60% of the world's reserves. The London Metal Exchange aims to add uranium to its list of metals on warrant.","Ore\n\nThe World Bank reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the USA and Japan.","Ore\n\nImportant ore minerals","Ore\n\n* Acanthite (cooled polymorph of Argentite): Ag2S for production of silver\n* Barite: BaSO4\n* Bauxite Al(OH)3 and AlOOH, dried to Al2O3 for production of aluminium\n* Beryl: Be3Al2(SiO3)6\n* Bornite: Cu5FeS4\n* Cassiterite: SnO2\n* Chalcocite: Cu2S for production of copper\n* Chalcopyrite: CuFeS2\n* Chromite: (Fe, Mg)Cr2O4 for production of chromium\n* Cinnabar: HgS for production of mercury\n* Cobaltite: (Co, Fe)AsS\n* Columbite-Tantalite or Coltan: (Fe, Mn)(Nb, Ta)2O6\n* Dolomite: CaMg(CO3)2\n* Galena: PbS\n* Native gold: Au, typically associated with quartz or as placer deposits\n* Hematite: Fe2O3\n* Ilmenite: FeTiO3\n* Magnetite: Fe3O4\n* Malachite: Cu2CO3(OH)2\n* Molybdenite: MoS2\n* Pentlandite:(Fe, Ni)9S8\n* Pyrolusite:MnO2\n* Scheelite: CaWO4\n* Sperrylite: PtAs2 for production of platinum\n* Sphalerite: ZnS\n* Uraninite (pitchblende): UO2 for production of metallic uranium\n* Wolframite: (Fe, Mn)WO4","Cinnabar\n\nCinnabar and cinnabarite, likely deriving from the Greek κινναβαρι (kinnabari), refer to the common bright scarlet to brick-red form of mercury(II) sulfide, formula HgS, that is the most common source ore for refining elemental mercury, and is the historic source for the brilliant red or scarlet pigment termed vermilion and associated red mercury pigments.","Cinnabar\n\nCinnabar generally occurs as a vein-filling mineral associated with recent volcanic activity and alkaline hot springs. The mineral resembles quartz in symmetry and in its exhibiting birefringence; cinnabar has a mean refractive index of ~3.2, a hardness between 2 and 2.5, and a specific gravity of ~8.1. The color and properties derive from a structure that is a rhombohedral crystalline lattice belonging to the hexagonal crystal system, crystals that sometimes exhibit twinning.","Cinnabar\n\nCinnabar has been used for its color since antiquity in the Near East, including as a rouge-type cosmetic, in the New World since the Olmec culture, and in China since as early as the Song dynasty, where it was used in coloring lacquerware.","Cinnabar\n\nAssociated modern precautions for use and handling of cinnabar arise from the toxicity of the mercury component, which was recognized as early as ancient Rome.","Cinnabar\n\nEtymology","Cinnabar\n\nThe name comes from κινναβαρι (kinnabari), a Greek word most likely applied by Theophrastus to several distinct substances. Other sources say the word comes from the shangarf (Arabicized as زنجفرة zinjifrah), a word of uncertain origin (also compare, Sanskrit सुगर sugara). In Latin it was sometimes known as minium, meaning also \"red cinnamon\", though both of these terms now refer specifically to lead tetroxide.","Cinnabar\n\nProperties and structure","Cinnabar\n\nProperties","Cinnabar\n\nCinnabar is generally found in a massive, granular or earthy form and is bright scarlet to brick-red in color, though it occasionally occurs in crystals with a non-metallic adamantine luster. It resembles quartz in its symmetry. It exhibits birefringence, and it has the highest refractive index of any mineral. Its mean refractive index is 3.08 (sodium light wavelengths), versus the indices for diamond and the non-mineral gallium(III) arsenide (GaAs), which are 2.42 and 3.93, respectively. The hardness of cinnabar is 2.0–2.5 on the Mohs scale, and its specific gravity 8.1.","Cinnabar\n\nStructure","Cinnabar\n\nStructurally, cinnabar belongs to the trigonal crystal system. It occurs as thick tabular or slender prismatic crystals or as granular to massive incrustations. Crystal twinning occurs as simple contact twins.","Cinnabar\n\nNote, mercury(II) sulfide, HgS, adopts the cinnabar structure described, and one additional structure, i.e. it is dimorphous. Cinnabar is the more stable form, and is a structure akin to that of HgO: each Hg center has two short Hg-S bonds (each 2.36 Å), and four longer Hg•••S contacts (with 3.10, 3.10, 3.30, and 3.30 Å separations). In addition, HgS is found in a black, non-cinnabar polymorph (metacinnabar) that has the zincblende structure.","Cinnabar\n\nOccurrence","Cinnabar\n\nCinnabar generally occurs as a vein-filling mineral associated with recent volcanic activity and alkaline hot springs. Cinnabar is deposited by epithermal ascending aqueous solutions (those near surface and not too hot) far removed from their igneous source. It is associated with native mercury, stibnite, realgar, pyrite, marcasite, opal, quartz, chalcedony, dolomite, calcite and barite.","Cinnabar\n\nCinnabar is essentially found in all mineral extraction localities that yield mercury, notably Puerto Princesa (Philippines); Almadén (Spain); New Almaden (California); Hastings Mine and St. John's Mine, Vallejo, California; Idrija (Slovenia); New Idria (California); Giza, Egypt; near Obermoschel in the Palatinate; Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps and in the Mount Amiata (Tuscany); the mountain Avala (Serbia); Huancavelica (Peru); Murfreesboro, Arkansas; Terlingua, Texas (United States); and the province of Guizhou in China, where fine crystals have been obtained. It was also mined near Red Devil, Alaska on the middle Kuskokwim River. Red Devil was named after the Red Devil cinnabar mine, a primary source of mercury. It has been found in Dominica, Lesser Antilles near its sulfur springs at the southern end of the island along the west coast.","Cinnabar\n\nCinnabar is still being deposited, e.g., at the present day from the hot waters of Sulphur Bank Mine in California and Steamboat Springs, Nevada.","Cinnabar\n\nMining and extraction of mercury","Cinnabar\n\nAs the most common source of mercury in nature, cinnabar has been mined for thousands of years, even as far back as the Neolithic Age. During the Roman Empire it was mined both as a pigment, Pliny, Natural History; XXXIII. and for its mercury content.","Cinnabar\n\nTo produce liquid mercury (quicksilver), crushed cinnabar ore is roasted in rotary furnaces. Pure mercury separates from sulfur in this process and easily evaporates. A condensing column is used to collect the liquid metal, which is most often shipped in iron flasks.","Cinnabar\n\nToxicity","Cinnabar\n\nAssociated modern precautions for use and handling of cinnabar arise from the toxicity of the mercury component, which was recognized as early as in ancient Rome.Susan Stewart, 2014, \"'Gleaming and deadly white': Toxic cosmetics in the Roman world,\" pp. 84f, 79-88, in History of Toxicology and Environmental Health: Toxicology in Antiquity II (Philip Wexler, Ed.), New York, NY, USA:Academic Press, ISBN 0128016345, see [https://books.google.com/books?isbn\n0128016345], accessed 24 July 2015. Because of its mercury content, cinnabar can be toxic to human beings. Though people in ancient South America often used cinnabar for art, or processed it into refined mercury (as a means to gild silver and gold to objects) \"the toxic properties of mercury were well known. It was dangerous to those who mined and processed cinnabar, it caused shaking, loss of sense, and death.","Cinnabar\n\nData suggest that mercury was retorted from cinnabar and the workers were exposed to the toxic mercury fumes.\" Overexposure to mercury, mercurialism, was seen as an occupational disease to the ancient Romans, \"Mining in the Spanish cinnabar mines of Almadén, 225 km southwest of Madrid, was regarded as being akin to a death sentence due to the shortened life expectancy of the miners, who were slaves or convicts.\"","Cinnabar\n\nDecorative use","Cinnabar\n\nCinnabar has been used for its color since antiquity in the Near East, including as a rouge-type cosmetic, in the New World since the Olmec culture, and in China since as early as the Song dynasty, where it was used in coloring lacquerware.","Cinnabar\n\nCinnabar's use as a color in the New World, since the Olmec culture, is exemplified by its use in royal burial chambers during the peak of Maya civilization, most dramatically in the Tomb of the Red Queen in Palenque (600–700 AD), where the remains of a noble woman and objects belonging to her in her sarcophagus were completely covered with bright red powder made from cinnabar.","Cinnabar\n\nThe most popularly known use of cinnabar is in Chinese carved lacquerware, a technique that apparently originated in the Song dynasty. The danger of mercury poisoning may be reduced in ancient lacquerware by entraining the powdered pigment in lacquer, but could still pose an environmental hazard if the pieces were accidentally destroyed. In the modern jewelry industry, the toxic pigment is replaced by a resin-based polymer that approximates the appearance of pigmented lacquer.","Cinnabar\n\nOther forms","Cinnabar\n\n*Hepatic cinnabar or paragite is an impure brownish variety from the mines of Idrija in the Carniola region of Slovenia, in which the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy matter. \n*Hypercinnabar, crystallizes at high temperature in the hexagonal crystal system. \n*Metacinnabar is a black-colored form of Hg(II)S, which crystallizes in the cubic crystal system. \n*Synthetic cinnabar is produced by treatment of Hg(II) salts with hydrogen sulfide to precipitate black, synthetic metacinnabar, which is then heated in water. This conversion is promoted by the presence of sodium sulfide.","Vermilion\n\nVermilion (sometimes spelled vermillion ) is a brilliant red or scarlet pigment originally made from the powdered mineral cinnabar, and is also the name of the resulting color. It was widely used in the art and decoration of Ancient Rome, in the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, in the paintings of the Renaissance, as sindoor in India, and in the art and lacquerware of China.","Vermilion\n\nIn art and culture","Vermilion\n\nFile:Villa of Mysteries (Pompeii)-20.jpg|The bright vermilion murals in the Villa of Mysteries in Pompeii (before 79 AD) were painted with ground and powdered cinnabar, the most expensive red pigment of the time.\nFile:Masaccio, pala colonna, santi girolamo e giovanni battista.jpg|The painting of Saint Jerome by Masaccio (1428–29) featured a vivid robe painted with vermilion. \nFile:Girart de Roussillon (full page).jpg|A page of the Roman de Girart de Roussillon (1450). Both vermilion and minium, or red lead, were used in Medieval manuscripts. Vermilion, as expensive as gilding, was usually reserved for the most important illustrations or designs.\nFile:Tizian 041.jpg|The Venetian painter Titian used vermilion for dramatic effect. In the Assumption of the Virgin (1516–18) the vermilion robes draw the eye to the main characters.\nFile:Lacquerware-roundbox-w-children.jpg | A \"Chinese red\" lacquerware roundbox from the Qing dynasty (1736-1795), from the National Museum of China in Beijing.","Vermilion\n\nEtymology","Vermilion\n\nThe word vermilion came from the Old French word vermeillon, which was derived from vermeil, from the Latin vermiculus, the diminutive of the Latin word vermis, or worm. It has the same origin as the English word vermin. The name originated because it had a similar color to the natural red dye made from an insect, the Kermes vermilio, which was widely used in Europe. The words for the color in Portuguese (vermelho), Galician (vermello) and Catalan (vermell) have the same origin. The first recorded use of vermilion as a color name in English was in 1289. The term cinnabar was used interchangeably with vermilion until the 17th century, when vermilion became the more common name. By the late 18th century 'cinnabar' applied to the unground natural mineral only.","Vermilion\n\nChemistry and manufacture","Vermilion\n\nVermilion is a dense, opaque pigment with a clear, brilliant hue. The pigment was originally made by grinding a powder of cinnabar, the ore which contains mercury. The chemical formula of the pigment is HgS (mercury(II) sulfide); like most mercury compounds it is toxic.","Vermilion\n\nVermilion is not one specific hue; Mercuric sulfides make a range of warm hues – from bright orange-red to a duller bluish-red. Differences in hue are caused by the size of the ground particles of pigment. Larger crystals produce duller and less-orange hue.","Vermilion\n\nCinnabar pigment was a side-product of the mining of mercury, and mining cinnabar was difficult, expensive and dangerous, because of the toxicity of mercury. The Greek philosopher Theophrastus of Eresus (371-286 BC) described the process in \"De Lapidibus\", the first scientific book on minerals. Efforts began early to find a better way to make the pigment.","Vermilion\n\nThe Chinese were probably the first to make a synthetic vermilion as early as the 4th century BC. The Greek alchemist Zosimus of Panopolis (Third–Fourth century AD) wrote that such a method existed. In the early ninth century the process was accurately described by the Arab or Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (722–804) in his book of recipes of colors, and the process began to be widely used in Europe.","Vermilion\n\nThe process described by Jabir ibn Hayyan was fairly simple. Mercury and sulfur were mixed together, forming a black compound of sulphide of mercury, called Aethiopes mineralis. This was then heated in a flask. The compound vaporized, and recondensed in the top of the flask. The flask was broken, the vermilion was taken out, and it was ground. When first created the pigment was almost black, but as it was ground the red color appeared. The longer the color was ground, the finer the color became. The Italian Renaissance artist Cennino Cennini wrote: \"if you were to grind it every day even for twenty years it would keep getting better and more perfect.\"","Vermilion\n\nDuring the 17th century a new method of making the pigment was introduced, known as the 'Dutch' method. Mercury and melted sulfur were mashed to make black mercury sulfide, then heated in retort, producing vapors condensing as a bright, red mercury sulfide. To remove the sulfur these crystals were treated with a strong alkali, washed and finally ground under water to yield the commercial powder form of pigment. The pigment is still made today by essentially the same process.","Vermilion\n\nVermilion has one important defect; it is liable to darken, or develop a purplish-gray surface sheen. Cennino Cennini wrote, \"Bear in mind...that it is not in its character to be exposed to air but it is more resistant on panel than on walls since, when it is used and laid on a wall, over a period of time, standing in the air, it turns black\" The darkness is not a result of the vermilion itself, which is very stable, but is caused by impurities and adulteration of the pigment. Newer research indicates that chlorine ions and light may aid in decomposing vermilion into elemental mercury, which is black in finely dispersed form.","Vermilion\n\nVermilion was the primary red pigment used by European painters from the Renaissance until the 20th century. However, because of its cost and toxicity, it was almost entirely replaced by a new synthetic pigment, cadmium red, in the 20th century.","Vermilion\n\nGenuine vermilion pigment today comes mostly from China; it is a synthetic mercuric sulfide, labeled on paint tubes as PR-106 (Red Pigment 106). The synthetic pigment is of higher quality than vermilion made from ground cinnabar, which has many impurities. The pigment is very toxic, and should be used with great care.","Vermilion\n\nFile:Cinnabar-172403.jpg|Cinnabar crystals from the Almaden Mine in northern California.\nFile:Cinnabar-3d6b.jpg|Cinnabar crystals on dolomite from Tongren Prefecture, Guizhou, China.\nFile:Paolo Uccello 035.jpg|Vermilion has the defect of darkening with time. The bridle of the horse in The Battle of San Romano by Paolo Uccello in the National Gallery in London has turned from red to dark brown.","Vermilion\n\nHistory","Vermilion\n\nAntiquity","Vermilion\n\nFile:Museum of Anatolian Civilizations003.jpg|The first documented use of cinnabar or vermilion pigment was found at the neolithic village of Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey. This mural, from 7000–8000 BC, shows aurochs, a deer and humans. (Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara). File:Banpo bowl.jpg|The first documented use of cinnabar, or vermilion, for decorating pottery in China dates to the Yangshao culture (5000–4000 BC). This bowl is from Banpo Village, Shaanxi, China. File:Villa Mystery fresco.jpg|The Villa of the mysteries in Pompeii was a showcase for the expensive vermilion pigment made from ground cinnabar. File:Palenque-ausgrab.jpg|The walls of the tombs of Maya rulers were sometimes painted with cinnabar, and in the Tomb of the Red Queen in Palenque (600–700 AD), the remains of a noblewoman were covered with bright vermilion cinnabar powder. The first documented use of vermilion pigment, made with ground cinnabar, dates to 7000–8000 BC, and was found at the neolithic village of Catalhoyuk, in modern-day Turkey. Cinnabar was mined in Spain beginning in about 5300 BC.","Vermilion\n\nIn China, the first documented use of Cinnabar as a pigment was by the Yangshao culture (5000–4000 BC), where it was used to paint ceramics, to cover the walls and floors of rooms, and for ritual ceremonies.","Vermilion\n\nThe principal source of cinnabar for the ancient Romans was the Almaden mine in northwest Spain, which was worked by prisoners. Since the ore of mercury was highly toxic, a term in the mines was a virtual death sentence. Pliny the Elder described the mines this way:","Vermilion\n\nNothing is more carefully guarded. It is forbidden to break up or refine the cinnabar on the spot. They send it to Rome in its natural condition, under seal, to the extent of some ten thousand pounds a year. The sales price is fixed by law to keep it from becoming impossibly expensive, and the price fixed is seventy sesterces a pound.","Vermilion\n\nIn Rome, the precious pigment was used to paint frescoes, decorate statues, and even as a cosmetic. In Roman triumphs, the victors had their faces covered with vermilion power, and the face of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill was also colored vermilion. Cinnabar was used to paint the walls of some of the most luxurious villas in Pompeii, including the Villa of the Mysteries. Pliny reported that the painters of that villa stole a large portion of the expensive pigment by frequently washing their brushes and saving the wash water.","Vermilion\n\nIn the Byzantine Empire, the use of cinnabar and the vermilion color was reserved for the use of the Imperial family and administrators; official letters and imperial decrees were written in vermilion ink, made with cinnabar.","Vermilion\n\nIn the Americas","Vermilion\n\nVermilion was also used by the peoples of Central and South America, to paint ceramics, figurines, murals, and for the decoration of burials. It was used in the Chavin Civilization (400 BC – 200 AD), and in the Maya, Sican, Moche, and Inca Empire. The major source was the Huancavelica mine in the Andes mountains in central Peru.","Vermilion\n\nThe most dramatic example of the use of vermilion in the Americas was the so-called Tomb of the Red Queen, located in Temple XIII in the ruins of the Mayan city of Palenque in Chiapas, Mexico, dated to between 600–700 AD, discovered in 1994 by Mexican archeologist Arnoldo Gonzales Cruz. The body and all the objects in the sarcophagus were covered with bright red vermilion powder made from cinnabar.","Vermilion\n\nIn the Middle Ages and Renaissance","Vermilion\n\nThe technique for making a synthetic vermilion by combining sulphur and mercury was in use in Europe in the 9th century, but the pigment was still expensive. Since it was almost as expensive as gold leaf, it was used only in the most important decoration of illuminated manuscripts, while the less expensive minium, made with red lead, was used for the red letters and symbols in the text.","Vermilion\n\nVermilion was also used by painters in the Renaissance as a very vivid and bright red, though it did have the weakness of sometimes turning dark with time. The Florentine artist Cennino Cennini described it in his famous handbook for artists:","Vermilion\n\nthis pigment is made by alchemy, prepared in a retort, which subject I will leave be since to put every method and recipe into my discussion would be too longwinded. The reason? Because if you care to take the trouble you will find a lot of recipes for it, and particularly if you cultivate friendships with monks. But, so that you do not waste your time with the many different techniques, I advise you, just take what you can find at the apothecary's for your money. And I want to teach you how to buy it and how to recognise the good vermilion. Always buy solid vermilion and not crushed or ground. The reason? Because more often than not you are cheated either with red lead or crushed brick.","Vermilion\n\nBy the 20th century, the cost and toxicity of vermilion led to its gradually being replaced by synthetic pigments, particularly cadmium red, which had a comparable color and opacity.","Vermilion\n\nChinese Red","Vermilion\n\nFile:Lacquerware bowl, Western Han Dynasty.JPG |A lacquerware bowl from the Western Han Dynasty, 2nd century BC (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)\nFile:Red lacquer tray, Song Dynasty.jpg | A lacquerware tray from the Song Dynasty, 960-1279 (Freer and Sackler Galleries, Washington, D.C.)\nFile:Red lacquerware dish, Ming Dynasty.jpg | A lacquerware dish from the Ming Dynasty, late 15th to mid-16th century. (Freer and Sackler Galleries, Washington, D.C.)\nFile:Shaolinsi.JPG|The Shaolin Temple in China. Vermilion plays an important role in Chinese culture, and is often used for temples and shrines.\nFile:Wumen.jpg|The main gate of the Forbidden City in Beiljing, like most Chinese palace walls and gates, is painted vermilion or Chinese red.\nFile:Forbidden City August 2012 28.JPG|Vermilion columns in The throne room in the Palace of Heavenly Purity in the Forbidden City of Beijing.","Vermilion\n\nOn the other side of the world, in China, the color vermilion was also playing an important role in the national culture. The color was most famously used in creating Chinese lacquerware, which was exported around the world, giving rise to the term \"Chinese red.\"","Vermilion\n\nThe lacquer came from the Chinese lacquer tree, or Toxicodendron vernicifluum, a relative of the sumac tree, which grew in regions of China, Korea and Japan. The sap or resin of the tree, called urushiol, was caustic and toxic (it contained the same chemical compound as poison ivy) but, painted on to wood or metal, it hardened into a fine natural plastic, or lacquer surface. The pure sap was dark brown, but beginning in about the 3rd century BC, during the Han Dynasty, Chinese artisans colored it with powdered cinnabar or with red ochre (ferric oxide), giving it an orange-red color. Beginning in about the 8th century, Chinese chemists began making synthetic vermilion from mercury and sulfur, which reduced the price of the pigment and allowed the production of Chinese lacquerware on a larger scale.","Vermilion\n\nThe shade of red of the lacquerware has changed over the centuries. During the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD) the Chinese word for red referred to a light red. However, during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), when the synthetic vermilion was introduced, that color became darker and richer. The poet Bai Juyi (772–846) wrote that \"the flowers in the river when the sun rises are redder than flames\", and the word he used for red was the word for vermilion, or Chinese red.","Vermilion\n\nWhen Chinese lacquerware and the ground cinnabar used to color it were exported to Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, European collectors considered it to be finer than the European vermilion. In 1835 \"Chinese vermilion\" was described as a cinnabar so pure that it only had to be ground into powder to become a perfect vermilion. Historically European vermilion often included adulterants including brick, orpiment, iron oxide, Persian red, iodine scarlet—and minium (red lead), an inexpensive and bright but fugitive lead-oxide pigment.","Vermilion\n\nIn China, From ancient times vermilion was regarded as the color of blood, and thus the color of life. It was used to paint temples, the carriages of the Emperor, and as the printing paste for personal name chops. It was also used for unique red calligraphic ink reserved for Emperors. Chinese Taoists associated vermilion with eternity.","Vermilion\n\nSindoor","Vermilion\n\nIn India, vermilion, or sindoor as it is called, is the symbol of fertility. It is therefore applied on the forehead as a dot or on the hair parting of the woman signifying that she is married. A key ritual in Indian marriages is application of vermilion by the groom on his bride, signifying their marital bond, which she applies every day for the rest of life till her husband's death.","Vermilion\n\nVariations","Vermilion\n\nRed-orange","Vermilion\n\nAt right is displayed the Crayola color red-orange.","Vermilion\n\nRed-orange has been a Crayola color since 1930.","Vermilion\n\nOrange-red","Vermilion\n\nDisplayed at right is the web color orange-red. It was formulated in 1987 as one of the X11 colors, which became known as the X11 web colors after the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991.","Vermilion\n\nMedium vermilion","Vermilion\n\nAt right is the medium tone of vermilion called \"vermilion\" on the Plochere color list, a color list formulated in 1948 that is used widely by interior designers.","Vermilion\n\nChinese red","Vermilion\n\n\"China red\" or \"Chinese red\" is the name used for the vermilion shade used in Chinese lacquerware. One version is shown in the color box at right; the shade could vary from dark to light depending upon how the pigment was made and how the lacquer was applied. Chinese red was originally made from the powdered mineral cinnabar, but beginning in about the 8th century it was made more commonly by a chemical process combining mercury and sulphur. Vermilion has significance in Taoist culture, and is regarded as the color of life and eternity.","Vermilion\n\nThe first recorded use of Chinese red as a color name in English was in 1924.","Vermilion\n\nThe source of this color is: [http://tx4.us/nbs/nbs-c.htm ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names (1955)--Color Sample of Chinese red (color sample #36)].","Vermilion\n\nIn nature","Vermilion\n\nFile:P rubinus.jpg | The vermilion flycatcher is a native of Central and South America.","Vermilion\n\nIn human culture","Vermilion\n\n;Hindu culture","Vermilion\n\n* Hindu women use vermilion along the hair parting line known as Sindoor, to signify that they are married. Hindu men often wear vermilion on their forehead during religious ceremonies and festivals.","Vermilion\n\n;Religion\n* The Shaolin temple, where the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma is reputed to have established the new sect of Chan Buddhism (Zen Buddhism), is colored a bright tone of vermilion. This temple was made famous in the West by the 1972–1975 TV series Kung Fu.\n* In the Bible vermilion is listed as a pigment that was in use for painting buildings during the reign of Shallum the son of Josiah king of Judah and is named in the book of the prophet Ezekiel as a pigment used in art that portrayed Chaldean men. (Jeremiah 22:11–14, Ezekiel 23:14-17)\n* The Vermilion rose is a symbol of the Blessed Virgin Mary.","Vermilion\n\n;Mythology","Vermilion\n\n* In Han China's Five Elements cosmology (cf. Chinese mythology), one of the four symbols of the four directions is a bird called Vermilion Bird, which represents the direction of south. The color red (particularly as exemplified by cinnabar/vermilion) was also symbolically associated with summer, fire, a certain note on the musical scale, a certain day of the calendar, and so on.","Vermilion\n\n;Literature","Vermilion\n\n* Vermilion Sands is a collection of science fiction short stories by J.G. Ballard published in 1971 about an imaginary future resort that pleases its guests by using various kinds of futuristic technology.","Vermilion\n\n;History of computing","Vermilion\n\n* The color orange red has a special significance in hacker culture. The documentation for Digital Equipment Corporation's VMS version 4 came in memorable, distinctively colored orangish-reddish ring binders, and \"China red\" was Digital's official name for this color. Mark Crispin seems to claim Digital's name for the color was Terracotta, at least in the context of PDP-10 machines running Tops-20. \n* Vermilion City is one of the locations used in the English translated versions of the Pokémon games and anime cartoons. It is a port town in the Kanto area and the name is derived from the original Japanese name クチバシティ (Kuchiba City). Kuchiba is an orange-red color associated with sunsets and autumnal leaves and Vermilion was used as an approximate translation."],"string":"[\n \"Ore\\n\\nAn ore is a type of rock that contains sufficient minerals with important elements including metals that can be economically extracted from the rock. The ores are extracted from the earth through mining; they are then refined (often via smelting) to extract the valuable element, or elements.\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nThe grade or concentration of an ore mineral, or metal, as well as its form of occurrence, will directly affect the costs associated with mining the ore. The cost of extraction must thus be weighed against the metal value contained in the rock to determine what ore can be processed and what ore is of too low a grade to be worth mining. Metal ores are generally oxides, sulfides, silicates, or \\\"native\\\" metals (such as native copper) that are not commonly concentrated in the Earth's crust, or \\\"noble\\\" metals (not usually forming compounds) such as gold. The ores must be processed to extract the metals of interest from the waste rock and from the ore minerals. Ore bodies are formed by a variety of geological processes. The process of ore formation is called ore genesis.\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nOre deposits\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nAn ore deposit is an accumulation of ore. This is distinct from a mineral resource as defined by the mineral resource classification criteria. An ore deposit is one occurrence of a particular ore type. Most ore deposits are named according to their location (for example, the Witswatersrand, South Africa), or after a discoverer (e.g. the kambalda nickel shoots are named after drillers), or after some whimsy, a historical figure, a prominent person, something from mythology (phoenix, kraken, serepentleopard, etc.) or the code name of the resource company which found it (e.g. MKD-5 is the in-house name for the Mount Keith nickel ).\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nClassification\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nOre deposits are classified according to various criteria developed via the study of economic geology, or ore genesis. The classifications below are typical.\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nHydrothermal epigenetic deposits\",\n \"Ore\\n\\n* Mesothermal lode gold deposits, typified by the Golden Mile, Kalgoorlie\\n* Archaean conglomerate hosted gold-uranium deposits, typified by Elliot Lake, Canada and Witwatersrand, South Africa\\n* Carlin–type gold deposits, including;\\n* Epithermal stockwork vein deposits\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nGranite related hydrothermal\",\n \"Ore\\n\\n* IOCG or iron oxide copper gold deposits, typified by the supergiant Olympic Dam Cu-Au-U deposit\\n* Porphyry copper +/- gold +/- molybdenum +/- silver deposits\\n* Intrusive-related copper-gold +/- (tin-tungsten), typified by the Tombstone, Arizona deposits\\n* Hydromagmatic magnetite iron ore deposits and skarns\\n* Skarn ore deposits of copper, lead, zinc, tungsten, etcetera\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nMagmatic deposits\",\n \"Ore\\n\\n* Magmatic nickel-copper-iron-PGE deposits including\\n** Cumulate vanadiferous or platinum-bearing magnetite or chromite\\n** Cumulate hard-rock titanium (ilmenite) deposits\\n** Komatiite hosted Ni-Cu-PGE deposits\\n** Subvolcanic feeder subtype, typified by Noril'sk-Talnakh and the Thompson Belt, Canada\\n** Intrusive-related Ni-Cu-PGE, typified by Voisey's Bay, Canada and Jinchuan, China\\n* Lateritic nickel ore deposits, examples include Goro and Acoje, (Philippines) and Ravensthorpe, Western Australia.