbers of a gear oil (e.g., 75W-140) do not mean that it has higher viscosity than an engine oil.","Motor oil\n\nIn anticipation of new lower engine oil viscosity grades, to avoid confusion with the \"winter\" grades of oil the SAE adopted SAE 16 as a standard to follow SAE 20 instead of SAE 15. \nRegarding the change Michael Covitch of Lubrizol, Chair of the SAE International Engine Oil Viscosity Classification (EOVC) task force was quoted stating \"If we continued to count down from SAE 20 to 15 to 10, etc., we would be facing continuing customer confusion problems with popular low-temperature viscosity grades such as SAE 10W, SAE 5W, and SAE 0W,\" he noted. \"By choosing to call the new viscosity grade SAE 16, we established a precedent for future grades, counting down by fours instead of fives: SAE 12, SAE 8, SAE 4.\"","Motor oil\n\nSingle-grade","Motor oil\n\nA single-grade engine oil, as defined by SAE J300, cannot use a polymeric Viscosity Index Improver (also referred to as Viscosity Modifier) additive. SAE J300 has established eleven viscosity grades, of which six are considered Winter-grades and given a W designation. The 11 viscosity grades are 0W, 5W, 10W, 15W, 20W, 25W, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60. These numbers are often referred to as the \"weight\" of a motor oil, and single-grade motor oils are often called \"straight-weight\" oils.","Motor oil\n\nFor single winter grade oils, the dynamic viscosity is measured at different cold temperatures, specified in J300 depending on the viscosity grade, in units of mPa·s, or the equivalent older non-SI units, centipoise (abbreviated cP), using two different test methods. They are the Cold Cranking Simulator (ASTMD5293) and the Mini-Rotary Viscometer (ASTM D4684). Based on the coldest temperature the oil passes at, that oil is graded as SAE viscosity grade 0W, 5W, 10W, 15W, 20W, or 25W. The lower the viscosity grade, the lower the temperature the oil can pass. For example, if an oil passes at the specifications for 10W and 5W, but fails for 0W, then that oil must be labeled as an SAE 5W. That oil cannot be labeled as either 0W or 10W.","Motor oil\n\nFor single non-winter grade oils, the kinematic viscosity is measured at a temperature of 100 °C (212 °F) in units of mm2/s (millimeter squared per second) or the equivalent older non-SI units, centistokes (abbreviated cSt). Based on the range of viscosity the oil falls in at that temperature, the oil is graded as SAE viscosity grade 20, 30, 40, 50, or 60. In addition, for SAE grades 20, 30, and 1000, a minimum viscosity measured at 150 °C (302 °F) and at a high-shear rate is also required. The higher the viscosity, the higher the SAE viscosity grade is.","Motor oil\n\nMulti-grade","Motor oil\n\nThe temperature range the oil is exposed to in most vehicles can be wide, ranging from cold temperatures in the winter before the vehicle is started up, to hot operating temperatures when the vehicle is fully warmed up in hot summer weather. A specific oil will have high viscosity when cold and a lower viscosity at the engine's operating temperature. The difference in viscosities for most single-grade oil is too large between the extremes of temperature. To bring the difference in viscosities closer together, special polymer additives called viscosity index improvers, or VIIs are added to the oil. These additives are used to make the oil a multi-grade motor oil, though it is possible to have a multi-grade oil without the use of VIIs. The idea is to cause the multi-grade oil to have the viscosity of the base grade when cold and the viscosity of the second grade when hot. This enables one type of oil to be used all year. In fact, when multi-grades were initially developed, they were frequently described as all-season oil. The viscosity of a multi-grade oil still varies logarithmically with temperature, but the slope representing the change is lessened.","Motor oil\n\nThis slope representing the change with temperature depends on the nature and amount of the additives to the base oil.","Motor oil\n\nThe SAE designation for multi-grade oils includes two viscosity grades; for example, 10W-30 designates a common multi-grade oil. The first number '10W' is the viscosity of the oil at cold temperature and the second number is the viscosity at 100 °C (212 °F). The two numbers used are individually defined by SAE J300 for single-grade oils. Therefore, an oil labeled as 10W-30 must pass the SAE J300 viscosity grade requirement for both 10W and 30, and all limitations placed on the viscosity grades (for example, a 10W-30 oil must fail the J300 requirements at 5W). Also, if an oil does not contain any VIIs, and can pass as a multi-grade, that oil can be labelled with either of the two SAE viscosity grades. For example, a very simple multi-grade oil that can be easily made with modern base oils without any VII is a 20W-20. This oil can be labeled as 20W-20, 20W, or 20. Note, if any VIIs are used however, then that oil cannot be labeled as a single grade.","Motor oil\n\nBreakdown of VIIs under shear is a concern in motorcycle applications, where the transmission may share lubricating oil with the motor. For this reason, synthetic oil or motorcycle-specific oil is sometimes recommended. The necessity of higher-priced motorcycle-specific oil has also been challenged by at least one consumer organization.","Motor oil\n\nStandards","Motor oil\n\nAmerican Petroleum Institute (API)","Motor oil\n\nEngine lubricants are evaluated against the American Petroleum Institute (API), SJ, SL, SM, SN, CH-4, CI-4, CI-4 PLUS and CJ-4 as well as International Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee (ILSAC) GF-3, GF-4 and GF-5, and Cummins, Mack and John Deere requirements. These evaluations include chemical and physical properties using bench test methods as well as actual running engine tests to quantify engine sludge, oxidation, component wear, oil consumption, piston deposits and fuel economy.","Motor oil\n\nThe API sets minimum for performance standards for lubricants. Motor oil is used for the lubrication, cooling, and cleaning of internal combustion engines. Motor oil may be composed of a lubricant base stock only in the case of non-detergent oil, or a lubricant base stock plus additives to improve the oil's detergency, extreme pressure performance, and ability to inhibit corrosion of engine parts.","Motor oil\n\nGroups:\nLubricant base stocks are categorized into five groups by the API. Group I base stocks are composed of fractionally distilled petroleum which is further refined with solvent extraction processes to improve certain properties such as oxidation resistance and to remove wax. Group II base stocks are composed of fractionally distilled petroleum that has been hydrocracked to further refine and purify it. Group III base stocks have similar characteristics to Group II base stocks, except that Group III base stocks have higher viscosity indexes. Group III base stocks are produced by further hydrocracking of either Group II base stocks or hydroisomerized slack wax (a Group I and II dewaxing process by-product). Group IV base stock are polyalphaolefins (PAOs). Group V is a catch-all group for any base stock not described by Groups I to IV. Examples of group V base stocks include polyolesters (POE), polyalkylene glycols (PAG), and perfluoropolyalkylethers (PFPAEs). Groups I and II are commonly referred to as mineral oils, group III is typically referred to as synthetic (except in Germany and Japan, where they must not be called synthetic) and group IV is a synthetic oil.","Motor oil\n\nGroup V base oils are so diverse that there is no catch-all description.","Motor oil\n\nThe API service classes have two general classifications: S for \"service/spark ignition\" (typical passenger cars and light trucks using gasoline engines), and C for \"commercial/compression ignition\" (typical diesel equipment). Engine oil which has been tested and meets the API standards may display the API Service Symbol (also known as the \"Donut\") with the service designation on containers sold to oil users.","Motor oil\n\nThe latest API service standard designation is SN for gasoline automobile and light-truck engines. The SN standard refers to a group of laboratory and engine tests, including the latest series for control of high-temperature deposits. Current API service categories include SN, SM, SL and SJ for gasoline engines. All previous service designations are obsolete, although motorcycle oils commonly still use the SF/SG standard.","Motor oil\n\nAll the current gasoline categories (including the obsolete SH) have placed limitations on the phosphorus content for certain SAE viscosity grades (the xW-20, xW-30) due to the chemical poisoning that phosphorus has on catalytic converters. Phosphorus is a key anti-wear component in motor oil and is usually found in motor oil in the form of zinc dithiophosphate (ZDDP). Each new API category has placed successively lower phosphorus and zinc limits, and thus has created a controversial issue of obsolescent oils needed for older engines, especially engines with sliding (flat/cleave) tappets. API and ILSAC, which represents most of the world's major automobile/engine manufacturers, state API SM/ILSAC GF-4 is fully backwards compatible, and it is noted that one of the engine tests required for API SM, the Sequence IVA, is a sliding tappet design to test specifically for cam wear protection. Not everyone is in agreement with backwards compatibility, and in addition, there are special situations, such as \"performance\" engines or fully race built engines, where the engine protection requirements are above and beyond API/ILSAC requirements. Because of this, there are specialty oils out in the market place with higher than API allowed phosphorus levels.","Motor oil\n\nMost engines built before 1985 have the flat/cleave bearing style systems of construction, which is sensitive to reducing zinc and phosphorus. For example, in API SG rated oils, this was at the 1200-1300 ppm level for zinc and phosphorus, where the current SM is under 600 ppm. This reduction in anti-wear chemicals in oil has caused premature failures of camshafts and other high pressure bearings in many older automobiles and has been blamed for premature failure of the oil pump drive/cam position sensor gear that is meshed with camshaft gear in some modern engines.","Motor oil\n\nThere are three diesel engine service designations which are current: CJ-4, CI-4, and CH-4. Some manufacturers continue to use obsolete designations such as CC for small or stationary diesel engines. In addition, API created a separated CI-4 PLUS designation in conjunction with CJ-4 and CI-4 for oils that meet certain extra requirements, and this marking is located in the lower portion of the API Service Symbol \"Donut\".","Motor oil\n\nIt is possible for an oil to conform to both the gasoline and diesel standards. In fact, it is the norm for all diesel rated engine oils to carry the \"corresponding\" gasoline specification. For example, API CJ-4 will almost always list either SL or SM, API CI-4 with SL, API CH-4 with SJ, and so on.","Motor oil\n\nMotorcycle oil","Motor oil\n\nThe API oil classification structure has eliminated specific support for wet-clutch motorcycle applications in their descriptors, and API SJ and newer oils are referred to be specific to automobile and light truck use. Accordingly, motorcycle oils are subject to their own unique standards. See JASO below. As discussed above, motorcycle oils commonly still use the obsolescent SF/SG standard.","Motor oil\n\nILSAC","Motor oil\n\nThe International Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee (ILSAC) also has standards for motor oil. Introduced in 2004, GF-4 applies to SAE 0W-20, 5W-20, 0W-30, 5W-30, and 10W-30 viscosity grade oils. In general, ILSAC works with API in creating the newest gasoline oil specification, with ILSAC adding an extra requirement of fuel economy testing to their specification. For GF-4, a Sequence VIB Fuel Economy Test (ASTM D6837) is required that is not required in API service category SM.","Motor oil\n\nA key new test for GF-4, which is also required for API SM, is the Sequence IIIG, which involves running a 3.8 L (232 c.i.d.), GM 3.8 L V-6 at , 3,600 rpm, and 150 °C (300 °F) oil temperature for 100 hours. These are much more severe conditions than any API-specified oil was designed for: cars which typically push their oil temperature consistently above 100 °C (212 °F) are most turbocharged engines, along with most engines of European or Japanese origin, particularly small capacity, high power output.","Motor oil\n\nThe IIIG test is about 50% more difficult than the previous IIIF test, used in GF-3 and API SL oils. Engine oils bearing the API starburst symbol since 2005 are ILSAC GF-4 compliant.","Motor oil\n\nTo help consumers recognize that an oil meets the ILSAC requirements, API developed a \"starburst\" certification mark.","Motor oil\n\nA new set of specifications, GF-5, took effect in October 2010. The industry has one year to convert their oils to GF-5 and in September 2011, ILSAC will no longer offer licensing for GF-4.","Motor oil\n\nACEA","Motor oil\n\nThe ACEA (Association des Constructeurs Européens d'Automobiles) performance/quality classifications A3/A5 tests used in Europe are arguably more stringent than the API and ILSAC standards. CEC (The Co-ordinating European Council) is the development body for fuel and lubricant testing in Europe and beyond, setting the standards via their European Industry groups; ACEA, ATIEL, ATC and CONCAWE.","Motor oil\n\nLubrizol, a supplier of additives to nearly all motor oil companies, hosts a Relative Performance Tool which directly compares the manufacturer and industry specs. Differences in their performance is apparent in the form of interactive spider graphs, which both expert and novice can appreciate.","Motor oil\n\nJASO","Motor oil\n\nThe Japanese Automotive Standards Organization (JASO) has created their own set of performance and quality standards for petrol engines of Japanese origin.","Motor oil\n\nFor four-stroke gasoline engines, the JASO T904 standard is used, and is particularly relevant to motorcycle engines. The JASO T904-MA and MA2 standards are designed to distinguish oils that are approved for wet clutch use, with MA2 lubricants delivering higher friction performance. The JASO T904-MB standard denotes oils not suitable for wet clutch use, and are therefore used in scooters equipped with continuously variable transmissions. The addition of friction modifiers to JASO MB oils can contribute to greater fuel economy in these applications.","Motor oil\n\nFor two-stroke gasoline engines, the JASO M345 (FA, FB, FC, FD) standard is used, and this refers particularly to low ash, lubricity, detergency, low smoke and exhaust blocking.","Motor oil\n\nThese standards, especially JASO-MA (for motorcycles) and JASO-FC, are designed to address oil-requirement issues not addressed by the API service categories. One element of the JASO-MA standard is a friction test designed to determine suitability for wet clutch usage. An oil that meets JASO-MA is considered appropriate for wet clutch operations. Oils marketed as motorcycle-specific will carry the JASO-MA label.","Motor oil\n\nASTM","Motor oil\n\nA 1989 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) report stated that its 12-year effort to come up with a new high-temperature, high-shear (HTHS) standard was not successful. Referring to SAE J300, the basis for current grading standards, the report stated:\nThe rapid growth of non-Newtonian multigraded oils has rendered kinematic viscosity as a nearly useless parameter for characterising \"real\" viscosity in critical zones of an engine... There are those who are disappointed that the twelve-year effort has not resulted in a redefinition of the SAE J300 Engine Oil Viscosity Classification document so as to express high-temperature viscosity of the various grades ... In the view of this writer, this redefinition did not occur because the automotive lubricant market knows of no field failures unambiguously attributable to insufficient HTHS oil viscosity.","Motor oil\n\nOther additives","Motor oil\n\nIn addition to the viscosity index improvers, motor oil manufacturers often include other additives such as detergents and dispersants to help keep the engine clean by minimizing sludge buildup, corrosion inhibitors, and alkaline additives to neutralize acidic oxidation products of the oil. Most commercial oils have a minimal amount of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate as an anti-wear additive to protect contacting metal surfaces with zinc and other compounds in case of metal to metal contact. The quantity of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate is limited to minimize adverse effect on catalytic converters. Another aspect for after-treatment devices is the deposition of oil ash, which increases the exhaust back pressure and reduces fuel economy over time. The so-called \"chemical box\" limits today the concentrations of sulfur, ash and phosphorus (SAP).","Motor oil\n\nThere are other additives available commercially which can be added to the oil by the user for purported additional benefit. Some of these additives include:\n* EP additives, like zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) additives and sulfonates, preferably calcium sulfonates, are available to consumers for additional protection under extreme-pressure conditions or in heavy duty performance situations. Calcium sulfonates additives are also added to protect motor oil from oxidative breakdown and to prevent the formation of sludge and varnish deposits. Both were the main basis of additive packages used by lubricant manufacturers up until the 1990s when the need for ashless additives arose. Main advantage was very low price and wide availability (sulfonates were originally waste byproducts). Currently there are ashless oil lubricants without these additives, which can only fulfill the qualities of the previous generation with more expensive basestock and more expensive organic or organometallic additive compounds. Some new oils are not formulated to provide the level of protection of previous generations to save manufacturing costs. Lately API specifications reflect that\n* Some molybdenum disulfide containing additives to lubricating oils are claimed to reduce friction, bond to metal, or have anti-wear properties.","Motor oil\n\nMoS2 particles can be shear-welded on steel surface and some engine components were even treated with MoS2 layer during manufacture, namely liners in engines. (Trabant for example). They were used in World War II in flight engines and became commercial after World War II until the 1990s. They were commercialized in the 1970s (ELF ANTAR Molygraphite) and are today still available (Liqui Moly MoS2 10 W-40, www.liqui-moly.de). Main disadvantage of molybdenum disulfide is anthracite black color, so oil treated with it is hard to distinguish from a soot filled engine oil with metal shavings from spun crankshaft bearing. * In the 1980s and 1990s, additives with suspended PTFE particles were available, e.g., \"Slick50\", to consumers to increase motor oil's ability to coat and protect metal surfaces. There is controversy as to the actual effectiveness of these products, as they can coagulate and clog the oil filter and tiny oil passages in the engine. It is supposed to work under boundary lubricating conditions, which good engine designs tend to avoid anyway. Also, Teflon alone has little to no ability to firmly stick on a sheared surface, unlike molybdenum disulfide, for example. * Various extreme-pressure (EP) additives and antiwear additives.","Motor oil\n\n* Many patents proposed use perfluoropolymers to reduce friction between metal parts, such as PTFE (Teflon), or micronized PTFE. However, the application obstacle of PTFE is insolubility in lubricant oils. Their application is questionable and depends mainly on the engine design — one that can not maintain reasonable lubricating conditions might benefit, while properly designed engine with oil film thick enough would not see any difference. PTFE is a very soft material, thus its friction coefficient becomes worse than that of hardened steel-to-steel mating surfaces under common loads. PTFE is used in composition of sliding bearings where it improves lubrication under relatively light load until the oil pressure builds up to full hydrodynamic lubricating conditions.","Motor oil\n\nEP additives may be incompatible with some motorcycles which share wet clutch lubrication with the engine.","Motor oil\n\nEnvironmental effects","Motor oil\n\nDue to its chemical composition, world-wide dispersion and effects on the environment, used motor oil is considered a serious environmental problem. Most current motor oil lubricants contain petroleum base stocks, which are toxic to the environment and difficult to dispose of after use. Over 40% of the pollution in America's waterways is from used motor oil. Used oil is considered the largest source of oil pollution in the U.S. harbor and waterways, at 385 million gallons per year, mostly from improper disposal. By far, the greatest cause of motor oil pollution in our oceans comes from drains and urban street runoff, much of which is from improper disposal of engine oil. One gallon of used oil can create an eight-acre slick on surface water, threatening fish, waterfowl and other aquatic life. According to the U.S. EPA, films of oil on the surface of water prevent the replenishment of dissolved oxygen, impair photosynthetic processes, and block sunlight. Toxic effects of used oil on freshwater and marine organisms vary, but significant long-term effects have been found at concentrations of 310 ppm in several freshwater fish species and as low as 1 ppm in marine life forms.","Motor oil\n\nMotor oil can have an incredibly detrimental effect on the environment, particularly to plants that depend on healthy soil to grow. There are three main ways that motor oil affects plants: contaminating water supplies, contaminating soil, and poisoning plants. Used motor oil dumped on land reduces soil productivity. Improperly disposed used oil ends up in landfills, sewers, backyards, or storm drains where soil, groundwater and drinking water may be contaminated.","Motor oil\n\nSynthetic oils","Motor oil\n\nSynthetic lubricants were first synthesized, or man-made, in significant quantities as replacements for mineral lubricants (and fuels) by German scientists in the late 1930s and early 1940s because of their lack of sufficient quantities of crude for their (primarily military) needs. A significant factor in its gain in popularity was the ability of synthetic-based lubricants to remain fluid in the sub-zero temperatures of the Eastern front in wintertime, temperatures which caused petroleum-based lubricants to solidify owing to their higher wax content. The use of synthetic lubricants widened through the 1950s and 1960s owing to a property at the other end of the temperature spectrum, the ability to lubricate aviation engines at temperatures that caused mineral-based lubricants to break down. In the mid-1970s, synthetic motor oils were formulated and commercially applied for the first time in automotive applications. The same SAE system for designating motor oil viscosity also applies to synthetic oils. A common problem encountered when people began switching to synthetic oils was leakage. Owners of cars, especially older and vintage automobiles, found that their cars, that did not leak using conventional oils, suddenly had leaks all over with the synthetic oils.","Motor oil\n\nThis remains a problem, although it has encouraged many vintage car owners to investigate newer technology oil seals for their engines so that they can take advantage of the properties of synthetic oils. Synthetic oil makers have not addressed the leakage problem in a forthright manner, and this has caused suspicion by many consumers that synthetic oils are merely another overpriced oil scam.","Motor oil\n\nSynthetic oils are derived from either Group III, Group IV, or some Group V bases. Synthetics include classes of lubricants like synthetic esters as well as \"others\" like GTL (Methane Gas-to-Liquid) (Group V) and polyalpha-olefins (Group IV). Higher purity and therefore better property control theoretically means synthetic oil has better mechanical properties at extremes of high and low temperatures. The molecules are made large and \"soft\" enough to retain good viscosity at higher temperatures, yet branched molecular structures interfere with solidification and therefore allow flow at lower temperatures. Thus, although the viscosity still decreases as temperature increases, these synthetic motor oils have a higher viscosity index over the traditional petroleum base. Their specially designed properties allow a wider temperature range at higher and lower temperatures and often include a lower pour point. With their improved viscosity index, synthetic oils need lower levels of viscosity index improvers, which are the oil components most vulnerable to thermal and mechanical degradation as the oil ages, and thus they do not degrade as quickly as traditional motor oils.","Motor oil\n\nHowever, they still fill up with particulate matter, although the matter better suspends within the oil, and the oil filter still fills and clogs up over time. So, periodic oil and filter changes should still be done with synthetic oil; but some synthetic oil suppliers suggest that the intervals between oil changes can be longer, sometimes as long as 16,000-24,000 km (10,000–15,000 mi) primarily due to reduced degradation by oxidation.","Motor oil\n\nTests show that fully synthetic oil is superior in extreme service conditions to conventional oil, and may perform better for longer under standard conditions. But in the vast majority of vehicle applications, mineral oil based lubricants, fortified with additives and with the benefit of over a century of development, continue to be the predominant lubricant for most internal combustion engine applications.","Motor oil\n\nBio-based oils","Motor oil\n\nBio-based oils existed prior to the development of petroleum-based oils in the 19th century. They have become the subject of renewed interest with the advent of bio-fuels and the push for green products. The development of canola-based motor oils began in 1996 in order to pursue environmentally friendly products. Purdue University has funded a project to develop and test such oils. Test results indicate satisfactory performance from the oils tested. A review on the status of bio-based motor oils and base oils globally, as well as in the U.S, shows how bio-based lubricants show promise in augmenting the current petroleum-based supply of lubricating materials, as well as replacing it in many cases.","Motor oil\n\nThe USDA National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research developed an Estolide lubricant technology made from vegetable and animal oils. Estolides have shown great promise in a wide range of applications, including engine lubricants. Working with the USDA, a California-based company Biosynthetic Technologies has developed a high performance “drop-in” biosynthetic oil using Estolide technology for use in motor oils and industrial lubricants. This biosynthetic oil American Petroleum Institute (API) has the potential to greatly reduce environmental challenges associated with petroleum. Independent testing not only shows biosynthetic oils to be among the highest-rated products for protecting engines and machinery; they are also bio-based, biodegradable, non-toxic and do not bioaccumulate in marine organisms. Also, motor oils and lubricants formulated with biosynthetic base oils can be recycled and re-refined with petroleum-based oils. The U.S.-based company Green Earth Technologies manufactures a bio-based motor oil, called G-Oil, made from animal oils.","Motor oil\n\nMaintenance","Motor oil\n\nThe oil and the oil filter need to be periodically replaced. While there is a full industry surrounding regular oil changes and maintenance, an oil change is a fairly simple operation that most car owners can do themselves.","Motor oil\n\nIn engines, there is some exposure of the oil to products of internal combustion, and microscopic coke particles from black soot accumulate in the oil during operation. Also the rubbing of metal engine parts produces some microscopic metallic particles from the wearing of the surfaces. Such particles could circulate in the oil and grind against the part surfaces causing wear. The oil filter removes many of the particles and sludge, but eventually the oil filter can become clogged, if used for extremely long periods.","Motor oil\n\nThe motor oil and especially the additives also undergo thermal and mechanical degradation, which reduce the viscosity and reserve alkalinity of the oil. At reduced viscosity, the oil is not as capable of lubricating the engine, thus increasing wear and the chance of overheating. Reserve alkalinity is the ability of the oil to resist formation of acids. Should the reserve alkalinity decline to zero, those acids form and corrode the engine.","Motor oil\n\nSome engine manufacturers specify which SAE viscosity grade of oil should be used, but different viscosity motor oil may perform better based on the operating environment. Many manufacturers have varying requirements and have designations for motor oil they require to be used. In general, unless specified by the manufacturer, heavier weight oils are not necessarily better than lighter weight oils; heavy oils tend to stick longer to parts between two moving surfaces, and this degrades the oil faster than a lighter weight oil that flows better, allowing fresh oil in its place sooner. Cold weather has a thickening effect on conventional oil, and this is one reason lighter weight oils are manufacturer recommended in places with cold winters.","Motor oil\n\nMotor oil changes are usually scheduled based on the time in service or the distance that the vehicle has traveled.These are rough indications of the real factors that control when an oil change is appropriate, which include how long the oil has been run at elevated temperatures, how many heating cycles the engine has been through, and how hard the engine has worked. The vehicle distance is intended to estimate the time at high temperature, while the time in service is supposed to correlate with the number of vehicle trips and capture the number of heating cycles. Oil does not degrade significantly just sitting in a cold engine. On the other hand, if a car is driven just for very short distances, the oil is not allowed to fully heat-up, and contaminants such as water accumulates in the oil, due to lack of sufficient heat to boil off the water. Oil of this nature, just sitting in an engine, can cause problems.","Motor oil\n\nAlso important is the quality of the oil used, especially with synthetics (synthetics are more stable than conventional oils). Some manufacturers address this (for example, BMW and VW with their respective long-life standards), while others do not.","Motor oil\n\nTime-based intervals account for the short-trip drivers who drive short distances, which build up more contaminants. Manufacturers advise to not exceed their time or distance-driven interval for a motor oil change. Many modern cars now list somewhat higher intervals for changing oil and filter, with the constraint of \"severe\" service requiring more frequent changes with less-than ideal driving. This applies to short trips of under 15 km (10 mi), where the oil does not get to full operating temperature long enough to burn off condensation, excess fuel, and other contamination that leads to \"sludge\", \"varnish\", \"acids\", or other deposits. Many manufacturers have engine computer calculations to estimate the oil's condition based on the factors which degrade it, such as RPM, temperatures, and trip length; one system adds an optical sensor for determining the clarity of the oil in the engine. These systems are commonly known as Oil Life Monitors or OLMs.","Motor oil\n\nSome quick oil change shops recommended intervals of 5,000 km (3,000 mi) or every three months, which is not necessary, according to many automobile manufacturers. This has led to a campaign by the California EPA against the 3,000 mile myth, promoting vehicle manufacturer's recommendations for oil change intervals over those of the oil change industry. This is still an active debate within the industry however and service technicians still recommend 3000 or 5000 miles service intervals in the conservative North American market, as it suits the customer to have their vehicle inspected regularly in order to prevent larger problems from developing (for example slight coolant leaks left unnoticed could lead to an overheat condition). Also, in many vehicles engine \"sludge\" from longer oil change intervals has become a problem and led to very costly repairs sometimes including complete engine overhauls. Oil consumption is also a problem when using longer intervals and vehicle owners need to be aware of this and check their oil levels regularly. the average percentage of loss in the oil is around 12% to 14% according to many automobile manufactures .Severe engine damage will result from running the oil level too low.","Motor oil\n\nOn top of that many manufactures are now using turbochargers and lack of proper lubrication is the primary cause of premature turbo failure. This lack of lubrication can be caused by sludge build up in the oil lines causing restriction of flow and/or simply low oil levels.","Motor oil\n\nThe engine user can, in replacing the oil, adjust the viscosity for the ambient temperature change, thicker for summer heat and thinner for the winter cold. Lower viscosity oils are common in newer vehicles.","Motor oil\n\nBy the mid-1980s, recommended viscosities had moved down to 10W-30, primarily to improve fuel efficiency. A modern typical application would be Honda motor's use of 5W-20 (and on their newest vehicles, 0W-20) viscosity oil for 12,000 km (7,500 mi). Engine designs are evolving to allow the use of low-viscosity oils without the risk of excessive metal-to-metal abrasion, principally in the cam and valve mechanism.","Motor oil\n\nFuture","Motor oil\n\nA new process to break down polyethylene, a common plastic product found in many consumer containers, is used to make a paraffin-like wax with the correct molecular properties for conversion into a lubricant, bypassing the expensive Fischer-Tropsch process. The plastic is melted and then pumped into a furnace. The heat of the furnace breaks down the molecular chains of polyethylene into wax. Finally, the wax is subjected to a catalytic process that alters the wax's molecular structure, leaving a clear oil.","Motor oil\n\nBiodegradable Motor Oils based on esters or hydrocarbon-ester blends appeared in the 1990s followed by formulations beginning in 2000 which respond to the bio-no-tox-criteria of the European preparations directive (EC/1999/45). This means, that they not only are biodegradable according to OECD 301x test methods, but also the aquatic toxicities (fish, algae, daphnie) are each above 100 mg/L.","Motor oil\n\nAnother class of base oils suited for engine oil are the polyalkylene glycols. They offer zero-ash, bio-no-tox properties and lean burn characteristics.","Motor oil\n\nRe-refined motor oil","Motor oil\n\nThe oil in a motor oil product does break down and burns as it is used in an engine — it also gets contaminated with particles and chemicals that make it a less effective lubricant. Re-refining cleans the contaminants and used additives out of the dirty oil. From there, this clean \"base stock\" is blended with some virgin base stock and a new additives package to make a finished lubricant product that can be just as effective as lubricants made with all-virgin oil. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines re-refined products as containing at least 25% re-refined base stock, but other standards are significantly higher. The California State public contract code defines a re-refined motor oil as one that contains at least 70% re-refined base stock.","Motor oil\n\nPackaging","Motor oil\n\nMotor oils were sold at retail in glass bottles, metal cans and metal/cardboard cans, before the advent of the current polyethylene plastic bottle, which began to appear in the early 1980s. Reusable spouts were made separately from the cans; with a piercing point like that of a can opener, these spouts could be used to puncture the top of the can and to provide an easy way to pour the oil.","Motor oil\n\nToday, motor oil is generally sold in bottles of either 1 U.S. quart (946mL) or 1L as well as in larger plastic containers ranging from approximately due to most small to mid-size engines requiring around of engine oil.","Motor oil\n\nThere is a growing trend to sell motor oil in flexible packaging, for instance stand-up pouches.","Motor oil\n\nDistribution to larger users (such as drive-through oil change shops) is often in bulk, by tanker truck or in 1 oilbbl drums."],"string":"[\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMotor oil, engine oil, or engine lubricant is any of various substances (comprising oil enhanced with additives, for example, in many cases, extreme pressure additives) that are used for lubrication of internal combustion engines. The main function of motor oil is to reduce wear on moving parts; it also cleans, inhibits corrosion, improves sealing, and cools the engine by carrying heat away from moving parts.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMotor oils are derived from petroleum-based and non-petroleum-synthesized chemical compounds. Motor oils today are mainly blended by using base oils composed of hydrocarbons, polyalphaolefins (PAO), and polyinternal olefins (PIO), thus organic compounds consisting entirely of carbon and hydrogen. The base oils of some high-performance motor oils contain up to 20% by weight of esters.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nOn September 6, 1866 American John Ellis founded the Continuous Oil Refining Company (Later to become Valvoline). While studying the possible healing powers of crude oil, Dr. Ellis was disappointed to find no real medicinal value, but was intrigued by its potential lubricating properties. He eventually abandoned the medical practice to devote his time to the development of an all-petroleum, high viscosity lubricant for steam engines – then using inefficient combinations of petroleum and animal and vegetable fats. He made his breakthrough when he developed an oil that worked effectively in high temperatures. This meant no more gummed valves, corroded cylinders or leaking seals. In 1873 Ellis officially renamed the company to Valvoline after the steam engine valves the product lubricated.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nUse\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMotor oil is a lubricant used in internal combustion engines, which power cars, motorcycles, lawnmowers, engine-generators, and many other machines. In engines, there are parts which move against each other, and the friction wastes otherwise useful power by converting the kinetic energy to heat. It also wears away those parts, which could lead to lower efficiency and degradation of the engine. This increases fuel consumption, decreases power output, and can lead to engine failure.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nLubricating oil creates a separating film between surfaces of adjacent moving parts to minimize direct contact between them, decreasing heat caused by friction and reducing wear, thus protecting the engine. In use, motor oil transfers heat through convection as it flows through the engine by means of air flow over the surface of the oil pan, an oil cooler and through the buildup of oil gases evacuated by the Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nIn petrol (gasoline) engines, the top piston ring can expose the motor oil to temperatures of 160 °C (320 °F). In diesel engines the top ring can expose the oil to temperatures over 315 °C (600 °F). Motor oils with higher viscosity indices thin less at these higher temperatures.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nCoating metal parts with oil also keeps them from being exposed to oxygen, inhibiting oxidation at elevated operating temperatures preventing rust or corrosion. Corrosion inhibitors may also be added to the motor oil. Many motor oils also have detergents and dispersants added to help keep the engine clean and minimize oil sludge build-up. The oil is able to trap soot from combustion in itself, rather than leaving it deposited on the internal surfaces. It is a combination of this, and some singeing that turns used oil black after some running.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nRubbing of metal engine parts inevitably produces some microscopic metallic particles from the wearing of the surfaces. Such particles could circulate in the oil and grind against moving parts, causing wear. Because particles accumulate in the oil, it is typically circulated through an oil filter to remove harmful particles. An oil pump, a vane or gear pump powered by the engine, pumps the oil throughout the engine, including the oil filter. Oil filters can be a full flow or bypass type.