\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nVolcanic-related deposits\",\n \"Ore\\n\\n* Volcanic hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) Cu-Pb-Zn including;\\n** Examples include Teutonic Bore and Golden Grove, Western Australia\\n*** Besshi type\\n*** Kuroko type\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nMetamorphically reworked deposits\",\n \"Ore\\n\\n* Podiform serpentinite-hosted paramagmatic iron oxide-chromite deposits, typified by Savage River, Tasmania iron ore, Coobina chromite deposit\\n* Broken Hill Type Pb-Zn-Ag, considered to be a class of reworked SEDEX deposits\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nCarbonatite-alkaline igneous related\",\n \"Ore\\n\\n* Phosphorus-tantalite-vermiculite (Phalaborwa South Africa)\\n* Rare earth elements – Mount Weld, Australia and Bayan Obo, Mongolia\\n* Diatreme hosted diamond in kimberlite, lamproite or lamprophyre\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nSedimentary deposits\",\n \"Ore\\n\\n* Banded iron formation iron ore deposits, including\\n** Channel-iron deposits or pisolite type iron ore\\n* Heavy mineral sands ore deposits and other sand dune hosted deposits\\n* Alluvial gold, diamond, tin, platinum or black sand deposits\\n* Alluvial oxide zinc deposit type: sole example Skorpion Zinc\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nSedimentary hydrothermal deposits\",\n \"Ore\\n\\n* SEDEX\\n** Lead-zinc-silver, typified by Red Dog, McArthur River, Mount Isa, etc.\\n** Stratiform arkose-hosted and shale-hosted copper, typified by the Zambian copperbelt.\\n** Stratiform tungsten, typified by the Erzgebirge deposits, Czechoslovakia\\n** Exhalative spilite-chert hosted gold deposits\\n* Mississippi valley type (MVT) zinc-lead deposits\\n* Hematite iron ore deposits of altered banded iron formation\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nAstrobleme-related ores\",\n \"Ore\\n\\n* Sudbury Basin nickel and copper, Ontario, Canada\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nExtraction\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nThe basic extraction of ore deposits follows these steps:\",\n \"Ore\\n\\n# Prospecting or exploration to find and then define the extent and value of ore where it is located (\\\"ore body\\\")\\n# Conduct resource estimation to mathematically estimate the size and grade of the deposit\\n# Conduct a pre-feasibility study to determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit. This identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work. # Conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the financial viability, technical and financial risks and robustness of the project and make a decision as whether to develop or walk away from a proposed mine project. This includes mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of the deposit, the metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability and payability of the ore concentrates, engineering, milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity requirements and a cradle to grave analysis of the possible mine, from the initial excavation all the way through to reclamation.\",\n \"Ore\\n\\n# Development to create access to an ore body and building of mine plant and equipment\\n# The operation of the mine in an active sense\\n# Reclamation to make land where a mine had been suitable for future use\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nTrade\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nOres (metals) are traded internationally and comprise a sizeable portion of international trade in raw materials both in value and volume. This is because the worldwide distribution of ores is unequal and dislocated from locations of peak demand and from smelting infrastructure.\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nMost base metals (copper, lead, zinc, nickel) are traded internationally on the London Metal Exchange, with smaller stockpiles and metals exchanges monitored by the COMEX and NYMEX exchanges in the United States and the Shanghai Futures Exchange in China.\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nIron ore is traded between customer and producer, though various benchmark prices are set quarterly between the major mining conglomerates and the major consumers, and this sets the stage for smaller participants.\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nOther, lesser, commodities do not have international clearing houses and benchmark prices, with most prices negotiated between suppliers and customers one-on-one. This generally makes determining the price of ores of this nature opaque and difficult. Such metals include lithium, niobium-tantalum, bismuth, antimony and rare earths. Most of these commodities are also dominated by one or two major suppliers with >60% of the world's reserves. The London Metal Exchange aims to add uranium to its list of metals on warrant.\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nThe World Bank reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the USA and Japan.\",\n \"Ore\\n\\nImportant ore minerals\",\n \"Ore\\n\\n* Acanthite (cooled polymorph of Argentite): Ag2S for production of silver\\n* Barite: BaSO4\\n* Bauxite Al(OH)3 and AlOOH, dried to Al2O3 for production of aluminium\\n* Beryl: Be3Al2(SiO3)6\\n* Bornite: Cu5FeS4\\n* Cassiterite: SnO2\\n* Chalcocite: Cu2S for production of copper\\n* Chalcopyrite: CuFeS2\\n* Chromite: (Fe, Mg)Cr2O4 for production of chromium\\n* Cinnabar: HgS for production of mercury\\n* Cobaltite: (Co, Fe)AsS\\n* Columbite-Tantalite or Coltan: (Fe, Mn)(Nb, Ta)2O6\\n* Dolomite: CaMg(CO3)2\\n* Galena: PbS\\n* Native gold: Au, typically associated with quartz or as placer deposits\\n* Hematite: Fe2O3\\n* Ilmenite: FeTiO3\\n* Magnetite: Fe3O4\\n* Malachite: Cu2CO3(OH)2\\n* Molybdenite: MoS2\\n* Pentlandite:(Fe, Ni)9S8\\n* Pyrolusite:MnO2\\n* Scheelite: CaWO4\\n* Sperrylite: PtAs2 for production of platinum\\n* Sphalerite: ZnS\\n* Uraninite (pitchblende): UO2 for production of metallic uranium\\n* Wolframite: (Fe, Mn)WO4\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nCinnabar and cinnabarite, likely deriving from the Greek κινναβαρι (kinnabari), refer to the common bright scarlet to brick-red form of mercury(II) sulfide, formula HgS, that is the most common source ore for refining elemental mercury, and is the historic source for the brilliant red or scarlet pigment termed vermilion and associated red mercury pigments.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nCinnabar generally occurs as a vein-filling mineral associated with recent volcanic activity and alkaline hot springs. The mineral resembles quartz in symmetry and in its exhibiting birefringence; cinnabar has a mean refractive index of ~3.2, a hardness between 2 and 2.5, and a specific gravity of ~8.1. The color and properties derive from a structure that is a rhombohedral crystalline lattice belonging to the hexagonal crystal system, crystals that sometimes exhibit twinning.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nCinnabar has been used for its color since antiquity in the Near East, including as a rouge-type cosmetic, in the New World since the Olmec culture, and in China since as early as the Song dynasty, where it was used in coloring lacquerware.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nAssociated modern precautions for use and handling of cinnabar arise from the toxicity of the mercury component, which was recognized as early as ancient Rome.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nThe name comes from κινναβαρι (kinnabari), a Greek word most likely applied by Theophrastus to several distinct substances. Other sources say the word comes from the shangarf (Arabicized as زنجفرة zinjifrah), a word of uncertain origin (also compare, Sanskrit सुगर sugara). In Latin it was sometimes known as minium, meaning also \\\"red cinnamon\\\", though both of these terms now refer specifically to lead tetroxide.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nProperties and structure\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nProperties\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nCinnabar is generally found in a massive, granular or earthy form and is bright scarlet to brick-red in color, though it occasionally occurs in crystals with a non-metallic adamantine luster. It resembles quartz in its symmetry. It exhibits birefringence, and it has the highest refractive index of any mineral. Its mean refractive index is 3.08 (sodium light wavelengths), versus the indices for diamond and the non-mineral gallium(III) arsenide (GaAs), which are 2.42 and 3.93, respectively. The hardness of cinnabar is 2.0–2.5 on the Mohs scale, and its specific gravity 8.1.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nStructure\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nStructurally, cinnabar belongs to the trigonal crystal system. It occurs as thick tabular or slender prismatic crystals or as granular to massive incrustations. Crystal twinning occurs as simple contact twins.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nNote, mercury(II) sulfide, HgS, adopts the cinnabar structure described, and one additional structure, i.e. it is dimorphous. Cinnabar is the more stable form, and is a structure akin to that of HgO: each Hg center has two short Hg-S bonds (each 2.36 Å), and four longer Hg•••S contacts (with 3.10, 3.10, 3.30, and 3.30 Å separations). In addition, HgS is found in a black, non-cinnabar polymorph (metacinnabar) that has the zincblende structure.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nOccurrence\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nCinnabar generally occurs as a vein-filling mineral associated with recent volcanic activity and alkaline hot springs. Cinnabar is deposited by epithermal ascending aqueous solutions (those near surface and not too hot) far removed from their igneous source. It is associated with native mercury, stibnite, realgar, pyrite, marcasite, opal, quartz, chalcedony, dolomite, calcite and barite.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nCinnabar is essentially found in all mineral extraction localities that yield mercury, notably Puerto Princesa (Philippines); Almadén (Spain); New Almaden (California); Hastings Mine and St. John's Mine, Vallejo, California; Idrija (Slovenia); New Idria (California); Giza, Egypt; near Obermoschel in the Palatinate; Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps and in the Mount Amiata (Tuscany); the mountain Avala (Serbia); Huancavelica (Peru); Murfreesboro, Arkansas; Terlingua, Texas (United States); and the province of Guizhou in China, where fine crystals have been obtained. It was also mined near Red Devil, Alaska on the middle Kuskokwim River. Red Devil was named after the Red Devil cinnabar mine, a primary source of mercury. It has been found in Dominica, Lesser Antilles near its sulfur springs at the southern end of the island along the west coast.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nCinnabar is still being deposited, e.g., at the present day from the hot waters of Sulphur Bank Mine in California and Steamboat Springs, Nevada.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nMining and extraction of mercury\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nAs the most common source of mercury in nature, cinnabar has been mined for thousands of years, even as far back as the Neolithic Age. During the Roman Empire it was mined both as a pigment, Pliny, Natural History; XXXIII. and for its mercury content.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nTo produce liquid mercury (quicksilver), crushed cinnabar ore is roasted in rotary furnaces. Pure mercury separates from sulfur in this process and easily evaporates. A condensing column is used to collect the liquid metal, which is most often shipped in iron flasks.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nToxicity\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nAssociated modern precautions for use and handling of cinnabar arise from the toxicity of the mercury component, which was recognized as early as in ancient Rome.Susan Stewart, 2014, \\\"'Gleaming and deadly white': Toxic cosmetics in the Roman world,\\\" pp. 84f, 79-88, in History of Toxicology and Environmental Health: Toxicology in Antiquity II (Philip Wexler, Ed.), New York, NY, USA:Academic Press, ISBN 0128016345, see [https://books.google.com/books?isbn\\n0128016345], accessed 24 July 2015. Because of its mercury content, cinnabar can be toxic to human beings. Though people in ancient South America often used cinnabar for art, or processed it into refined mercury (as a means to gild silver and gold to objects) \\\"the toxic properties of mercury were well known. It was dangerous to those who mined and processed cinnabar, it caused shaking, loss of sense, and death.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nData suggest that mercury was retorted from cinnabar and the workers were exposed to the toxic mercury fumes.\\\" Overexposure to mercury, mercurialism, was seen as an occupational disease to the ancient Romans, \\\"Mining in the Spanish cinnabar mines of Almadén, 225 km southwest of Madrid, was regarded as being akin to a death sentence due to the shortened life expectancy of the miners, who were slaves or convicts.\\\"\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nDecorative use\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nCinnabar has been used for its color since antiquity in the Near East, including as a rouge-type cosmetic, in the New World since the Olmec culture, and in China since as early as the Song dynasty, where it was used in coloring lacquerware.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nCinnabar's use as a color in the New World, since the Olmec culture, is exemplified by its use in royal burial chambers during the peak of Maya civilization, most dramatically in the Tomb of the Red Queen in Palenque (600–700 AD), where the remains of a noble woman and objects belonging to her in her sarcophagus were completely covered with bright red powder made from cinnabar.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nThe most popularly known use of cinnabar is in Chinese carved lacquerware, a technique that apparently originated in the Song dynasty. The danger of mercury poisoning may be reduced in ancient lacquerware by entraining the powdered pigment in lacquer, but could still pose an environmental hazard if the pieces were accidentally destroyed. In the modern jewelry industry, the toxic pigment is replaced by a resin-based polymer that approximates the appearance of pigmented lacquer.\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\nOther forms\",\n \"Cinnabar\\n\\n*Hepatic cinnabar or paragite is an impure brownish variety from the mines of Idrija in the Carniola region of Slovenia, in which the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy matter. \\n*Hypercinnabar, crystallizes at high temperature in the hexagonal crystal system. \\n*Metacinnabar is a black-colored form of Hg(II)S, which crystallizes in the cubic crystal system. \\n*Synthetic cinnabar is produced by treatment of Hg(II) salts with hydrogen sulfide to precipitate black, synthetic metacinnabar, which is then heated in water. This conversion is promoted by the presence of sodium sulfide.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nVermilion (sometimes spelled vermillion ) is a brilliant red or scarlet pigment originally made from the powdered mineral cinnabar, and is also the name of the resulting color. It was widely used in the art and decoration of Ancient Rome, in the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, in the paintings of the Renaissance, as sindoor in India, and in the art and lacquerware of China.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nIn art and culture\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nFile:Villa of Mysteries (Pompeii)-20.jpg|The bright vermilion murals in the Villa of Mysteries in Pompeii (before 79 AD) were painted with ground and powdered cinnabar, the most expensive red pigment of the time.\\nFile:Masaccio, pala colonna, santi girolamo e giovanni battista.jpg|The painting of Saint Jerome by Masaccio (1428–29) featured a vivid robe painted with vermilion. \\nFile:Girart de Roussillon (full page).jpg|A page of the Roman de Girart de Roussillon (1450). Both vermilion and minium, or red lead, were used in Medieval manuscripts. Vermilion, as expensive as gilding, was usually reserved for the most important illustrations or designs.\\nFile:Tizian 041.jpg|The Venetian painter Titian used vermilion for dramatic effect. In the Assumption of the Virgin (1516–18) the vermilion robes draw the eye to the main characters.\\nFile:Lacquerware-roundbox-w-children.jpg | A \\\"Chinese red\\\" lacquerware roundbox from the Qing dynasty (1736-1795), from the National Museum of China in Beijing.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nThe word vermilion came from the Old French word vermeillon, which was derived from vermeil, from the Latin vermiculus, the diminutive of the Latin word vermis, or worm. It has the same origin as the English word vermin. The name originated because it had a similar color to the natural red dye made from an insect, the Kermes vermilio, which was widely used in Europe. The words for the color in Portuguese (vermelho), Galician (vermello) and Catalan (vermell) have the same origin. The first recorded use of vermilion as a color name in English was in 1289. The term cinnabar was used interchangeably with vermilion until the 17th century, when vermilion became the more common name. By the late 18th century 'cinnabar' applied to the unground natural mineral only.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nChemistry and manufacture\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nVermilion is a dense, opaque pigment with a clear, brilliant hue. The pigment was originally made by grinding a powder of cinnabar, the ore which contains mercury. The chemical formula of the pigment is HgS (mercury(II) sulfide); like most mercury compounds it is toxic.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nVermilion is not one specific hue; Mercuric sulfides make a range of warm hues – from bright orange-red to a duller bluish-red. Differences in hue are caused by the size of the ground particles of pigment. Larger crystals produce duller and less-orange hue.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nCinnabar pigment was a side-product of the mining of mercury, and mining cinnabar was difficult, expensive and dangerous, because of the toxicity of mercury. The Greek philosopher Theophrastus of Eresus (371-286 BC) described the process in \\\"De Lapidibus\\\", the first scientific book on minerals. Efforts began early to find a better way to make the pigment.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nThe Chinese were probably the first to make a synthetic vermilion as early as the 4th century BC. The Greek alchemist Zosimus of Panopolis (Third–Fourth century AD) wrote that such a method existed. In the early ninth century the process was accurately described by the Arab or Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (722–804) in his book of recipes of colors, and the process began to be widely used in Europe.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nThe process described by Jabir ibn Hayyan was fairly simple. Mercury and sulfur were mixed together, forming a black compound of sulphide of mercury, called Aethiopes mineralis. This was then heated in a flask. The compound vaporized, and recondensed in the top of the flask. The flask was broken, the vermilion was taken out, and it was ground. When first created the pigment was almost black, but as it was ground the red color appeared. The longer the color was ground, the finer the color became. The Italian Renaissance artist Cennino Cennini wrote: \\\"if you were to grind it every day even for twenty years it would keep getting better and more perfect.\\\"\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nDuring the 17th century a new method of making the pigment was introduced, known as the 'Dutch' method. Mercury and melted sulfur were mashed to make black mercury sulfide, then heated in retort, producing vapors condensing as a bright, red mercury sulfide. To remove the sulfur these crystals were treated with a strong alkali, washed and finally ground under water to yield the commercial powder form of pigment. The pigment is still made today by essentially the same process.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nVermilion has one important defect; it is liable to darken, or develop a purplish-gray surface sheen. Cennino Cennini wrote, \\\"Bear in mind...that it is not in its character to be exposed to air but it is more resistant on panel than on walls since, when it is used and laid on a wall, over a period of time, standing in the air, it turns black\\\" The darkness is not a result of the vermilion itself, which is very stable, but is caused by impurities and adulteration of the pigment. Newer research indicates that chlorine ions and light may aid in decomposing vermilion into elemental mercury, which is black in finely dispersed form.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nVermilion was the primary red pigment used by European painters from the Renaissance until the 20th century. However, because of its cost and toxicity, it was almost entirely replaced by a new synthetic pigment, cadmium red, in the 20th century.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nGenuine vermilion pigment today comes mostly from China; it is a synthetic mercuric sulfide, labeled on paint tubes as PR-106 (Red Pigment 106). The synthetic pigment is of higher quality than vermilion made from ground cinnabar, which has many impurities. The pigment is very toxic, and should be used with great care.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nFile:Cinnabar-172403.jpg|Cinnabar crystals from the Almaden Mine in northern California.\\nFile:Cinnabar-3d6b.jpg|Cinnabar crystals on dolomite from Tongren Prefecture, Guizhou, China.\\nFile:Paolo Uccello 035.jpg|Vermilion has the defect of darkening with time. The bridle of the horse in The Battle of San Romano by Paolo Uccello in the National Gallery in London has turned from red to dark brown.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nAntiquity\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nFile:Museum of Anatolian Civilizations003.jpg|The first documented use of cinnabar or vermilion pigment was found at the neolithic village of Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey. This mural, from 7000–8000 BC, shows aurochs, a deer and humans. (Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara). File:Banpo bowl.jpg|The first documented use of cinnabar, or vermilion, for decorating pottery in China dates to the Yangshao culture (5000–4000 BC). This bowl is from Banpo Village, Shaanxi, China. File:Villa Mystery fresco.jpg|The Villa of the mysteries in Pompeii was a showcase for the expensive vermilion pigment made from ground cinnabar. File:Palenque-ausgrab.jpg|The walls of the tombs of Maya rulers were sometimes painted with cinnabar, and in the Tomb of the Red Queen in Palenque (600–700 AD), the remains of a noblewoman were covered with bright vermilion cinnabar powder. The first documented use of vermilion pigment, made with ground cinnabar, dates to 7000–8000 BC, and was found at the neolithic village of Catalhoyuk, in modern-day Turkey. Cinnabar was mined in Spain beginning in about 5300 BC.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nIn China, the first documented use of Cinnabar as a pigment was by the Yangshao culture (5000–4000 BC), where it was used to paint ceramics, to cover the walls and floors of rooms, and for ritual ceremonies.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nThe principal source of cinnabar for the ancient Romans was the Almaden mine in northwest Spain, which was worked by prisoners. Since the ore of mercury was highly toxic, a term in the mines was a virtual death sentence. Pliny the Elder described the mines this way:\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nNothing is more carefully guarded. It is forbidden to break up or refine the cinnabar on the spot. They send it to Rome in its natural condition, under seal, to the extent of some ten thousand pounds a year. The sales price is fixed by law to keep it from becoming impossibly expensive, and the price fixed is seventy sesterces a pound.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nIn Rome, the precious pigment was used to paint frescoes, decorate statues, and even as a cosmetic. In Roman triumphs, the victors had their faces covered with vermilion power, and the face of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill was also colored vermilion. Cinnabar was used to paint the walls of some of the most luxurious villas in Pompeii, including the Villa of the Mysteries. Pliny reported that the painters of that villa stole a large portion of the expensive pigment by frequently washing their brushes and saving the wash water.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nIn the Byzantine Empire, the use of cinnabar and the vermilion color was reserved for the use of the Imperial family and administrators; official letters and imperial decrees were written in vermilion ink, made with cinnabar.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nIn the Americas\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nVermilion was also used by the peoples of Central and South America, to paint ceramics, figurines, murals, and for the decoration of burials. It was used in the Chavin Civilization (400 BC – 200 AD), and in the Maya, Sican, Moche, and Inca Empire. The major source was the Huancavelica mine in the Andes mountains in central Peru.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nThe most dramatic example of the use of vermilion in the Americas was the so-called Tomb of the Red Queen, located in Temple XIII in the ruins of the Mayan city of Palenque in Chiapas, Mexico, dated to between 600–700 AD, discovered in 1994 by Mexican archeologist Arnoldo Gonzales Cruz. The body and all the objects in the sarcophagus were covered with bright red vermilion powder made from cinnabar.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nIn the Middle Ages and Renaissance\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nThe technique for making a synthetic vermilion by combining sulphur and mercury was in use in Europe in the 9th century, but the pigment was still expensive. Since it was almost as expensive as gold leaf, it was used only in the most important decoration of illuminated manuscripts, while the less expensive minium, made with red lead, was used for the red letters and symbols in the text.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nVermilion was also used by painters in the Renaissance as a very vivid and bright red, though it did have the weakness of sometimes turning dark with time. The Florentine artist Cennino Cennini described it in his famous handbook for artists:\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nthis pigment is made by alchemy, prepared in a retort, which subject I will leave be since to put every method and recipe into my discussion would be too longwinded. The reason? Because if you care to take the trouble you will find a lot of recipes for it, and particularly if you cultivate friendships with monks. But, so that you do not waste your time with the many different techniques, I advise you, just take what you can find at the apothecary's for your money. And I want to teach you how to buy it and how to recognise the good vermilion. Always buy solid vermilion and not crushed or ground. The reason? Because more often than not you are cheated either with red lead or crushed brick.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nBy the 20th century, the cost and toxicity of vermilion led to its gradually being replaced by synthetic pigments, particularly cadmium red, which had a comparable color and opacity.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nChinese Red\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nFile:Lacquerware bowl, Western Han Dynasty.JPG |A lacquerware bowl from the Western Han Dynasty, 2nd century BC (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)\\nFile:Red lacquer tray, Song Dynasty.jpg | A lacquerware tray from the Song Dynasty, 960-1279 (Freer and Sackler Galleries, Washington, D.C.)\\nFile:Red lacquerware dish, Ming Dynasty.jpg | A lacquerware dish from the Ming Dynasty, late 15th to mid-16th century. (Freer and Sackler Galleries, Washington, D.C.)\\nFile:Shaolinsi.JPG|The Shaolin Temple in China. Vermilion plays an important role in Chinese culture, and is often used for temples and shrines.\\nFile:Wumen.jpg|The main gate of the Forbidden City in Beiljing, like most Chinese palace walls and gates, is painted vermilion or Chinese red.\\nFile:Forbidden City August 2012 28.JPG|Vermilion columns in The throne room in the Palace of Heavenly Purity in the Forbidden City of Beijing.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nOn the other side of the world, in China, the color vermilion was also playing an important role in the national culture. The color was most famously used in creating Chinese lacquerware, which was exported around the world, giving rise to the term \\\"Chinese red.\\\"\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nThe lacquer came from the Chinese lacquer tree, or Toxicodendron vernicifluum, a relative of the sumac tree, which grew in regions of China, Korea and Japan. The sap or resin of the tree, called urushiol, was caustic and toxic (it contained the same chemical compound as poison ivy) but, painted on to wood or metal, it hardened into a fine natural plastic, or lacquer surface. The pure sap was dark brown, but beginning in about the 3rd century BC, during the Han Dynasty, Chinese artisans colored it with powdered cinnabar or with red ochre (ferric oxide), giving it an orange-red color. Beginning in about the 8th century, Chinese chemists began making synthetic vermilion from mercury and sulfur, which reduced the price of the pigment and allowed the production of Chinese lacquerware on a larger scale.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nThe shade of red of the lacquerware has changed over the centuries. During the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD) the Chinese word for red referred to a light red. However, during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), when the synthetic vermilion was introduced, that color became darker and richer. The poet Bai Juyi (772–846) wrote that \\\"the flowers in the river when the sun rises are redder than flames\\\", and the word he used for red was the word for vermilion, or Chinese red.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nWhen Chinese lacquerware and the ground cinnabar used to color it were exported to Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, European collectors considered it to be finer than the European vermilion. In 1835 \\\"Chinese vermilion\\\" was described as a cinnabar so pure that it only had to be ground into powder to become a perfect vermilion. Historically European vermilion often included adulterants including brick, orpiment, iron oxide, Persian red, iodine scarlet—and minium (red lead), an inexpensive and bright but fugitive lead-oxide pigment.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nIn China, From ancient times vermilion was regarded as the color of blood, and thus the color of life. It was used to paint temples, the carriages of the Emperor, and as the printing paste for personal name chops. It was also used for unique red calligraphic ink reserved for Emperors. Chinese Taoists associated vermilion with eternity.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nSindoor\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nIn India, vermilion, or sindoor as it is called, is the symbol of fertility. It is therefore applied on the forehead as a dot or on the hair parting of the woman signifying that she is married. A key ritual in Indian marriages is application of vermilion by the groom on his bride, signifying their marital bond, which she applies every day for the rest of life till her husband's death.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nVariations\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nRed-orange\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nAt right is displayed the Crayola color red-orange.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nRed-orange has been a Crayola color since 1930.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nOrange-red\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nDisplayed at right is the web color orange-red. It was formulated in 1987 as one of the X11 colors, which became known as the X11 web colors after the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nMedium vermilion\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nAt right is the medium tone of vermilion called \\\"vermilion\\\" on the Plochere color list, a color list formulated in 1948 that is used widely by interior designers.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nChinese red\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\n\\\"China red\\\" or \\\"Chinese red\\\" is the name used for the vermilion shade used in Chinese lacquerware. One version is shown in the color box at right; the shade could vary from dark to light depending upon how the pigment was made and how the lacquer was applied. Chinese red was originally made from the powdered mineral cinnabar, but beginning in about the 8th century it was made more commonly by a chemical process combining mercury and sulphur. Vermilion has significance in Taoist culture, and is regarded as the color of life and eternity.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nThe first recorded use of Chinese red as a color name in English was in 1924.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nThe source of this color is: [http://tx4.us/nbs/nbs-c.htm ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names (1955)--Color Sample of Chinese red (color sample #36)].\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nIn nature\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nFile:P rubinus.jpg | The vermilion flycatcher is a native of Central and South America.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\nIn human culture\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\n;Hindu culture\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\n* Hindu women use vermilion along the hair parting line known as Sindoor, to signify that they are married. Hindu men often wear vermilion on their forehead during religious ceremonies and festivals.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\n;Religion\\n* The Shaolin temple, where the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma is reputed to have established the new sect of Chan Buddhism (Zen Buddhism), is colored a bright tone of vermilion. This temple was made famous in the West by the 1972–1975 TV series Kung Fu.\\n* In the Bible vermilion is listed as a pigment that was in use for painting buildings during the reign of Shallum the son of Josiah king of Judah and is named in the book of the prophet Ezekiel as a pigment used in art that portrayed Chaldean men. (Jeremiah 22:11–14, Ezekiel 23:14-17)\\n* The Vermilion rose is a symbol of the Blessed Virgin Mary.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\n;Mythology\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\n* In Han China's Five Elements cosmology (cf. Chinese mythology), one of the four symbols of the four directions is a bird called Vermilion Bird, which represents the direction of south. The color red (particularly as exemplified by cinnabar/vermilion) was also symbolically associated with summer, fire, a certain note on the musical scale, a certain day of the calendar, and so on.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\n;Literature\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\n* Vermilion Sands is a collection of science fiction short stories by J.G. Ballard published in 1971 about an imaginary future resort that pleases its guests by using various kinds of futuristic technology.\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\n;History of computing\",\n \"Vermilion\\n\\n* The color orange red has a special significance in hacker culture. The documentation for Digital Equipment Corporation's VMS version 4 came in memorable, distinctively colored orangish-reddish ring binders, and \\\"China red\\\" was Digital's official name for this color. Mark Crispin seems to claim Digital's name for the color was Terracotta, at least in the context of PDP-10 machines running Tops-20. \\n* Vermilion City is one of the locations used in the English translated versions of the Pokémon games and anime cartoons. It is a port town in the Kanto area and the name is derived from the original Japanese name クチバシティ (Kuchiba City). Kuchiba is an orange-red color associated with sunsets and autumnal leaves and Vermilion was used as an approximate translation.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137079,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2299"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Monday marked the 61st anniversary of the publication of noted recluse J. D. Salinger's only novel, which was what?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"The Catcher in the Rye"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["catcher in rye","little shirley beans","catcher and rye","mr antolini","club ernies","agerstown pa","db caulfield","d b caulfield","faith cavendish","sally hayes","edmont hotel","mr spencer","agerstown pennsylvania","estelle fletcher","jane gallagher","phoebe caulfield"],"string":"[\n \"catcher in rye\",\n \"little shirley beans\",\n \"catcher and rye\",\n \"mr antolini\",\n \"club ernies\",\n \"agerstown pa\",\n \"db caulfield\",\n \"d b caulfield\",\n \"faith cavendish\",\n \"sally hayes\",\n \"edmont hotel\",\n \"mr spencer\",\n \"agerstown pennsylvania\",\n \"estelle fletcher\",\n \"jane gallagher\",\n \"phoebe caulfield\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["J. D. Salinger\n\nJerome David Salinger (; January 1, 1919 January 27, 2010) was an American writer who won acclaim early in life. He led a very private life for more than a half-century. He published his final original work in 1965 and gave his last interview in 1980.","J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger was raised in Manhattan and began writing short stories while in secondary school. Several were published in Story magazine in the early 1940s before he began serving in World War II. In 1948, his critically acclaimed story \"A Perfect Day for Bananafish\" appeared in The New Yorker magazine, which became home to much of his later work. In 1951, his novel The Catcher in the Rye was an immediate popular success. His depiction of adolescent alienation and loss of innocence in the protagonist Holden Caulfield was influential, especially among adolescent readers. The novel remains widely read and controversial, selling around 250,000 copies a year.","J. D. Salinger\n\nThe success of The Catcher in the Rye led to public attention and scrutiny. Salinger became reclusive, publishing new work less frequently. He followed Catcher with a short story collection, Nine Stories (1953); a volume containing a novella and a short story, Franny and Zooey (1961); and a volume containing two novellas, Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction (1963). His last published work, a novella entitled \"Hapworth 16, 1924\", appeared in The New Yorker on June 19, 1965.","J. D. Salinger\n\nAfterward, Salinger struggled with unwanted attention, including a legal battle in the 1980s with biographer Ian Hamilton and the release in the late 1990s of memoirs written by two people close to him: Joyce Maynard, an ex-lover; and Margaret Salinger, his daughter. In 1996, a small publisher announced a deal with Salinger to publish \"Hapworth 16, 1924\" in book form, but amid the ensuing publicity the release was indefinitely delayed. He made headlines around the globe in June 2009 when he filed a lawsuit against another writer for copyright infringement resulting from that writer's use of one of the characters from The Catcher in the Rye. Salinger died of natural causes on January 27, 2010, at his home in Cornish, New Hampshire. In November 2013, three unpublished stories by Salinger were briefly posted online. One of the stories, \"The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls\", is said to be a prequel to The Catcher in the Rye.","J. D. Salinger\n\nEarly life and experiences","J. D. Salinger\n\nJerome David Salinger was born in New York City, on New Year's Day, 1919. His father, Sol Salinger, sold kosher cheese, and was from a Jewish family of Lithuanian descent, his father having been the rabbi for the Adath Jeshurun congregation in Louisville, Kentucky. Salinger's mother, Marie (née Jillich), was born in Atlantic, Iowa, of Scottish, German, and Irish descent, but changed her name to Miriam and considered herself Jewish after marrying Salinger's father. Salinger did not learn that his mother was not of Jewish ancestry until just after he celebrated becoming a bar mitzvah. His only sibling was his older sister Doris (1911–2001).","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn youth, Salinger attended public schools on the West Side of Manhattan. Then in 1932, the family moved to Park Avenue, and Salinger was enrolled at the McBurney School, a nearby private school. At McBurney, he managed the fencing team, wrote for the school newspaper and appeared in plays. He \"showed an innate talent for drama\", though his father opposed the idea of J.D.'s becoming an actor. \n Salinger had trouble fitting in at his new school and took measures to conform, such as calling himself Jerry. (His family called him Sonny. )","J. D. Salinger\n\nHis parents then enrolled him at Valley Forge Military Academy in Wayne, Pennsylvania. Salinger began writing stories \"under the covers [at night], with the aid of a flashlight\". Salinger was the literary editor of the class yearbook, Cross Sabres. He also participated in the Glee Club, Aviation Club, French Club, and the Non-Commissioned Officers Club. Salinger's Valley Forge 201 file reveals that he was a \"mediocre\" student, and unlike the overachievement enjoyed by members of the Glass family he would go on to write about, his recorded IQ was far from that of a genius. He graduated in 1936.","J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger started his freshman year at New York University in 1936. He considered studying special education but dropped out the following spring. That fall, his father urged him to learn about the meat-importing business, and he went to work at a company in Vienna, Austria. He left Austria one month before it was annexed by Nazi Germany on March 12, 1938.","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn the fall of 1938, Salinger attended Ursinus College in Collegeville, Pennsylvania, and wrote a column called \"skipped diploma\", which included movie reviews. He dropped out after one semester.","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn 1939, Salinger attended a Columbia University School of General Studies evening writing class taught by Whit Burnett, longtime editor of Story magazine. According to Burnett, Salinger did not distinguish himself until a few weeks before the end of the second semester, at which point \"he suddenly came to life\" and completed three stories. Burnett told Salinger that his stories were skillful and accomplished, accepting \"The Young Folks\", a vignette about several aimless youths, for publication in Story. Salinger's debut short story was published in the magazine's March–April 1940 issue. Burnett became Salinger's mentor, and they corresponded for several years.","J. D. Salinger\n\nWorld War II","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn 1942, Salinger started dating Oona O'Neill, daughter of the playwright Eugene O'Neill. Despite finding the debutante self-absorbed (he confided to a friend that \"Little Oona's hopelessly in love with little Oona\"), he called her often and wrote her long letters. Their relationship ended when Oona began seeing Charlie Chaplin, whom she eventually married. In late 1941, Salinger briefly worked on a Caribbean cruise ship, serving as an activity director and possibly as a performer.","J. D. Salinger\n\nThe same year, Salinger began submitting short stories to The New Yorker. Seven of Salinger's stories were rejected by the magazine that year, including \"Lunch for Three\", \"Monologue for a Watery Highball\", and \"I Went to School with Adolf Hitler\". In December 1941, however, the publication accepted \"Slight Rebellion off Madison\", a Manhattan-set story about a disaffected teenager named Holden Caulfield with \"pre-war jitters\". When Japan carried out the attack on Pearl Harbor that month, the story was rendered \"unpublishable\"; it did not appear in the magazine until 1946. In the spring of 1942, several months after the United States entered World War II, Salinger was drafted into the army, wherein he saw combat with the 12th Infantry Regiment, 4th Infantry Division. He was present at Utah Beach on D-Day, in the Battle of the Bulge, and the Battle of Hürtgen Forest.","J. D. Salinger\n\nDuring the campaign from Normandy into Germany, Salinger arranged to meet with Ernest Hemingway, a writer who had influenced him and was then working as a war correspondent in Paris. Salinger was impressed with Hemingway's friendliness and modesty, finding him more \"soft\" than his gruff public persona. Hemingway was impressed by Salinger's writing and remarked: \"Jesus, he has a helluva talent.\" The two writers began corresponding; Salinger wrote Hemingway in July 1946 that their talks were among his few positive memories of the war. Salinger added that he was working on a play about Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of his story \"Slight Rebellion off Madison\", and hoped to play the part himself.","J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger was assigned to a counter-intelligence division, for which he used his proficiency in French and German to interrogate prisoners of war. In April 1945 he entered a liberated concentration camp, probably one of Dachau's sub-camps. Salinger earned the rank of Staff Sergeant and served in five campaigns. Salinger's experiences in the war affected him emotionally. He was hospitalized for a few weeks for combat stress reaction after Germany was defeated, and he later told his daughter: \"You never really get the smell of burning flesh out of your nose entirely, no matter how long you live.\" Both of his biographers speculate that Salinger drew upon his wartime experiences in several stories, such as \"For Esmé—with Love and Squalor\", which is narrated by a traumatized soldier. Salinger continued to write while serving in the army, publishing several stories in slick magazines such as Collier's and The Saturday Evening Post. He also continued to submit stories to The New Yorker, but with little success; it rejected all of his submissions from 1944 to 1946, a group of 15 poems in 1945 alone.","J. D. Salinger\n\nPost-war years","J. D. Salinger\n\nAfter Germany's defeat, Salinger signed up for a six-month period of \"Denazification\" duty in Germany for the Counterintelligence Corps. He lived in Weissenburg and, soon after, married Sylvia Welter. He brought her to the United States in April 1946, but the marriage fell apart after eight months and Sylvia returned to Germany. In 1972, Salinger's daughter Margaret was with him when he received a letter from Sylvia. He looked at the envelope, and without reading it, tore it apart. It was the first time he had heard from her since the breakup, but as Margaret put it, \"when he was finished with a person, he was through with them.\"","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn 1946, Whit Burnett agreed to help Salinger publish a collection of his short stories through Story Press's Lippincott Imprint. Titled The Young Folks, the collection was to consist of twenty stories—ten, like the title story and \"Slight Rebellion off Madison\", were already in print; ten were previously unpublished. Though Burnett implied the book would be published and even negotiated Salinger a $1,000 advance on its sale, Lippincott overruled Burnett and rejected the book. Salinger blamed Burnett for the book's failure to see print, and the two became estranged.","J. D. Salinger\n\nBy the late 1940s, Salinger had become an avid follower of Zen Buddhism, to the point that he \"gave reading lists on the subject to his dates\" and arranged a meeting with Buddhist scholar D. T. Suzuki.","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn 1947, the author submitted a short story titled simply \"The Bananafish\" to The New Yorker. William Maxwell, the magazine's fiction editor, was impressed enough with \"the singular quality of the story\" that the magazine asked Salinger to continue revising it. He spent a year reworking it with New Yorker editors and the magazine accepted the story, now titled \"A Perfect Day for Bananafish\", and published it in the January 31, 1948 issue. The magazine thereon offered Salinger a \"first-look\" contract that allowed them right of first refusal on any future stories. The critical acclaim accorded \"Bananafish\", coupled with problems Salinger had with stories being altered by the \"slicks\", led him to publish almost exclusively in The New Yorker. \"Bananafish\" was also the first of Salinger's published stories to feature the Glasses, a fictional family consisting of two retired vaudeville performers and their seven precocious children: Seymour, Buddy, Boo Boo, Walt, Waker, Zooey, and Franny. Salinger eventually published seven stories about the Glasses, developing a detailed family history and focusing particularly on Seymour, the brilliant but troubled eldest child.","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn the early 1940s, Salinger had confided in a letter to Whit Burnett that he was eager to sell the film rights to some of his stories in order to achieve financial security. According to Ian Hamilton, Salinger was disappointed when \"rumblings from Hollywood\" over his 1943 short story \"The Varioni Brothers\" came to nothing. Therefore, he immediately agreed when, in mid-1948, independent film producer Samuel Goldwyn offered to buy the film rights to his short story \"Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut\". Though Salinger sold his story with the hope—in the words of his agent Dorothy Olding—that it \"would make a good movie\", the film version of \"Wiggily\" was lambasted by critics upon its release in 1949. Renamed My Foolish Heart and starring Dana Andrews and Susan Hayward, the melodramatic film departed to such an extent from Salinger's story that Goldwyn biographer A. Scott Berg referred to it as a \"bastardization\". As a result of this experience, Salinger never again permitted film adaptations to be made from his work.","J. D. Salinger\n\nWhen Brigitte Bardot wanted to buy the rights to \"A Perfect Day for Bananafish\", Salinger refused the request, but told his friend, Lillian Ross, longtime staff writer for The New Yorker, \"She's a cute, talented, lost enfante, and I'm tempted to accommodate her, pour le sport.\"","J. D. Salinger\n\nThe Catcher in the Rye","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn the 1940s, Salinger confided to several people that he was working on a novel featuring Holden Caulfield, the teenage protagonist of his short story \"Slight Rebellion off Madison\", and The Catcher in the Rye was published on July 16, 1951, by Little, Brown and Company. The novel's plot is simple, detailing 16-year-old Holden's experiences in New York City following his expulsion and departure from an elite college preparatory school. Not only was he expelled from his current school, he had also been expelled from three previous schools. The book is more notable for the persona and testimonial voice of its first-person narrator, Holden. He serves as an insightful but unreliable narrator who expounds on the importance of loyalty, the \"phoniness\" of adulthood, and his own duplicity. In a 1953 interview with a high school newspaper, Salinger admitted that the novel was \"sort of\" autobiographical, explaining, \"My boyhood was very much the same as that of the boy in the book ... [I]t was a great relief telling people about it.\"","J. D. Salinger\n\nInitial reactions to the book were mixed, ranging from The New York Times hailing Catcher as \"an unusually brilliant first novel\" to denigrations of the book's monotonous language and the \"immorality and perversion\" of Holden, who uses religious slurs and freely discusses casual sex and prostitution. The novel was a popular success; within two months of its publication, The Catcher in the Rye had been reprinted eight times. It spent 30 weeks on the New York Times Bestseller list.","J. D. Salinger\n\nThe book's initial success was followed by a brief lull in popularity, but by the late 1950s, according to Ian Hamilton, it had \"become the book all brooding adolescents had to buy, the indispensable manual from which cool styles of disaffectation could be borrowed.\" It has been compared to Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Newspapers began publishing articles about the \"Catcher Cult\", and the novel was banned in several countries—as well as some U.S. schools—because of its subject matter and what Catholic World reviewer Riley Hughes called an \"excessive use of amateur swearing and coarse language\". According to one angry parent's tabulation, 237 instances of \"goddamn,\" 58 uses of the synonym for a person of illegitimate birth, 31 \"Chrissakes,\"and one incident of flatulence constituted what was wrong with Salinger's book.","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn the 1970s, several U.S. high school teachers who assigned the book were fired or forced to resign. A 1979 study of censorship noted that The Catcher in the Rye \"had the dubious distinction of being at once the most frequently censored book across the nation and the second-most frequently taught novel in public high schools\" (after John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men). The book remains widely read; in 2004, the novel was selling about 250,000 copies per year, \"with total worldwide sales over 10 million copies\".","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn the wake of its 1950s success, Salinger received (and rejected) numerous offers to adapt The Catcher in the Rye for the screen, including one from Samuel Goldwyn. Since its publication, there has been sustained interest in the novel among filmmakers, with Billy Wilder, Harvey Weinstein, and Steven Spielberg among those seeking to secure the rights. Salinger stated in the 1970s that \"Jerry Lewis tried for years to get his hands on the part of Holden.\" Salinger repeatedly refused, though, and in 1999, Joyce Maynard definitively concluded: \"The only person who might ever have played Holden Caulfield would have been J. D. Salinger.\"","J. D. Salinger\n\nWriting in the 1950s and move to Cornish","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn a July 1951 profile in Book of the Month Club News, Salinger's friend and New Yorker editor William Maxwell asked Salinger about his literary influences. Salinger responded: \"A writer, when he's asked to discuss his craft, ought to get up and call out in a loud voice just the names of the writers he loves. I love Kafka, Flaubert, Tolstoy, Chekhov, Dostoevsky, Proust, O'Casey, Rilke, Lorca, Keats, Rimbaud, Burns, E. Brontë, Jane Austen, Henry James, Blake, Coleridge. I won't name any living writers. I don't think it's right.\" In letters written in the 1940s, Salinger had expressed his admiration of three living, or recently deceased, writers: Sherwood Anderson, Ring Lardner, and F. Scott Fitzgerald; Ian Hamilton wrote that Salinger even saw himself for some time as \"Fitzgerald's successor\". Salinger's \"A Perfect Day for Bananafish\" has an ending similar to that of Fitzgerald's earlier published short story \"May Day\".","J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger wrote friends of a momentous change in his life in 1952, after several years of practicing Zen Buddhism, while reading The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna about Hindu religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna. He became an adherent of Ramakrishna's Advaita Vedanta Hinduism, which advocated celibacy for those seeking enlightenment, and detachment from human responsibilities such as family. Salinger's religious studies were reflected in some of his writing. The story \"Teddy\" features a ten-year-old child who expresses Vedantic insights. He also studied the writings of Ramakrishna's disciple Vivekananda; in the story \"Hapworth 16, 1924\", the character of Seymour Glass describes him as \"one of the most exciting, original and best-equipped giants of this century.\"","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn 1953, Salinger published a collection of seven stories from The New Yorker (\"Bananafish\" among them), as well as two that the magazine had rejected. The collection was published as Nine Stories in the United States, and \"For Esmé—with Love and Squalor\" in the UK, after one of Salinger's best-known stories. The book received grudgingly positive reviews, and was a financial success—\"remarkably so for a volume of short stories\", according to Hamilton. Nine Stories spent three months on the New York Times Bestseller list. Already tightening his grip on publicity, though, Salinger refused to allow publishers of the collection to depict his characters in dust jacket illustrations, lest readers form preconceived notions of them.","J. D. Salinger\n\nAs the notoriety of The Catcher in the Rye grew, Salinger gradually withdrew from public view. In 1953, he moved from an apartment at\n300 East 57th Street, New York, to Cornish, New Hampshire. Early in his time at Cornish he was relatively sociable, particularly with students at Windsor High School. Salinger invited them to his house frequently to play records and talk about problems at school. One such student, Shirley Blaney, persuaded Salinger to be interviewed for the high school page of The Daily Eagle, the city paper. Nonetheless, after Blaney's interview appeared prominently in the newspaper's editorial section, Salinger cut off all contact with the high schoolers without explanation. He was also seen less frequently around town, meeting only one close friend—jurist Learned Hand—with any regularity. He also began to publish with less frequency. After the 1953 publication of Nine Stories, he published only four stories through the rest of the decade; two in 1955 and one each in 1957 and 1959.","J. D. Salinger\n\nMarriage and family","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn February 1955, at the age of 36, Salinger married Claire Douglas, a Radcliffe student (her father was the art critic Robert Langton Douglas). They had two children, Margaret (b. December 10, 1955) and Matthew (b. February 13, 1960). Margaret Salinger wrote in her memoir Dream Catcher that she believes her parents would not have married, nor would she have been born, had her father not read the teachings of Lahiri Mahasaya, a guru of Paramahansa Yogananda, which brought the possibility of enlightenment to those following the path of the \"householder\" (a married person with children). After their marriage, J.D. and Claire were initiated into the path of Kriya yoga in a small store-front Hindu temple in Washington, D.C., during the summer of 1955. They received a mantra and breathing exercises to practice for ten minutes twice a day.","J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger also insisted that Claire drop out of school and live with him, only four months shy of graduation, which she did. Certain elements of the story \"Franny\", published in January 1955, are based on his relationship with Claire, including her ownership of the book The Way of the Pilgrim. Because of their isolated location and Salinger's proclivities, they hardly saw other people for long stretches of time. Claire was also frustrated by Salinger's ever-changing religious beliefs. Though she committed herself to Kriya yoga, she remembered that Salinger would chronically leave Cornish to work on a story \"for several weeks only to return with the piece he was supposed to be finishing all undone or destroyed and some new 'ism' we had to follow.\" Claire believed \"it was to cover the fact that Jerry had just destroyed or junked or couldn't face the quality of, or couldn't face publishing, what he had created.\"","J. D. Salinger\n\nAfter abandoning Kriya yoga, Salinger tried Dianetics (the forerunner of Scientology), even meeting its founder L. Ron Hubbard, but according to Claire he was quickly disenchanted with it. This was followed by an adherence to a number of spiritual, medical, and nutritional belief systems including an interest in Christian Science, Edgar Cayce, homeopathy, acupuncture, and macrobiotics.","J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger's family life was further marked by discord after the first child was born; according to Margaret's book, Claire felt that her daughter had replaced her in Salinger's affections. The infant Margaret was sick much of the time, but Salinger, having embraced the tenets of Christian Science, refused to take her to a doctor. According to Margaret, her mother admitted to her years later that she went \"over the edge\" in the winter of 1957 and had made plans to murder her and then commit suicide. Claire had supposedly intended to do it during a trip to New York City with Salinger, but she instead acted on a sudden impulse to take Margaret from the hotel and run away. After a few months, Salinger persuaded her to return to Cornish.","J. D. Salinger\n\nLast publications and Maynard relationship","J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger published Franny and Zooey in 1961, and Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction in 1963. Each book contained two short stories or novellas, previously published in The New Yorker, about members of the Glass family. These four stories were originally published between 1955 and 1959, and were the only ones Salinger had published since Nine Stories. On the dust jacket of Franny and Zooey, Salinger wrote, in reference to his interest in privacy: \"It is my rather subversive opinion that a writer's feelings of anonymity-obscurity are the second most valuable property on loan to him during his working years.\"","J. D. Salinger\n\nOn September 15, 1961, Time magazine devoted its cover to Salinger. In an article that profiled his \"life of recluse\", the magazine reported that the Glass family series \"is nowhere near completion ... Salinger intends to write a Glass trilogy.\" Nonetheless, Salinger published only one other story after that: \"Hapworth 16, 1924\", a novella in the form of a long letter from seven-year-old Seymour Glass while at summer camp. His first new work in six years, the novella took up most of the June 19, 1965, issue of The New Yorker, and was universally critically panned. Around this time, Salinger had isolated Claire from friends and relatives and made her—in the words of Margaret Salinger—\"a virtual prisoner\". Claire separated from him in September 1966; their divorce was finalized on October 3, 1967.","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn 1972, at the age of 53, Salinger had a relationship with 18-year-old Joyce Maynard that lasted for nine months. Maynard, at this time, was already an experienced writer for Seventeen magazine. The New York Times had asked Maynard to write an article for them which, when published as \"An Eighteen-Year-Old Looks Back On Life\" on April 23, 1972, made her a celebrity. Salinger wrote a letter to her warning about living with fame. After exchanging 25 letters, Maynard moved in with Salinger the summer after her freshman year at Yale University. Maynard did not return to Yale that fall, and spent ten months as a guest in Salinger's Cornish home. The relationship ended, he told his daughter Margaret at a family outing, because Maynard wanted children, and he felt he was too old. Nevertheless, in her own autobiography, Maynard paints a different picture, saying Salinger abruptly ended the relationship and refused to take her back. She had dropped out of Yale to be with him, even forgoing a scholarship. Maynard later writes in her own memoir how she came to find out that Salinger had begun relationships with young women by exchanging letters.","J. D. Salinger\n\nOne of those letter recipients included Salinger's last wife, a nurse who was already engaged to be married to someone else when she met the author.","J. D. Salinger\n\nWhile he was living with Maynard, Salinger continued to write in a disciplined fashion, a few hours every morning. According to Maynard, by 1972 he had completed two new novels. In a rare 1974 interview with The New York Times, he explained: \"There is a marvelous peace in not publishing ... I like to write. I love to write. But I write just for myself and my own pleasure.