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nIn the crankcase of a vehicle engine, motor oil lubricates rotating or sliding surfaces between the crankshaft journal bearings (main bearings and big-end bearings), and rods connecting the pistons to the crankshaft. The oil collects in an oil pan, or sump, at the bottom of the crankcase. In some small engines such as lawn mower engines, dippers on the bottoms of connecting rods dip into the oil at the bottom and splash it around the crankcase as needed to lubricate parts inside. In modern vehicle engines, the oil pump takes oil from the oil pan and sends it through the oil filter into oil galleries, from which the oil lubricates the main bearings holding the crankshaft up at the main journals and camshaft bearings operating the valves. In typical modern vehicles, oil pressure-fed from the oil galleries to the main bearings enters holes in the main journals of the crankshaft. From these holes in the main journals, the oil moves through passageways inside the crankshaft to exit holes in the rod journals to lubricate the rod bearings and connecting rods.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nSome simpler designs relied on these rapidly moving parts to splash and lubricate the contacting surfaces between the piston rings and interior surfaces of the cylinders. However, in modern designs, there are also passageways through the rods which carry oil from the rod bearings to the rod-piston connections and lubricate the contacting surfaces between the piston rings and interior surfaces of the cylinders. This oil film also serves as a seal between the piston rings and cylinder walls to separate the combustion chamber in the cylinder head from the crankcase. The oil then drips back down into the oil pan.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMotor oil may also serve as a cooling agent. In some constructions oil is sprayed through a nozzle inside the crankcase onto the piston to provide cooling of specific parts that undergo high temperature strain. On the other hand, the thermal capacity of the oil pool has to be filled, i.e. the oil has to reach its designed temperature range before it can protect the engine under high load. This typically takes longer than heating the main cooling agent — water or mixtures thereof — up to its operating temperature. In order to inform the driver about the oil temperature, some older and most high performance or racing engines feature an oil thermometer.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nDue to its high viscosity, motor oil is not always the preferred oil for certain applications. Some applications make use of lighter products such as WD-40, when a lighter oil is desired, or honing oil if the desired viscosity needs to be mid-range.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nNon-vehicle motor oils\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nAn example is lubricating oil for four-stroke or four-cycle internal combustion engines such as those used in portable electricity generators and \\\"walk behind\\\" lawn mowers. Another example is two-stroke oil for lubrication of two-stroke or two-cycle internal combustion engines found in snow blowers, chain saws, model air planes, gasoline powered gardening equipment like hedge trimmers, leaf blowers and soil cultivators. Often, these motors are not exposed to as wide service temperature ranges as in vehicles, so these oils may be single viscosity oils.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nIn small two-stroke engines, the oil may be pre-mixed with the gasoline or fuel, often in a rich gasoline:oil ratio of 25:1, 40:1 or 50:1, and burned in use along with the gasoline. Larger two-stroke engines used in boats and motorcycles may have a more economical oil injection system rather than oil pre-mixed into the gasoline. The oil injection system is not used on small engines used in applications like snowblowers and trolling motors as the oil injection system is too expensive for small engines and would take up too much room on the equipment. The oil properties will vary according to the individual needs of these devices. Non-smoking two-stroke oils are composed of esters or polyglycols. Environmental legislation for leisure marine applications, especially in Europe, encouraged the use of ester-based two cycle oil.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nProperties\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMost motor oils are made from a heavier, thicker petroleum hydrocarbon base stock derived from crude oil, with additives to improve certain properties. The bulk of a typical motor oil consists of hydrocarbons with between 18 and 34 carbon atoms per molecule. One of the most important properties of motor oil in maintaining a lubricating film between moving parts is its viscosity. The viscosity of a liquid can be thought of as its \\\"thickness\\\" or a measure of its resistance to flow. The viscosity must be high enough to maintain a lubricating film, but low enough that the oil can flow around the engine parts under all conditions. The viscosity index is a measure of how much the oil's viscosity changes as temperature changes. A higher viscosity index indicates the viscosity changes less with temperature than a lower viscosity index.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMotor oil must be able to flow adequately at the lowest temperature it is expected to experience in order to minimize metal to metal contact between moving parts upon starting up the engine. The pour point defined first this property of motor oil, as defined by ASTM D97 as \\\"... an index of the lowest temperature of its utility ...\\\" for a given application, but the \\\"cold cranking simulator\\\" (CCS, see ASTM D5293-08) and \\\"Mini-Rotary Viscometer\\\" (MRV, see ASTM D3829-02(2007), ASTM D4684-08) are today the properties required in motor oil specs and define the SAE classifications.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nOil is largely composed of hydrocarbons which can burn if ignited. Still another important property of motor oil is its flash point, the lowest temperature at which the oil gives off vapors which can ignite. It is dangerous for the oil in a motor to ignite and burn, so a high flash point is desirable. At a petroleum refinery, fractional distillation separates a motor oil fraction from other crude oil fractions, removing the more volatile components, and therefore increasing the oil's flash point (reducing its tendency to burn).\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nAnother manipulated property of motor oil is its Total base number (TBN), which is a measurement of the reserve alkalinity of an oil, meaning its ability to neutralize acids. The resulting quantity is determined as mg KOH/ (gram of lubricant). Analogously, Total acid number (TAN) is the measure of a lubricant's acidity. Other tests include zinc, phosphorus, or sulfur content, and testing for excessive foaming.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe NOACK volatility (ASTM D-5800) Test determines the physical evaporation loss of lubricants in high temperature service. A maximum of 14% evaporation loss is allowable to meet API SL and ILSAC GF-3 specifications. Some automotive OEM oil specifications require lower than 10%.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nGrades\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has established a numerical code system for grading motor oils according to their viscosity characteristics. SAE viscosity gradings include the following, from low to high viscosity: 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50 or 60. The numbers 0, 5, 10, 15 and 25 are suffixed with the letter W, designating they are \\\"winter\\\" (not \\\"weight\\\") or cold-start viscosity, at lower temperature. The number 20 comes with or without a W, depending on whether it is being used to denote a cold or hot viscosity grade. The document SAE J300 defines the viscometrics related to these grades.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nKinematic viscosity is graded by measuring the time it takes for a standard amount of oil to flow through a standard orifice, at standard temperatures. The longer it takes, the higher the viscosity and thus higher SAE code.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe SAE has a separate viscosity rating system for gear, axle, and manual transmission oils, SAE J306, which should not be confused with engine oil viscosity. The higher numbers of a gear oil (e.g., 75W-140) do not mean that it has higher viscosity than an engine oil.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nIn anticipation of new lower engine oil viscosity grades, to avoid confusion with the \\\"winter\\\" grades of oil the SAE adopted SAE 16 as a standard to follow SAE 20 instead of SAE 15. \\nRegarding the change Michael Covitch of Lubrizol, Chair of the SAE International Engine Oil Viscosity Classification (EOVC) task force was quoted stating \\\"If we continued to count down from SAE 20 to 15 to 10, etc., we would be facing continuing customer confusion problems with popular low-temperature viscosity grades such as SAE 10W, SAE 5W, and SAE 0W,\\\" he noted. \\\"By choosing to call the new viscosity grade SAE 16, we established a precedent for future grades, counting down by fours instead of fives: SAE 12, SAE 8, SAE 4.\\\"\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nSingle-grade\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nA single-grade engine oil, as defined by SAE J300, cannot use a polymeric Viscosity Index Improver (also referred to as Viscosity Modifier) additive. SAE J300 has established eleven viscosity grades, of which six are considered Winter-grades and given a W designation. The 11 viscosity grades are 0W, 5W, 10W, 15W, 20W, 25W, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60. These numbers are often referred to as the \\\"weight\\\" of a motor oil, and single-grade motor oils are often called \\\"straight-weight\\\" oils.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nFor single winter grade oils, the dynamic viscosity is measured at different cold temperatures, specified in J300 depending on the viscosity grade, in units of mPa·s, or the equivalent older non-SI units, centipoise (abbreviated cP), using two different test methods. They are the Cold Cranking Simulator (ASTMD5293) and the Mini-Rotary Viscometer (ASTM D4684). Based on the coldest temperature the oil passes at, that oil is graded as SAE viscosity grade 0W, 5W, 10W, 15W, 20W, or 25W. The lower the viscosity grade, the lower the temperature the oil can pass. For example, if an oil passes at the specifications for 10W and 5W, but fails for 0W, then that oil must be labeled as an SAE 5W. That oil cannot be labeled as either 0W or 10W.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nFor single non-winter grade oils, the kinematic viscosity is measured at a temperature of 100 °C (212 °F) in units of mm2/s (millimeter squared per second) or the equivalent older non-SI units, centistokes (abbreviated cSt). Based on the range of viscosity the oil falls in at that temperature, the oil is graded as SAE viscosity grade 20, 30, 40, 50, or 60. In addition, for SAE grades 20, 30, and 1000, a minimum viscosity measured at 150 °C (302 °F) and at a high-shear rate is also required. The higher the viscosity, the higher the SAE viscosity grade is.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMulti-grade\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe temperature range the oil is exposed to in most vehicles can be wide, ranging from cold temperatures in the winter before the vehicle is started up, to hot operating temperatures when the vehicle is fully warmed up in hot summer weather. A specific oil will have high viscosity when cold and a lower viscosity at the engine's operating temperature. The difference in viscosities for most single-grade oil is too large between the extremes of temperature. To bring the difference in viscosities closer together, special polymer additives called viscosity index improvers, or VIIs are added to the oil. These additives are used to make the oil a multi-grade motor oil, though it is possible to have a multi-grade oil without the use of VIIs. The idea is to cause the multi-grade oil to have the viscosity of the base grade when cold and the viscosity of the second grade when hot. This enables one type of oil to be used all year. In fact, when multi-grades were initially developed, they were frequently described as all-season oil. The viscosity of a multi-grade oil still varies logarithmically with temperature, but the slope representing the change is lessened.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThis slope representing the change with temperature depends on the nature and amount of the additives to the base oil.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe SAE designation for multi-grade oils includes two viscosity grades; for example, 10W-30 designates a common multi-grade oil. The first number '10W' is the viscosity of the oil at cold temperature and the second number is the viscosity at 100 °C (212 °F). The two numbers used are individually defined by SAE J300 for single-grade oils. Therefore, an oil labeled as 10W-30 must pass the SAE J300 viscosity grade requirement for both 10W and 30, and all limitations placed on the viscosity grades (for example, a 10W-30 oil must fail the J300 requirements at 5W). Also, if an oil does not contain any VIIs, and can pass as a multi-grade, that oil can be labelled with either of the two SAE viscosity grades. For example, a very simple multi-grade oil that can be easily made with modern base oils without any VII is a 20W-20. This oil can be labeled as 20W-20, 20W, or 20. Note, if any VIIs are used however, then that oil cannot be labeled as a single grade.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nBreakdown of VIIs under shear is a concern in motorcycle applications, where the transmission may share lubricating oil with the motor. For this reason, synthetic oil or motorcycle-specific oil is sometimes recommended. The necessity of higher-priced motorcycle-specific oil has also been challenged by at least one consumer organization.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nStandards\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nAmerican Petroleum Institute (API)\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nEngine lubricants are evaluated against the American Petroleum Institute (API), SJ, SL, SM, SN, CH-4, CI-4, CI-4 PLUS and CJ-4 as well as International Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee (ILSAC) GF-3, GF-4 and GF-5, and Cummins, Mack and John Deere requirements. These evaluations include chemical and physical properties using bench test methods as well as actual running engine tests to quantify engine sludge, oxidation, component wear, oil consumption, piston deposits and fuel economy.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe API sets minimum for performance standards for lubricants. Motor oil is used for the lubrication, cooling, and cleaning of internal combustion engines. Motor oil may be composed of a lubricant base stock only in the case of non-detergent oil, or a lubricant base stock plus additives to improve the oil's detergency, extreme pressure performance, and ability to inhibit corrosion of engine parts.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nGroups:\\nLubricant base stocks are categorized into five groups by the API. Group I base stocks are composed of fractionally distilled petroleum which is further refined with solvent extraction processes to improve certain properties such as oxidation resistance and to remove wax. Group II base stocks are composed of fractionally distilled petroleum that has been hydrocracked to further refine and purify it. Group III base stocks have similar characteristics to Group II base stocks, except that Group III base stocks have higher viscosity indexes. Group III base stocks are produced by further hydrocracking of either Group II base stocks or hydroisomerized slack wax (a Group I and II dewaxing process by-product). Group IV base stock are polyalphaolefins (PAOs). Group V is a catch-all group for any base stock not described by Groups I to IV. Examples of group V base stocks include polyolesters (POE), polyalkylene glycols (PAG), and perfluoropolyalkylethers (PFPAEs). Groups I and II are commonly referred to as mineral oils, group III is typically referred to as synthetic (except in Germany and Japan, where they must not be called synthetic) and group IV is a synthetic oil.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nGroup V base oils are so diverse that there is no catch-all description.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe API service classes have two general classifications: S for \\\"service/spark ignition\\\" (typical passenger cars and light trucks using gasoline engines), and C for \\\"commercial/compression ignition\\\" (typical diesel equipment). Engine oil which has been tested and meets the API standards may display the API Service Symbol (also known as the \\\"Donut\\\") with the service designation on containers sold to oil users.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe latest API service standard designation is SN for gasoline automobile and light-truck engines. The SN standard refers to a group of laboratory and engine tests, including the latest series for control of high-temperature deposits. Current API service categories include SN, SM, SL and SJ for gasoline engines. All previous service designations are obsolete, although motorcycle oils commonly still use the SF/SG standard.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nAll the current gasoline categories (including the obsolete SH) have placed limitations on the phosphorus content for certain SAE viscosity grades (the xW-20, xW-30) due to the chemical poisoning that phosphorus has on catalytic converters. Phosphorus is a key anti-wear component in motor oil and is usually found in motor oil in the form of zinc dithiophosphate (ZDDP). Each new API category has placed successively lower phosphorus and zinc limits, and thus has created a controversial issue of obsolescent oils needed for older engines, especially engines with sliding (flat/cleave) tappets. API and ILSAC, which represents most of the world's major automobile/engine manufacturers, state API SM/ILSAC GF-4 is fully backwards compatible, and it is noted that one of the engine tests required for API SM, the Sequence IVA, is a sliding tappet design to test specifically for cam wear protection. Not everyone is in agreement with backwards compatibility, and in addition, there are special situations, such as \\\"performance\\\" engines or fully race built engines, where the engine protection requirements are above and beyond API/ILSAC requirements. Because of this, there are specialty oils out in the market place with higher than API allowed phosphorus levels.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMost engines built before 1985 have the flat/cleave bearing style systems of construction, which is sensitive to reducing zinc and phosphorus. For example, in API SG rated oils, this was at the 1200-1300 ppm level for zinc and phosphorus, where the current SM is under 600 ppm. This reduction in anti-wear chemicals in oil has caused premature failures of camshafts and other high pressure bearings in many older automobiles and has been blamed for premature failure of the oil pump drive/cam position sensor gear that is meshed with camshaft gear in some modern engines.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThere are three diesel engine service designations which are current: CJ-4, CI-4, and CH-4. Some manufacturers continue to use obsolete designations such as CC for small or stationary diesel engines. In addition, API created a separated CI-4 PLUS designation in conjunction with CJ-4 and CI-4 for oils that meet certain extra requirements, and this marking is located in the lower portion of the API Service Symbol \\\"Donut\\\".\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nIt is possible for an oil to conform to both the gasoline and diesel standards. In fact, it is the norm for all diesel rated engine oils to carry the \\\"corresponding\\\" gasoline specification. For example, API CJ-4 will almost always list either SL or SM, API CI-4 with SL, API CH-4 with SJ, and so on.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMotorcycle oil\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe API oil classification structure has eliminated specific support for wet-clutch motorcycle applications in their descriptors, and API SJ and newer oils are referred to be specific to automobile and light truck use. Accordingly, motorcycle oils are subject to their own unique standards. See JASO below. As discussed above, motorcycle oils commonly still use the obsolescent SF/SG standard.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nILSAC\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe International Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee (ILSAC) also has standards for motor oil. Introduced in 2004, GF-4 applies to SAE 0W-20, 5W-20, 0W-30, 5W-30, and 10W-30 viscosity grade oils. In general, ILSAC works with API in creating the newest gasoline oil specification, with ILSAC adding an extra requirement of fuel economy testing to their specification. For GF-4, a Sequence VIB Fuel Economy Test (ASTM D6837) is required that is not required in API service category SM.