\" According to Maynard, he saw publication as \"a damned interruption\". In her memoir, Margaret Salinger describes the detailed filing system her father had for his unpublished manuscripts: \"A red mark meant, if I die before I finish my work, publish this 'as is,' blue meant publish but edit first, and so on.\" A neighbor said that Salinger told him that he had written 15 unpublished novels.","J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger's final interview was in June 1980 with Betty Eppes of The Baton Rouge Advocate, which has been represented somewhat differently, depending on the secondary source. By one account, Eppes was an attractive young woman who misrepresented herself as an aspiring novelist, and managed to record audio of the interview as well as take several photographs of Salinger, both without his knowledge or consent. In a separate account, emphasis is placed on her contact by letter writing from the local Post Office, and Salinger's personal initiative to cross the bridge to meet with the woman, who in the course of the interview made clear she was a reporter (and who did indeed, at the close, take pictures of Salinger as he departed). According to the first account, the interview ended \"disastrously\" when a local passer-by from Cornish attempted to shake the famous author's hand, at which point Salinger became enraged. A further account of the interview published later in The Paris Review, purportedly by Eppes as author, has been disowned by Eppes and separately ascribed as a derived work of Review Editor George Plimpton.","J. D. Salinger\n\nLegal conflicts","J. D. Salinger\n\nAlthough Salinger tried to escape public exposure as much as possible, he continued to struggle with unwanted attention from both the media and the public. Readers of his work and students from nearby Dartmouth College often came to Cornish in groups, hoping to catch a glimpse of him. In May 1986 Salinger learned that the British writer Ian Hamilton intended to publish a biography that made extensive use of letters Salinger had written to other authors and friends. Salinger sued to stop the book's publication. The court in Salinger v. Random House ruled that Hamilton's extensive use of the letters, including quotation and paraphrasing, was not acceptable since the author's right to control publication overrode the right of fair use.\nThe book was not published. \nLater, Hamilton published In Search of J.D. Salinger: A Writing Life (1935–65), but this book was more about his experience in tracking down information and the copyright fights over the planned biography than about Salinger himself.","J. D. Salinger\n\nAn unintended consequence of the lawsuit was that many details of Salinger's private life, including that he had spent the last twenty years writing, in his words, \"Just a work of fiction ... That's all\", became public in the form of court transcripts. Excerpts from his letters were also widely disseminated, most notably a bitter remark written in response to Oona O'Neill's marriage to Charlie Chaplin:","J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger was romantically involved with television actress Elaine Joyce for several years in the 1980s. The relationship ended when he met Colleen O'Neill (b. June 11, 1959), a nurse and quiltmaker, whom he married around 1988. O'Neill, forty years his junior, once told Margaret Salinger that she and Salinger were trying to have a child.","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn 1995, Iranian director Dariush Mehrjui released the film Pari, an unauthorized and loose adaptation of Salinger's Franny and Zooey. Though the film could be distributed legally in Iran since the country has no official copyright relations with the United States, Salinger had his lawyers block a planned screening of the film at the Lincoln Center in 1998. Mehrjui called Salinger's action \"bewildering\", explaining that he saw his film as \"a kind of cultural exchange\".","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn 1996, Salinger gave a small publisher, Orchises Press, permission to publish \"Hapworth 16, 1924\", the previously uncollected novella. It was to be published that year, and listings for it appeared at Amazon.com and other book-sellers. After a flurry of articles and critical reviews of the story appeared in the press, the publication date was pushed back repeatedly before apparently being cancelled altogether. Amazon anticipated that Orchises would publish the story in January 2009, but at the time of his death it was still listed as \"currently unavailable\".","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn June 2009, Salinger consulted lawyers about the upcoming publication in the US of an unauthorized sequel to The Catcher in the Rye written by Swedish book publisher Fredrik Colting under the pseudonym 'J. D. California'. California's book is called 60 Years Later: Coming Through the Rye, and appears to pick up the story of Salinger's protagonist Holden Caulfield. In Salinger's novel, Caulfield is 17 years old, wandering the streets of New York after being expelled from his private school; the California book features a 76-year-old man, \"Mr. C\", musing on having escaped his nursing home. Salinger's New York literary agent Phyllis Westberg told Britain's Sunday Telegraph: \"The matter has been turned over to a lawyer\". The fact that little was known about Colting and the book was set to be published by a new publishing imprint called 'Windupbird Publishing' gave rise to speculation in literary circles that the whole thing might be a stunt. District court judge Deborah A. Batts issued an injunction which prevents the book from being published within the U.S. The book's author filed an appeal on July 23, 2009; it was heard in the Second Circuit Court of Appeals on September 3, 2009.","J. D. Salinger\n\nThe case was settled in 2011 when Colting agreed not to publish or otherwise distribute the book, e-book, or any other editions of 60 Years Later in the U.S. or Canada until The Catcher in the Rye enters the public domain, while also refraining from using the title \"Coming through the Rye\", dedicating the book to Salinger or referring to the title \"The Catcher in the Rye\", while Colting remains free to sell the book in other international territories without fear of interference.","J. D. Salinger\n\nLater publicity","J. D. Salinger\n\nOn October 23, 1992, The New York Times reported], \"Not even a fire that consumed at least half his home on Tuesday could smoke out the reclusive J. D. Salinger, author of the classic novel of adolescent rebellion, 'The Catcher in the Rye.' Mr. Salinger is almost equally famous for having elevated privacy to an art form.\"","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn 1999, 25 years after the end of their relationship, Joyce Maynard auctioned a series of letters Salinger had written her. Maynard's memoir of her life and her relationship with Salinger, At Home in the World: A Memoir, was published the same year. Among other topics, the book described how Maynard's mother had consulted with her on how to appeal to the aging author (who was dressing like a child), and described Joyce's relationship with him at length. In the ensuing controversy over both the memoir and the letters, Maynard claimed that she was forced to auction the letters for financial reasons; she would have preferred to donate them to the Beinecke Library. Software developer Peter Norton bought the letters for US$156,500 and announced his intention to return them to Salinger.","J. D. Salinger\n\nA year later, Salinger's daughter Margaret, by his second wife Claire Douglas, published Dream Catcher: A Memoir. In her book, she described the harrowing control that Salinger had over her mother and dispelled many of the Salinger myths established by Ian Hamilton's book. One of Hamilton's arguments was that Salinger's experience with post-traumatic stress disorder left him psychologically scarred, and that he was unable to deal with the traumatic nature of his war service. Salinger allowed that \"the few men who lived through Bloody Mortain, a battle in which her father fought, were left with much to sicken them, body and soul\", but she also painted a picture of her father as a man immensely proud of his service record, maintaining his military haircut and service jacket, and moving about his compound (and town) in an old Jeep.","J. D. Salinger\n\nBoth Margaret Salinger and Maynard characterized the author as a devoted film buff. According to Margaret, his favorite movies include Gigi (1958), The Lady Vanishes (1938), The 39 Steps (1935; Phoebe's favorite movie in The Catcher in the Rye), and the comedies of W.C. Fields, Laurel and Hardy, and the Marx Bros.. Predating VCRs, Salinger had an extensive collection of classic movies from the 1940s in 16 mm prints. Maynard wrote that \"he loves movies, not films\", and Salinger argued that her father's \"worldview is, essentially, a product of the movies of his day. To my father, all Spanish speakers are Puerto Rican washerwomen, or the toothless, grinning-gypsy types in a Marx Brothers movie\". Lillian Ross, a staff writer for The New Yorker and longtime friend of Salinger's, wrote following his death, \"Salinger loved movies, and he was more fun than anyone to discuss them with. He enjoyed watching actors work, and he enjoyed knowing them. (He loved Anne Bancroft, hated Audrey Hepburn, and said that he had seen Grand Illusion ten times.)\"","J. D. Salinger\n\nMargaret also offered many insights into other Salinger myths, including her father's supposed long-time interest in macrobiotics, and involvement with \"alternative medicine\" and Eastern philosophies. A few weeks after Dream Catcher was published, Margaret's brother Matt discredited the memoir in a letter to The New York Observer. He disparaged his sister's \"gothic tales of our supposed childhood\" and stated: \"I can't say with any authority that she is consciously making anything up. I just know that I grew up in a very different house, with two very different parents from those my sister describes.\"","J. D. Salinger\n\nDeath","J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger died of natural causes at his home in New Hampshire on January 27, 2010. He was 91. Salinger's literary representative told The New York Times that the writer had broken his hip in May 2009, but that \"his health had been excellent until a rather sudden decline after the new year.\" The representative believed that Salinger's death was not a painful one. His third wife and widow, Colleen O'Neill Zakrzeski Salinger, and Salinger's son Matt became the executors of his estate.","J. D. Salinger\n\nLiterary style and themes","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn a contributor's note Salinger gave to Harper's Magazine in 1946, he wrote: \"I almost always write about very young people\", a statement that has been referred to as his credo. Adolescents are featured or appear in all of Salinger's work, from his first published short story, \"The Young Folks\" (1940), to The Catcher in the Rye and his Glass family stories. In 1961, the critic Alfred Kazin explained that Salinger's choice of teenagers as a subject matter was one reason for his appeal to young readers, but another was \"a consciousness [among youths] that he speaks for them and virtually to them, in a language that is peculiarly honest and their own, with a vision of things that capture their most secret judgments of the world.\" For this reason, Norman Mailer once remarked that Salinger was \"the greatest mind ever to stay in prep school\". Salinger's language, especially his energetic, realistically sparse dialogue, was revolutionary at the time his first stories were published and was seen by several critics as \"the most distinguishing thing\" about his work.","J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger identified closely with his characters, and used techniques such as interior monologue, letters, and extended telephone calls to display his gift for dialogue. Such style elements also \"[gave] him the illusion of having, as it were, delivered his characters' destinies into their own keeping.\" Recurring themes in Salinger's stories also connect to the ideas of innocence and adolescence, including the \"corrupting influence of Hollywood and the world at large\", the disconnect between teenagers and \"phony\" adults, and the perceptive, precocious intelligence of children.","J. D. Salinger\n\nContemporary critics discuss a clear progression over the course of Salinger's published work, as evidenced by the increasingly negative reviews received by each of his three post-Catcher story collections. Ian Hamilton adheres to this view, arguing that while Salinger's early stories for the \"slicks\" boasted \"tight, energetic\" dialogue, they had also been formulaic and sentimental. It took the standards of The New Yorker editors, among them William Shawn, to refine his writing into the \"spare, teasingly mysterious, withheld\" qualities of \"A Perfect Day for Bananafish\" (1948), The Catcher in the Rye, and his stories of the early 1950s. By the late 1950s, as Salinger became more reclusive and involved in religious study, Hamilton notes that his stories became longer, less plot-driven, and increasingly filled with digression and parenthetical remarks. Louis Menand agrees, writing in The New Yorker that Salinger \"stopped writing stories, in the conventional sense ...","J. D. Salinger\n\nHe seemed to lose interest in fiction as an art form—perhaps he thought there was something manipulative or inauthentic about literary device and authorial control.\" In recent years, some critics have defended certain post-Nine Stories works by Salinger; in 2001, Janet Malcolm wrote in The New York Review of Books that \"Zooey\" \"is arguably Salinger's masterpiece ... Rereading it and its companion piece \"Franny\" is no less rewarding than rereading The Great Gatsby.\"","J. D. Salinger\n\nInfluence","J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger's writing has influenced several prominent writers, prompting Harold Brodkey (himself an O. Henry Award-winning author) to state in 1991: \"His is the most influential body of work in English prose by anyone since Hemingway.\" Of the writers in Salinger's generation, Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist John Updike attested that \"the short stories of J. D. Salinger really opened my eyes as to how you can weave fiction out of a set of events that seem almost unconnected, or very lightly connected ... [Reading Salinger] stick[s] in my mind as really having moved me a step up, as it were, toward knowing how to handle my own material.\" The critic Louis Menand has observed that the early stories of Pulitzer Prize-winner Philip Roth were affected by \"Salinger's voice and comic timing\".","J. D. Salinger\n\nNational Book Award finalist Richard Yates told The New York Times in 1977 that reading Salinger's stories for the first time was a landmark experience, and that \"nothing quite like it has happened to me since\". Yates describes Salinger as \"a man who used language as if it were pure energy beautifully controlled, and who knew exactly what he was doing in every silence as well as in every word.\" Gordon Lish's O. Henry Award-winning short story \"For Jeromé—With Love and Kisses\" (1977, collected in What I Know So Far, 1984), is a parody of Salinger's \"For Esmé—with Love and Squalor\".","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn 2001, Louis Menand wrote in The New Yorker that \"Catcher in the Rye rewrites\" among each new generation had become \"a literary genre all its own\". He classed among them Sylvia Plath's The Bell Jar (1963), Hunter S. Thompson's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1971), Jay McInerney's Bright Lights, Big City (1984), and Dave Eggers's A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius (2000). Writer Aimee Bender was struggling with her first short stories when a friend gave her a copy of Nine Stories; inspired, she later described Salinger's effect on writers, explaining: \"[I]t feels like Salinger wrote The Catcher in the Rye in a day, and that incredible feeling of ease inspires writing. Inspires the pursuit of voice. Not his voice. My voice. Your voice.\" Authors such as Stephen Chbosky, Jonathan Safran Foer, Carl Hiaasen, Susan Minot, Haruki Murakami, Gwendoline Riley, Tom Robbins, Louis Sachar, Joel Stein and John Green have cited Salinger as an influence. Musician Tomas Kalnoky of Streetlight Manifesto also cites Salinger as an influence, referencing him and Holden Caulfield, the main character of Catcher in the Rye, in the song \"Here's To Life\". Biographer Paul Alexander called Salinger \"the Greta Garbo of literature\".","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn the mid-1960s, J. D. Salinger was himself drawn to Sufi mysticism through the writer and thinker Idries Shah's seminal work The Sufis, as were others writers such as Doris Lessing and Geoffrey Grigson, and the poets Robert Graves and Ted Hughes. As well as Idries Shah, Salinger also read the Taoist philosopher Lao Tse and the Hindu Swami Vivekananda who introduced the Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world.","J. D. Salinger\n\nLegacy","J. D. Salinger\n\nIn an oral biography titled Salinger, authors David Shields and Shane Salerno assert that the author had left specific instructions authorizing a timetable, to start between 2015 and 2020, for the release of several unpublished works. According to the authors and their sources, these include five new Glass-family stories; a novel based on Salinger's relationship with his first wife, Sylvia; a novella in the form of a WWII counterintelligence officer’s diary; a \"manual\" of stories about Vedanta; and other new or retooled stories that illuminate the life of Holden Caulfield.","J. D. Salinger\n\nThe Salinger biography is also described as a companion volume to a film documentary of the same title. The directorial debut of writer Shane Salerno, Salinger was made over nine years and received a limited theatrical release on September 6, 2013.","J. D. Salinger\n\nList of works","J. D. Salinger\n\nBooks","J. D. Salinger\n\n* The Catcher in the Rye (1951)\n* Nine Stories (1953)\n** \"A Perfect Day for Bananafish\" (1948)\n** \"Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut\" (1948)\n** \"Just Before the War with the Eskimos\" (1948)\n** \"The Laughing Man\" (1949)\n** \"Down at the Dinghy\" (1949)\n** \"For Esmé—with Love and Squalor\" (1950)\n** \"Pretty Mouth and Green My Eyes\" (1951)\n** \"De Daumier-Smith's Blue Period\" (1952)\n** \"Teddy\" (1953)\n* Franny and Zooey (1961)\n** \"Franny\" (1955)\n** \"Zooey\" (1957)\n* Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction (1963)\n** \"Raise High the Roof-Beam, Carpenters\" (1955)\n** \"Seymour: An Introduction\" (1959)\n* Three Early Stories (2014)\n** \"The Young Folks\" (1940)\n** \"Go See Eddie\" (1940)\n** \"Once a Week Won't Kill You\" (1944)","J. D. Salinger\n\nPublished and anthologized stories","J. D. Salinger\n\n* \"Go See Eddie\" (1940, republished in Fiction: Form & Experience, ed. William M. Jones, 1969 and in Three Early Stories, 2014)\n* \"The Young Folks\" (1940, republished in Three Early Stories, 2014)\n* \"The Hang of It\" (1941, republished in The Kit Book for Soldiers, Sailors and Marines, 1943)\n* \"The Long Debut of Lois Taggett\" (1942, republished in Stories: The Fiction of the Forties, ed. Whit Burnett, 1949)\n* \"Once a Week Won't Kill You\" (1944, republished in Three Early Stories, 2014)\n* \"A Boy in France\" (1945, republished in Post Stories 1942–45, ed. Ben Hibbs, 1946 and July/August 2010 issue of Saturday Evening Post magazine)\n* \"This Sandwich Has No Mayonnaise\" (1945, republished in The Armchair Esquire, ed. L. Rust Hills, 1959)\n* \"Slight Rebellion off Madison\" (1946, republished in Wonderful Town: New York Stories from The New Yorker, ed. David Remnick, 2000)\n* \"A Girl I Knew\" (1948, republished in Best American Short Stories 1949, ed. Martha Foley, 1949)","J. D. Salinger\n\nPublished and unanthologized stories","J. D. Salinger\n\n* \"The Heart of a Broken Story\" (1941)\n* \"Personal Notes of an Infantryman\" (1942)\n* \"The Varioni Brothers\" (1943)\n* \"Both Parties Concerned\" (1944)\n* \"Soft-Boiled Sergeant\" (1944)\n* \"Last Day of the Last Furlough\" (1944)\n* \"Elaine\" (1945)\n* \"The Stranger\" (1945)\n* \"I'm Crazy\" (1945)\n* \"A Young Girl in 1941 with No Waist at All\" (1947)\n* \"The Inverted Forest\" (1947)\n* \"Blue Melody\" (1948)\n* \"Hapworth 16, 1924\" (1965)","J. D. Salinger\n\nUnpublished stories","J. D. Salinger\n\n*\"Mrs. Hincher\" (1942)\n*\"The Last and Best of the Peter Pans\" (1942)\n*\"The Children's Echelon\" (1944)\n*\"Two Lonely Men\" (1944)\n*\"The Magic Foxhole\" (1944)\n*\"Birthday Boy\" (1946)\n*\"The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls\" (1947)\n*\"Paula\" (1948)","J. D. Salinger\n\nMedia portrayals and references","J. D. Salinger\n\n*J.D. Salinger appears as a character (voiced by Alan Arkin) in several episodes of Bojack Horseman (season 2 episodes 6, 7, 8, and 10), where he is said to have faked his own death to escape public attention (A Netflix Original Series, July 7, 2015).","J. D. Salinger\n\nNotes","J. D. Salinger\n\nCitations"],"string":"[\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nJerome David Salinger (; January 1, 1919 January 27, 2010) was an American writer who won acclaim early in life. He led a very private life for more than a half-century. He published his final original work in 1965 and gave his last interview in 1980.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nSalinger was raised in Manhattan and began writing short stories while in secondary school. Several were published in Story magazine in the early 1940s before he began serving in World War II. In 1948, his critically acclaimed story \\\"A Perfect Day for Bananafish\\\" appeared in The New Yorker magazine, which became home to much of his later work. In 1951, his novel The Catcher in the Rye was an immediate popular success. His depiction of adolescent alienation and loss of innocence in the protagonist Holden Caulfield was influential, especially among adolescent readers. The novel remains widely read and controversial, selling around 250,000 copies a year.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nThe success of The Catcher in the Rye led to public attention and scrutiny. Salinger became reclusive, publishing new work less frequently. He followed Catcher with a short story collection, Nine Stories (1953); a volume containing a novella and a short story, Franny and Zooey (1961); and a volume containing two novellas, Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction (1963). His last published work, a novella entitled \\\"Hapworth 16, 1924\\\", appeared in The New Yorker on June 19, 1965.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nAfterward, Salinger struggled with unwanted attention, including a legal battle in the 1980s with biographer Ian Hamilton and the release in the late 1990s of memoirs written by two people close to him: Joyce Maynard, an ex-lover; and Margaret Salinger, his daughter. In 1996, a small publisher announced a deal with Salinger to publish \\\"Hapworth 16, 1924\\\" in book form, but amid the ensuing publicity the release was indefinitely delayed. He made headlines around the globe in June 2009 when he filed a lawsuit against another writer for copyright infringement resulting from that writer's use of one of the characters from The Catcher in the Rye. Salinger died of natural causes on January 27, 2010, at his home in Cornish, New Hampshire. In November 2013, three unpublished stories by Salinger were briefly posted online. One of the stories, \\\"The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls\\\", is said to be a prequel to The Catcher in the Rye.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nEarly life and experiences\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nJerome David Salinger was born in New York City, on New Year's Day, 1919. His father, Sol Salinger, sold kosher cheese, and was from a Jewish family of Lithuanian descent, his father having been the rabbi for the Adath Jeshurun congregation in Louisville, Kentucky. Salinger's mother, Marie (née Jillich), was born in Atlantic, Iowa, of Scottish, German, and Irish descent, but changed her name to Miriam and considered herself Jewish after marrying Salinger's father. Salinger did not learn that his mother was not of Jewish ancestry until just after he celebrated becoming a bar mitzvah. His only sibling was his older sister Doris (1911–2001).\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn youth, Salinger attended public schools on the West Side of Manhattan. Then in 1932, the family moved to Park Avenue, and Salinger was enrolled at the McBurney School, a nearby private school. At McBurney, he managed the fencing team, wrote for the school newspaper and appeared in plays. He \\\"showed an innate talent for drama\\\", though his father opposed the idea of J.D.'s becoming an actor. \\n Salinger had trouble fitting in at his new school and took measures to conform, such as calling himself Jerry. (His family called him Sonny. )\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nHis parents then enrolled him at Valley Forge Military Academy in Wayne, Pennsylvania. Salinger began writing stories \\\"under the covers [at night], with the aid of a flashlight\\\". Salinger was the literary editor of the class yearbook, Cross Sabres. He also participated in the Glee Club, Aviation Club, French Club, and the Non-Commissioned Officers Club. Salinger's Valley Forge 201 file reveals that he was a \\\"mediocre\\\" student, and unlike the overachievement enjoyed by members of the Glass family he would go on to write about, his recorded IQ was far from that of a genius. He graduated in 1936.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nSalinger started his freshman year at New York University in 1936. He considered studying special education but dropped out the following spring. That fall, his father urged him to learn about the meat-importing business, and he went to work at a company in Vienna, Austria. He left Austria one month before it was annexed by Nazi Germany on March 12, 1938.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn the fall of 1938, Salinger attended Ursinus College in Collegeville, Pennsylvania, and wrote a column called \\\"skipped diploma\\\", which included movie reviews. He dropped out after one semester.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn 1939, Salinger attended a Columbia University School of General Studies evening writing class taught by Whit Burnett, longtime editor of Story magazine. According to Burnett, Salinger did not distinguish himself until a few weeks before the end of the second semester, at which point \\\"he suddenly came to life\\\" and completed three stories. Burnett told Salinger that his stories were skillful and accomplished, accepting \\\"The Young Folks\\\", a vignette about several aimless youths, for publication in Story. Salinger's debut short story was published in the magazine's March–April 1940 issue. Burnett became Salinger's mentor, and they corresponded for several years.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nWorld War II\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn 1942, Salinger started dating Oona O'Neill, daughter of the playwright Eugene O'Neill. Despite finding the debutante self-absorbed (he confided to a friend that \\\"Little Oona's hopelessly in love with little Oona\\\"), he called her often and wrote her long letters. Their relationship ended when Oona began seeing Charlie Chaplin, whom she eventually married. In late 1941, Salinger briefly worked on a Caribbean cruise ship, serving as an activity director and possibly as a performer.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nThe same year, Salinger began submitting short stories to The New Yorker. Seven of Salinger's stories were rejected by the magazine that year, including \\\"Lunch for Three\\\", \\\"Monologue for a Watery Highball\\\", and \\\"I Went to School with Adolf Hitler\\\". In December 1941, however, the publication accepted \\\"Slight Rebellion off Madison\\\", a Manhattan-set story about a disaffected teenager named Holden Caulfield with \\\"pre-war jitters\\\". When Japan carried out the attack on Pearl Harbor that month, the story was rendered \\\"unpublishable\\\"; it did not appear in the magazine until 1946. In the spring of 1942, several months after the United States entered World War II, Salinger was drafted into the army, wherein he saw combat with the 12th Infantry Regiment, 4th Infantry Division. He was present at Utah Beach on D-Day, in the Battle of the Bulge, and the Battle of Hürtgen Forest.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nDuring the campaign from Normandy into Germany, Salinger arranged to meet with Ernest Hemingway, a writer who had influenced him and was then working as a war correspondent in Paris. Salinger was impressed with Hemingway's friendliness and modesty, finding him more \\\"soft\\\" than his gruff public persona. Hemingway was impressed by Salinger's writing and remarked: \\\"Jesus, he has a helluva talent.\\\" The two writers began corresponding; Salinger wrote Hemingway in July 1946 that their talks were among his few positive memories of the war. Salinger added that he was working on a play about Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of his story \\\"Slight Rebellion off Madison\\\", and hoped to play the part himself.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nSalinger was assigned to a counter-intelligence division, for which he used his proficiency in French and German to interrogate prisoners of war. In April 1945 he entered a liberated concentration camp, probably one of Dachau's sub-camps. Salinger earned the rank of Staff Sergeant and served in five campaigns. Salinger's experiences in the war affected him emotionally. He was hospitalized for a few weeks for combat stress reaction after Germany was defeated, and he later told his daughter: \\\"You never really get the smell of burning flesh out of your nose entirely, no matter how long you live.\\\" Both of his biographers speculate that Salinger drew upon his wartime experiences in several stories, such as \\\"For Esmé—with Love and Squalor\\\", which is narrated by a traumatized soldier. Salinger continued to write while serving in the army, publishing several stories in slick magazines such as Collier's and The Saturday Evening Post. He also continued to submit stories to The New Yorker, but with little success; it rejected all of his submissions from 1944 to 1946, a group of 15 poems in 1945 alone.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nPost-war years\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nAfter Germany's defeat, Salinger signed up for a six-month period of \\\"Denazification\\\" duty in Germany for the Counterintelligence Corps. He lived in Weissenburg and, soon after, married Sylvia Welter. He brought her to the United States in April 1946, but the marriage fell apart after eight months and Sylvia returned to Germany. In 1972, Salinger's daughter Margaret was with him when he received a letter from Sylvia. He looked at the envelope, and without reading it, tore it apart. It was the first time he had heard from her since the breakup, but as Margaret put it, \\\"when he was finished with a person, he was through with them.\\\"\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn 1946, Whit Burnett agreed to help Salinger publish a collection of his short stories through Story Press's Lippincott Imprint. Titled The Young Folks, the collection was to consist of twenty stories—ten, like the title story and \\\"Slight Rebellion off Madison\\\", were already in print; ten were previously unpublished. Though Burnett implied the book would be published and even negotiated Salinger a $1,000 advance on its sale, Lippincott overruled Burnett and rejected the book. Salinger blamed Burnett for the book's failure to see print, and the two became estranged.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nBy the late 1940s, Salinger had become an avid follower of Zen Buddhism, to the point that he \\\"gave reading lists on the subject to his dates\\\" and arranged a meeting with Buddhist scholar D. T. Suzuki.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn 1947, the author submitted a short story titled simply \\\"The Bananafish\\\" to The New Yorker. William Maxwell, the magazine's fiction editor, was impressed enough with \\\"the singular quality of the story\\\" that the magazine asked Salinger to continue revising it. He spent a year reworking it with New Yorker editors and the magazine accepted the story, now titled \\\"A Perfect Day for Bananafish\\\", and published it in the January 31, 1948 issue. The magazine thereon offered Salinger a \\\"first-look\\\" contract that allowed them right of first refusal on any future stories. The critical acclaim accorded \\\"Bananafish\\\", coupled with problems Salinger had with stories being altered by the \\\"slicks\\\", led him to publish almost exclusively in The New Yorker. \\\"Bananafish\\\" was also the first of Salinger's published stories to feature the Glasses, a fictional family consisting of two retired vaudeville performers and their seven precocious children: Seymour, Buddy, Boo Boo, Walt, Waker, Zooey, and Franny. Salinger eventually published seven stories about the Glasses, developing a detailed family history and focusing particularly on Seymour, the brilliant but troubled eldest child.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn the early 1940s, Salinger had confided in a letter to Whit Burnett that he was eager to sell the film rights to some of his stories in order to achieve financial security. According to Ian Hamilton, Salinger was disappointed when \\\"rumblings from Hollywood\\\" over his 1943 short story \\\"The Varioni Brothers\\\" came to nothing. Therefore, he immediately agreed when, in mid-1948, independent film producer Samuel Goldwyn offered to buy the film rights to his short story \\\"Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut\\\". Though Salinger sold his story with the hope—in the words of his agent Dorothy Olding—that it \\\"would make a good movie\\\", the film version of \\\"Wiggily\\\" was lambasted by critics upon its release in 1949. Renamed My Foolish Heart and starring Dana Andrews and Susan Hayward, the melodramatic film departed to such an extent from Salinger's story that Goldwyn biographer A. Scott Berg referred to it as a \\\"bastardization\\\". As a result of this experience, Salinger never again permitted film adaptations to be made from his work.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nWhen Brigitte Bardot wanted to buy the rights to \\\"A Perfect Day for Bananafish\\\", Salinger refused the request, but told his friend, Lillian Ross, longtime staff writer for The New Yorker, \\\"She's a cute, talented, lost enfante, and I'm tempted to accommodate her, pour le sport.\\\"\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nThe Catcher in the Rye\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn the 1940s, Salinger confided to several people that he was working on a novel featuring Holden Caulfield, the teenage protagonist of his short story \\\"Slight Rebellion off Madison\\\", and The Catcher in the Rye was published on July 16, 1951, by Little, Brown and Company. The novel's plot is simple, detailing 16-year-old Holden's experiences in New York City following his expulsion and departure from an elite college preparatory school. Not only was he expelled from his current school, he had also been expelled from three previous schools. The book is more notable for the persona and testimonial voice of its first-person narrator, Holden. He serves as an insightful but unreliable narrator who expounds on the importance of loyalty, the \\\"phoniness\\\" of adulthood, and his own duplicity. In a 1953 interview with a high school newspaper, Salinger admitted that the novel was \\\"sort of\\\" autobiographical, explaining, \\\"My boyhood was very much the same as that of the boy in the book ... [I]t was a great relief telling people about it.\\\"\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nInitial reactions to the book were mixed, ranging from The New York Times hailing Catcher as \\\"an unusually brilliant first novel\\\" to denigrations of the book's monotonous language and the \\\"immorality and perversion\\\" of Holden, who uses religious slurs and freely discusses casual sex and prostitution. The novel was a popular success; within two months of its publication, The Catcher in the Rye had been reprinted eight times. It spent 30 weeks on the New York Times Bestseller list.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nThe book's initial success was followed by a brief lull in popularity, but by the late 1950s, according to Ian Hamilton, it had \\\"become the book all brooding adolescents had to buy, the indispensable manual from which cool styles of disaffectation could be borrowed.\\\" It has been compared to Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Newspapers began publishing articles about the \\\"Catcher Cult\\\", and the novel was banned in several countries—as well as some U.S. schools—because of its subject matter and what Catholic World reviewer Riley Hughes called an \\\"excessive use of amateur swearing and coarse language\\\". According to one angry parent's tabulation, 237 instances of \\\"goddamn,\\\" 58 uses of the synonym for a person of illegitimate birth, 31 \\\"Chrissakes,\\\"and one incident of flatulence constituted what was wrong with Salinger's book.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn the 1970s, several U.S. high school teachers who assigned the book were fired or forced to resign. A 1979 study of censorship noted that The Catcher in the Rye \\\"had the dubious distinction of being at once the most frequently censored book across the nation and the second-most frequently taught novel in public high schools\\\" (after John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men). The book remains widely read; in 2004, the novel was selling about 250,000 copies per year, \\\"with total worldwide sales over 10 million copies\\\".\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn the wake of its 1950s success, Salinger received (and rejected) numerous offers to adapt The Catcher in the Rye for the screen, including one from Samuel Goldwyn. Since its publication, there has been sustained interest in the novel among filmmakers, with Billy Wilder, Harvey Weinstein, and Steven Spielberg among those seeking to secure the rights. Salinger stated in the 1970s that \\\"Jerry Lewis tried for years to get his hands on the part of Holden.\\\" Salinger repeatedly refused, though, and in 1999, Joyce Maynard definitively concluded: \\\"The only person who might ever have played Holden Caulfield would have been J. D. Salinger.\\\"\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nWriting in the 1950s and move to Cornish\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn a July 1951 profile in Book of the Month Club News, Salinger's friend and New Yorker editor William Maxwell asked Salinger about his literary influences. Salinger responded: \\\"A writer, when he's asked to discuss his craft, ought to get up and call out in a loud voice just the names of the writers he loves. I love Kafka, Flaubert, Tolstoy, Chekhov, Dostoevsky, Proust, O'Casey, Rilke, Lorca, Keats, Rimbaud, Burns, E. Brontë, Jane Austen, Henry James, Blake, Coleridge. I won't name any living writers. I don't think it's right.\\\" In letters written in the 1940s, Salinger had expressed his admiration of three living, or recently deceased, writers: Sherwood Anderson, Ring Lardner, and F. Scott Fitzgerald; Ian Hamilton wrote that Salinger even saw himself for some time as \\\"Fitzgerald's successor\\\". Salinger's \\\"A Perfect Day for Bananafish\\\" has an ending similar to that of Fitzgerald's earlier published short story \\\"May Day\\\".\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nSalinger wrote friends of a momentous change in his life in 1952, after several years of practicing Zen Buddhism, while reading The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna about Hindu religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna. He became an adherent of Ramakrishna's Advaita Vedanta Hinduism, which advocated celibacy for those seeking enlightenment, and detachment from human responsibilities such as family. Salinger's religious studies were reflected in some of his writing. The story \\\"Teddy\\\" features a ten-year-old child who expresses Vedantic insights. He also studied the writings of Ramakrishna's disciple Vivekananda; in the story \\\"Hapworth 16, 1924\\\", the character of Seymour Glass describes him as \\\"one of the most exciting, original and best-equipped giants of this century.\\\"\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn 1953, Salinger published a collection of seven stories from The New Yorker (\\\"Bananafish\\\" among them), as well as two that the magazine had rejected. The collection was published as Nine Stories in the United States, and \\\"For Esmé—with Love and Squalor\\\" in the UK, after one of Salinger's best-known stories. The book received grudgingly positive reviews, and was a financial success—\\\"remarkably so for a volume of short stories\\\", according to Hamilton. Nine Stories spent three months on the New York Times Bestseller list. Already tightening his grip on publicity, though, Salinger refused to allow publishers of the collection to depict his characters in dust jacket illustrations, lest readers form preconceived notions of them.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nAs the notoriety of The Catcher in the Rye grew, Salinger gradually withdrew from public view. In 1953, he moved from an apartment at\\n300 East 57th Street, New York, to Cornish, New Hampshire. Early in his time at Cornish he was relatively sociable, particularly with students at Windsor High School. Salinger invited them to his house frequently to play records and talk about problems at school. One such student, Shirley Blaney, persuaded Salinger to be interviewed for the high school page of The Daily Eagle, the city paper. Nonetheless, after Blaney's interview appeared prominently in the newspaper's editorial section, Salinger cut off all contact with the high schoolers without explanation. He was also seen less frequently around town, meeting only one close friend—jurist Learned Hand—with any regularity. He also began to publish with less frequency. After the 1953 publication of Nine Stories, he published only four stories through the rest of the decade; two in 1955 and one each in 1957 and 1959.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nMarriage and family\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn February 1955, at the age of 36, Salinger married Claire Douglas, a Radcliffe student (her father was the art critic Robert Langton Douglas). They had two children, Margaret (b. December 10, 1955) and Matthew (b. February 13, 1960). Margaret Salinger wrote in her memoir Dream Catcher that she believes her parents would not have married, nor would she have been born, had her father not read the teachings of Lahiri Mahasaya, a guru of Paramahansa Yogananda, which brought the possibility of enlightenment to those following the path of the \\\"householder\\\" (a married person with children). After their marriage, J.D. and Claire were initiated into the path of Kriya yoga in a small store-front Hindu temple in Washington, D.C., during the summer of 1955. They received a mantra and breathing exercises to practice for ten minutes twice a day.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nSalinger also insisted that Claire drop out of school and live with him, only four months shy of graduation, which she did. Certain elements of the story \\\"Franny\\\", published in January 1955, are based on his relationship with Claire, including her ownership of the book The Way of the Pilgrim. Because of their isolated location and Salinger's proclivities, they hardly saw other people for long stretches of time. Claire was also frustrated by Salinger's ever-changing religious beliefs. Though she committed herself to Kriya yoga, she remembered that Salinger would chronically leave Cornish to work on a story \\\"for several weeks only to return with the piece he was supposed to be finishing all undone or destroyed and some new 'ism' we had to follow.\\\" Claire believed \\\"it was to cover the fact that Jerry had just destroyed or junked or couldn't face the quality of, or couldn't face publishing, what he had created.\\\"\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nAfter abandoning Kriya yoga, Salinger tried Dianetics (the forerunner of Scientology), even meeting its founder L. Ron Hubbard, but according to Claire he was quickly disenchanted with it. This was followed by an adherence to a number of spiritual, medical, and nutritional belief systems including an interest in Christian Science, Edgar Cayce, homeopathy, acupuncture, and macrobiotics.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nSalinger's family life was further marked by discord after the first child was born; according to Margaret's book, Claire felt that her daughter had replaced her in Salinger's affections. The infant Margaret was sick much of the time, but Salinger, having embraced the tenets of Christian Science, refused to take her to a doctor. According to Margaret, her mother admitted to her years later that she went \\\"over the edge\\\" in the winter of 1957 and had made plans to murder her and then commit suicide. Claire had supposedly intended to do it during a trip to New York City with Salinger, but she instead acted on a sudden impulse to take Margaret from the hotel and run away. After a few months, Salinger persuaded her to return to Cornish.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nLast publications and Maynard relationship\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nSalinger published Franny and Zooey in 1961, and Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction in 1963. Each book contained two short stories or novellas, previously published in The New Yorker, about members of the Glass family. These four stories were originally published between 1955 and 1959, and were the only ones Salinger had published since Nine Stories. On the dust jacket of Franny and Zooey, Salinger wrote, in reference to his interest in privacy: \\\"It is my rather subversive opinion that a writer's feelings of anonymity-obscurity are the second most valuable property on loan to him during his working years.\\\"\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nOn September 15, 1961, Time magazine devoted its cover to Salinger. In an article that profiled his \\\"life of recluse\\\", the magazine reported that the Glass family series \\\"is nowhere near completion ... Salinger intends to write a Glass trilogy.\\\" Nonetheless, Salinger published only one other story after that: \\\"Hapworth 16, 1924\\\", a novella in the form of a long letter from seven-year-old Seymour Glass while at summer camp. His first new work in six years, the novella took up most of the June 19, 1965, issue of The New Yorker, and was universally critically panned. Around this time, Salinger had isolated Claire from friends and relatives and made her—in the words of Margaret Salinger—\\\"a virtual prisoner\\\". Claire separated from him in September 1966; their divorce was finalized on October 3, 1967.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn 1972, at the age of 53, Salinger had a relationship with 18-year-old Joyce Maynard that lasted for nine months. Maynard, at this time, was already an experienced writer for Seventeen magazine. The New York Times had asked Maynard to write an article for them which, when published as \\\"An Eighteen-Year-Old Looks Back On Life\\\" on April 23, 1972, made her a celebrity. Salinger wrote a letter to her warning about living with fame. After exchanging 25 letters, Maynard moved in with Salinger the summer after her freshman year at Yale University. Maynard did not return to Yale that fall, and spent ten months as a guest in Salinger's Cornish home. The relationship ended, he told his daughter Margaret at a family outing, because Maynard wanted children, and he felt he was too old. Nevertheless, in her own autobiography, Maynard paints a different picture, saying Salinger abruptly ended the relationship and refused to take her back. She had dropped out of Yale to be with him, even forgoing a scholarship. Maynard later writes in her own memoir how she came to find out that Salinger had begun relationships with young women by exchanging letters.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nOne of those letter recipients included Salinger's last wife, a nurse who was already engaged to be married to someone else when she met the author.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nWhile he was living with Maynard, Salinger continued to write in a disciplined fashion, a few hours every morning. According to Maynard, by 1972 he had completed two new novels. In a rare 1974 interview with The New York Times, he explained: \\\"There is a marvelous peace in not publishing ... I like to write. I love to write. But I write just for myself and my own pleasure.\\\" According to Maynard, he saw publication as \\\"a damned interruption\\\". In her memoir, Margaret Salinger describes the detailed filing system her father had for his unpublished manuscripts: \\\"A red mark meant, if I die before I finish my work, publish this 'as is,' blue meant publish but edit first, and so on.\\\" A neighbor said that Salinger told him that he had written 15 unpublished novels.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nSalinger's final interview was in June 1980 with Betty Eppes of The Baton Rouge Advocate, which has been represented somewhat differently, depending on the secondary source. By one account, Eppes was an attractive young woman who misrepresented herself as an aspiring novelist, and managed to record audio of the interview as well as take several photographs of Salinger, both without his knowledge or consent. In a separate account, emphasis is placed on her contact by letter writing from the local Post Office, and Salinger's personal initiative to cross the bridge to meet with the woman, who in the course of the interview made clear she was a reporter (and who did indeed, at the close, take pictures of Salinger as he departed). According to the first account, the interview ended \\\"disastrously\\\" when a local passer-by from Cornish attempted to shake the famous author's hand, at which point Salinger became enraged. A further account of the interview published later in The Paris Review, purportedly by Eppes as author, has been disowned by Eppes and separately ascribed as a derived work of Review Editor George Plimpton.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nLegal conflicts\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nAlthough Salinger tried to escape public exposure as much as possible, he continued to struggle with unwanted attention from both the media and the public. Readers of his work and students from nearby Dartmouth College often came to Cornish in groups, hoping to catch a glimpse of him. In May 1986 Salinger learned that the British writer Ian Hamilton intended to publish a biography that made extensive use of letters Salinger had written to other authors and friends. Salinger sued to stop the book's publication. The court in Salinger v. Random House ruled that Hamilton's extensive use of the letters, including quotation and paraphrasing, was not acceptable since the author's right to control publication overrode the right of fair use.\\nThe book was not published. \\nLater, Hamilton published In Search of J.D. Salinger: A Writing Life (1935–65), but this book was more about his experience in tracking down information and the copyright fights over the planned biography than about Salinger himself.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nAn unintended consequence of the lawsuit was that many details of Salinger's private life, including that he had spent the last twenty years writing, in his words, \\\"Just a work of fiction ... That's all\\\", became public in the form of court transcripts. Excerpts from his letters were also widely disseminated, most notably a bitter remark written in response to Oona O'Neill's marriage to Charlie Chaplin:\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nSalinger was romantically involved with television actress Elaine Joyce for several years in the 1980s. The relationship ended when he met Colleen O'Neill (b. June 11, 1959), a nurse and quiltmaker, whom he married around 1988. O'Neill, forty years his junior, once told Margaret Salinger that she and Salinger were trying to have a child.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn 1995, Iranian director Dariush Mehrjui released the film Pari, an unauthorized and loose adaptation of Salinger's Franny and Zooey. Though the film could be distributed legally in Iran since the country has no official copyright relations with the United States, Salinger had his lawyers block a planned screening of the film at the Lincoln Center in 1998. Mehrjui called Salinger's action \\\"bewildering\\\", explaining that he saw his film as \\\"a kind of cultural exchange\\\".\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn 1996, Salinger gave a small publisher, Orchises Press, permission to publish \\\"Hapworth 16, 1924\\\", the previously uncollected novella. It was to be published that year, and listings for it appeared at Amazon.com and other book-sellers. After a flurry of articles and critical reviews of the story appeared in the press, the publication date was pushed back repeatedly before apparently being cancelled altogether. Amazon anticipated that Orchises would publish the story in January 2009, but at the time of his death it was still listed as \\\"currently unavailable\\\".\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn June 2009, Salinger consulted lawyers about the upcoming publication in the US of an unauthorized sequel to The Catcher in the Rye written by Swedish book publisher Fredrik Colting under the pseudonym 'J. D. California'. California's book is called 60 Years Later: Coming Through the Rye, and appears to pick up the story of Salinger's protagonist Holden Caulfield. In Salinger's novel, Caulfield is 17 years old, wandering the streets of New York after being expelled from his private school; the California book features a 76-year-old man, \\\"Mr. C\\\", musing on having escaped his nursing home. Salinger's New York literary agent Phyllis Westberg told Britain's Sunday Telegraph: \\\"The matter has been turned over to a lawyer\\\". The fact that little was known about Colting and the book was set to be published by a new publishing imprint called 'Windupbird Publishing' gave rise to speculation in literary circles that the whole thing might be a stunt. District court judge Deborah A. Batts issued an injunction which prevents the book from being published within the U.S. The book's author filed an appeal on July 23, 2009; it was heard in the Second Circuit Court of Appeals on September 3, 2009.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nThe case was settled in 2011 when Colting agreed not to publish or otherwise distribute the book, e-book, or any other editions of 60 Years Later in the U.S. or Canada until The Catcher in the Rye enters the public domain, while also refraining from using the title \\\"Coming through the Rye\\\", dedicating the book to Salinger or referring to the title \\\"The Catcher in the Rye\\\", while Colting remains free to sell the book in other international territories without fear of interference.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nLater publicity\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nOn October 23, 1992, The New York Times reported], \\\"Not even a fire that consumed at least half his home on Tuesday could smoke out the reclusive J. D. Salinger, author of the classic novel of adolescent rebellion, 'The Catcher in the Rye.' Mr. Salinger is almost equally famous for having elevated privacy to an art form.\\\"\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn 1999, 25 years after the end of their relationship, Joyce Maynard auctioned a series of letters Salinger had written her. Maynard's memoir of her life and her relationship with Salinger, At Home in the World: A Memoir, was published the same year. Among other topics, the book described how Maynard's mother had consulted with her on how to appeal to the aging author (who was dressing like a child), and described Joyce's relationship with him at length. In the ensuing controversy over both the memoir and the letters, Maynard claimed that she was forced to auction the letters for financial reasons; she would have preferred to donate them to the Beinecke Library. Software developer Peter Norton bought the letters for US$156,500 and announced his intention to return them to Salinger.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nA year later, Salinger's daughter Margaret, by his second wife Claire Douglas, published Dream Catcher: A Memoir. In her book, she described the harrowing control that Salinger had over her mother and dispelled many of the Salinger myths established by Ian Hamilton's book. One of Hamilton's arguments was that Salinger's experience with post-traumatic stress disorder left him psychologically scarred, and that he was unable to deal with the traumatic nature of his war service. Salinger allowed that \\\"the few men who lived through Bloody Mortain, a battle in which her father fought, were left with much to sicken them, body and soul\\\", but she also painted a picture of her father as a man immensely proud of his service record, maintaining his military haircut and service jacket, and moving about his compound (and town) in an old Jeep.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nBoth Margaret Salinger and Maynard characterized the author as a devoted film buff. According to Margaret, his favorite movies include Gigi (1958), The Lady Vanishes (1938), The 39 Steps (1935; Phoebe's favorite movie in The Catcher in the Rye), and the comedies of W.C. Fields, Laurel and Hardy, and the Marx Bros.. Predating VCRs, Salinger had an extensive collection of classic movies from the 1940s in 16 mm prints. Maynard wrote that \\\"he loves movies, not films\\\", and Salinger argued that her father's \\\"worldview is, essentially, a product of the movies of his day. To my father, all Spanish speakers are Puerto Rican washerwomen, or the toothless, grinning-gypsy types in a Marx Brothers movie\\\". Lillian Ross, a staff writer for The New Yorker and longtime friend of Salinger's, wrote following his death, \\\"Salinger loved movies, and he was more fun than anyone to discuss them with. He enjoyed watching actors work, and he enjoyed knowing them. (He loved Anne Bancroft, hated Audrey Hepburn, and said that he had seen Grand Illusion ten times.)\\\"\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nMargaret also offered many insights into other Salinger myths, including her father's supposed long-time interest in macrobiotics, and involvement with \\\"alternative medicine\\\" and Eastern philosophies. A few weeks after Dream Catcher was published, Margaret's brother Matt discredited the memoir in a letter to The New York Observer. He disparaged his sister's \\\"gothic tales of our supposed childhood\\\" and stated: \\\"I can't say with any authority that she is consciously making anything up. I just know that I grew up in a very different house, with two very different parents from those my sister describes.\\\"\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nDeath\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nSalinger died of natural causes at his home in New Hampshire on January 27, 2010. He was 91. Salinger's literary representative told The New York Times that the writer had broken his hip in May 2009, but that \\\"his health had been excellent until a rather sudden decline after the new year.\\\" The representative believed that Salinger's death was not a painful one. His third wife and widow, Colleen O'Neill Zakrzeski Salinger, and Salinger's son Matt became the executors of his estate.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nLiterary style and themes\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn a contributor's note Salinger gave to Harper's Magazine in 1946, he wrote: \\\"I almost always write about very young people\\\", a statement that has been referred to as his credo. Adolescents are featured or appear in all of Salinger's work, from his first published short story, \\\"The Young Folks\\\" (1940), to The Catcher in the Rye and his Glass family stories. In 1961, the critic Alfred Kazin explained that Salinger's choice of teenagers as a subject matter was one reason for his appeal to young readers, but another was \\\"a consciousness [among youths] that he speaks for them and virtually to them, in a language that is peculiarly honest and their own, with a vision of things that capture their most secret judgments of the world.\\\" For this reason, Norman Mailer once remarked that Salinger was \\\"the greatest mind ever to stay in prep school\\\". Salinger's language, especially his energetic, realistically sparse dialogue, was revolutionary at the time his first stories were published and was seen by several critics as \\\"the most distinguishing thing\\\" about his work.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nSalinger identified closely with his characters, and used techniques such as interior monologue, letters, and extended telephone calls to display his gift for dialogue. Such style elements also \\\"[gave] him the illusion of having, as it were, delivered his characters' destinies into their own keeping.\\\" Recurring themes in Salinger's stories also connect to the ideas of innocence and adolescence, including the \\\"corrupting influence of Hollywood and the world at large\\\", the disconnect between teenagers and \\\"phony\\\" adults, and the perceptive, precocious intelligence of children.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nContemporary critics discuss a clear progression over the course of Salinger's published work, as evidenced by the increasingly negative reviews received by each of his three post-Catcher story collections. Ian Hamilton adheres to this view, arguing that while Salinger's early stories for the \\\"slicks\\\" boasted \\\"tight, energetic\\\" dialogue, they had also been formulaic and sentimental. It took the standards of The New Yorker editors, among them William Shawn, to refine his writing into the \\\"spare, teasingly mysterious, withheld\\\" qualities of \\\"A Perfect Day for Bananafish\\\" (1948), The Catcher in the Rye, and his stories of the early 1950s. By the late 1950s, as Salinger became more reclusive and involved in religious study, Hamilton notes that his stories became longer, less plot-driven, and increasingly filled with digression and parenthetical remarks. Louis Menand agrees, writing in The New Yorker that Salinger \\\"stopped writing stories, in the conventional sense ...\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nHe seemed to lose interest in fiction as an art form—perhaps he thought there was something manipulative or inauthentic about literary device and authorial control.