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nA key new test for GF-4, which is also required for API SM, is the Sequence IIIG, which involves running a 3.8 L (232 c.i.d.), GM 3.8 L V-6 at , 3,600 rpm, and 150 °C (300 °F) oil temperature for 100 hours. These are much more severe conditions than any API-specified oil was designed for: cars which typically push their oil temperature consistently above 100 °C (212 °F) are most turbocharged engines, along with most engines of European or Japanese origin, particularly small capacity, high power output.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe IIIG test is about 50% more difficult than the previous IIIF test, used in GF-3 and API SL oils. Engine oils bearing the API starburst symbol since 2005 are ILSAC GF-4 compliant.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nTo help consumers recognize that an oil meets the ILSAC requirements, API developed a \\\"starburst\\\" certification mark.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nA new set of specifications, GF-5, took effect in October 2010. The industry has one year to convert their oils to GF-5 and in September 2011, ILSAC will no longer offer licensing for GF-4.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nACEA\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe ACEA (Association des Constructeurs Européens d'Automobiles) performance/quality classifications A3/A5 tests used in Europe are arguably more stringent than the API and ILSAC standards. CEC (The Co-ordinating European Council) is the development body for fuel and lubricant testing in Europe and beyond, setting the standards via their European Industry groups; ACEA, ATIEL, ATC and CONCAWE.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nLubrizol, a supplier of additives to nearly all motor oil companies, hosts a Relative Performance Tool which directly compares the manufacturer and industry specs. Differences in their performance is apparent in the form of interactive spider graphs, which both expert and novice can appreciate.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nJASO\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe Japanese Automotive Standards Organization (JASO) has created their own set of performance and quality standards for petrol engines of Japanese origin.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nFor four-stroke gasoline engines, the JASO T904 standard is used, and is particularly relevant to motorcycle engines. The JASO T904-MA and MA2 standards are designed to distinguish oils that are approved for wet clutch use, with MA2 lubricants delivering higher friction performance. The JASO T904-MB standard denotes oils not suitable for wet clutch use, and are therefore used in scooters equipped with continuously variable transmissions. The addition of friction modifiers to JASO MB oils can contribute to greater fuel economy in these applications.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nFor two-stroke gasoline engines, the JASO M345 (FA, FB, FC, FD) standard is used, and this refers particularly to low ash, lubricity, detergency, low smoke and exhaust blocking.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThese standards, especially JASO-MA (for motorcycles) and JASO-FC, are designed to address oil-requirement issues not addressed by the API service categories. One element of the JASO-MA standard is a friction test designed to determine suitability for wet clutch usage. An oil that meets JASO-MA is considered appropriate for wet clutch operations. Oils marketed as motorcycle-specific will carry the JASO-MA label.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nASTM\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nA 1989 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) report stated that its 12-year effort to come up with a new high-temperature, high-shear (HTHS) standard was not successful. Referring to SAE J300, the basis for current grading standards, the report stated:\\nThe rapid growth of non-Newtonian multigraded oils has rendered kinematic viscosity as a nearly useless parameter for characterising \\\"real\\\" viscosity in critical zones of an engine... There are those who are disappointed that the twelve-year effort has not resulted in a redefinition of the SAE J300 Engine Oil Viscosity Classification document so as to express high-temperature viscosity of the various grades ... In the view of this writer, this redefinition did not occur because the automotive lubricant market knows of no field failures unambiguously attributable to insufficient HTHS oil viscosity.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nOther additives\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nIn addition to the viscosity index improvers, motor oil manufacturers often include other additives such as detergents and dispersants to help keep the engine clean by minimizing sludge buildup, corrosion inhibitors, and alkaline additives to neutralize acidic oxidation products of the oil. Most commercial oils have a minimal amount of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate as an anti-wear additive to protect contacting metal surfaces with zinc and other compounds in case of metal to metal contact. The quantity of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate is limited to minimize adverse effect on catalytic converters. Another aspect for after-treatment devices is the deposition of oil ash, which increases the exhaust back pressure and reduces fuel economy over time. The so-called \\\"chemical box\\\" limits today the concentrations of sulfur, ash and phosphorus (SAP).\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThere are other additives available commercially which can be added to the oil by the user for purported additional benefit. Some of these additives include:\\n* EP additives, like zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) additives and sulfonates, preferably calcium sulfonates, are available to consumers for additional protection under extreme-pressure conditions or in heavy duty performance situations. Calcium sulfonates additives are also added to protect motor oil from oxidative breakdown and to prevent the formation of sludge and varnish deposits. Both were the main basis of additive packages used by lubricant manufacturers up until the 1990s when the need for ashless additives arose. Main advantage was very low price and wide availability (sulfonates were originally waste byproducts). Currently there are ashless oil lubricants without these additives, which can only fulfill the qualities of the previous generation with more expensive basestock and more expensive organic or organometallic additive compounds. Some new oils are not formulated to provide the level of protection of previous generations to save manufacturing costs. Lately API specifications reflect that\\n* Some molybdenum disulfide containing additives to lubricating oils are claimed to reduce friction, bond to metal, or have anti-wear properties.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMoS2 particles can be shear-welded on steel surface and some engine components were even treated with MoS2 layer during manufacture, namely liners in engines. (Trabant for example). They were used in World War II in flight engines and became commercial after World War II until the 1990s. They were commercialized in the 1970s (ELF ANTAR Molygraphite) and are today still available (Liqui Moly MoS2 10 W-40, www.liqui-moly.de). Main disadvantage of molybdenum disulfide is anthracite black color, so oil treated with it is hard to distinguish from a soot filled engine oil with metal shavings from spun crankshaft bearing. * In the 1980s and 1990s, additives with suspended PTFE particles were available, e.g., \\\"Slick50\\\", to consumers to increase motor oil's ability to coat and protect metal surfaces. There is controversy as to the actual effectiveness of these products, as they can coagulate and clog the oil filter and tiny oil passages in the engine. It is supposed to work under boundary lubricating conditions, which good engine designs tend to avoid anyway. Also, Teflon alone has little to no ability to firmly stick on a sheared surface, unlike molybdenum disulfide, for example. * Various extreme-pressure (EP) additives and antiwear additives.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\n* Many patents proposed use perfluoropolymers to reduce friction between metal parts, such as PTFE (Teflon), or micronized PTFE. However, the application obstacle of PTFE is insolubility in lubricant oils. Their application is questionable and depends mainly on the engine design — one that can not maintain reasonable lubricating conditions might benefit, while properly designed engine with oil film thick enough would not see any difference. PTFE is a very soft material, thus its friction coefficient becomes worse than that of hardened steel-to-steel mating surfaces under common loads. PTFE is used in composition of sliding bearings where it improves lubrication under relatively light load until the oil pressure builds up to full hydrodynamic lubricating conditions.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nEP additives may be incompatible with some motorcycles which share wet clutch lubrication with the engine.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nEnvironmental effects\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nDue to its chemical composition, world-wide dispersion and effects on the environment, used motor oil is considered a serious environmental problem. Most current motor oil lubricants contain petroleum base stocks, which are toxic to the environment and difficult to dispose of after use. Over 40% of the pollution in America's waterways is from used motor oil. Used oil is considered the largest source of oil pollution in the U.S. harbor and waterways, at 385 million gallons per year, mostly from improper disposal. By far, the greatest cause of motor oil pollution in our oceans comes from drains and urban street runoff, much of which is from improper disposal of engine oil. One gallon of used oil can create an eight-acre slick on surface water, threatening fish, waterfowl and other aquatic life. According to the U.S. EPA, films of oil on the surface of water prevent the replenishment of dissolved oxygen, impair photosynthetic processes, and block sunlight. Toxic effects of used oil on freshwater and marine organisms vary, but significant long-term effects have been found at concentrations of 310 ppm in several freshwater fish species and as low as 1 ppm in marine life forms.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMotor oil can have an incredibly detrimental effect on the environment, particularly to plants that depend on healthy soil to grow. There are three main ways that motor oil affects plants: contaminating water supplies, contaminating soil, and poisoning plants. Used motor oil dumped on land reduces soil productivity. Improperly disposed used oil ends up in landfills, sewers, backyards, or storm drains where soil, groundwater and drinking water may be contaminated.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nSynthetic oils\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nSynthetic lubricants were first synthesized, or man-made, in significant quantities as replacements for mineral lubricants (and fuels) by German scientists in the late 1930s and early 1940s because of their lack of sufficient quantities of crude for their (primarily military) needs. A significant factor in its gain in popularity was the ability of synthetic-based lubricants to remain fluid in the sub-zero temperatures of the Eastern front in wintertime, temperatures which caused petroleum-based lubricants to solidify owing to their higher wax content. The use of synthetic lubricants widened through the 1950s and 1960s owing to a property at the other end of the temperature spectrum, the ability to lubricate aviation engines at temperatures that caused mineral-based lubricants to break down. In the mid-1970s, synthetic motor oils were formulated and commercially applied for the first time in automotive applications. The same SAE system for designating motor oil viscosity also applies to synthetic oils. A common problem encountered when people began switching to synthetic oils was leakage. Owners of cars, especially older and vintage automobiles, found that their cars, that did not leak using conventional oils, suddenly had leaks all over with the synthetic oils.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThis remains a problem, although it has encouraged many vintage car owners to investigate newer technology oil seals for their engines so that they can take advantage of the properties of synthetic oils. Synthetic oil makers have not addressed the leakage problem in a forthright manner, and this has caused suspicion by many consumers that synthetic oils are merely another overpriced oil scam.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nSynthetic oils are derived from either Group III, Group IV, or some Group V bases. Synthetics include classes of lubricants like synthetic esters as well as \\\"others\\\" like GTL (Methane Gas-to-Liquid) (Group V) and polyalpha-olefins (Group IV). Higher purity and therefore better property control theoretically means synthetic oil has better mechanical properties at extremes of high and low temperatures. The molecules are made large and \\\"soft\\\" enough to retain good viscosity at higher temperatures, yet branched molecular structures interfere with solidification and therefore allow flow at lower temperatures. Thus, although the viscosity still decreases as temperature increases, these synthetic motor oils have a higher viscosity index over the traditional petroleum base. Their specially designed properties allow a wider temperature range at higher and lower temperatures and often include a lower pour point. With their improved viscosity index, synthetic oils need lower levels of viscosity index improvers, which are the oil components most vulnerable to thermal and mechanical degradation as the oil ages, and thus they do not degrade as quickly as traditional motor oils.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nHowever, they still fill up with particulate matter, although the matter better suspends within the oil, and the oil filter still fills and clogs up over time. So, periodic oil and filter changes should still be done with synthetic oil; but some synthetic oil suppliers suggest that the intervals between oil changes can be longer, sometimes as long as 16,000-24,000 km (10,000–15,000 mi) primarily due to reduced degradation by oxidation.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nTests show that fully synthetic oil is superior in extreme service conditions to conventional oil, and may perform better for longer under standard conditions. But in the vast majority of vehicle applications, mineral oil based lubricants, fortified with additives and with the benefit of over a century of development, continue to be the predominant lubricant for most internal combustion engine applications.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nBio-based oils\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nBio-based oils existed prior to the development of petroleum-based oils in the 19th century. They have become the subject of renewed interest with the advent of bio-fuels and the push for green products. The development of canola-based motor oils began in 1996 in order to pursue environmentally friendly products. Purdue University has funded a project to develop and test such oils. Test results indicate satisfactory performance from the oils tested. A review on the status of bio-based motor oils and base oils globally, as well as in the U.S, shows how bio-based lubricants show promise in augmenting the current petroleum-based supply of lubricating materials, as well as replacing it in many cases.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe USDA National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research developed an Estolide lubricant technology made from vegetable and animal oils. Estolides have shown great promise in a wide range of applications, including engine lubricants. Working with the USDA, a California-based company Biosynthetic Technologies has developed a high performance “drop-in” biosynthetic oil using Estolide technology for use in motor oils and industrial lubricants. This biosynthetic oil American Petroleum Institute (API) has the potential to greatly reduce environmental challenges associated with petroleum. Independent testing not only shows biosynthetic oils to be among the highest-rated products for protecting engines and machinery; they are also bio-based, biodegradable, non-toxic and do not bioaccumulate in marine organisms. Also, motor oils and lubricants formulated with biosynthetic base oils can be recycled and re-refined with petroleum-based oils. The U.S.-based company Green Earth Technologies manufactures a bio-based motor oil, called G-Oil, made from animal oils.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMaintenance\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe oil and the oil filter need to be periodically replaced. While there is a full industry surrounding regular oil changes and maintenance, an oil change is a fairly simple operation that most car owners can do themselves.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nIn engines, there is some exposure of the oil to products of internal combustion, and microscopic coke particles from black soot accumulate in the oil during operation. Also the rubbing of metal engine parts produces some microscopic metallic particles from the wearing of the surfaces. Such particles could circulate in the oil and grind against the part surfaces causing wear. The oil filter removes many of the particles and sludge, but eventually the oil filter can become clogged, if used for extremely long periods.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe motor oil and especially the additives also undergo thermal and mechanical degradation, which reduce the viscosity and reserve alkalinity of the oil. At reduced viscosity, the oil is not as capable of lubricating the engine, thus increasing wear and the chance of overheating. Reserve alkalinity is the ability of the oil to resist formation of acids. Should the reserve alkalinity decline to zero, those acids form and corrode the engine.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nSome engine manufacturers specify which SAE viscosity grade of oil should be used, but different viscosity motor oil may perform better based on the operating environment. Many manufacturers have varying requirements and have designations for motor oil they require to be used. In general, unless specified by the manufacturer, heavier weight oils are not necessarily better than lighter weight oils; heavy oils tend to stick longer to parts between two moving surfaces, and this degrades the oil faster than a lighter weight oil that flows better, allowing fresh oil in its place sooner. Cold weather has a thickening effect on conventional oil, and this is one reason lighter weight oils are manufacturer recommended in places with cold winters.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMotor oil changes are usually scheduled based on the time in service or the distance that the vehicle has traveled.These are rough indications of the real factors that control when an oil change is appropriate, which include how long the oil has been run at elevated temperatures, how many heating cycles the engine has been through, and how hard the engine has worked. The vehicle distance is intended to estimate the time at high temperature, while the time in service is supposed to correlate with the number of vehicle trips and capture the number of heating cycles. Oil does not degrade significantly just sitting in a cold engine. On the other hand, if a car is driven just for very short distances, the oil is not allowed to fully heat-up, and contaminants such as water accumulates in the oil, due to lack of sufficient heat to boil off the water. Oil of this nature, just sitting in an engine, can cause problems.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nAlso important is the quality of the oil used, especially with synthetics (synthetics are more stable than conventional oils). Some manufacturers address this (for example, BMW and VW with their respective long-life standards), while others do not.