\\\" In recent years, some critics have defended certain post-Nine Stories works by Salinger; in 2001, Janet Malcolm wrote in The New York Review of Books that \\\"Zooey\\\" \\\"is arguably Salinger's masterpiece ... Rereading it and its companion piece \\\"Franny\\\" is no less rewarding than rereading The Great Gatsby.\\\"\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nInfluence\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nSalinger's writing has influenced several prominent writers, prompting Harold Brodkey (himself an O. Henry Award-winning author) to state in 1991: \\\"His is the most influential body of work in English prose by anyone since Hemingway.\\\" Of the writers in Salinger's generation, Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist John Updike attested that \\\"the short stories of J. D. Salinger really opened my eyes as to how you can weave fiction out of a set of events that seem almost unconnected, or very lightly connected ... [Reading Salinger] stick[s] in my mind as really having moved me a step up, as it were, toward knowing how to handle my own material.\\\" The critic Louis Menand has observed that the early stories of Pulitzer Prize-winner Philip Roth were affected by \\\"Salinger's voice and comic timing\\\".\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nNational Book Award finalist Richard Yates told The New York Times in 1977 that reading Salinger's stories for the first time was a landmark experience, and that \\\"nothing quite like it has happened to me since\\\". Yates describes Salinger as \\\"a man who used language as if it were pure energy beautifully controlled, and who knew exactly what he was doing in every silence as well as in every word.\\\" Gordon Lish's O. Henry Award-winning short story \\\"For Jeromé—With Love and Kisses\\\" (1977, collected in What I Know So Far, 1984), is a parody of Salinger's \\\"For Esmé—with Love and Squalor\\\".\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn 2001, Louis Menand wrote in The New Yorker that \\\"Catcher in the Rye rewrites\\\" among each new generation had become \\\"a literary genre all its own\\\". He classed among them Sylvia Plath's The Bell Jar (1963), Hunter S. Thompson's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1971), Jay McInerney's Bright Lights, Big City (1984), and Dave Eggers's A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius (2000). Writer Aimee Bender was struggling with her first short stories when a friend gave her a copy of Nine Stories; inspired, she later described Salinger's effect on writers, explaining: \\\"[I]t feels like Salinger wrote The Catcher in the Rye in a day, and that incredible feeling of ease inspires writing. Inspires the pursuit of voice. Not his voice. My voice. Your voice.\\\" Authors such as Stephen Chbosky, Jonathan Safran Foer, Carl Hiaasen, Susan Minot, Haruki Murakami, Gwendoline Riley, Tom Robbins, Louis Sachar, Joel Stein and John Green have cited Salinger as an influence. Musician Tomas Kalnoky of Streetlight Manifesto also cites Salinger as an influence, referencing him and Holden Caulfield, the main character of Catcher in the Rye, in the song \\\"Here's To Life\\\". Biographer Paul Alexander called Salinger \\\"the Greta Garbo of literature\\\".\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn the mid-1960s, J. D. Salinger was himself drawn to Sufi mysticism through the writer and thinker Idries Shah's seminal work The Sufis, as were others writers such as Doris Lessing and Geoffrey Grigson, and the poets Robert Graves and Ted Hughes. As well as Idries Shah, Salinger also read the Taoist philosopher Lao Tse and the Hindu Swami Vivekananda who introduced the Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nIn an oral biography titled Salinger, authors David Shields and Shane Salerno assert that the author had left specific instructions authorizing a timetable, to start between 2015 and 2020, for the release of several unpublished works. According to the authors and their sources, these include five new Glass-family stories; a novel based on Salinger's relationship with his first wife, Sylvia; a novella in the form of a WWII counterintelligence officer’s diary; a \\\"manual\\\" of stories about Vedanta; and other new or retooled stories that illuminate the life of Holden Caulfield.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nThe Salinger biography is also described as a companion volume to a film documentary of the same title. The directorial debut of writer Shane Salerno, Salinger was made over nine years and received a limited theatrical release on September 6, 2013.\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nList of works\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nBooks\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\n* The Catcher in the Rye (1951)\\n* Nine Stories (1953)\\n** \\\"A Perfect Day for Bananafish\\\" (1948)\\n** \\\"Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut\\\" (1948)\\n** \\\"Just Before the War with the Eskimos\\\" (1948)\\n** \\\"The Laughing Man\\\" (1949)\\n** \\\"Down at the Dinghy\\\" (1949)\\n** \\\"For Esmé—with Love and Squalor\\\" (1950)\\n** \\\"Pretty Mouth and Green My Eyes\\\" (1951)\\n** \\\"De Daumier-Smith's Blue Period\\\" (1952)\\n** \\\"Teddy\\\" (1953)\\n* Franny and Zooey (1961)\\n** \\\"Franny\\\" (1955)\\n** \\\"Zooey\\\" (1957)\\n* Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction (1963)\\n** \\\"Raise High the Roof-Beam, Carpenters\\\" (1955)\\n** \\\"Seymour: An Introduction\\\" (1959)\\n* Three Early Stories (2014)\\n** \\\"The Young Folks\\\" (1940)\\n** \\\"Go See Eddie\\\" (1940)\\n** \\\"Once a Week Won't Kill You\\\" (1944)\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nPublished and anthologized stories\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\n* \\\"Go See Eddie\\\" (1940, republished in Fiction: Form & Experience, ed. William M. Jones, 1969 and in Three Early Stories, 2014)\\n* \\\"The Young Folks\\\" (1940, republished in Three Early Stories, 2014)\\n* \\\"The Hang of It\\\" (1941, republished in The Kit Book for Soldiers, Sailors and Marines, 1943)\\n* \\\"The Long Debut of Lois Taggett\\\" (1942, republished in Stories: The Fiction of the Forties, ed. Whit Burnett, 1949)\\n* \\\"Once a Week Won't Kill You\\\" (1944, republished in Three Early Stories, 2014)\\n* \\\"A Boy in France\\\" (1945, republished in Post Stories 1942–45, ed. Ben Hibbs, 1946 and July/August 2010 issue of Saturday Evening Post magazine)\\n* \\\"This Sandwich Has No Mayonnaise\\\" (1945, republished in The Armchair Esquire, ed. L. Rust Hills, 1959)\\n* \\\"Slight Rebellion off Madison\\\" (1946, republished in Wonderful Town: New York Stories from The New Yorker, ed. David Remnick, 2000)\\n* \\\"A Girl I Knew\\\" (1948, republished in Best American Short Stories 1949, ed. Martha Foley, 1949)\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nPublished and unanthologized stories\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\n* \\\"The Heart of a Broken Story\\\" (1941)\\n* \\\"Personal Notes of an Infantryman\\\" (1942)\\n* \\\"The Varioni Brothers\\\" (1943)\\n* \\\"Both Parties Concerned\\\" (1944)\\n* \\\"Soft-Boiled Sergeant\\\" (1944)\\n* \\\"Last Day of the Last Furlough\\\" (1944)\\n* \\\"Elaine\\\" (1945)\\n* \\\"The Stranger\\\" (1945)\\n* \\\"I'm Crazy\\\" (1945)\\n* \\\"A Young Girl in 1941 with No Waist at All\\\" (1947)\\n* \\\"The Inverted Forest\\\" (1947)\\n* \\\"Blue Melody\\\" (1948)\\n* \\\"Hapworth 16, 1924\\\" (1965)\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nUnpublished stories\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\n*\\\"Mrs. Hincher\\\" (1942)\\n*\\\"The Last and Best of the Peter Pans\\\" (1942)\\n*\\\"The Children's Echelon\\\" (1944)\\n*\\\"Two Lonely Men\\\" (1944)\\n*\\\"The Magic Foxhole\\\" (1944)\\n*\\\"Birthday Boy\\\" (1946)\\n*\\\"The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls\\\" (1947)\\n*\\\"Paula\\\" (1948)\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nMedia portrayals and references\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\n*J.D. Salinger appears as a character (voiced by Alan Arkin) in several episodes of Bojack Horseman (season 2 episodes 6, 7, 8, and 10), where he is said to have faked his own death to escape public attention (A Netflix Original Series, July 7, 2015).\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nNotes\",\n \"J. D. Salinger\\n\\nCitations\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137080,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2302"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Whose Wild West show, which ran from 1883 until 1908, featured such performers as Annie Oakley, Sitting Bull, and Frank Butler, among many others?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Buffalo Bill"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["william frederick 22buffalo bill 22 cody","buffalo bill","buffalo bill s wild west","buffalo bill s wild west show","bill cody","william f cody","wild west rocky mountain and prairie exhibition","buffalo bill cody s wild west show","william frank buffalo bill cody","william frederick cody","buffalo bill cody","william cody"],"string":"[\n \"william frederick 22buffalo bill 22 cody\",\n \"buffalo bill\",\n \"buffalo bill s wild west\",\n \"buffalo bill s wild west show\",\n \"bill cody\",\n \"william f cody\",\n \"wild west rocky mountain and prairie exhibition\",\n \"buffalo bill cody s wild west show\",\n \"william frank buffalo bill cody\",\n \"william frederick cody\",\n \"buffalo bill cody\",\n \"william cody\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Wild West shows\n\nWild West shows were traveling vaudeville performances in the United States and Europe. The first and prototypical Wild West show was Buffalo Bill's, formed in 1883 and lasting until 1913. The shows introduced many western performers and personalities, and a romanticized version of the American frontier, to a wide audience with many different members. Will Rogers also toured a Wild West show.","Wild West shows\n\nIntroduction","Wild West shows\n\nThe mythology and legends of the American West evoke images of adventure filled with cowboys, Indians, wild animals, wild parties with outlaws, and stagecoaches. The real American West of the 19th century was not nearly as glamorous as often depicted. Cowboys, Native American Indians, army scouts, outlaws, and wild animals did truly exist in the West. However, gunfights, stagecoach attacks, and train holdups were not an everyday ordeal. The dramatic myth of the Wild West as we see it today is really a “puffed-up exaggeration” of the real western frontier. The shaping of this myth of western life was aided into creation by films, dime novels, live performances, paintings, pulp magazines, sculptures, and television. More than anyone or anything else, William Frederick Cody, better known as Buffalo Bill, can be credited with helping to create and preserve a lasting legend of the West. Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show took the reality of western life and glamorized it into an appealing show for Eastern audiences and helped to permanently preserve the legend of the Wild West.","Wild West shows\n\nThe \"Real\" Wild West","Wild West shows\n\n“Cowboys driving cattle over open range. Outlaws and lawmen facing one another on a dusty main street. Indian hunters racing through buffalo herds on horseback. These images, so familiar from books and movies, are what come to mind when many people think of the American West.” Although these images are not entirely fictionalized, the real American West was home to European settlers and pioneers. The show helped develop dramatic images of the \"wild west\" and the west was a place open for imagination and new starts.","Wild West shows\n\nSome lucky settlers or people flocking to the west found this promise of a better life fulfilled. These are the people who made the myth of the west true. However, for many others the promise did not come through. For them life was rough and the truth of the west was rougher. Still, a promise for the struggling people of eastern cities, suburban, and rural areas was a nice idea. It gave them hope and a bit of assurance that their hardships were not forever or in vain. The development of Wild West shows were a way to preserve this open promise- without the failure that it often presented in reality. For Native Americans, of course, the back side of the medal was a constantly lived reality, where the Wild West's 'frontier' was a battle front taking over traditional lands.","Wild West shows\n\nWild West shows were shows that took the reality of the West and glamorized it for the eastern audiences to give it an exciting appeal. The showmen who ran the shows adapted western life to fit an exaggerated yet captivating image which the eastern audiences both expected and were intrigued by. The shows were a marriage of reality and theater and were designed by the showmen to be both “authentic” and entertaining, a balance which sought to not flat out fabricate, but only enhance truth. Some shows even claimed educational benefits. The shows were “Romance and reality, adventure and ‘the story of our country’”.","Wild West shows\n\nMyth vs. reality: what are Wild West shows?","Wild West shows\n\nPerhaps part of the popularity of Wild West shows can be attributed to the feeling of celebration and conquest they evoked. They celebrated the achievement of the frontier movement as being the most important accomplishment in American history. The shows were a winning combination of history, patriotism, and adventure which managed to create an enduring spirit of the \"unsettled\" west and capture audience’s hearts throughout America and Europe.","Wild West shows\n\nWild West shows contained a lot of action. Wild animals, trick performances, theatrical reenactments, and all sorts of characters from the frontier were all incorporated into the show’s program.","Wild West shows\n\nTheatrical reenactments included those of battle scenes, “characteristic” western scenes, and even hunts. Shooting exhibitions were also in the line up with extensive shooting displays and trick shots. Competitions that came in the form of races between combinations of people or animals exhilarated and stimulated the audience. Equally exciting were rodeo events, involving rough and “dangerous” activities performed by cowboys with different animals. In short, Wild West shows began to include any type of “western” event that could in any way appeal to the audiences.","Wild West shows\n\nThose watching the show would have been credulous and excited by the idea of a rough, wild frontier. They were enthralled by the west, and Wild West shows were the answer to popular demands. Wild West shows preserved the disappearing world of the \"unsettled\" and \"untamed\" west and brought it to life for audiences.","Wild West shows\n\nPopularity","Wild West shows\n\nAround the start of the 20th century, Wild West shows were extremely popular. Within the first two years of the first Wild West show, over 10,000,000 spectators had seen it and it had a profit of $100,000. The reason for their popularity existed simply in the basis that easterners were immensely attracted to them. Easterners were eager to enjoy the thrill and danger of the west, and in this way it was made possible to do so without the risks and consequences that came along with the real west. The Wild West shows satisfied their cravings for adventure.","Wild West shows\n\nOther shows","Wild West shows\n\nOver time, various Wild West shows were developed. They were started by people with generally flamboyant names such as Dr. W.F. Carver, Pawnee Bill, \"Buckskin Joe\" Hoyt, and Mexican Joe. Blacks (such as Bill Pickett - the famous bulldogger from the 101 Ranch Wild West Show - his brothers, and Voter Hall - billed as a \"Feejee Indian from Africa\" ), Mexicans (such as the Esquivel Brothers from San Antonio), Native Americans (including the illustrious war leader Red Cloud), and women also tried their hand in the business, with such names headlining as Calamity Jane, Luella-Forepaugh Fish, the Kemp Sisters, May Lillie, Lucille Mulhall, Annie Oakley, and Lillian Smith. Tillie Baldwin also made a name for herself as a performer, as did Texas Rose as an announcer. Of all the shows, the first, most famous and most successful was Buffalo Bill’s Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World; this was the show that started it all.","Wild West shows\n\nBuffalo Bill","Wild West shows\n\nBuffalo Bill was born William Frederick Cody on February 26, 1846. He lived until January 10, 1917. Cody grew up on the frontier and loved his way of life. As he got older, some of his titles he earned included buffalo hunter, U.S. Army scout and guide, and showman, as well as Pony Express Rider, Indian fighter, and even author. Whatever Cody’s titles, he was destined for fame.","Wild West shows\n\nHis track of fame began as with his reputation as a master buffalo hunter. While hunting buffalo for pay to feed railroad workers, he shot and killed 11 out of 12 buffalo, earning him his nickname and show name “Buffalo Bill.” As an army scout, Cody extended his fame by gaining recognition as an army scout with a reputation for bravery. As a well-known scout, he often led rich men from the East and Europe and even royalty on hunting trips. Cody’s fame began to spread to the East when an author, Ned Buntline caught wind of him and wrote a dime novel about Buffalo Bill, called Buffalo Bill, the King of Border Men (1869). To top it all off, Buntline’s novel was turned into a theatrical production which greatly contributed to his success and popularity in the east.","Wild West shows\n\nBefore long, Cody ended up starring as himself in Buntline’s play. Soon after, he started his own theatrical troop. It wasn’t until 1883 when Cody first got his idea for a Wild West show. That same year, he launched Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show in Omaha, Nebraska. With his Wild West show in hand, nobody could deny Buffalo Bill’s fame. “At the turn of the twentieth century, William F. Cody was known as ‘the greatest showman on the face of the earth’”. Cody had full domination of the Wild West show business.","Wild West shows\n\nOut of all of his fame-bearing titles, William F. Cody is most celebrated for being the inventor of the Wild West show. His crown title would be impresario, or manager or producer of Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show. His motivation to produce the show was to preserve the western way of life that he grew up with and loved. Driven by his ambition to keep this way of life from disappearing, Cody turned his “real life adventure into the first and greatest outdoor western show”. Cody did not want to see his way of life vanish without remembrance. Consequently, Cody became the first real Westerner to cash in on the western myth, which others had been writing literature, dime novels, and plays about for some time.","Wild West shows\n\nShow content","Wild West shows\n\nIn creating the Wild West show, Cody also created the myth of the adventuresome, exciting, and outright wild western frontier. Cody helped pitch-in to give the West its image as we see it today. The legend he fathered became a permanent part in America’s history and is still present today. He also was the first to establish the format and content of Wild West shows.","Wild West shows\n\nThe shows consisted of reenactments of history combined with displays of showmanship, sharp-shooting, hunts, racing, or rodeo style events. Each show was 3–4 hours long and attracted crowds of thousands of people daily. The show began with a parade on horseback. The parade was a major ordeal, an affair that involved huge public crowds and many performers, including the Congress of Rough Riders. The Congress of Rough Riders was composed of marksman from around the world, including the future President Theodore Roosevelt, who marched through the parade on horseback.","Wild West shows\n\nAmong the composition of the show were “historical” scenes. “The exact scenes changed over time, but were either portrayed as a ‘typical’ event such as the early settlers defending a homestead, a wagon train crossing the plains, or a more specific event such as the Battle of the Little Bighorn”. In both types of events, Buffalo Bill used his poetic license to both glorify himself or others while heightening the villainous mischievousness of the “bad guys” (outlaws or Indians) and to embellish each situation for theatrical enhancement. “Typical” events included acts known as Bison Hunt, Train Robbery, Indian War Battle Reenactment, and the usual grand finale of the show, Attack on the Burning Cabin, in which Indians attacked a settler’s cabin and were repulsed by Buffalo Bill, cowboys, and Mexicans.","Wild West shows\n\nA more specific historical event in the show might have been a reenactment of the Battle of Little Bighorn also known as “Custer’s Last Stand”. This event was made into a famous act performed in the show, with Buck Taylor starring as General George Armstrong Custer. In this battle, Custer and all men under his direct command were killed. After Custer is dead, Buffalo Bill rides in, the hero, but he is too late. He avenges Custer by killing and scalping Yellow Hair (also called Yellowhand) which he called the “first scalp for Custer”. This reenactment is exciting for the audience and also stresses Buffalo Bill’s importance, as it suggests that were he to ride in on time, Custer and his men may have been saved.","Wild West shows\n\nShooting competitions and displays of marksmanship were commonly a part of the program. Great feats of skill were shown off using rifles, shot guns, and revolvers. Most people in the show were all good marksmen but many were experts. Buffalo Bill himself was an excellent marksman. It was said that nobody could top him shooting a rifle off the back of a moving horse. Other star shooters were Annie Oakley, Lillian Smith, and Seth Clover.","Wild West shows\n\nThe show also demonstrated hunts executed by Buffalo Bill, cowboys, and Mexicans, which were staged as they would have been on the frontier, and were accompanied by one of the few remaining buffalo herds in the worlds. “People throughout North America and Europe who had never seen buffalo before felt the rush of being in the middle of the hunt.”","Wild West shows\n\nAnimals also did their share in the show through rodeo entertainment, an audience favorite. In rodeo events, cowboys like Lee Martin would try to rope and ride broncos. Broncos are unbroken horses that tend to throw or buck their riders. Other wild animals they would attempt to ride or deal with were mules, buffalo, Texas steers, elk, deer, bears, and moose. Some notable cowboys who participated in the events were Buck Taylor (dubbed “The First Cowboy King”), Bronco Bill, James Lawson (\"The Roper\"), Bill Bullock, Tim Clayton, Coyote Bill, and Bridle Bill.","Wild West shows\n\nRaces were another form of entertainment employed in the Wild West show. Many different races were held, including those between cowboys, Mexicans, and Indians, a 100 yd foot race between Indian and Indian pony, a race between Sioux boys on bareback Indian ponies, races between Mexican thoroughbreds, and even a race between Lady Riders.","Wild West shows\n\nPerformers","Wild West shows\n\nAll in all, the show had a relatively big entourage. It contained as many as 1,200 performers at one time (cowboys, scouts, Indians, military, Mexicans, and men from other heritages), and a large number of many animals including buffalo and Texas Longhorns. Performers in the show were often popular celebrities of the day. Some of the recognizably famous men who took part in the show were Will Rogers, Tom Mix, Pawnee Bill, James Lawson, Bill Pickett, Jess Willard, Mexican Joe, Capt. Adam Bogardus, Buck Taylor, Ralph and Nan Lohse, Antonio Esquibel, and \"Capt. Waterman and his Trained Buffalo\". Even more famous were Wild Bill Hickok and Johnny Baker. Wild Bill Hickok was well known as a gunfighter and as a marshal, and he was also an established dime novel hero, like Buffalo Bill. His name on the playbill gave a great draw of audiences because they knew him from dime-novels, and he was a genuine scout. Johnny Baker was nicknamed the “Cowboy Kid” and considered to be Annie Oakley’s boy counterpart.","Wild West shows\n\nCody originally took him on in the show mainly because he would have been the same age as his own dead son, but little Johnny Baker turned out to be a great success, was very skilled and ended up becoming the arena director.","Wild West shows\n\nThe list of famous Wild West show participants was not limited to men. Women were also a large part of Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show and attracted many spectators. In fact Annie Oakley, one of the show’s star attractions was a woman. Born Phoebe Ann Moses, Oakley first gained recognition as a sharpshooter when she defeated Frank Butler, a pro marksman at age 15, in a shooting exhibition. She became the star attraction of Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show for 16 years, under the management of Frank Butler, whom she ended up marrying. Annie was billed in the show as “Miss Annie Oakley, the Peerless Lady Wing-Shot”. She was also nicknamed “Little Sure Shot” by Chief Sitting Bull, who was also in the show. Annie was renowned for her trick shots. Annie was able to, from 30 paces, split the edge of a playing card, hit center of ace of spades, shoot down a playing card tossed in air, shatter glass balls thrown in air, hit dimes held between Butler’s fingers, shoot an apple out of poodle’s mouth and shoot off the butt of cigarette from Butler’s mouth.","Wild West shows\n\nShe also performed the last trick shooting the cigarette out of Crown Prince Wilhelm’s mouth in Berlin. Her most famous trick was a mirror trick in which she hit a target behind her shooting backwards using a mirror for aim. These incredible feats of marksmanship amazed and excited people and she generated huge audiences eager to see the display","Wild West shows\n\nCalamity Jane (or Martha Cannary) was another distinguished woman participant of the show. Calamity Jane was a notorious frontierswoman who was the subject of many wild stories- many of which she made up herself. In the show, she was a skilled horsewoman and expert rifle and revolver handler. She also claimed to have a love affair with Wild Bill Hickok (and that she was married to him and had his child), which he denied and there is no proof of. Calamity Jane appeared in Wild West shows until 1902, when she was reportedly fired for drinking and fighting. Other mentionable females in the business were Lillian Smith and Bessie and Della Ferrel","Wild West shows\n\nNative Americans were also a part of Cody’s show. The Native Americans who took part in the show were mostly Plains Indians like the Pawnee and Sioux. They participated in staged “Indian Races” and historic battles, and often appeared in attack scenes attacking whites in which their savagery and wildness was played up. They also performed talented dances, such as the Sioux Ghost Dance. In reality the performance of the ghost dance meant that trouble was brewing and about to break out, but it wasn’t portrayed as such in the show. The Native Americans always wore their best regalia and full war paint. Cody treated them with great respect and paid them adequately. The extent of his respect was demonstrated when he named the Native Americans as “the former foe, present friend, the American”. Audiences were impressed by the presence of Native Americans in the show because they were extraordinarily “simultaneously exotic and accessible people”.","Wild West shows\n\nNative Americans in the show also had their claim to fame, the best known being Chief Sitting Bull. Sitting Bull joined the show for a short time and was a star attraction alongside Annie Oakley. It was said that he only agreed to join the show because he was fascinated with Annie Oakley and Buffalo Bill assured him that if he joined, he could see her perform all the time. During his time at the show, Sitting Bull was introduced to President Grover Cleveland, which he thought proved his importance as chief. He was friends with Buffalo Bill and highly valued the horse that was given to him when he left the show. Other familiar Native Americans names who performed in the show were Chief Joseph, Geronimo, and Rains in Face (who reportedly killed George A. Custer).","Wild West shows\n\nTour history","Wild West shows\n\nBuffalo’s Bill’s Wild West show continued to captivate audiences and tour annually for a total of 30 years (1883–1913). After opening on May 19, 1883 in Omaha, Nebraska, the show was on what seemed to be a perpetual tour all over the east of America. The show “hopped the pond” in 1887 for the American Exhibition, and was then requested for a command performance at Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee in 1887 at Windsor Castle, in England. The whole troupe including 200 passengers plus 97 Natives, 18 buffalo, 181 horses, 10 elk, 4 donkeys, 5 longhorns (Texas steers), 2 deer, 10 mules, and the Deadwood Concord stagecoach crossed the Atlantic on several ships. They then toured England for the next six months and the following year returned to tour Europe until 1892. With his tour in Europe, Buffalo Bill established the myth of the American West overseas as well. To some Europeans, the Wild West show not only represented the west, but all of America. He also created the cowboy as an American icon. He gave the people of England, France, Spain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Germany a taste of the wild and romantic west.","Wild West shows\n\nIn 1893 the show performed at the Chicago World’s Fair to a crowd of 18,000. This performance was a huge contributor to the show’s popularity. The show never again did as well as it did that year. That same year at the Fair, Frederick Turner, a young Wisconsin scholar, gave a speech that pronounced the first stage of American history over. “The frontier has gone”, he declared.","Wild West shows\n\nDecline of show","Wild West shows\n\nThe Lussiure New of England predicted “The Business will degenerate into the hands of men devoid of Buffalo Bill’s exalted simplicity, and much more eager to finger the shillings of the public than to shake the hand of Mother Nature.” By 1894 the harsh economy made it hard to afford tickets. It did not help that the show was routed to go through the South in a year when the cotton was flooded and there was a general depression in the area. Buffalo Bill lost a lot of money and was on the brink of a financial disaster. Soon after, and in an attempt of recovery of monetary balance, Buffalo Bill signed a contract in which he was tricked by Bonfil and Temmen into selling them the show and demoting himself to a mere employee and attraction of the Sells-Floto Circus. From this point, the show began to destroy itself. Finally, in 1913 the show was declared bankrupt. “Cody was forced to take his tents down for the last time”.","Wild West shows\n\nWestern shows “generated a passion for Western entertainment of all kinds.” This passion is still evidenced in western films, modern rodeos, and circuses. Western Films in the first half of the 20th century filled the gap left behind by Wild West shows. The first real western, The Great Train Robbery was made in 1903, and thousands followed after. Contemporary rodeos also still exist today as major productions, still employing the same events and skills as cowboys did in Wild West shows.","Wild West shows\n\n21st century Wild Westing","Wild West shows\n\nWild Westers still perform in movies, pow-wows, pageants and rodeosThere remains a great interest in Native peoples through much of the United States and Europe in pow-wow culture of native people. Some events are open to outside tourist who are able to observe traditional Native American skills; horse culture, ceremonial dancing, food, art, music and crafts.","Wild West shows\n\nThere are several on-going national projects that celebrate Wild Westers and Wild Westing. The National Museum of American History's Photographic History Collection at the Smithsonian Institution preserves and displays Gertrude Käsebier's photographs, as well as many others by