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nTime-based intervals account for the short-trip drivers who drive short distances, which build up more contaminants. Manufacturers advise to not exceed their time or distance-driven interval for a motor oil change. Many modern cars now list somewhat higher intervals for changing oil and filter, with the constraint of \\\"severe\\\" service requiring more frequent changes with less-than ideal driving. This applies to short trips of under 15 km (10 mi), where the oil does not get to full operating temperature long enough to burn off condensation, excess fuel, and other contamination that leads to \\\"sludge\\\", \\\"varnish\\\", \\\"acids\\\", or other deposits. Many manufacturers have engine computer calculations to estimate the oil's condition based on the factors which degrade it, such as RPM, temperatures, and trip length; one system adds an optical sensor for determining the clarity of the oil in the engine. These systems are commonly known as Oil Life Monitors or OLMs.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nSome quick oil change shops recommended intervals of 5,000 km (3,000 mi) or every three months, which is not necessary, according to many automobile manufacturers. This has led to a campaign by the California EPA against the 3,000 mile myth, promoting vehicle manufacturer's recommendations for oil change intervals over those of the oil change industry. This is still an active debate within the industry however and service technicians still recommend 3000 or 5000 miles service intervals in the conservative North American market, as it suits the customer to have their vehicle inspected regularly in order to prevent larger problems from developing (for example slight coolant leaks left unnoticed could lead to an overheat condition). Also, in many vehicles engine \\\"sludge\\\" from longer oil change intervals has become a problem and led to very costly repairs sometimes including complete engine overhauls. Oil consumption is also a problem when using longer intervals and vehicle owners need to be aware of this and check their oil levels regularly. the average percentage of loss in the oil is around 12% to 14% according to many automobile manufactures .Severe engine damage will result from running the oil level too low.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nOn top of that many manufactures are now using turbochargers and lack of proper lubrication is the primary cause of premature turbo failure. This lack of lubrication can be caused by sludge build up in the oil lines causing restriction of flow and/or simply low oil levels.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe engine user can, in replacing the oil, adjust the viscosity for the ambient temperature change, thicker for summer heat and thinner for the winter cold. Lower viscosity oils are common in newer vehicles.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nBy the mid-1980s, recommended viscosities had moved down to 10W-30, primarily to improve fuel efficiency. A modern typical application would be Honda motor's use of 5W-20 (and on their newest vehicles, 0W-20) viscosity oil for 12,000 km (7,500 mi). Engine designs are evolving to allow the use of low-viscosity oils without the risk of excessive metal-to-metal abrasion, principally in the cam and valve mechanism.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nFuture\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nA new process to break down polyethylene, a common plastic product found in many consumer containers, is used to make a paraffin-like wax with the correct molecular properties for conversion into a lubricant, bypassing the expensive Fischer-Tropsch process. The plastic is melted and then pumped into a furnace. The heat of the furnace breaks down the molecular chains of polyethylene into wax. Finally, the wax is subjected to a catalytic process that alters the wax's molecular structure, leaving a clear oil.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nBiodegradable Motor Oils based on esters or hydrocarbon-ester blends appeared in the 1990s followed by formulations beginning in 2000 which respond to the bio-no-tox-criteria of the European preparations directive (EC/1999/45). This means, that they not only are biodegradable according to OECD 301x test methods, but also the aquatic toxicities (fish, algae, daphnie) are each above 100 mg/L.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nAnother class of base oils suited for engine oil are the polyalkylene glycols. They offer zero-ash, bio-no-tox properties and lean burn characteristics.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nRe-refined motor oil\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThe oil in a motor oil product does break down and burns as it is used in an engine — it also gets contaminated with particles and chemicals that make it a less effective lubricant. Re-refining cleans the contaminants and used additives out of the dirty oil. From there, this clean \\\"base stock\\\" is blended with some virgin base stock and a new additives package to make a finished lubricant product that can be just as effective as lubricants made with all-virgin oil. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines re-refined products as containing at least 25% re-refined base stock, but other standards are significantly higher. The California State public contract code defines a re-refined motor oil as one that contains at least 70% re-refined base stock.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nPackaging\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nMotor oils were sold at retail in glass bottles, metal cans and metal/cardboard cans, before the advent of the current polyethylene plastic bottle, which began to appear in the early 1980s. Reusable spouts were made separately from the cans; with a piercing point like that of a can opener, these spouts could be used to puncture the top of the can and to provide an easy way to pour the oil.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nToday, motor oil is generally sold in bottles of either 1 U.S. quart (946mL) or 1L as well as in larger plastic containers ranging from approximately due to most small to mid-size engines requiring around of engine oil.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nThere is a growing trend to sell motor oil in flexible packaging, for instance stand-up pouches.\",\n \"Motor oil\\n\\nDistribution to larger users (such as drive-through oil change shops) is often in bulk, by tanker truck or in 1 oilbbl drums.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137399,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2890"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Jiminy Jillickers! Ultimately played by Milhouse, what is the name of Radioactive Man's sidekick?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Fallout Boy"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["fallout boy disambiguation","fallout boy"],"string":"[\n \"fallout boy disambiguation\",\n \"fallout boy\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\n\"Radioactive Man\" is the second episode of The Simpsons seventh season. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 24, 1995. The episode sees the film version of the comic book series Radioactive Man set up production in Springfield. Much to Bart's disappointment, the part of the hero's sidekick, Fallout Boy, goes not to him, but to Milhouse. Milhouse, however, hates acting, so he quits the role and leaves the set, forcing the producers of the film to shut down production and go back to Hollywood.","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nThe episode was written by John Swartzwelder, and directed by Susie Dietter. Mickey Rooney guest starred as himself in the episode. \"Radioactive Man\" was the first episode of The Simpsons to be digitally colored. The episode features cultural references to the Batman television series, the 1995 film Waterworld, and the song \"Lean on Me\" by Bill Withers. Since airing, the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 9.5, and was the fourth highest-rated show on the Fox network that week.","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nPlot","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nBart and Milhouse are thrilled to hear that a film version of their favorite comic book series, Radioactive Man, is in production. Rainier Wolfcastle, the star of the McBain films, is chosen to play Radioactive Man, and even more excitingly for the Springfield Elementary School children, the production moves to their town. A search is launched for a young actor to play Radioactive Man's sidekick Fallout Boy, and Bart auditions. Bart does well, but is rejected because he is an inch too short. Milhouse gets the part, albeit reluctantly, under pressure from his greedy parents.","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nA despondent Bart is told by Lisa that he is still needed as Milhouse's friend and confidant, and Bart eagerly accepts this new role. However, Milhouse finds his own job intolerable and disappears, right during the filming of the most expensive scene in the movie. The film is suspended while the townspeople search for Milhouse. Eventually Bart finds him in the tree house, and despite encouragement from former child star Mickey Rooney, Milhouse gives up on his acting career. Mickey Rooney tried to take over as Fallout Boy; however, all production on the film is aborted, with the project bankrupt, thanks to price gouging and other unscrupulous conduct by the people of Springfield. Despite Rooney's stern lecture about their greed, Mayor Quimby insists the townspeople can not give any of the directors' money back to them, so with their film cancelled, the directors return to Hollywood — \"where people treat each other right\".","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nProduction","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nThe episode was written by John Swartzwelder, and directed by Susie Dietter. When Dietter read through his first script, she did not find it very funny because of all the visual gags. Once the animatic was finished, her opinion changed, and she thought to herself: \"Hey, this is really funny!\".","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nThis is the first episode of The Simpsons to be digitally colored. The duties of that task went to USAnimation, who would later work on \"The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular\". Digital coloring would not be attempted again until season 12's \"Tennis the Menace\", and again in season 14's \"Treehouse of Horror XIII\". The show permanently switched to digital coloring later in that same season, beginning with \"The Great Louse Detective\".","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nMickey Rooney guest starred as himself in the episode. Nancy Cartwright recalls in her autobiography My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy that Rooney recorded his lines with the other actors. Although he was late for the session, she comments that he was \"so full of pep\" and very enthusiastic about the role.","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nCultural references","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nThe Radioactive Man character is based on Batman, and several scenes in the episode reference the Batman television series from the 1960s. The antagonist of the Radioactive Man films, The Scoutmaster, is based on actor/comedian, Paul Lynde. The scene in the new Radioactive Man film where Radioactive Man and Fallout Boy are captured in Aquaworld is a reference to the 1995 film Waterworld. The director of the Radioactive Man film says: \"That Milhouse is going to be big, Gabby Hayes big!\", in reference to the American actor Gabby Hayes. Moe Szyslak, the bartender of Moe's Tavern, says that he, as a kid, played the part of Smelly on The Little Rascals, until he killed Alfalfa for stealing his joke. Bill Withers's song \"Lean on Me\" from 1972 is played at the end of the episode.","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nIn one scene, Comic Book Guy sends a message to other Internet nerds about who will star in the new Radioactive Man film, two of whom are the nerds Homer met in \"Homer Goes to College\", and one is Prince dressed in a purple suit. The last nerd is Curtis Armstrong with an appearance resembling his Revenge of the Nerds character Booger. The usenet newsgroup which he posts the message to (alt.nerd.obsessive) is a reference to the alt.tv.simpsons newsgroup.","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nReception","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nIn its original American broadcast, \"Radioactive Man\" finished 51st in the ratings for the week of September 18 to September 24, 1995. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 9.5. Retrieved on November 30, 2008. The episode was the fourth highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following The X-Files, Beverly Hills, 90210 and Melrose Place. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called the episode a \"wonderful pastiche\" on the Tim Burton Batman films, and added that Milhouse is an obvious candidate for Fallout Boy. DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode, but he does not consider it a \"classic\". He said that it offers \"more than a few amusing bits\", and added that \"spoofing the movie business isn't anything new, but the show does it well in this solid program.\" Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be when Krusty tries to prove the \"range\" of different characters he can do to the casting director.","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nThe website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of A-.","Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\nNancy Basile of About.com named it one of her twenty favorite episodes of the show, and said that she thinks the friendship between Bart and Milhouse in the episode is \"endearing\" and \"touching\". She added that she thinks the episode \"pokes fun at Hollywood very effectively\", and that \"To top it off, funny favorite characters Rainier Wolfcastle [...] and Lionel Hutz are also in the episode.\" Graham Beckwith of The Lantern singled out Rainier Wolfcastle's line \"My eyes! The goggles do nothing!\" from the episode as one of The Simpsons \"greatest one liners\". Total Films Nathan Ditum ranked Rooney's performance as the eighth-best guest appearance in the show's history, commenting that he is \"desperately funny and self-effacing as a parody of his fallen child-star self.\""],"string":"[\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\n\\\"Radioactive Man\\\" is the second episode of The Simpsons seventh season. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 24, 1995. The episode sees the film version of the comic book series Radioactive Man set up production in Springfield. Much to Bart's disappointment, the part of the hero's sidekick, Fallout Boy, goes not to him, but to Milhouse. Milhouse, however, hates acting, so he quits the role and leaves the set, forcing the producers of the film to shut down production and go back to Hollywood.\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nThe episode was written by John Swartzwelder, and directed by Susie Dietter. Mickey Rooney guest starred as himself in the episode. \\\"Radioactive Man\\\" was the first episode of The Simpsons to be digitally colored. The episode features cultural references to the Batman television series, the 1995 film Waterworld, and the song \\\"Lean on Me\\\" by Bill Withers. Since airing, the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 9.5, and was the fourth highest-rated show on the Fox network that week.\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nPlot\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nBart and Milhouse are thrilled to hear that a film version of their favorite comic book series, Radioactive Man, is in production. Rainier Wolfcastle, the star of the McBain films, is chosen to play Radioactive Man, and even more excitingly for the Springfield Elementary School children, the production moves to their town. A search is launched for a young actor to play Radioactive Man's sidekick Fallout Boy, and Bart auditions. Bart does well, but is rejected because he is an inch too short. Milhouse gets the part, albeit reluctantly, under pressure from his greedy parents.\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nA despondent Bart is told by Lisa that he is still needed as Milhouse's friend and confidant, and Bart eagerly accepts this new role. However, Milhouse finds his own job intolerable and disappears, right during the filming of the most expensive scene in the movie. The film is suspended while the townspeople search for Milhouse. Eventually Bart finds him in the tree house, and despite encouragement from former child star Mickey Rooney, Milhouse gives up on his acting career. Mickey Rooney tried to take over as Fallout Boy; however, all production on the film is aborted, with the project bankrupt, thanks to price gouging and other unscrupulous conduct by the people of Springfield. Despite Rooney's stern lecture about their greed, Mayor Quimby insists the townspeople can not give any of the directors' money back to them, so with their film cancelled, the directors return to Hollywood — \\\"where people treat each other right\\\".\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nProduction\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nThe episode was written by John Swartzwelder, and directed by Susie Dietter. When Dietter read through his first script, she did not find it very funny because of all the visual gags. Once the animatic was finished, her opinion changed, and she thought to herself: \\\"Hey, this is really funny!\\\".\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nThis is the first episode of The Simpsons to be digitally colored. The duties of that task went to USAnimation, who would later work on \\\"The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular\\\". Digital coloring would not be attempted again until season 12's \\\"Tennis the Menace\\\", and again in season 14's \\\"Treehouse of Horror XIII\\\". The show permanently switched to digital coloring later in that same season, beginning with \\\"The Great Louse Detective\\\".\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nMickey Rooney guest starred as himself in the episode. Nancy Cartwright recalls in her autobiography My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy that Rooney recorded his lines with the other actors. Although he was late for the session, she comments that he was \\\"so full of pep\\\" and very enthusiastic about the role.\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nCultural references\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nThe Radioactive Man character is based on Batman, and several scenes in the episode reference the Batman television series from the 1960s. The antagonist of the Radioactive Man films, The Scoutmaster, is based on actor/comedian, Paul Lynde. The scene in the new Radioactive Man film where Radioactive Man and Fallout Boy are captured in Aquaworld is a reference to the 1995 film Waterworld. The director of the Radioactive Man film says: \\\"That Milhouse is going to be big, Gabby Hayes big!\\\", in reference to the American actor Gabby Hayes. Moe Szyslak, the bartender of Moe's Tavern, says that he, as a kid, played the part of Smelly on The Little Rascals, until he killed Alfalfa for stealing his joke. Bill Withers's song \\\"Lean on Me\\\" from 1972 is played at the end of the episode.\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nIn one scene, Comic Book Guy sends a message to other Internet nerds about who will star in the new Radioactive Man film, two of whom are the nerds Homer met in \\\"Homer Goes to College\\\", and one is Prince dressed in a purple suit. The last nerd is Curtis Armstrong with an appearance resembling his Revenge of the Nerds character Booger. The usenet newsgroup which he posts the message to (alt.nerd.obsessive) is a reference to the alt.tv.simpsons newsgroup.\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nReception\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nIn its original American broadcast, \\\"Radioactive Man\\\" finished 51st in the ratings for the week of September 18 to September 24, 1995. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 9.5. Retrieved on November 30, 2008. The episode was the fourth highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following The X-Files, Beverly Hills, 90210 and Melrose Place. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called the episode a \\\"wonderful pastiche\\\" on the Tim Burton Batman films, and added that Milhouse is an obvious candidate for Fallout Boy. DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode, but he does not consider it a \\\"classic\\\". He said that it offers \\\"more than a few amusing bits\\\", and added that \\\"spoofing the movie business isn't anything new, but the show does it well in this solid program.\\\" Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be when Krusty tries to prove the \\\"range\\\" of different characters he can do to the casting director.\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nThe website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of A-.\",\n \"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\\n\\nNancy Basile of About.com named it one of her twenty favorite episodes of the show, and said that she thinks the friendship between Bart and Milhouse in the episode is \\\"endearing\\\" and \\\"touching\\\". She added that she thinks the episode \\\"pokes fun at Hollywood very effectively\\\", and that \\\"To top it off, funny favorite characters Rainier Wolfcastle [...] and Lionel Hutz are also in the episode.\\\" Graham Beckwith of The Lantern singled out Rainier Wolfcastle's line \\\"My eyes! The goggles do nothing!\\\" from the episode as one of The Simpsons \\\"greatest one liners\\\". Total Films Nathan Ditum ranked Rooney's performance as the eighth-best guest appearance in the show's history, commenting that he is \\\"desperately funny and self-effacing as a parody of his fallen child-star self.\\\"\"\n]","isConversational":false}}}],"truncated":false,"partial":false},"paginationData":{"pageIndex":1373,"numItemsPerPage":100,"numTotalItems":138384,"offset":137300,"length":100}},"jwt":"eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSIsImtpZCI6IjVHZDBvd0g5MTM2eDZjc1FvbE1zcktNWUZoRVFoUm5PVVVybEpjOUhaUEEifQ.eyJyZWFkIjp0cnVlLCJwZXJtaXNzaW9ucyI6eyJyZXBvLmNvbnRlbnQucmVhZCI6dHJ1ZX0sImlhdCI6MTc4OTgzMzk1NSwianRpIjoiMjhhM2IzNGUtMDc3OC00YmEzLWFmZDMtMzdkZjYzMWJkMjU2Iiwic3ViIjoiL2RhdGFzZXRzL01lbW9yeUFzTW9kYWxpdHkvVHJpdmlhUUEiLCJleHAiOjE3ODk4Mzc1NTUsImlzcyI6Imh0dHBzOi8vaHVnZ2luZ2ZhY2UuY28ifQ.i0HE5kYeNF7rldr6zY_F-SCISpnr0JXdKiNA7yY2GWn0mX8NZtDmO88A6DRFJCylDJKuaLZrjkKwGLqUwas3Ag","displayUrls":true,"splitSizeSummaries":[{"config":"default","split":"train","numRows":138384,"numBytesParquet":4149441207},{"config":"default","split":"validation","numRows":17944,"numBytesParquet":531588839},{"config":"default","split":"test","numRows":17210,"numBytesParquet":506953567}]},"discussionsStats":{"closed":0,"open":0,"total":0},"fullWidth":true,"hasGatedAccess":true,"hasFullAccess":true,"isEmbedded":false,"savedQueries":{"community":[],"user":[]}}">
id stringlengths 4 10 | question stringlengths 18 1.2k | answer stringlengths 1 179 | answer_aliases listlengths 0 358 | documents listlengths 1 1.63k |
|---|---|---|---|---|
qg_2706 | Which now defunct company operated the luxury liner Titanic? | White Star | [
"white star disambiguation",
"white star",
"whitestar"
] | [
"Ocean liner\n\nAn ocean liner is a ship designed to transport people from one seaport to another along regular long-distance maritime routes according to a schedule. Liners may also carry cargo or mail, and may sometimes be used for other purposes (e.g., for pleasure cruises or as hospital ships).",
"Ocean liner... |
qg_2707 | Named for the developer of the steel plow, what Moline, Il. company is the world's largest producer of agricultural machinery in the world? | John Deere | [
"green magazine",
"john deere",
"john deere harvester works",
"john deere company",
"deere and company",
"deere company",
"john deere and co",
"deere co",
"charles deere"
] | [
"Plough\n\nA plough (UK) or plow (US; both) is a tool or farm implement used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed or planting to loosen or turn the soil. Ploughs are traditionally drawn by working animals such as horses or cattle, but in modern times may be drawn by tractors. A ... |
qg_2710 | How many days in a fortnight? | 14 | [
"fourteen"
] | [
"Fortnight\n\nA fortnight is a unit of time equal to 14 days (2 weeks). The word derives from the , meaning \"\".",
"Fortnight\n\nFortnight and fortnightly are commonly used words in the English-speaking world. Some wages, salaries, and social security benefits are paid on a fortnightly basis; however in North Am... |
qg_2714 | Hiroshima was the first city to feel the effects of an atomic bomb. What Japanese city was next to be visited on Aug 9, 1945? | Nagasaki | [
"nagasaki bay",
"nagasaki",
"nagasaki japan",
"nagasaki city",
"nagasaki bay disambiguation",
"nagahsaki",
"nagasaki nagasaki",
"nagasaki shi",
"長崎",
"nagaskaki",
"nagazaki"
] | [
"Hiroshima\n\n() is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture and the largest city in the Chūgoku region of western Honshu - the largest island of Japan. The city's name, 広島, means \"Broad Island\" in Japanese. Hiroshima gained city status on April 1, 1889. On April 1, 1980, Hiroshima became a designated city. , the city... |
qg_2715 | If Lady is a pedigree American Cocker Spaniel, what is the name of the mongrel? | Tramp | [
"tramp",
"tramps"
] | [
"American Cocker Spaniel\n\nThe American Cocker Spaniel is a breed of sporting dog. It is a spaniel type dog that is closely related to the English Cocker Spaniel; the two breeds diverged during the 20th century due to differing breed standards in America and the UK. In the United States, the breed is usually calle... |
qg_2716 | August 16, 1977 saw the passing of what singing legend, found on the floor of his bathroom? | Elvis Presley | [
"elivs",
"gladys love presley",
"apron strings",
"elvis aaron presley",
"elvis presly",
"elvis aaron pressley",
"king actor singer",
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"elvisesque",
"mr aaron",
"elvis pres ey",
"jesse presley",
"elvis aron presley",
"lovely mamie",
"keep your hands off of i... | [
"Elvis Presley\n\nElvis Aaron Presley (January 8, 1935 – August 16, 1977) was an American musician and actor. Regarded as one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century, he is often referred to as \"the King of Rock and Roll\", or simply, \"the King\".",
"Elvis Presley\n\nPresley was born in Tupel... |
qg_2718 | What is the name of the seismic fault line that runs for about 800 miles in California? | San Andreas Fault | [
"san andreas faultline",
"san andreas fault zone",
"san andreas fault",
"san andreas rift",
"san andreas fault line",
"san andres fault"
] | [
"California\n\nCalifornia ( , ) is the most populous state in the United States. It is also the third most extensive by area. Los Angeles, in Southern California, is the state's most populous city and the country's second largest after New York City. California also includes the nation's most populous county, Los A... |
qg_2721 | What airline, the world’s largest, uses Atlanta’s Hartsfield-Jackson Airport as its’ US hub? | Delta | [
"delta film",
"delta",
"delta album",
"delta video",
"delta disambiguation",
"delta dvd"
] | [
"Airline\n\nAn airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating cer... |
qg_2722 | What is the subject of the latest PBS documentary by Ken Burns, which will premiere on public television later this month? | The National Parks | [
"ken burns national parks",
"national parks",
"untold stories of national parks",
"national parks america s best idea"
] | [
"Ken Burns\n\nKenneth Lauren \"Ken\" Burns (born July 29, 1953) is an American filmmaker, known for his style of using archival footage and photographs in documentary films. His most widely known documentaries are The Civil War (1990), Baseball (1994), Jazz (2001), The War (2007), The National Parks: America's Bes... |
qg_2724 | Suzette Charles of New Jersey became Miss America 1984 because of the resignation of the actual winner. Whom did she replace? | Vanessa Williams | [
"williams vanessa",
"vanessa williams singer",
"vanessa williams actress",
"vanessa williams disambiguation",
"venessa williams",
"vanessa williams",
"vannessa williams"
] | [
"Suzette Charles\n\nSuzette Charles (born Suzette DeGaetano, March 2, 1963) is an American singer, entertainer, and actress. She was Miss New Jersey in 1983, and served as Miss America 1984 for seven weeks after Vanessa Williams was forced to resign from the position that July.",
"Suzette Charles\n\nEarly life",
... |
qg_2726 | What was the pseudonym of the Far Eastern despot Saloth Sar? | Pol Pot | [
"brother number one",
"paul pot",
"general secretary of communist party of communist party of kampuchea",
"polpot",
"sar saloth",
"saloth sar",
"saloth sar pol pot",
"pot pol",
"saloth sar pole pot",
"pole pot",
"pol pot",
"brother number 1"
] | [
"Dictator\n\nA dictator is a ruler who wields absolute authority. A state ruled by a dictator is called a dictatorship. The word originated as the title of a magistrate in the Roman Republic appointed by the Senate to rule the republic in times of emergency (see Roman dictator and justitium).",
"Dictator\n\nLike ... |
qg_2730 | May 10, 1869 Promontory Summit, Utah, saw the driving of what historic object, still celebrated on the back of the Utah state quarter? | Golden Spike | [
"golden spike day",
"golden spike"
] | [
"Promontory, Utah\n\nPromontory in Box Elder County, Utah, United States is an area of high ground 32 mi west of Brigham City, Utah and 66 mi northwest of Salt Lake City. Rising to an elevation of 4902 ft above sea level, it lies to the north of the Promontory Mountains and the Great Salt Lake. It is notable as th... |
qg_2731 | Colonel Tom Parker, the Colonel being an honorary title only, made his mark managing what entertainer? | Elvis Presley | [
"elivs",
"gladys love presley",
"apron strings",
"elvis aaron presley",
"elvis presly",
"elvis aaron pressley",
"king actor singer",
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"elvisesque",
"mr aaron",
"elvis pres ey",
"jesse presley",
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"lovely mamie",
"keep your hands off of i... | [
"Colonel Tom Parker\n\nThomas Andrew \"Colonel Tom\" Parker (born Andreas Cornelis van Kuijk; June 26, 1909 – January 21, 1997) was a Dutch-born American talent manager, best known as the manager of Elvis Presley. His management of Presley defined the role of masterminding talent management, which involved every f... |
qg_2732 | August 15th, 1969 saw the opening of 3 day music festival on Max Yasgurs farm that became known as Woodstock. In what state did the festival take place? | New York | [
"us ny",
"n y",
"neo york",
"11th state",
"new york state s",
"nýja jórvík",
"new yourk",
"new york us",
"new york",
"estado nueva york",
"nova york",
"ny state",
"state new york",
"new yourk state",
"u s state of new york",
"eleventh state",
"state of n y",
"new york u s",
"new ... | [
"Music festival\n\nA music festival is a festival oriented towards music that is sometimes presented with a theme such as musical genre, nationality, or locality of musicians, or holiday. They are commonly held outdoors, and are often inclusive of other attractions such as food and merchandise vending, performance ... |
qg_2734 | For a point each, name the vaudeville and movie stars known as the Marx brothers | Chico, Harpo, Groucho, Gummo, and Zeppo | [
"chico harpo groucho gummo and zeppo"
] | [
"Marx Brothers\n\nThe Marx Brothers were a family comedy act that was successful in vaudeville, on Broadway, and in motion pictures from 1905 to 1949. Five of the Marx Brothers' thirteen feature films were selected by the American Film Institute (AFI) as among the top 100 comedy films, with two of them (Duck Soup ... |
qg_2736 | On August 10, 1821, this state, known as the Show Me State, was admitted to the Union as #24? | Missouri | [
"economy of missouri",
"misuri",
"missouri",
"misouri",
"politics of missouri",
"myssouri",
"24th state",
"demographics of missouri",
"religion in missouri",
"missouri united states",
"state of missouri",
"us mo",
"missoura",
"missourah",
"showme state",
"show me state",
"mo state",
... | [
"Missouri\n\nMissouri (see pronunciations) is a state located in the Midwestern United States. It is the 21st most extensive, and the 18th most populous of the fifty states. The state comprises 114 counties and the independent city of St. Louis.",
"Missouri\n\nAs defined by the 2010 US census, the four largest u... |
qg_2737 | Ratified on January 29, 1919, the 18th amendment to the US Constitution regulates the sale of what? | Alcohol | [
"alchohol",
"tertiary alcohols",
"alcool",
"alcohal",
"warming alcohol",
"alcohol free",
"alcohols",
"industrial alcohol",
"octyldodecanol",
"alkanol",
"higher alcohols",
"aromatic alcohols",
"alcohol",
"microbial production of alcohol",
"secondary alcohols",
"non beverage alcohol",
... | [
"Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThe Eighteenth Amendment (Amendment XVIII) of the United States Constitution effectively established the prohibition of alcoholic beverages in the United States by declaring the production, transport, and sale of alcohol (though not the consumption or priva... |
qg_2738 | In 1876, Brigadier General Henry Martyn Robert, he of San Juan Island fortifications during the Pig War fame, published what classic tome, still published today? | Roberts Rules of Order | [
"ronr",
"roberts rules of order",
"robert s rules",
"robert rules of order",
"robert s rules of order newly revised",
"roberts rules",
"robert s rules of order"
] | [
"Henry Martyn Robert\n\nHenry Martyn Robert (May 2, 1837 – May 11, 1923) was the author of Robert's Rules of Order, which became the most widely used manual of parliamentary procedure and remains today the most common parliamentary authority in the United States.",
"Henry Martyn Robert\n\nRobert was born in Rober... |
qg_2744 | According to the Aesop fable, what food could the fox not reach, which he then declared to be unpalatable? | Grapes | [
"grape production in chile",
"grape bunch",
"grape seed",
"grape production in united states",
"grape berry",
"grape production in turkey",
"grape production in france",
"grape production in argentina",
"grapes",
"🍇",
"bunches of grapes",
"grape production in china",
"purple grapes",
"gra... | [
"Aesop\n\nAesop ( ; , Aisōpos; c. 620 – 564 BCE) was an Ancient Greek fabulist or story teller credited with a number of fables now collectively known as Aesop's Fables. Although his existence remains uncertain and no writings by him survive, numerous tales credited to him were gathered across the centuries and in... |
qg_2745 | What Latin phrase, which translates as "in good faith", is taken to mean sincere, honest intention or belief, or authentic and true? | Bona fide | [
"assume good intent",
"good faith edit",
"bona fide",
"good faith effort",
"good faith",
"assuming good faith",
"good faith agreement",
"bona fidei",
"good faith negotiation",
"bonâ fide",
"good faith edits",
"assume good faith",
"bona fides",
"bonafide",
"assumed good faith"
] | [
"Good faith\n\nGood faith () is fair and open dealing in human interactions. This is often thought to require sincere, honest intentions or belief, regardless of the outcome of an action. While some Latin phrases lose their literal meaning over centuries, this is not the case with bona fides; it is still widely use... |
qg_2747 | What subatomic particle has no mass, no electric charge, and a spin of 1? | Photon | [
"energy of waves",
"photons",
"light particle",
"antiphoton",
"energy in wave",
"energy of light",
"gamma quantum",
"energy of wave",
"photon quantum",
"incident photon",
"momentum of photon",
"energy of photon",
"photon",
"light quantum",
"light quanta",
"energy in light"
] | [
"Subatomic particle\n\nIn the physical sciences, subatomic particles are particles much smaller than atoms. There are two types of subatomic particles: elementary particles, which according to current theories are not made of other particles; and composite particles. Particle physics and nuclear physics study the... |
qg_2750 | The highest scoring tiles, what two letters are worth 10 points each in a game of Scrabble? | Q and Z | [
"q and z"
] | [
"Scrabble\n\nScrabble is a word game in which two to four players score points by placing tiles, each bearing a single letter, onto a gameboard which is divided into a 15×15 grid of squares. The tiles must form words which, in crossword fashion, flow left to right in rows or downwards in columns. The words must be ... |
qg_2751 | Winning 5 Emmys and one Edward R. Murrow award, long time local news anchor Kathi Goertzen, who died this week of brain tumors, worked for what TV station? | Komo | [
"komo",
"komo disambiguation"
] | [
"Kathi Goertzen\n\nKathi Goertzen (April 30, 1958 – August 13, 2012) was a longtime co-news anchor of Seattle ABC affiliate KOMO-TV along with Dan Lewis (the 6PM edition) and also the 5PM edition with Eric Johnson. She joined KOMO in June 1980, after the eruption of Mount St. Helens and did many special newscasts t... |
qg_2752 | What cereal mascot’s motto is “They’re grrrreat!”? | Tony the Tiger | [
"tigre toño",
"tony tiger mascot",
"tony tiger",
"el tigre toño",
"they re great"
] | [
"Breakfast cereal\n\nBreakfast cereal (or just cereal) is a soup made from processed grains that is often eaten as the first meal of the day. It is eaten hot or cold, usually mixed with milk, yogurt, or fruit. Some companies promote their products for the health benefits from eating oat-based and high-fiber cereal... |
qg_2753 | What 80’s New Wave band thought “We Had the Beat” before then went on “Vacation”, although “Our Lips are Sealed”, so you may not know about being “Head Over Heals”? | The Go-Gos | [
"go gos",
"gogo s",
"go go s",
"gogos"
] | [
"New wave music\n\nNew wave music is a musical genre of pop/rock created in the late 1970s to mid-1980s with ties to 1970s punk rock. The wide range of bands categorized under this term has been a source of much confusion and controversy. The new wave sound of the late 1970s moved away from the smooth blues and ro... |
qg_2754 | The town of Bethel, NY was treated to the start of “An Aquarian Exposition: 3 Days of Peace & Music”, when what started on August 15, 1969? | Woodstock | [
"woodstock music festival",
"woodstock movie",
"woodstock music and art fair",
"woodstock 1969",
"woodstock art festival",
"woodstock music and arts fair",
"woodstock music art fair",
"woodstock",
"aquarian exposition",
"woodstock music and art festival",
"woodstock festival"
] | [
"Bethel, New York\n\nThis is the article about the Sullivan County, New York town. For the Dutchess County, New York hamlet, see Bethel, Pine Plains",
"Bethel, New York\n\nBethel is a town in Sullivan County, New York, USA. The population was estimated at 4,255 in 2010.",
"Bethel, New York\n\nThe town received ... |
qg_2755 | What is the main food ingredient of a frittata? | Eggs | [
"egg",
"wind egg",
"biology of eggs",
"insect egg",
"egg bird",
"wind eggs",
"birds eggs",
"fish egg",
"egg biology",
"infertile eggs",
"windeggs",
"eggs",
"egg avian",
"egg cases",
"infertile egg"
] | [
"Frittata\n\nFrittata is an egg-based Italian dish similar to an omelette or crustless quiche, enriched with additional ingredients such as meats, cheeses, vegetables or pasta. The word frittata is Italian and roughly translates to \"fried\".",
"Frittata\n\nHistory",
"Frittata\n\nThe Italian word frittata deriv... |
qg_2758 | What does the child take, according to the nursery rhyme The Farmer in the Dell? | A Nurse | [
"associate of science in nursing",
"associate degree in nursing",
"associate of nursing",
"nurse"
] | [
"Nursery rhyme\n\nA nursery rhyme is a traditional poem or song for children in Britain and many other countries, but usage only dates from the late 18th /early 19th century. In North America the term Mother Goose Rhymes, introduced in the mid-18th century, is still often used.",
"Nursery rhyme\n\nHistory",
"Nu... |
qg_2759 | What is the more common name for the US Navy's aerial demonstration team? | The Blue Angels | [
"u s navy blue angels",
"blue angles",
"navy blue angels",
"blue angels",
"navy flight demonstration squadron"
] | [
"Blue Angels\n\nThe Blue Angels is the United States Navy's flight demonstration squadron, with aviators from the Navy and Marines. The Blue Angels team was formed in 1946, making it the second oldest formal flying aerobatic team (under the same name) in the world, after the French Patrouille de France formed in 1... |
qg_2762 | From the French for Little Shoulder, what is the name for the ornamental shoulder piece or decoration used as insignia of rank by armed forces and other organizations? | Epaulette | [
"eppaulette",
"epaulet",
"epaullette",
"epaulettes",
"epilet",
"epaulets",
"epaulette",
"épaulette"
] | [
"Epaulette\n\nEpaulette (; also spelled epaulet) is a type of ornamental shoulder piece or decoration used as insignia of rank by armed forces and other organizations. In several European armies epaulettes are also worn by all ranks of elite or ceremonial units when on parade.",
"Epaulette\n\nEpaulettes are fast... |
qg_2764 | According to the proverb, it's no use crying over what? | Spilt Milk | [
"spilt milk album",
"spilt milk"
] | [