photographers who captured the displays of Wild Westing.","Wild West shows\n\nThe Carlisle Indian School Resource Center of the Cumberland County Historical Society in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, houses an extensive collection of archival materials and photographs from the Carlisle Indian School. In 2000, the Cumberland County 250th Anniversary Committee worked with Native Americans from numerous tribes and non-natives to organize a pow-wow on Memorial Day to commemorate the Carlisle Indian School, the students and their stories. The Resource Center has over 3,000 photographs and recorded oral histories from school alumni, relatives of former students and local townspeople. \nToday though many most of the population have changed their view on western culture as it has become less interesting.","Annie Oakley\n\nAnnie Oakley (born Phoebe Ann Mosey; August 13, 1860 – November 3, 1926) was an American sharpshooter and exhibition shooter. Her \"amazing talent\" first came to light when the then 15-year-old won a shooting match with traveling show marksman Frank E. Butler (whom she married). The couple joined Buffalo Bill's Wild West show a few years later. Oakley became a renowned international star, performing before royalty and heads of state.","Annie Oakley\n\nOakley also was variously known as \"Miss Annie Oakley\", \"Little Sure Shot\", \"Little Miss Sure Shot\", \"Watanya Cicilla\", \"Phoebe Anne Oakley\", \"Mrs. Annie Oakley\", \"Mrs. Annie Butler\", and \"Mrs. Frank Butler\". Her death certificate gives her name as \"Annie Oakley Butler\".","Annie Oakley\n\nEarly life","Annie Oakley\n\nAnnie Oakley was born Phoebe Ann (Annie) Mosey on August 13, 1860, in a cabin less than 2 mi northwest of Woodland, now Willowdell, in Darke County, Ohio, a rural western border county of Ohio. Her birthplace log cabin site is about five miles east of North Star. There is a stone-mounted plaque in the vicinity of the cabin site, which was placed by the Annie Oakley Committee in 1981, 121 years after her birth.","Annie Oakley\n\nAnnie's parents were Quakers of English descent from Hollidaysburg, Blair County, Pennsylvania: Susan Wise, age 18, and Jacob Mosey, born 1799, age 49, married in 1848. They moved to a rented farm (later purchased with a mortgage) in Patterson Township, Darke County, Ohio, sometime around 1855.","Annie Oakley\n\nBorn in 1860, Annie was the sixth of Jacob and Susan's nine children, and the fifth out of the seven surviving. Her siblings were Mary Jane (1851–1867), Lydia (1852–1882), Elizabeth (1855–1881), Sarah Ellen (1857–1939), Catherine (1859–1859), John (1861–1949), Hulda (1864–1934) and a stillborn infant brother in 1865. Annie's father, who had fought in the War of 1812, became an invalid from overexposure during a blizzard in late 1865 and died of pneumonia in early 1866 at age 66. Her mother later married Daniel Brumbaugh, had one more child, Emily (1868–1937), and was widowed for a second time.","Annie Oakley\n\nBecause of poverty following the death of her father, Annie did not regularly attend school as a child, although she did attend later in childhood and in adulthood. On March 15, 1870, at age nine, Annie was admitted to the Darke County Infirmary, along with elder sister Sarah Ellen. According to her autobiography, she was put in the care of the infirmary's superintendent, Samuel Crawford Edington, and his wife Nancy, who taught her to sew and decorate. Beginning in the spring of 1870, she was \"bound out\" to a local family to help care for their infant son, on the false promise of fifty cents a week and an education. The couple had originally wanted someone who could pump water, cook, and who was bigger. She spent about two years in near-slavery to them where she endured mental and physical abuse. She would often have to do boys' work. One time the wife put Annie out in the freezing cold, without shoes, as a punishment because she had fallen asleep over some darning. Annie referred to them as \"the wolves\". Even in her autobiography, she kindly never revealed the couple's real name.","Annie Oakley\n\nAccording to biographer Glenda Riley, \"the wolves\" could have been the Studabaker family. However, the 1870 U.S. Census suggests that \"the wolves\" were the Abram Boose family of neighboring Preble County. Around the spring of 1872, Annie ran away from \"the wolves\". According to biographer Shirl Kasper, it was only at this point that Annie had met and lived with the Edingtons, returning to her mother's home around the age of 15. Annie's mother married a third time, to Joseph Shaw, on October 25, 1874.","Annie Oakley\n\nAnnie began trapping before the age of seven, and shooting and hunting by age eight to support her siblings and her widowed mother. She sold the hunted game to locals in Greenville, such as shopkeepers Charles and G. Anthony Katzenberger, who shipped it to hotels in Cincinnati and other cities; as well, she sold the game herself to restaurants and hotels in northern Ohio. Her skill eventually paid off the mortgage on her mother's farm when Annie was 15.","Annie Oakley\n\nDebut and marriage","Annie Oakley\n\nAnnie soon became well known throughout the region. On Thanksgiving Day 1875, the Baughman & Butler shooting act was being performed in Cincinnati.","Annie Oakley\n\nTraveling show marksman and former dog trainer Frank E. Butler (1847–1926), an Irish immigrant, placed a $100 bet per side (worth $ today) with Cincinnati hotel owner Jack Frost, that Butler could beat any local fancy shooter. The hotelier arranged a shooting match between Butler and the 15-year-old Annie, saying, \"The last opponent Butler expected was a five-foot-tall 15-year-old girl named Annie.\" After missing on his 25th shot, Butler lost the match and the bet. Another account mentions that Butler hit on his last shot, but the bird fell dead about two feet beyond the boundary line. He soon began courting Annie, and they married on August 23, 1876. They did not have children.","Annie Oakley\n\nAccording to a modern-day account in The Cincinnati Enquirer, it is possible that the shooting match may have taken place in 1881 and not 1875. However it appears the time of the event was never recorded. Biographer Shirl Kasper states the shooting match took place in the spring of 1881 near Greenville, possibly in North Star as mentioned by Butler during interviews in 1903 and 1924. Other sources seem to coincide with the North Fairmount location near Cincinnati if the event occurred in 1881. The Annie Oakley Center Foundation mentions Oakley visiting her married sister, Lydia Stein, at her home near Cincinnati in 1875. That information is incorrect as Lydia didn't marry Joseph C. Stein until March 19, 1877. Although speculation, it is most likely that Oakley and her mother visited Lydia in 1881 as she was seriously ill from tuberculosis. The Bevis House hotel was still being operated by Martin Bevis and W. H. Ridenour in 1875. It first opened around 1860 after the building was previously used as a pork packaging facility. Jack Frost didn't obtain management of the hotel until 1879. The Baughman & Butler shooting act first appeared on the pages of The Cincinnati Enquirer in 1880.","Annie Oakley\n\nThey signed with Sells Brothers Circus in 1881 and made an appearance at the Coliseum Opera House later that year.","Annie Oakley\n\nRegardless of the actual date of the shooting match, Oakley and Butler were married a year afterward. A certificate is currently on file with the Archives of Ontario, Registration Number 49594, reporting Butler and Oakley being wed on June 20, 1882, in Windsor, Ontario. Many sources say that the marriage took place on August 23, 1876, in Cincinnati, yet there is no recorded certificate to validate that date. A possible reason for the contradicting dates may be that Butler's divorce from his first wife, Henrietta Saunders, was not yet final in 1876. An 1880 U.S. Federal Census record shows Saunders as married. Sources mentioning Butler's first wife as Elizabeth are inaccurate; Elizabeth is actually his granddaughter, her father being Edward F. Butler. Throughout Oakley's show-business career, the public was often led to believe that she was five to six years younger than her actual age. Claiming the later marriage date would have better supported her fictional age.","Annie Oakley\n\nCareer and touring","Annie Oakley\n\nAnnie and Frank Butler lived in Cincinnati for a time. Oakley, the stage name she adopted when she and Frank began performing together, is believed to have been taken from the city's neighborhood of Oakley, where they resided. Some people believe she took on the name because that was the name of the man who had paid her train fare when she was a child.","Annie Oakley\n\nThey joined Buffalo Bill's Wild West in 1885. At five feet tall, Oakley was given the nickname of \"Watanya Cicilla\" by fellow performer Sitting Bull, rendered \"Little Sure Shot\" in the public advertisements.","Annie Oakley\n\nDuring her first engagement with the Buffalo Bill show, Oakley experienced a tense professional rivalry with rifle sharpshooter Lillian Smith. Smith was eleven years younger than Oakley, age 15 at the time she joined the show in 1886, which may have been a primary reason for Oakley to alter her actual age in later years due to Smith's press coverage becoming as favorable as hers. Oakley temporarily left the Buffalo Bill show but returned two years later, after Smith departed, in time for the Paris Exposition of 1889. This three-year tour only cemented Oakley as America's first female star. She earned more than any other performer in the show, except for \"Buffalo Bill\" Cody himself. She also performed in many shows on the side for extra income.","Annie Oakley\n\nIn Europe, she performed for Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, King Umberto I of Italy, President Marie François Sadi Carnot of France and other crowned heads of state. Oakley supposedly shot the ashes off a cigarette held by the newly crowned German Kaiser Wilhelm II at his request.","Annie Oakley\n\nFrom 1892 to 1904, Oakley and Butler made their home in Nutley, New Jersey.","Annie Oakley\n\nOakley promoted the service of women in combat operations for the United States armed forces. She wrote a letter to President William McKinley on April 5, 1898, \"offering the government the services of a company of 50 'lady sharpshooters' who would provide their own arms and ammunition should the U.S. go to war with Spain.\"","Annie Oakley\n\nThe Spanish–American War did occur, but Oakley's offer was not accepted. Theodore Roosevelt, did, however, name his volunteer cavalry the \"Rough Riders\" after the \"Buffalo Bill's Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World\" where Oakley was a major star.","Annie Oakley\n\nThe same year that McKinley was fatally shot by an assassin, 1901, Oakley was also badly injured in a train accident, but she recovered after temporary paralysis and five spinal operations. She left the Buffalo Bill show and in 1902 began a quieter acting career in a stage play written especially for her, The Western Girl. Oakley played the role of Nancy Berry and used a pistol, a rifle and rope to outsmart a group of outlaws.","Annie Oakley\n\nFollowing her injury and change of career, it only added to her legend that her shooting expertise continued to increase into her 60s.","Annie Oakley\n\nThroughout her career, it is believed that Oakley taught upwards of 15,000 women how to use a gun. Oakley believed strongly that it was crucial for women to learn how to use a gun, as not only a form of physical and mental exercise, but also to defend themselves. She said: \"I would like to see every woman know how to handle guns as naturally as they know how to handle babies.\"","Annie Oakley\n\nShooting prowess","Annie Oakley\n\nBiographers, such as Shirl Kasper, repeat Oakley's own story about her very first shot at the age of eight. \"I saw a squirrel run down over the grass in front of the house, through the orchard and stop on a fence to get a hickory nut.\" Taking a rifle from the house, she fired at the squirrel, writing later that, \"It was a wonderful shot, going right through the head from side to side\". \nThe Encyclopaedia Britannica notes that:Oakley never failed to delight her audiences, and her feats of marksmanship were truly incredible. At 30 paces she could split a playing card held edge-on, she hit dimes tossed into the air, she shot cigarettes from her husband's lips, and, a playing card being thrown into the air, she riddled it before it touched the ground.","Annie Oakley\n\nPerhaps Oakley's most famous trick was her ability to repeatedly split a playing card, edge-on, and put several more holes in it before it could touch the ground, while using a .22 caliber rifle, at 90 ft.","Annie Oakley\n\nR. A. Koestler-Grack reports that, on March 19, 1884, she was being watched by Chief Sitting Bull when:Oakley playfully skipped on stage, lifted her rifle, and aimed the barrel at a burning candle. In one shot, she snuffed out the flame with a whizzing bullet. Sitting Bull watched her knock corks off of bottles and slice through a cigar Butler held in his teeth.","Annie Oakley\n\nLibel cases","Annie Oakley\n\nIn 1904, sensational cocaine prohibition stories were selling well. The newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst published a false story that Oakley had been arrested for stealing to support a cocaine habit. The woman actually arrested was a burlesque performer who told Chicago police that her name was \"Annie Oakley\".","Annie Oakley\n\nMost of the newspapers that printed the story had relied on the Hearst article, and upon learning of the libelous error, they immediately retracted the false story with apologies. Hearst, however, tried to avoid paying the anticipated court judgments of $20,000 ($ in today's dollars) by sending an investigator to Darke County, Ohio, with the intent of collecting reputation-smearing gossip from Oakley's past. The investigator found nothing.","Annie Oakley\n\nThe original Annie Oakley spent much of the next six years winning 54 of 55 libel lawsuits against newspapers. She collected less in judgments than the total of her legal expenses; but, to her, a restored reputation justified the loss of time and money.","Annie Oakley\n\nLater years and death","Annie Oakley\n\nIn 1912, the Butlers, now temporarily retired, traveled to Cambridge, Maryland, the Dorchester County seat. They soon bought a plot of land in an area called Hambrooks, situated on the Choptank River, and proceeded to have a brick rancher built, renting rooms at local hotels during the house's construction. They moved into the house by 1913. The Annie Oakley House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1996.","Annie Oakley\n\nThey became friends with the locals and in particular were good friends with the Andrews family (Sarah Ingalls Andrews, widow, and her six children), who migrated from South Dakota and settled in Dorchester County at about the same time as the Butlers. Sarah's husband was Cassian Andrews, a younger brother of Byron Andrews, both from Evansville, Wisconsin.","Annie Oakley\n\nIn 1917, the Butlers moved to North Carolina and returned to public life.","Annie Oakley\n\nOakley continued to set records into her sixties, and she also engaged in extensive, albeit quiet, philanthropy for women's rights and other causes, including the support of specific young women she knew. She embarked on a comeback and intended to star in a feature-length silent movie. In a 1922 shooting contest in Pinehurst, North Carolina, 62-year-old Oakley hit 100 clay targets in a row from 16 yd.","Annie Oakley\n\nIn late 1922, Oakley and Butler suffered a debilitating car accident that forced her to wear a steel brace on her right leg. Yet after a year and a half of recovery, she again performed and set records in 1924.","Annie Oakley\n\nHer health declined in 1925 and she died of pernicious anemia in Greenville, Ohio, at the age of 66 on November 3, 1926. Her body was cremated in Cincinnati two days later and the ashes buried at Brock Cemetery near Greenville, Ohio. Assuming their marriage had been in 1876, Oakley and Butler had been married just over 50 years.","Annie Oakley\n\nButler was so grieved by her death, according to B. Haugen, that he stopped eating and died 18 days later in Michigan. Biographer Shirl Kasper reported the death certificate said Butler died of \"Senility\". His body was buried next to Oakley's ashes, or, according to rumor, Oakley's ashes, placed in one of her prized trophies, were laid next to Butler's body in his coffin prior to burial. Both body and ashes were interred in the cemetery on Thanksgiving Day (November 25, 1926).","Annie Oakley\n\nAfter her death, her incomplete autobiography was given to Fred Stone, the stage comedian, and it was discovered that her entire fortune had been spent on her family and her charities.","Annie Oakley\n\nA vast collection of Annie Oakley's personal possessions, performance memorabilia, and firearms are on permanent exhibit within the Garst Museum and The National Annie Oakley Center in Greenville, Ohio. The National Annie Oakley Center Foundation strives to preserve, expand, and share exhibits pertaining to Annie Oakley's life and experiences.","Annie Oakley\n\nShe has been inducted into the Trapshooting Hall of Fame, the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in Fort Worth, Texas, the National Women's Hall of Fame, the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame, and the New Jersey Hall of Fame.","Annie Oakley\n\nThe Little Sure Shot of the Wild West","Annie Oakley\n\nIn 1894, Oakley and Butler performed in Edison's Kinetoscope film, The \"Little Sure Shot of the Wild West,\" an exhibition of rifle shooting at glass balls, etc. Filmed November 1, 1894, in Edison's Black Maria studio by William Heise (0:21 at 30 frame/s; 39 ft.), it was about the 11th film made after commercial showings began on April 14, 1894.","Annie Oakley\n\nOakley's early movie star opportunity followed from Buffalo Bill's friendship with Thomas Edison, which developed after Edison personally built, for the Wild West Show, what in the 1890s was the world's largest electrical power plant. Buffalo Bill and fifteen of his show Indians appeared in two Kinetoscopes filmed September 24, 1894.","Annie Oakley\n\nSurname","Annie Oakley\n\nThere are a number of variations given for Oakley's family name, Mosey. Many biographers and other references give the name as \"Moses\". Although the 1860 U.S. Census shows the family name as \"Mauzy\", this is considered an error introduced by the census taker. Oakley's name appears as \"Ann Mosey\" in the 1870 U.S. Census and \"Mosey\" is engraved on her father's headstone and appears in his military record; \"Mosey\" is the official spelling by the Annie Oakley Foundation, maintained by her living relatives. (the answer is \"no\": \"Her mother, Susan, named her Phoebe Ann…\"; her father Jacob is surnamed \"Mosey\" in the National Archives War of 1812 military records; \"In the 1870 Census, Annie is listed as Ann Mosey\" - but, several other surname spellings appeared later. \"The professional name Oakley was assumed in 1882, when Annie began to perform with Frank Butler; it was not a family name.\") The spelling \"Mosie\" has also appeared.","Annie Oakley\n\nAccording to biographer Shirl Kasper, Oakley herself insisted that her family surname be spelled \"Mozee\", leading to arguments with her brother, John. Kasper speculates that Oakley may have considered \"Mozee\" to be a more phonetic spelling. There is also popular speculation that young Oakley had been teased about her name by other children.","Annie Oakley\n\nPrior to their double wedding in March 1884, both Oakley's brother, John, and one of her sisters, Hulda, changed their surnames to \"Moses\".","Annie Oakley\n\nEponym","Annie Oakley\n\nDuring her lifetime, the theatre business began referring to complimentary tickets as \"Annie Oakleys\". Such tickets traditionally have holes punched into them (to prevent them from being resold), reminiscent of the playing cards Oakley shot through during her sharpshooting act.","Annie Oakley\n\nRepresentations on stage, literature and screen","Annie Oakley\n\n* In 1935, Barbara Stanwyck played Oakley in a fictionalized film called Annie Oakley. * The 1946 Broadway musical Annie Get Your Gun is loosely based on her life. The original stage production starred Ethel Merman, who also starred in the 1966 revival. ** A 1950 film version of the musical starred Betty Hutton and Howard Keel. ** Some years after headlining the 1948 national tour, Broadway legend Mary Martin returned to the role for a 1957 NBC television special that also featured John Raitt as Frank Butler. * From 1954 to 1956, Gail Davis played Oakley in the Annie Oakley television series. * A fictionalized Oakley appeared in the 1966 comedy film Carry On Cowboy. Oakley was played by Angela Douglas. * In 1976, Geraldine Chaplin played Oakley in Buffalo Bill and the Indians with John Considine as Frank Butler. * In 1982, Diane Civita played Oakley, opposite Richard Donner as Bill Cody, in an episode of Voyagers!, where, during Cody's performances for Queen Victoria, Oakley engaged in a marksmanship contest with a Russian duke. * In 1982, the British rock band Squeeze released a song called \"Annie Get Your Gun\".","Annie Oakley\n\n* In 1983, New American Library published The Secret Annie Oakley, by Marcy Heidish, which established that her husband Frank Butler was not an envious competitor, as portrayed in the Broadway musical, but was her greatest support from the day they met. * In 1985, Jamie Lee Curtis portrayed her in the \"Annie Oakley\" episode of the children's video series Shelley Duvall's Tall Tales and Legends. * In 1996, Reba McEntire portrayed Oakley in Buffalo Girls alongside Anjelica Huston, Melanie Griffith and Tom Wopat. * In 1998, A Shooting Star: A Novel About Annie Oakley by Sheila Solomon Klass was republished. * In 1999, Annie Get Your Gun was revived on Broadway with Bernadette Peters in the title role. Susan Lucci assumed the role when Peters took a vacation from the show, Cheryl Ladd assumed the role from Peters and was followed by Reba McEntire and Crystal Bernard. That same year, Marilu Henner portrayed Oakley in an off-Broadway production. * In 2004, Elizabeth Berridge played Oakley in the Touchstone Pictures film Hidalgo. * In 2006, an episode of PBS's American Experience documented Oakley's life. * In 2009, the band Watchout! There's Ghosts released a song called \"Don't Shoot Me, Annie Oakley\".","Annie Oakley\n\n* In 2009, an episode of the Canadian television series Murdoch Mysteries entitled \"Mild, Mild West\" featured the character of Oakley, portrayed by Sarah Strange. * In 2010, The Geraghtys released a song titled \"Annie Oakley\", that references the famous sharpshooter. * In 2009, in an episode of the American television series Bones, Seeley Booth refers to his partner, Temperance \"Bones\" Brennan, as \"Annie Oakley\" when she seems too trigger-happy. * In 2010, in an episode of the American television series Castle, Richard Castle refers to detective Kevin Ryan as \"Annie Oakley\" after he shot at him but missed. * In 2013, a fictionalized version of Oakley appeared in the post-apocalyptic novel The Cartographer's Handbook by Alex Shaw. This was followed in 2015 by two subsequent books in the series: Secret Rooms and Arlington. * In 2014, the folk music group Love.Stop.Repeat released a song titled \"Annie Oakley\", with lyrics about her life and exploits.","Annie Oakley\n\nInfluence","Annie Oakley\n\nOakley's world-wide stardom as a sharpshooter enabled her to earn more money than most of the other performers in the Buffalo Bill show. Gaining financial and economic power, Annie did not forget her roots. She and Butler together often donated to charitable organizations for orphans. Beyond her monetary influence, Oakley proved to be a great influence on women.","Annie Oakley\n\nOakley urged that women serve in war, though President McKinley rejected her offer of woman sharpshooters for service in the Spanish–American War. Beyond this offer to the president, Oakley believed women should learn to use a gun: not for skills like hers, but for the empowering image it gave. In Her Best Shot: Women and Guns In America, Laura Browder discussed how Oakley's stardom gave hope to women and youth. Oakley pressed for women to be independent and educated.","Annie Oakley\n\nOakley was a key influence in the creation of the image of the American cowgirl. Through this image, Oakley provided substantial evidence that women are as capable as men, when offered the opportunity to prove themselves.","Sitting Bull\n\nSitting Bull (Lakota: Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake in Standard Lakota Orthography, also nicknamed Húŋkešni or \"Slow\"; c. 1831 – December 15, 1890) was a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man who led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies. He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him, at a time when authorities feared that he would join the Ghost Dance movement.","Sitting Bull\n\nBefore the Battle of the Little Bighorn, Sitting Bull had a vision in which he saw many soldiers, \"as thick as grasshoppers,\" falling upside down into the Lakota camp, which his people took as a foreshadowing of a major victory in which a large number of soldiers would be killed. About three weeks later, the confederated Lakota tribes with the Northern Cheyenne defeated the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer on June 25, 1876, annihilating Custer's battalion and seeming to bear out Sitting Bull's prophetic vision. Sitting Bull's leadership inspired his people to a major victory. Months after their victory at the battle, Sitting Bull and his group left the United States for Wood Mountain, North-West Territories (now Saskatchewan), where he remained until 1881, at which time he and most of his band returned to US territory and surrendered to U.S. forces. A small remnant of his band under Waŋblí Ǧi decided to stay at Wood Mountain.","Sitting Bull\n\nAfter working as a performer with Buffalo Bill's Wild West show, Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota. Because of fears that he would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement, Indian Service agent James McLaughlin at Fort Yates ordered his arrest. During an ensuing struggle between Sitting Bull's followers and the agency police, Sitting Bull was shot in the side and head by Standing Rock policemen Lieutenant Bull Head (Tatankapah Lakota: Tȟatȟáŋka Pȟá) and Red Tomahawk (Marcelus Chankpidutah Lakota: \"Čhaŋȟpí Dúta\") after the police were fired upon by Sitting Bull's supporters. His body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial. In 1953, his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains, reburying them near Mobridge, South Dakota, near his birthplace.","Sitting Bull\n\nEarly life","Sitting Bull\n\nSitting Bull was born in Dakota Territory. In 2007, Sitting Bull's great-grandson asserted from family oral tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River, south of present-day Miles City, Montana. He was named Jumping Badger at birth, and nicknamed Hunkesi, or \"Slow,\" said to describe his careful and unhurried nature. When the boy was fourteen years old he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors (which included his father and his uncle Four Horns) in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors. Jumping Badger displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow, which was witnessed by the other mounted Lakota. Upon returning to camp his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son. The name, Tȟatȟaŋka Iyotȟaŋka (Tatanka Iyotaka), which in the Lakota language means \"Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down\", would later be abbreviated to \"Sitting Bull\". Thereafter, Sitting Bull's father was known as Jumping Bull.","Sitting Bull\n\nAt this ceremony before the entire band, Sitting Bull's father presented his son with an eagle feather to wear in his hair, a warrior's horse, and a hardened buffalo hide shield to mark his son's passage into manhood as a Lakota warrior.","Sitting Bull\n\nDuring the Dakota War of 1862, in which Sitting Bull's people were not involved, several bands of eastern Dakota people killed an estimated 300 to 800 settlers and soldiers in south-central Minnesota in response to poor treatment by the government and in an effort to drive the whites away. Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War, the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864, even against bands which had not been involved in the hostilities. In 1864, two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village. The defenders were led by Sitting Bull, Gall and Inkpaduta. The Lakota and Dakota were driven out, but skirmishing continued into August.","Sitting Bull\n\nIn September, Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a small party near what is now Marmarth, North Dakota. They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect some repairs to an overturned wagon. When he led an attack, Sitting Bull was shot in the left hip by a soldier. The bullet exited out through the small of his back, and the wound was not serious.","Sitting Bull\n\nRed Cloud's War","Sitting Bull\n\nFrom 1866 to 1868, Red Cloud as a leader of the Oglala Lakota fought against US forces, attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of the Powder River Country of Montana. In support of him, Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold, Fort Stevenson, and Fort Buford and their environs from 1865 through 1868. Sitting Bull also made guerrilla attacks on emigrant parties and smaller forts throughout the upper Missouri River region.","Sitting Bull\n\nBy early 1868, the U.S. government desired a peaceful settlement to Red Cloud's War. It agreed to Red Cloud's demands that the US abandon forts Phil Kearny and C.F. Smith. Gall of the Hunkpapa (among other representatives of the Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, and Yankton Dakota) signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2, 1868 at Fort Rice (near Bismarck, North Dakota). Sitting Bull did not agree to the treaty. He told the Jesuit missionary, Pierre Jean De Smet, who sought him out on behalf of the government: “I wish all to know that I do not propose to sell any part of part of my country.” He continued his hit-and-run attacks on forts in the upper Missouri area throughout the late 1860s and early 1870s.","Sitting Bull\n\nThe events of 1866-1868 mark a historically debated period of Sitting Bull's life. According to historian Stanley Vestal, who conducted interviews with surviving Hunkpapa in 1930, Sitting Bull was made \"Supreme Chief of the whole Sioux Nation\" at this time. Later historians and ethnologists have refuted this concept of authority, as the Lakota society was highly decentralized. Lakota bands and their elders made individual decisions, including whether to wage war.","Sitting Bull\n\nThe Great Sioux War of 1876","Sitting Bull\n\nSitting Bull's band of Hunkpapa continued to attack migrating parties and forts in the late 1860s. When in 1871 the Northern Pacific Railway conducted a survey for a route across the northern plains directly through Hunkpapa lands, it encountered stiff Lakota resistance. The same railway people returned the following year accompanied by federal troops. Sitting Bull and the Hunkpapa attacked the survey party, which was forced to turn back. In 1873, the military accompaniment for the surveyors was increased again, but Sitting Bull's forces resisted the survey \"most vigorously.