"List of proverbial phrases\n\nThis is an alphabetical list of widely used and repeated proverbial phrases. Whenever known, the origin of the phrase or proverb is noted. The majority of these phrases can be found at one of the following sources:",
"List of proverbial phrases\n\nA proverbial phrase or a proverbial... |
qg_2765 | The sports teams from Auburn University, LSU, Princeton University, and University of Missouri all use the same name. Is it: | Tigers | [
"🐅",
"mating tigers",
"tiger populations",
"panthera tigris",
"naahar",
"endangered subspecies of tiger",
"🐯",
"tiger",
"tiger blood",
"tigris striatus",
"tiger wild",
"felis tigris",
"tigers animal",
"tigers in captivity",
"african tiger",
"tiger cub",
"tigris regalis",
"tigers"... | [
"Auburn University\n\nAuburn University (AU or Auburn) is a public research university located in Auburn, Alabama, United States. With more than 21,000 undergraduate students, and a total of more than 27,000 students and 1,200 faculty members, it is one of the largest universities in the state as well as one of t... |
qg_2768 | The professional wrestling organization formerly known as the WWF is now known by what set of initials? | WWE | [
"wwe super tuesday",
"wwf mayhem in manchester",
"wwwf",
"mayhem in manchester",
"wwf wcw",
"raw smackdown and ecw",
"w w e",
"wwe kids",
"wwe experience on wapa tv",
"power is back",
"next level wrestling",
"world wrestling",
"double double e",
"wwe wellness policy",
"world wide wrestli... | [
"Professional wrestling\n\nProfessional wrestling (colloquially abbreviated to pro wrestling or wrestling) is an athletic form of entertainment based on a portrayal of a combat sport. Taking the form of live events held by touring promotions, it portrays a unique style of combat based on a combination of adopted s... |
qg_2769 | What is the SI unit of measurement for capacitance (defined as the ability of a body to store an electrical charge)? | Farad | [
"megafarads",
"micromicrofarad",
"farad",
"picofarad",
"attofarad",
"㎋",
"petafarad",
"abfarad",
"decafarad",
"millifarad",
"statfarad",
"kilofarad",
"micro microfarad",
"gigafarad",
"nanofarad",
"zeptofarad",
"yottafarad",
"microfarads",
"farads",
"femtofarad",
"microfarad",... | [
"Capacitance\n\nCapacitance is the ability of a body to store an electrical charge. A material with a large capacitance holds more electric charge at a given voltage, than one with low capacitance. Any object that can be electrically charged exhibits capacitance, however the concept is particularly important for un... |
qg_2771 | Spike, Dig, Set, and Block are found in which Olympic sport? | Volleyball | [
"court volleyball",
"libero volleyball",
"volley ball",
"serve volleyball",
"rally point system",
"spike volleyball",
"v ball",
"volleyball rules",
"indoor volleyball",
"lebro",
"volleyball",
"vollyball",
"mintonette",
"volleyball court",
"volleyball dig",
"history of volleyball",
"s... | [
"Olympic Games\n\nThe modern Olympic Games or Olympics ( ) are the leading international sporting event featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games are considered to be the world's foremost sports co... |
qg_2772 | Although actually born in what was then the semi-autonomous region known as The State of Franklin, whom did Fess Parker claim was born on a mountaintop in Tennessee? | Davy Crockett | [
"davey crocket",
"davy crockett",
"david crockett",
"davy crocket",
"crockett davy",
"davey crockett",
"david crockett politician",
"king of wild frontier"
] | [
"Fess Parker\n\nFess Elisha Parker, Jr. (August 16, 1924 – March 18, 2010)Dan Whitcomb (March 18, 2010) [http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory?id\n10138483 “ \"Davy Crockett\" Star Fess Parker Dies at 85” ] ABC News Accessed March 18, 2010 was an American film and television actor best known for his portray... |
qg_2777 | The Recording Industry Association of America awards what certification for an album that sells 500,000 copies? | Gold | [
"gold poisoning",
"aurric",
"gold metal",
"flour gold",
"gold making",
"e175 e number",
"monatomic gold",
"gold",
"australium",
"au element",
"gold compounds",
"element 79",
"gold element",
"gold toxicity",
"🜚",
"auric ion",
"gold mineral",
"gold consumption",
"native gold",
"... | [
"Recording Industry Association of America\n\nThe Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) is a continental North and South American trade organization that represents the recording industry in the United States. Its members consist of record labels and distributors, which the RIAA says \"create, manufactur... |
qg_2778 | Known as North Star State, among several others, what was the 32nd state to join the Union on May 11, 1858? | Minnesota | [
"minnesota u s",
"us mn",
"u s state of minnesota",
"minnessotta",
"land of ten thousand lakes",
"government of minnesota",
"minnasota",
"mn state",
"land of 10 000 lakes",
"minnesota commissioner of labor and industry",
"us state of minnesota",
"minnesota us",
"minessota",
"minasota",
"... | [
"Minnesota\n\nMinnesota (; locally ) is a state in the Midwestern United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd state on May 11, 1858, created from the eastern half of the Minnesota Territory. The name comes from the Dakota word for \"clear blue water\". Owing to its large number of lakes, the state is informa... |
qg_2779 | August 14, 1951 saw the death of what newspaper magnate, whose life was the basis for the movie Citizen Kane? | William Randolph Hearst | [
"william randolph hurst",
"william randolph hearst",
"bill hearst",
"w r hearst",
"randolph hearst",
"beverly house",
"william randolph hear t",
"william r hearst",
"william randolf hearst",
"william randolph herst",
"william randolph hearst i",
"william randoph hearst",
"william randolph he... | [
"Citizen Kane\n\nCitizen Kane is a 1941 American mystery drama film by Orson Welles, its producer, co-author, director and star. The picture was Welles's first feature film. Nominated for Academy Awards in nine categories, it won an Academy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay) by Herman J. Mankiewicz and We... |
qg_2780 | Characterized by dark, often reflective lenses having an area two or three times the area of the eye socket, and metal frames with bayonet earpieces, aviator sunglasses are sold by what company? | Ray-Ban | [
"ray ban sunglasses rb",
"ray bans",
"rayban",
"ray ban"
] | [
"Aviator sunglasses\n\nAviator sunglasses are a style of sunglasses that were developed by Bausch & Lomb. The original Bausch & Lomb design is now marketed as Ray-Ban Aviators, although other manufacturers also produce aviator style sunglasses. They are characterised by dark, often reflective lenses having an area ... |
qg_2783 | Consisting of rotors, a lampboard, a keyboard, and a plugboard, what is the name of the electro-mechanical cipher machine deployed by the Germans during WWII? | Enigma | [
"aenigma disambiguation",
"enigma disambiguation",
"ænigma",
"enigma person",
"enigma",
"enigma film",
"enigma album",
"aenigma"
] | [
"Rotor machine\n\nIn cryptography, a rotor machine is an electro-mechanical stream cipher device used for encrypting and decrypting secret messages. Rotor machines were the cryptographic state-of-the-art for a prominent period of history; they were in widespread use in the 1920s–1970s. The most famous example is th... |
qg_2785 | What American folk hero was “Born on a mountain top in Tennessee, Greenest state in the land of the free. Raised in the woods so’s he knew every tree, Killed him a bear when he was only three.” | Davy Crockett | [
"davey crocket",
"davy crockett",
"david crockett",
"davy crocket",
"crockett davy",
"davey crockett",
"david crockett politician",
"king of wild frontier"
] | [
"Tennessee\n\nTennessee (, Tanasi) is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 17th most populous of the 50 United States. Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the s... |
qg_2786 | As part of a purification ritual, what do sumo wrestlers traditionally throw into the ring prior to a bout? | Salt | [
"salt compound",
"salt production",
"salt crystal",
"salt food",
"salt crystals",
"refined salt",
"saltmaking",
"table salt",
"edible salt",
"salt refining",
"sodium salt",
"kitchen salt",
"refining salt",
"manufacture of salt",
"normal salt",
"salt",
"common salt",
"dietary salt"
... | [
"Sumo\n\nor sumo wrestling is a competitive full-contact wrestling sport where a rikishi (wrestler) attempts to force another wrestler out of a circular ring (dohyō) or into touching the ground with anything other than the soles of his feet. The characters, 相撲 literally mean \"striking one another\".",
"Sumo\n\nT... |
qg_2787 | What noted comic book writer and former head of Marvel Comics, co-created such institutions as Spider-Man, the Fantastic Four, the X-Men, and even had an appearance on The Simpsons? | Stan Lee | [
"stanley lee",
"stanley martin lieber",
"stan lee bibliography",
"stanley lieber",
"stan lee",
"stan lee s",
"stan lieber",
"lee stan"
] | [
"Comic book\n\nA comic book or comicbook, also called comic magazine or simply comic, is a publication that consists of comic art in the form of sequential juxtaposed panels that represent individual scenes. Panels are often accompanied by brief descriptive prose and written narrative, usually dialog contained in ... |
qg_2791 | What famed science fiction writer, who celebrates an august birthday, is perhaps best known for his dystopian novel Fahrenheit 451 and The Martian Chronicles? | Ray Bradbury | [
"douglas spaulding",
"bradbury raymond douglas",
"raymond bradbury",
"ray bradbury s gift",
"ray bradbury",
"raymond douglas bradbury",
"bradbury ray",
"ray douglas bradbury"
] | [
"Science fiction\n\nScience fiction is a genre of speculative fiction dealing with imaginative concepts such as futuristic science and technology, space travel, time travel, faster than light travel, parallel universes and extraterrestrial life. Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientifi... |
qg_2792 | Which herb is usually used as the main ingredient in traditional pesto? | Basil | [
"sweet basil",
"hot e",
"basil seeds",
"st joseph s wort",
"takmaria",
"subja",
"basil plant",
"ocymum basilicum",
"basilico",
"falooda seed",
"tukhamaria",
"basil herb",
"tukmaria",
"sabja",
"o basilicum",
"ocimum basilicum",
"falooda seeds",
"basil seed",
"basil",
"basil oil"... | [
"Herb\n\nIn general use, herbs are any plants used for food, flavoring, medicine, or perfume etc. Culinary use typically distinguishes herbs from spices. Herbs refer to the leafy green parts of a plant (either fresh or dried), while a \"spice\" is a product from another part of the plant (usually dried), including... |
qg_2793 | Introduced in the episode The Cage, who was the original captain of the USS Enterprise in the Star Trek world? | Christopher Pike | [
"christopher pike",
"christopher pike disambiguation",
"pike christopher"
] | [
"Star Trek\n\nStar Trek is an American science fiction entertainment franchise created by Gene Roddenberry and owned by CBS and Paramount Pictures.For a more detailed history of the ownership of the franchise, see the corporate ownership section. The television series Star Trek: The Original Series, Star Trek: The ... |
qg_2795 | An average shoe consists of the upper, tongue, heel, and what other part that gets walked on? | Sole | [
"sole",
"soles",
"sole disambiguation"
] | [
"Heel\n\nThe heel is the prominence at the posterior end of the foot. It is based on the projection of one bone, the calcaneus or heel bone, behind the articulation of the bones of the lower leg.",
"Heel\n\nStructure",
"Heel\n\nTo distribute the compressive forces exerted on the heel during gait, and especially... |
qg_2799 | With an atomic number of 79, what elements symbol Au comes from the Latin aurum? | Gold | [
"gold poisoning",
"aurric",
"gold metal",
"flour gold",
"gold making",
"e175 e number",
"monatomic gold",
"gold",
"australium",
"au element",
"gold compounds",
"element 79",
"gold element",
"gold toxicity",
"🜚",
"auric ion",
"gold mineral",
"gold consumption",
"native gold",
"... | [
"Atomic number\n\nIn chemistry and physics, the atomic number of a chemical element (also known as its proton number) is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom of that element, and therefore identical to the charge number of the nucleus. It is conventionally represented by the symbol Z. The atomic nu... |
qg_2800 | Invented by General Foods in 1957, what powdered fruit-flavored breakfast drink was included in the Mercury and Gemini space flights, forever linking it with the space program? | Tang | [
"táng",
"tāng",
"tang",
"t ang",
"tang disambiguation",
"唐"
] | [
"General Foods\n\nGeneral Foods Corporation was a company whose direct predecessor was established in the USA by Charles William Post as the Postum Cereal Company in 1895. The name General Foods was adopted in 1929, after several corporate acquisitions. In November 1985, General Foods was acquired by Philip Morris ... |
qg_2801 | What misanthropic hoarder Sesame Street character calls a garbage can home? | Oscar the Grouch | [
"oscar grouch"
] | [
"Sesame Street\n\nSesame Street is a long-running American children's television series created by Joan Ganz Cooney and Lloyd Morrisett. The program is known for its educational content, and images communicated through the use of Jim Henson's Muppets, animation, short films, humor, and cultural references. The seri... |
qg_2802 | In the Brothers Grimm fairy tale Rumpelstiltskin, what did the title creature promise to do for the miller's daughter, in exchange for her first born? | Spin straw into gold | [
"spin straw into gold"
] | [
"Rumpelstiltskin\n\nRumpelstiltskin, is a fairy tale popularly associated with Germany (where he is known as Rumpelstilzchen). The tale was one collected by the Brothers Grimm in the 1812 edition of Children's and Household Tales. According to researchers at Durham University and the Universidade Nova de Lisboa, t... |
qg_2803 | Anchored by the star Aldebaran, the constellation Taurus represents what animal? | The Bull | [
"bull",
"bull disambiguation",
"bull mrap",
"ideal innovations bull",
"bull vehicle"
] | [
"Aldebaran\n\nAldebaran (α Tau, α Tauri, Alpha Tauri) is an orange giant star located about 65 light years away. It is the brightest star in the zodiac constellation of Taurus. It varies slowly in brightness between magnitude 0.75 and 0.95, which means it is usually the fourteenth brightest star in the nighttime sk... |
qg_2804 | What are persons who lack any sort of magical ability and are not born into the magical world called in the Harry Potter universe? | Muggles | [
"muggle borns harry potter",
"muggles",
"muggle harry potter",
"muggle"
] | [
"Harry Potter\n\nHarry Potter is a series of fantasy novels written by British author J. K. Rowling. The novels chronicle the life of a young wizard, Harry Potter, and his friends Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley, all of whom are students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The main story arc concerns Ha... |
qg_2807 | A butte is a type of what geologic feature? | Hill | [
"hills",
"hill",
"hilly",
"artificial mountain",
"rolling hill",
"braes"
] | [
"Butte\n\nA butte is an isolated hill with steep, often vertical sides and a small, relatively flat top; buttes are smaller than mesas, plateaus, and table landforms. The word butte comes from a French word meaning \"small hill\"; its use is prevalent in the Western United States, including the southwest where \"me... |
qg_2811 | What name is given to the original land mass from which the modern continents have developed? | Pangaea | [
"pangaea",
"pangæa",
"pangia",
"pangaean",
"pangea supercontinent",
"pangaia",
"pangea",
"amexem"
] | [
"Earth\n\nEarth (otherwise known as the world, in Gaia, or in Latin: Terra ) is the third planet from the Sun, the densest planet in the Solar System, the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets, and the only astronomical object known to harbor life.",
"Earth\n\nAccording to radiometric dating and... |
qg_2812 | What serial killer dubbed himself the “Son of Sam”? | David Berkowitz | [
"virginia voskerichian",
"valentina suriani",
"christine freund murder victim",
"44 caliber killer",
"richard david falco",
"son of sam",
"donna lauria",
"david berkowitz serial killer",
"stacy moskowitz",
"david berkowitz",
"son of hope",
"berkowitz david",
"alexander esau",
"david r berk... | [
"Serial killer\n\nA serial killer is a person who murders three or more people, usually in service of abnormal psychological gratification, with the murders taking place over more than a month and including a significant break (a \"cooling off period\") between them. Different authorities apply different criteria... |
qg_2816 | Sauerkraut, translated from the German as "sour herb", is made from what vegetable? | Cabbage | [
"cabbages",
"cabbage",
"culture of cabbage",
"green cabbage",
"patta gobhi",
"white cabbage",
"head cabbage",
"capitata f alba",
"staithwort",
"capitata group"
] | [
"Sauerkraut\n\nSauerkraut (;) is finely cut cabbage that has been fermented by various lactic acid bacteria, including Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus, and Pediococcus. It has a long shelf life and a distinctive sour flavor, both of which result from the lactic acid that forms when the bacteria ferment the sugars in t... |
qg_2817 | Born in Weehawken, N.J. on August 19, 1947, who is the current music director of the Seattle Symphony? | Gerard Schwarz | [
"gerard schwarz"
] | [
"Weehawken, New Jersey\n\nWeehawken is a township in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the township's population was 12,554, reflecting a decline of 947 (-7.0%) from the 13,501 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn increased by 1,116 (+9.0%) from the 12,385 coun... |
qg_2822 | What part of a kola tree is used to flavor soft drinks? | Nut | [
"nut disambiguation",
"nut",
"nuts",
"nuts disambiguation"
] | [
"Kola nut\n\nThe kola nut is the fruit of the kola tree, a genus (Cola) of trees that are native to the tropical rainforests of Africa. The caffeine-containing fruit of the tree is used as a flavoring ingredient in beverages, and is the origin of the term \"cola\".",
"Kola nut\n\nGeneral description",
"Kola nut... |
qg_2823 | August 19, 1942 saw the birth of the 42nd President of the US. Who is it? | Bill Clinton | [
"william jefferson blythe iv",
"william clinton",
"clinton bill",
"william jefferson blythe iii",
"bill blythe iv",
"willam jefferson blythe iii",
"president clinton",
"billll clinton",
"clintonesque",
"william blythe iii",
"billl clinton",
"bubba clinton",
"bill clinton 5c",
"bull clinton... | [
"President of the United States\n\nThe President of the United States of America (POTUS) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.",
"President of th... |
qg_2824 | Who's missing: Dorothy, Tin Woodman, Scarecrow and the Cowardly Lion? | Toto | [
"toto disambiguation",
"toto"
] | [
"Dorothy Gale\n\nDorothy Gale is the fictional protagonist of many of the Oz novels by the American author L. Frank Baum. Her best friend is Oz's ruler Princess Ozma. Dorothy first appears in Baum's classic children's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and reappears in most of its sequels. In addition, she is the mai... |
qg_2825 | What branch of the US Armed Forces, founded in 1790, trains its officers at its academy in New London, Ct? | U.S. Coast Guard | [
"uniforms of united states coast guard",
"usacg",
"cg blue",
"u s coast guard",
"united states coast guard base",
"recruitment in united states coast guard",
"coast guard united states",
"uscg",
"usa cg",
"us coast guard",
"ancient albatross",
"united states of america coast guard",
"us coas... | [
"United States Armed Forces\n\nThe United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard. The President of the United States is the military's overall head, and helps form military policy with the U.S. Department of D... |
qg_2826 | Who is the only American Idol judge that has been with the series since its 2002 inception? | Randy Jackson | [
"randy jackson american idol",
"randall darius jackson",
"randy darius jackson",
"randy jackson"
] | [
"American Idol\n\nAmerican Idol is an American singing competition television series created by Simon Fuller, produced by 19 Entertainment, and distributed by FremantleMedia North America. It began airing on Fox on June 11, 2002, and ended on April 7, 2016. It started off as an addition to the Idols format based on... |
qg_2827 | What singer was found unresponsive on his bathroom floor on August 16, 1977, before being declared dead at 3:30 that afternoon? | Elvis Presley | [
"elivs",
"gladys love presley",
"apron strings",
"elvis aaron presley",
"elvis presly",
"elvis aaron pressley",
"king actor singer",
"elvis pres",
"presleyesque",
"elvisesque",
"mr aaron",
"elvis pres ey",
"jesse presley",
"elvis aron presley",
"lovely mamie",
"keep your hands off of i... | [
"Elvis Presley\n\nElvis Aaron Presley (January 8, 1935 – August 16, 1977) was an American musician and actor. Regarded as one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century, he is often referred to as \"the King of Rock and Roll\", or simply, \"the King\".",
"Elvis Presley\n\nPresley was born in Tupel... |
qg_2830 | With a 2008 Census population estimate of 173,000 residents, what is the capital of Mississippi? | Jackson | [
"jackson station",
"jackson amtrak station disambiguation",
"jackson cta disambiguation",
"jackson cta station",
"mr jackson",
"jackson cta",
"jackson disambiguation",
"jacksonesque",
"jackson film",
"jackson"
] | [
"Jackson, Mississippi\n\nJackson is the capital and largest city of the U.S. state of Mississippi. It is located primarily in Hinds County, serving as one of its two county seats. Segments of the city overlap Madison County and Rankin County. Jackson is on the Pearl River, which drains into the Gulf of Mexico, and ... |
qg_2832 | What was the last name of “movie star” Ginger on TV’s Gilligan’s Island? | Grant | [
"grant disambiguation",
"grantor and grantee",
"list of grants",
"grant"
] | [
"Ginger Grant\n\nGinger Grant is a fictional character portrayed by actress Tina Louise in the 1964 to 1967 television sitcom Gilligan's Island.",
"Ginger Grant\n\nCharacter summary",
"Ginger Grant\n\nGrant is a \"movie star\", and would casually mention names of some of the biggest movie stars of the day, as c... |
qg_2834 | Based in Huntington, WV, what university, which lost a large portion of its football team in a 1970 airplane crash, calls its sports team the "Thundering Herd"? | Marshall | [
"marshall",
"marshall disambiguation"
] | [
"Huntington, West Virginia\n\nHuntington is a city in Cabell and Wayne counties in the U.S. state \nof West Virginia, located at the confluence of the Guyandotte River and the Ohio River. The City of Huntington was founded as the western terminus of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway in 1871 upon agricultural homestea... |
qg_2838 | Held at Max Yasgur’s 600 acre diary farm, what event, which opened on Aug 15, 1969, was billed as “An Aquarian Exposition: 3 Days of Peace & Music”? | Woodstock | [
"woodstock music festival",
"woodstock movie",
"woodstock music and art fair",
"woodstock 1969",
"woodstock art festival",
"woodstock music and arts fair",
"woodstock music art fair",
"woodstock",
"aquarian exposition",
"woodstock music and art festival",
"woodstock festival"
] | [
"Woodstock\n\nThe Woodstock Music & Art Fair—informally, the Woodstock Festival or simply Woodstock—was a music festival attracting an audience of over 400,000 people, scheduled over three days on a dairy farm in New York state from August 15 to 17, 1969, but which ran over four days to August 18, 1969.",
"Woodst... |
qg_2841 | August 21, 1911, saw the theft of the painting known as La Gioconda from the Louvre. By what name is the painting more commonly known? | Mona Lisa | [
"mona lisa theft",
"mona lisa",
"lisa giacondo",
"la gionconda",
"la joconde",
"lonely madonna",
"la mona lisa",
"monalisa",
"monna lisa"
] | [
"Louvre\n\nThe Louvre or the Louvre Museum (,) (French ) is the world's largest museum and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the 1st arrondissement (ward). Nearly 35,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited ove... |
qg_2842 | Demographics is the study of what? | Human population | [
"world population",
"population of earth",
"earth s population",
"world s population",
"number of humans who have ever lived",
"human population",
"world human population",
"world pop",
"history of human population",
"world population prospects",
"global population",
"world population growth",... | [
"Demography\n\nDemography (from prefix demo- from Ancient Greek δῆμος dēmos meaning \"the people\", and -graphy from γράφω graphō, implies \"writing, description or measurement\" ) is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings. As a very general science, it can analyze any kind of dynamic living ... |
qg_2843 | The Mothers of Invention backed up eccentric singer? | Frank Zappa | [
"frank zappa and mothers",
"francesco zapato",
"zappa",
"frank zappa mothers of invention",
"zappa references",
"zappa frank vincent",
"vaulternative records",
"frank zappa",
"francis vincent jr zappa",
"zappa frank",
"zappadan",
"frank vincent zappa"
] | [
"The Mothers of Invention\n\nThe Mothers of Invention were an American rock band from California that served as the backing musicians for Frank Zappa. Their work is marked by the use of sonic experimentation, innovative album art, and elaborate live shows.",
"The Mothers of Invention\n\nOriginally an R&B band cal... |
qg_2845 | In physics, what unit of force is defined as the amount of force required to accelerate a mass of one kilogram at a rate of one meter per second per second? | Newton | [
"newton herefordshire disambiguation",
"newton disambiguation",
"newton",
"newton lancashire",
"newton crater"
] | [
"Physics\n\nPhysics (from , from phúsis \"nature\" ) is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the univer... |
qg_2846 | During what war did Francis Scott Key write "The Star-Spangled Banner," which became the national anthem? | 1812 | [
"one thousand eight hundred and twelve"
] | [
"Francis Scott Key\n\nFrancis Scott Key (August 1, 1779January 11, 1843) was an American lawyer, author, and amateur poet, from Georgetown, Washington, D.C. who wrote the lyrics to the United States' national anthem, \"The Star-Spangled Banner\".",
"Francis Scott Key\n\nEarly life and family",
"Francis Scott Ke... |
qg_2847 | NASA launched the Viking 1 probe on August 20, 1975. To what planet was the spacecraft headed? | Mars | [
"fourth planet",
"mars",
"oblate mars",
"mars surface features",
"4th planet",
"marte planet",
"2003 opposition of mars",
"mars opposition",
"hydrology of mars",
"planet mars",
"sol e",
"opposition of mars",
"sun e",
"mars orbit",
"physical characteristics of mars",
"sol 4",
"mars pl... | [
"NASA\n\nThe National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for the civilian space program as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.",
"NASA\n\nPresident Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 w... |
qg_2849 | Pioneer of party-plan marketing, Earl Tupper invented what during his stay at DuPont? | Tupperware | [
"tuppawear",
"tupperware party",
"tupperelectronics",
"tupper electronics",
"tupperware®",
"tupperware"
] | [
"Earl Tupper\n\nEarl Silas Tupper (July 28, 1907 – October 5, 1983) was an American-born businessman and inventor, best known as the inventor of Tupperware, an airtight plastic container for storing food.",
"Earl Tupper\n\nEarly life and career",
"Earl Tupper\n\nTupper was born on a farm in Berlin, New Hampshir... |
qg_2853 | 'So easy a caveman could do it' was an advertising slogan for what company? | Geico | [
"government employees insurance company",
"15 minutes could save you 15 percent or more on car insurance",
"geico",
"geico casualty company",
"lauren wallace",
"geico direct",
"geico com",
"geico insurance",
"even caveman can do it",
"geico indemnity company",
"geico general insurance company",
... | [
"GEICO Cavemen\n\nThe GEICO Cavemen are trademarked characters of the auto insurance company GEICO, used in a series of television advertisements that aired beginning in 2004. The campaign was created by Joe Lawson of The Martin Agency. In 2004, GEICO began an advertising campaign featuring Neanderthal-like cavemen... |
qg_2854 | Standing for Time and Relative Dimensions in Space, who travels the universe in a spaceship disguised as a police box known as The Tardis? | Doctor Who | [
"dr who 3f",
"doctor who glossary of terms and names",
"doctor who characters",
"doctor who new series",
"doc who characters",
"docter who",
"doctor who",
"doctor nickname",
"drwho",
"doctor and rose",
"dr who books",
"doc who",
"dr who novels",
"anna zhou",
"doctor who legacy",
"docto... | [
"TARDIS\n\nThe TARDIS (;; Time And Relative Dimension In Space) is a fictional time machine and spacecraft in the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who and its associated spin-offs The Sarah Jane Adventures and Torchwood.",
"TARDIS\n\nA TARDIS is a product of the advanced technology of the Time ... |
qg_2855 | What was the name of the PDA produced by Apple, most famous for its handwriting recognition software turning Random House into Condom Nose during a major presentation? | Newton | [
"newton herefordshire disambiguation",
"newton disambiguation",
"newton",
"newton lancashire",
"newton crater"
] | [
"Personal digital assistant\n\nA personal digital assistant (PDA), also known as a handheld PC, or personal data assistant, is a mobile device that functions as a personal information manager. The term evolved from Personal Desktop Assistant, a software term for an application that prompts or prods the user of a ... |
qg_2857 | The title character of what TV series regularly ran a newspaper ad that read: "Got a problem, need help, odds against you?" | The Equalizer | [
"equaliser",
"equalizer tv show",
"equalizer tv series",
"equalizer"
] | [
"The Equalizer\n\nThe Equalizer is an American crime drama television series, originally airing on CBS from fall 1985 until late-spring 1989. It starred Edward Woodward as a retired espionage/intelligence officer with a mysterious past, who uses the skills from his former career to exact vigilante justice on behalf... |
qg_2858 | What are the small indentations on a golf ball called? | Dimples | [
"gelasin",
"dimple",
"dimpling",
"dimples"
] | [
"Golf\n\nGolf is a club and ball sport in which players use various clubs to hit balls into a series of holes on a course in as few strokes as possible.",
"Golf\n\nGolf is one of the few ball games that do not require a standardized playing area. The game is played on a course with an arranged progression of eit... |
qg_2859 | During World War II, U.S. soldiers used the first commercial aerosol cans to hold what? | Insecticide | [
"adulticide",
"contact insecticide",
"flea bath",
"antifeedant",
"antifeedants",
"flea dip",
"organochlorine insecticide",
"termiticide",
"insecticides",
"insecticide",
"systemic insecticide"
] | [
"Aerosol spray\n\nAerosol spray is a type of dispensing system which creates an aerosol mist of liquid particles. This is used with a can or bottle that contains a payload and propellant under pressure. When the container's valve is opened, the payload is forced out of a small hole and emerges as an aerosol or mist... |
qg_2861 | Which insect shorted out an early supercomputer and inspired the term "computer bug"? | Moth | [
"moths",
"moth bites",
"heterocera",
"moth",
"miller bug"
] | [
"Insect\n\nInsects (from Latin ', a calque of Greek ['], \"cut into sections\") are a class of invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. They are the most diverse gr... |
qg_2862 | In the children's book series, where is Paddington Bear originally from? | Peru | [
"republic of perú",
"piruw suyu",
"iso 3166 1 pe",
"peruvian republic",
"perú",
"piruw ripuwlika",
"perù",
"lower peru",
"republic of peru",
"el peru",
"el perú",
"pérou",
"peruano",
"name of peru",
"peruvia",
"piruw",
"peru",
"república del perú",
"peruvian",
"etymology of per... | [
"Paddington Bear\n\nPaddington Bear is a fictional character in children's literature. He first appeared on 13 October 1958 and has been featured in more than twenty books written by Michael Bond and illustrated by Peggy Fortnum and other artists. The friendly bear from deepest, darkest Peru—with his old hat, batt... |
qg_2863 | What letter must appear at the beginning of the registration number of all non-military aircraft in the U.S.? | N | [
"🅝",
"⒩",
"en letter",
"ⓝ",
"n",
"🅽",
"n letter",
"🄽",
"ｎ",
"🄝"
] | [
"Aircraft registration\n\nIn accordance with the Convention on International Civil Aviation (also known as the Chicago Convention), all civil aircraft must be registered with a national aviation authority (NAA) using procedures set by each country. Every country, even those not party to the Chicago Convention, has ... |
qg_2868 | Name the year: NAFTA is ratified, Nancy Kerrigan gets clubbed, Kurt Cobain eats his shotgun, OJ Simpson offs his ex wife and her friend. | 1994 | [
"one thousand nine hundred and ninety four"
] | [
"Nancy Kerrigan\n\nNancy Ann Kerrigan (born October 13, 1969) is a former American figure skater.",
"Nancy Kerrigan\n\nKerrigan is the 1992 Olympic Bronze medalist, the 1993 US National Champion, the 1994 Olympic Silver medalist, and a two-time world medalist. Kerrigan is noted for her conflict on and off the ic... |
qg_2869 | What “church” has made millions selling its members “electro psychometer” like detectors? | Scientologists | [
"scientologists",
"list of scientologist celebrities",
"list of converts to scientology",
"list of famous scientologists",
"list of scientologists",
"list of notable converts to scientology",
"listing of noted scientologists",
"list of celebrity scientologists"
] | [
"E-meter\n\nThe E-meter is a device for displaying and/or recording the electrodermal activity (EDA) of a human being. The device is used frequently for auditing in Scientology and divergent groups, but devices similar to the Scientology E-meter have been used for more than a century by counselors of psychology ... |
qg_2872 | With a metropolotian population of almost 19 million people, what is the most populous city in South America? | Sao Paulo, Brazil | [
"são paul",
"sao paulo sp city",
"list of famous paulistanos",
"sao paulo city",
"são paulo são paulo",
"sâo paulo",
"são paulo sp city",
"sao paolo brazil",
"paulistano",
"sao paulo international transport industry show",
"sao paulo sp",
"san paulo",
"são paulo cidade",
"são paulo city",
... | [
"South America\n\nSouth America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the model used in Spanish-speaking nations and most of South America. The r... |
qg_2874 | Talc is the softest mineral listed on the Mohs scale of hardness. It is given a value of 1. Diamond is the hardest. What number is it given? | 10 | [
"ten"
] | [
"Talc\n\nTalc is a clay mineral composed of hydrated magnesium silicate with the chemical formula H2Mg3(SiO3)4 or Mg3Si4O10(OH)2. In loose form, it, along with corn starch, is one of the most widely used substances known as baby powder (in the case of talc, often called simply talcum powder). It occurs as foliated ... |
qg_2875 | What do you call a ring-shaped coral island surrounding a central lagoon? | Atoll | [
"atoll",
"atoll reef",
"atolls",
"darwin point",
"coral atoll",
"faru"
] | [
"Coral island\n\nA coral island is a type of island formed from coral detritus and associated organic material. They occur in tropical and sub-tropical areas, typically as part of coral reefs which have grown to cover a far larger area under the sea.",
"Coral island\n\nFormation",
"Coral island\n\nIslands deve... |
qg_2876 | Ratified on the 18th of August, 1920, the 19th amendment to the US constitution states: The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of what? | Sex | [
"aphrodisiasm",
"sexs",
"sex in plants",
"seks",
"sexes",
"sex terms",
"anatomical sex",
"biological sex",
"sex biological division",
"sex",
"pseques",
"genetic sex",
"word sex",
"biological sexes",
"sexuality biology"
] | [
"Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution\n\nThe Nineteenth Amendment (Amendment XIX) to the United States Constitution prohibits any United States citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex. It was ratified on August 18, 1920. Until the 1910s, most states disenfranchised women. T... |
qg_2877 | At what city did Bugs Bunny always belatedly realize, I knew I shoulda taken that left turn at? | Albuquerque | [
"albuqurque",
"list of trivia associated with albuquerque",
"un locode usabq",
"albuquerque",
"albukerky",
"alberquerque",
"climate of albuquerque new mexico",
"albaquerque new mexico",
"ranchos de alburquerque",
"burque",
"duke city",
"city of albuquerque",
"albuquerque new mexico",
"albe... | [
"Bugs Bunny\n\nBugs Bunny is an animated cartoon character, created by the staff of Leon Schlesinger Productions (later Warner Bros. Cartoons) and voiced originally by the \"Man of a Thousand Voices,\" Mel Blanc. Bugs is best known for his starring roles in the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies series of animated s... |
qg_2880 | Commander of the Coalition forces during the First Gulf War, which general had the nickname Stormin' Norman? | H. Norman Schwarzkopf | [
"general norman schwartzkopf",
"general swartzkoff",
"norman schwarzkopf jr",
"general h norman schwarzkopf jr",
"h norman schwarzkopf jr",
"schwarzkopf h norman jr",
"general norman schwarzkopf",
"general schwartzkopf",
"general swartzkof",
"general schwarzkopf",
"h norman schwarzkopf",
"herb... | [
"Gulf War\n\nThe Gulf War (2 August 1990 – 28 February 1991), codenamed Operation Desert Shield (2 August 1990 – 17 January 1991), for operations leading to the buildup of troops and defense of Saudi Arabia and Operation Desert Storm (17 January 1991 – 28 February 1991) in its combat phase, was a war waged by coali... |
qg_2881 | Jimmy Choo, Manolo Blahnik, and Christian Louboutin are all makers of what? | Women's shoes | [
"women s shoes"
] | [
"Jimmy Choo\n\nDatuk Jimmy Choo, OBE Jimmy Choo Yeang Keat (), (born 15 November 1948) is a Malaysian fashion designer based in the United Kingdom. He is best known for co-founding Jimmy Choo Ltd that became known for its handmade women's shoes.",
"Jimmy Choo\n\nEarly life",
"Jimmy Choo\n\nChoo was born in Pen... |
qg_2882 | Connect Four, Battleship, Twister, Yahtzee, Hungry Hungry Hippos, and The Game of Life are all games produced by what US game company? | Milton Bradley | [
"milton bradley"
] | [
"Connect Four\n\nConnect Four (also known as Captain's Mistress, Four Up, Plot Four, Find Four, Fourplay, Four in a Row, Four in a Line and Gravitrips (in Soviet Union) ) is a two-player connection game in which the players first choose a color and then take turns dropping colored discs from the top into a seven-c... |
qg_2885 | Shamu, caught in 1965, was what type of animal? | Orca | [
"orca cetacean",
"transient killerwhale",
"killer whales",
"orca gladiator",
"orca whale",
"killer whales in native culture",
"orcinus",
"orcinus orca",
"killer whale",
"whale killer",
"orca",
"san juan orcas",
"orcas",
"killer whales in kwakiutl culture",
"orca whales",
"killer whales... | [
"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nThis article refers to the SeaWorld killer whale shows. For the original killer whale (orca) named Shamu, see Shamu",
"Shamu (SeaWorld show)\n\nShamu is the name used for several SeaWorld orca (killer whale) shows and is the stage name given to the \"star\" of those shows, beginning wit... |
qg_2886 | Those poor “Three Blind Mice” of nursery rhyme fame had their tails cut off by the farmer’s wife using what sharp instrument? | A carving knife | [
"kitchen knife",
"paring knife",
"knife bolster",
"kitchen knives",
"carving knife",
"bolster knife",
"oyster knife",
"chinese chef s knife"
] | [
"Three Blind Mice\n\n\"Three Blind Mice\" is an English-language nursery rhyme and musical round.I. Opie and P. Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997), p. 306. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 3753.",
"Three Blind Mice\n\nLyrics",
"Three Blin... |
qg_2888 | August 21st was the anniversary of Hawaii joining the union, the last state to do so, in what year? | 1959 | [
"one thousand nine hundred and fifty nine"
] | [
"Hawaii\n\nHawaii ( ; locally,; ) is the 50th and most recent state of the United States of America, receiving statehood on August 21, 1959. Hawaii is the only U.S. state located in Oceania and the only one composed entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archip... |
qg_2889 | 5W-20, 10W-30, and 20W-20 are common weights of what commodity? | Motor Oil | [
"turbine oil",
"10w 40",
"engine lubrication",
"motoroil",
"sae viscosity number",
"motor oils",
"engine oil",
"engine oil life monitor",
"car oil",
"5w 20",
"api service sm",
"5w 30",
"motor oil",
"pcmo",
"oil change",
"10w 30",
"oil viscosity",
"motorcycle oil"
] | [
"Motor oil\n\nMotor oil, engine oil, or engine lubricant is any of various substances (comprising oil enhanced with additives, for example, in many cases, extreme pressure additives) that are used for lubrication of internal combustion engines. The main function of motor oil is to reduce wear on moving parts; it al... |
qg_2890 | Jiminy Jillickers! Ultimately played by Milhouse, what is the name of Radioactive Man's sidekick? | Fallout Boy | [
"fallout boy disambiguation",
"fallout boy"
] | [
"Radioactive Man (The Simpsons episode)\n\n\"Radioactive Man\" is the second episode of The Simpsons seventh season. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 24, 1995. The episode sees the film version of the comic book series Radioactive Man set up production in Springfield. Much to... |
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