\" The Panic of 1873 forced the Northern Pacific Railway's backers (such as Jay Cooke) into bankruptcy. This halted construction of the railroad through Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota territory.","Sitting Bull\n\nAfter the 1848 finding of gold in the Sierra Nevada and dramatic gains in new wealth from it, other men became interested in the potential for gold mining in the Black Hills. In 1874, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer led a military expedition from Fort Abraham Lincoln near Bismarck, to explore the Black Hills for gold and to determine a suitable location for a military fort in the Hills. Custer's announcement of gold in the Black Hills triggered the Black Hills Gold Rush. Tensions increased between the Lakota and whites seeking to move into the Black Hills.","Sitting Bull\n\nAlthough Sitting Bull did not attack Custer's expedition in 1874, the US government was increasingly pressured by citizens to open the Black Hills to mining and settlement. Failing in an attempt to negotiate a purchase or lease of the Hills, the government in Washington had to find a way around the promise to protect the Sioux in their land, as specified in the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie. It was alarmed at reports of Sioux depredations (encouraged by Sitting Bull). In November 1875, President Grant ordered all Sioux bands outside the Great Sioux Reservation to move onto the reservation, knowing full well that not all would comply. As of February 1, 1876, the Interior Department certified as \"hostile\" those bands who continued to live off the reservation. This certification allowed the military to pursue Sitting Bull and other Lakota bands as \"hostiles\".","Sitting Bull\n\nBased on tribal oral histories, historian Margot Liberty theorizes many Lakota bands allied with the Cheyenne during the Plains Wars because they thought the other nation was under attack by the US. Given this connection, she suggests the major war should have been called \"The Great Cheyenne War\". Since 1860, the Northern Cheyenne had led several battles among the Plains Indians. Before 1876, the U.S. Army had destroyed seven Cheyenne camps, more than those of any other nation.","Sitting Bull\n\nOther historians, such as Robert M. Utley and Jerome Greene, also use Lakota oral testimony, but they have concluded that the Lakota coalition, of which Sitting Bull was the ostensible head, was the primary target of the federal government's pacification campaign.","Sitting Bull\n\nBattle of the Little Bighorn","Sitting Bull\n\nDuring the period 1868–1876, Sitting Bull developed into the most important of Native American political leaders. After the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) and the creation of the Great Sioux Reservation, many traditional Sioux warriors, such as Red Cloud of the Oglala and Spotted Tail of the Brulé, moved to reside permanently on the reservations. They were largely dependent for subsistence on the US Indian agencies. Many other chiefs, including members of Sitting Bull's Hunkpapa band such as Gall, at times lived temporarily at the agencies. They needed the supplies at a time when white encroachment and the depletion of buffalo herds reduced their resources and challenged Native American independence.","Sitting Bull\n\nIn 1875 the Northern Cheyenne, Hunkpapa, Oglala, Sans Arc, and Minneconjou camped together for a Sun Dance, with both the Cheyenne medicine man White Bull or Ice and Sitting Bull in association. This ceremonial alliance preceded their fighting together in 1876. Sitting Bull had a major revelation.\nAt the climactic moment, \"Sitting Bull intoned, 'The Great Spirit has given our enemies to us. We are to destroy them. We do not know who they are. They may be soldiers.' Ice too observed, 'No one then knew who the enemy were – of what tribe.'...They were soon to find out.\"(Utley 1992: 122–24)","Sitting Bull\n\nSitting Bull's refusal to adopt any dependence on the US government meant that at times he and his small band of warriors lived isolated on the Plains. When Native Americans were threatened by the United States, numerous members from various Sioux bands and other tribes, such as the North Cheyenne, came to Sitting Bull's camp. His reputation for \"strong medicine\" developed as he continued to evade the European Americans.","Sitting Bull\n\nAfter the January 1st ultimatum of 1876, when the US Army began to track down as hostiles those Sioux and others living off the reservation, Native Americans gathered at Sitting Bull's camp. He took an active role in encouraging this \"unity camp\". He sent scouts to the reservations to recruit warriors, and told the Hunkpapa to share supplies with those Native Americans who joined them. An example of his generosity was Sitting Bull's taking care of Wooden Leg's Northern Cheyenne tribe. They had been impoverished by Captain Reynold's March 17, 1876 attack and fled to Sitting Bull's camp for safety.","Sitting Bull\n\nOver the course of the first half of 1876, Sitting Bull's camp continually expanded, as natives joined him for safety in numbers. His leadership had attracted warriors and families, creating an extensive village estimated at more than 10,000 people. Lt. Col. Custer came across this large camp on June 25, 1876. Sitting Bull did not take a direct military role in the ensuing battle; instead he acted as a spiritual leader. A week prior to the attack, he had performed the Sun Dance, in which he fasted and sacrificed over 100 pieces of flesh from his arms.","Sitting Bull\n\nCuster’s 7th Cavalry advance party attacked Cheyenne and Lakota tribes at their camp on the Little Big Horn River (known as the Greasy Grass River to the Lakota) on June 25, 1876. The U.S. Army did not realize how large the camp was. More than 2,000 Native American warriors had left their reservations to follow Sitting Bull. Inspired by a vision of Sitting Bull’s, in which he saw U.S. soldiers being killed as they entered the tribe’s camp, the Cheyenne and Lakota fought back. Custer's badly outnumbered troops lost ground quickly and were forced to retreat. The tribes led a counter-attack against the soldiers on a nearby ridge, ultimately annihilating them.","Sitting Bull\n\nThe Native Americans' victory celebrations were short-lived. Public shock and outrage at Custer's death and defeat, and the government's knowledge about the remaining Sioux, led them to assign thousands more soldiers to the area. Over the next year, the new American military forces pursued the Lakota, forcing many of the Native Americans to surrender. Sitting Bull refused to surrender and in May 1877 led his band across the border into the North-West Territories, Canada. He remained in exile for four years near Wood Mountain, refusing a pardon and the chance to return. When crossing the border into Canadian territory, Sitting Bull was met by the Mounties of the region. During this meeting, James Morrow Walsh, commander of the North-West Mounted Police, explained to Sitting Bull that the Lakota were now on British soil and must obey British law. Walsh emphasized that he enforced the law equally and that every person in the territory had a right to justice. Walsh became an advocate for Sitting Bull and the two became good friends for the remainder of their lives.","Sitting Bull\n\nWhile in Canada, Sitting Bull also met with Crowfoot, who was a leader of the Blackfeet, long-time powerful enemies of the Lakota and Cheyenne. Sitting Bull wished to make peace with the Blackfeet Nation and Crowfoot. As an advocate for peace himself, Crowfoot eagerly accepted the tobacco peace offering. Sitting Bull was so impressed by Crowfoot that he named one of his sons after him. \nSitting Bull and his people stayed in Canada for 4 years. Due to the smaller size of the buffalo herds in Canada, Sitting Bull and his men found it difficult to find enough food to feed his people, who were starving and exhausted. Sitting Bull’s presence in the country led to increased tensions between the Canadian and the United States governments. Before Sitting Bull left Canada, he may have visited Walsh for a final time and left a ceremonial headdress as a memento.","Sitting Bull\n\nSurrender","Sitting Bull\n\nHunger and desperation eventually forced Sitting Bull, and 186 of his family and followers, to return to the United States and surrender on July 19, 1881. Sitting Bull had his young son Crow Foot surrender his Winchester lever-action carbine to Major David H. Brotherton, commanding officer of Fort Buford, Sitting Bull said to Major David H. Brotherton, \"I, Takanka Iyotanka, wish it to be remembered that I was the last man of my tribe to surrender my rifle.\" To the Oglala Lakotas, Dakotas and Nakota, \"to surrender my rifle\" in this context meant \"We have killed enough white men with your own rifles so I give this rifle back to you, for Tunkasila Wakantanka (Grandfather Great Mystery) will use a different way to help us overcome the white man.\" In the parlor of the Commanding Officer's Quarters in a ceremony the next day, he told the four soldiers, 20 warriors and other guests in the small room that he wished to regard the soldiers and the white race as friends but he wanted to know who would teach his son the new ways of the world.","Sitting Bull\n\nTwo weeks later, after waiting in vain for other members of his tribe to follow him from Canada, the Army transferred Sitting Bull and his band to Fort Yates, the military post located adjacent to the Standing Rock Agency. This reservation straddles the present-day boundary between North and South Dakota.","Sitting Bull\n\nSitting Bull and his band of 186 people were kept separate from the other Hunkpapa gathered at the agency. Army officials were concerned that he would stir up trouble among the recently surrendered northern bands. On August 26, 1881, he was visited by census taker William T. Selwyn, who counted twelve people in the Hunkpapa leader's immediate family. Forty-one families, totaling 195 people, were recorded in Sitting Bull's band.","Sitting Bull\n\nThe military decided to transfer Sitting Bull and his band to Fort Randall, to be held as prisoners of war. Loaded onto a steamboat, the band of 172 people was sent down the Missouri River to Fort Randall (near present-day Pickstown, South Dakota) on the southern border of the state. There they spent the next 20 months. They were allowed to return north to the Standing Rock Agency in May 1883.","Sitting Bull\n\nIn 1883, rumors were reported that Sitting Bull had been baptized into the Catholic Church. James McLaughlin, Indian agent at Standing Rock Agency, dismissed these reports, saying that \"The reported baptism of Sitting-Bull is erroneous. There is no immediate prospect of such ceremony so far as I am aware.\"","Sitting Bull\n\nMeets Annie Oakley","Sitting Bull\n\nIn 1884 show promoter Alvaren Allen asked Agent James McLaughlin to allow Sitting Bull to tour parts of Canada and the northern United States. The show was called the \"Sitting Bull Connection.\" It was during this tour that Sitting Bull met Annie Oakley in Minnesota. He was so impressed with Oakley's skills with firearms that he offered $65 for a photographer to take a photo of the two together. The admiration and respect was mutual. Oakley stated that Sitting Bull made a \"great pet\" of her. In observing Oakley, Sitting Bull's respect for the young sharpshooter grew. Oakley was quite modest in her attire, deeply respectful of others, and had a remarkable stage persona despite being a woman who stood only five feet in height. Sitting Bull felt that she was \"gifted\" by supernatural means in order to shoot so accurately with both hands. As a result of his esteem, he symbolically \"adopted\" her as a daughter in 1884. He named her \"Little Sure Shot\"—a name that Oakley used throughout her career.","Sitting Bull\n\nWild West Show","Sitting Bull\n\nIn 1885, Sitting Bull was allowed to leave the reservation to go Wild Westing with Buffalo Bill Cody’s Buffalo Bill's Wild West. He earned about $50 a week for riding once around the arena, where he was a popular attraction. Although it is rumored that he cursed his audiences in his native tongue during the show, the historian Utley contends that he did not. Historians have reported that Sitting Bull gave speeches about his desire for education for the young, and reconciling relations between the Sioux and whites. The historian Edward Lazarus wrote that Sitting Bull reportedly cursed his audience in Lakota in 1884, during an opening address celebrating the completion of the Northern Pacific Railway.","Sitting Bull\n\nSitting Bull stayed with the show for four months before returning home. During that time, audiences considered him a celebrity and romanticized him as a warrior. He earned a small fortune by charging for his autograph and picture, although he often gave his money away to the homeless and beggars.","Sitting Bull\n\nGhost Dance Movement","Sitting Bull\n\nSitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency after working in Buffalo Bill's Wild West show. Tension between Sitting Bull and Agent McLaughlin increased and each became more wary of the other over several issues including division and sale of parts of the Great Sioux Reservation. During that period, in 1889 Indian Rights Activist Caroline Weldon from Brooklyn, New York, a member of the National Indian Defense Association \"NIDA\", reached out to Sitting Bull, acting to be his voice, secretary, interpreter and advocate. She joined him, together with her young son Christy at his compound on the Grand River, sharing with him and his family home and hearth. A Paiute Indian, named Wovoka, spread a religious movement from Nevada eastward to the Plains in 1889 that preached a resurrection of the Native. This was a time of severe conditions of harsh winters and long droughts impacting the Sioux Reservation. It was known as the “Ghost Dance Movement”, because it called on the Indians to dance and chant for the rising up of deceased relatives and return of the buffalo. When the movement reached Standing Rock, Sitting Bull allowed the dancers to gather at his camp.","Sitting Bull\n\nAlthough he did not appear to participate in the dancing, he was viewed as a key instigator. Alarm spread to nearby white settlements as the Sioux added a new feature to the dance – shirts that were said to stop bullets.","Sitting Bull\n\nDeath and burial","Sitting Bull\n\nIn 1890, James McLaughlin, the U.S. Indian Agent at Fort Yates on Standing Rock Agency, feared that the Lakota leader was about to flee the reservation with the Ghost Dancers, so he ordered the police to arrest him. On December 14, 1890, McLaughlin drafted a letter to Lt. Henry Bullhead (noted as Bull Head in lead), an Indian agency policeman, that included instructions and a plan to capture Sitting Bull. The plan called for the arrest to take place at dawn on December 15, and advised the use of a light spring wagon to facilitate removal before his followers could rally. Bullhead decided against using the wagon. He intended to have the police officers force Sitting Bull to mount a horse immediately after the arrest.","Sitting Bull\n\nAround 5:30 a.m. on December 15, 39 police officers and four volunteers approached Sitting Bull's house. They surrounded the house, knocked and entered. Lt. Bull Head told Sitting Bull that he was under arrest and led him outside. Sitting Bull and his wife noisily stalled for time, the camp awakened and men converged at the house. As Lt. Bullhead ordered Sitting Bull to mount a horse, he said the Indian Affairs agent needed to see the chief, and then he could return to his house. When Sitting Bull refused to comply, the police used force on him. The Sioux in the village were enraged. Catch-the-Bear, a Lakota, shouldered his rifle and shot Lt. Bullhead, who reacted by firing his revolver into the chest of Sitting Bull. Another police officer, Red Tomahawk, shot Sitting Bull in the head, and he dropped to the ground. He died between 12 and 1 p.m.","Sitting Bull\n\nA close-quarters fight erupted, and within minutes several men were dead. The Lakota killed six policemen immediately and two more died shortly after the fight, including Lt. Bullhead. The police killed Sitting Bull and seven of his supporters at the site, along with two horses.","Sitting Bull\n\nSitting Bull's body was taken to Fort Yates, where it was placed in a coffin (made by the Army carpenter) and buried. A monument was installed to mark his burial site after his remains were reportedly taken to South Dakota.","Sitting Bull\n\nIn 1953 Lakota family members exhumed what they believed to be Sitting Bull's remains, transporting them for reinterment near Mobridge, South Dakota, his birthplace. A monument to him was erected there.","Sitting Bull\n\nLegacy","Sitting Bull\n\n*Following Sitting Bull's death, his cabin on the Grand River was taken to Chicago for use as an exhibit at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition. Native American dancers also performed at the Exposition. \n*On September 14, 1989, the United States Postal Service released a Great Americans series 28¢ postage stamp featuring a likeness of Sitting Bull. \n*On March 6, 1996, Standing Rock College was renamed Sitting Bull College in his honor. Sitting Bull College serves as an institution of higher education on Sitting Bull's home of Standing Rock in North Dakota and South Dakota.\n*The American historian Gary Clayton Anderson of the University of Oklahoma published Sitting Bull and the Paradox of Lakota Nationhood (2010), a revisionist examination of the Lakota medicine man. Anderson stresses the Little Big Horn in light of past successes of the Lakota Nation and the merits of Sitting Bull himself, rather than simply a mishap by Custer. \n*In August 2010, a research team led by Eske Willerslev, an ancient DNA expert at the University of Copenhagen, announced their intention to sequence the genome of Sitting Bull, with the approval of his descendants, using a hair sample obtained during his lifetime.","Sitting Bull\n\nRepresentation in popular culture","Sitting Bull\n\nSitting Bull was the subject of, or a featured character in, several Hollywood motion pictures and documentaries, which have reflected changing ideas about him and Lakota culture in relation to the United States. Among them are:","Sitting Bull\n\n*Sitting Bull: The Hostile Sioux Indian Chief (1914)\n*Sitting Bull at the Spirit Lake Massacre (1927)\n*Annie Oakley (1935)\n*Annie Get Your Gun (1950)\n*Sitting Bull (1954), with J. Carrol Naish in the title role, Iron Eyes Cody as Crazy Horse; with Dale Robertson and William Tannen.\n*Cheyenne (1957), with Clint Walker in the title role of the episode \"The Broken Pledge\"; Frank DeKova plays Sitting Bull, and Whit Bissell, George Custer\n*Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson (1976)\n*Buffalo Girls (1995 TV film)\n*Into the West (2005)\n*Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (2007)\n*Sitting Bull: A Stone in My Heart (2008) Documentary","Sitting Bull\n\nAs time passed, Sitting Bull has become a symbol and archetype of Native American resistance movements as well as a figure celebrated by descendants of his former enemies:\n*Legoland Billund, the first Legoland park, contains a Lego sculpture of Sitting Bull, the largest sculpture in the park.\n*Sitting Bull is featured as the leader for the Native American Civilization in the computer game Civilization IV. \n*Sitting Bull is lionized as one of 13 great Americans in President Barack Obama's children's book, Of Thee I Sing: A Letter to My Daughters.","Sitting Bull\n\nSitting Bull is a major character in Sharon Pollock's play \"Walsh\" (1973), in which he is depicted as a wise and tragic figure during the Lakota nation's time at Fort Walsh in Saskatchewan. The play is sympathetic to the character of Sitting Bull and hostile to the legend of George Armstrong Custer, re-presenting the General from the perspective of Native Americans as a butcher of women and children."],"string":"[\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nWild West shows were traveling vaudeville performances in the United States and Europe. The first and prototypical Wild West show was Buffalo Bill's, formed in 1883 and lasting until 1913. The shows introduced many western performers and personalities, and a romanticized version of the American frontier, to a wide audience with many different members. Will Rogers also toured a Wild West show.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nIntroduction\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nThe mythology and legends of the American West evoke images of adventure filled with cowboys, Indians, wild animals, wild parties with outlaws, and stagecoaches. The real American West of the 19th century was not nearly as glamorous as often depicted. Cowboys, Native American Indians, army scouts, outlaws, and wild animals did truly exist in the West. However, gunfights, stagecoach attacks, and train holdups were not an everyday ordeal. The dramatic myth of the Wild West as we see it today is really a “puffed-up exaggeration” of the real western frontier. The shaping of this myth of western life was aided into creation by films, dime novels, live performances, paintings, pulp magazines, sculptures, and television. More than anyone or anything else, William Frederick Cody, better known as Buffalo Bill, can be credited with helping to create and preserve a lasting legend of the West. Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show took the reality of western life and glamorized it into an appealing show for Eastern audiences and helped to permanently preserve the legend of the Wild West.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nThe \\\"Real\\\" Wild West\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\n“Cowboys driving cattle over open range. Outlaws and lawmen facing one another on a dusty main street. Indian hunters racing through buffalo herds on horseback. These images, so familiar from books and movies, are what come to mind when many people think of the American West.” Although these images are not entirely fictionalized, the real American West was home to European settlers and pioneers. The show helped develop dramatic images of the \\\"wild west\\\" and the west was a place open for imagination and new starts.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nSome lucky settlers or people flocking to the west found this promise of a better life fulfilled. These are the people who made the myth of the west true. However, for many others the promise did not come through. For them life was rough and the truth of the west was rougher. Still, a promise for the struggling people of eastern cities, suburban, and rural areas was a nice idea. It gave them hope and a bit of assurance that their hardships were not forever or in vain. The development of Wild West shows were a way to preserve this open promise- without the failure that it often presented in reality. For Native Americans, of course, the back side of the medal was a constantly lived reality, where the Wild West's 'frontier' was a battle front taking over traditional lands.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nWild West shows were shows that took the reality of the West and glamorized it for the eastern audiences to give it an exciting appeal. The showmen who ran the shows adapted western life to fit an exaggerated yet captivating image which the eastern audiences both expected and were intrigued by. The shows were a marriage of reality and theater and were designed by the showmen to be both “authentic” and entertaining, a balance which sought to not flat out fabricate, but only enhance truth. Some shows even claimed educational benefits. The shows were “Romance and reality, adventure and ‘the story of our country’”.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nMyth vs. reality: what are Wild West shows?\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nPerhaps part of the popularity of Wild West shows can be attributed to the feeling of celebration and conquest they evoked. They celebrated the achievement of the frontier movement as being the most important accomplishment in American history. The shows were a winning combination of history, patriotism, and adventure which managed to create an enduring spirit of the \\\"unsettled\\\" west and capture audience’s hearts throughout America and Europe.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nWild West shows contained a lot of action. Wild animals, trick performances, theatrical reenactments, and all sorts of characters from the frontier were all incorporated into the show’s program.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nTheatrical reenactments included those of battle scenes, “characteristic” western scenes, and even hunts. Shooting exhibitions were also in the line up with extensive shooting displays and trick shots. Competitions that came in the form of races between combinations of people or animals exhilarated and stimulated the audience. Equally exciting were rodeo events, involving rough and “dangerous” activities performed by cowboys with different animals. In short, Wild West shows began to include any type of “western” event that could in any way appeal to the audiences.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nThose watching the show would have been credulous and excited by the idea of a rough, wild frontier. They were enthralled by the west, and Wild West shows were the answer to popular demands. Wild West shows preserved the disappearing world of the \\\"unsettled\\\" and \\\"untamed\\\" west and brought it to life for audiences.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nPopularity\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nAround the start of the 20th century, Wild West shows were extremely popular. Within the first two years of the first Wild West show, over 10,000,000 spectators had seen it and it had a profit of $100,000. The reason for their popularity existed simply in the basis that easterners were immensely attracted to them. Easterners were eager to enjoy the thrill and danger of the west, and in this way it was made possible to do so without the risks and consequences that came along with the real west. The Wild West shows satisfied their cravings for adventure.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nOther shows\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nOver time, various Wild West shows were developed. They were started by people with generally flamboyant names such as Dr. W.F. Carver, Pawnee Bill, \\\"Buckskin Joe\\\" Hoyt, and Mexican Joe. Blacks (such as Bill Pickett - the famous bulldogger from the 101 Ranch Wild West Show - his brothers, and Voter Hall - billed as a \\\"Feejee Indian from Africa\\\" ), Mexicans (such as the Esquivel Brothers from San Antonio), Native Americans (including the illustrious war leader Red Cloud), and women also tried their hand in the business, with such names headlining as Calamity Jane, Luella-Forepaugh Fish, the Kemp Sisters, May Lillie, Lucille Mulhall, Annie Oakley, and Lillian Smith. Tillie Baldwin also made a name for herself as a performer, as did Texas Rose as an announcer. Of all the shows, the first, most famous and most successful was Buffalo Bill’s Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World; this was the show that started it all.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nBuffalo Bill\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nBuffalo Bill was born William Frederick Cody on February 26, 1846. He lived until January 10, 1917. Cody grew up on the frontier and loved his way of life. As he got older, some of his titles he earned included buffalo hunter, U.S. Army scout and guide, and showman, as well as Pony Express Rider, Indian fighter, and even author. Whatever Cody’s titles, he was destined for fame.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nHis track of fame began as with his reputation as a master buffalo hunter. While hunting buffalo for pay to feed railroad workers, he shot and killed 11 out of 12 buffalo, earning him his nickname and show name “Buffalo Bill.” As an army scout, Cody extended his fame by gaining recognition as an army scout with a reputation for bravery. As a well-known scout, he often led rich men from the East and Europe and even royalty on hunting trips. Cody’s fame began to spread to the East when an author, Ned Buntline caught wind of him and wrote a dime novel about Buffalo Bill, called Buffalo Bill, the King of Border Men (1869). To top it all off, Buntline’s novel was turned into a theatrical production which greatly contributed to his success and popularity in the east.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nBefore long, Cody ended up starring as himself in Buntline’s play. Soon after, he started his own theatrical troop. It wasn’t until 1883 when Cody first got his idea for a Wild West show. That same year, he launched Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show in Omaha, Nebraska. With his Wild West show in hand, nobody could deny Buffalo Bill’s fame. “At the turn of the twentieth century, William F. Cody was known as ‘the greatest showman on the face of the earth’”. Cody had full domination of the Wild West show business.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nOut of all of his fame-bearing titles, William F. Cody is most celebrated for being the inventor of the Wild West show. His crown title would be impresario, or manager or producer of Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show. His motivation to produce the show was to preserve the western way of life that he grew up with and loved. Driven by his ambition to keep this way of life from disappearing, Cody turned his “real life adventure into the first and greatest outdoor western show”. Cody did not want to see his way of life vanish without remembrance. Consequently, Cody became the first real Westerner to cash in on the western myth, which others had been writing literature, dime novels, and plays about for some time.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nShow content\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nIn creating the Wild West show, Cody also created the myth of the adventuresome, exciting, and outright wild western frontier. Cody helped pitch-in to give the West its image as we see it today. The legend he fathered became a permanent part in America’s history and is still present today. He also was the first to establish the format and content of Wild West shows.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nThe shows consisted of reenactments of history combined with displays of showmanship, sharp-shooting, hunts, racing, or rodeo style events. Each show was 3–4 hours long and attracted crowds of thousands of people daily. The show began with a parade on horseback. The parade was a major ordeal, an affair that involved huge public crowds and many performers, including the Congress of Rough Riders. The Congress of Rough Riders was composed of marksman from around the world, including the future President Theodore Roosevelt, who marched through the parade on horseback.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nAmong the composition of the show were “historical” scenes. “The exact scenes changed over time, but were either portrayed as a ‘typical’ event such as the early settlers defending a homestead, a wagon train crossing the plains, or a more specific event such as the Battle of the Little Bighorn”. In both types of events, Buffalo Bill used his poetic license to both glorify himself or others while heightening the villainous mischievousness of the “bad guys” (outlaws or Indians) and to embellish each situation for theatrical enhancement. “Typical” events included acts known as Bison Hunt, Train Robbery, Indian War Battle Reenactment, and the usual grand finale of the show, Attack on the Burning Cabin, in which Indians attacked a settler’s cabin and were repulsed by Buffalo Bill, cowboys, and Mexicans.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nA more specific historical event in the show might have been a reenactment of the Battle of Little Bighorn also known as “Custer’s Last Stand”. This event was made into a famous act performed in the show, with Buck Taylor starring as General George Armstrong Custer. In this battle, Custer and all men under his direct command were killed. After Custer is dead, Buffalo Bill rides in, the hero, but he is too late. He avenges Custer by killing and scalping Yellow Hair (also called Yellowhand) which he called the “first scalp for Custer”. This reenactment is exciting for the audience and also stresses Buffalo Bill’s importance, as it suggests that were he to ride in on time, Custer and his men may have been saved.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nShooting competitions and displays of marksmanship were commonly a part of the program. Great feats of skill were shown off using rifles, shot guns, and revolvers. Most people in the show were all good marksmen but many were experts. Buffalo Bill himself was an excellent marksman. It was said that nobody could top him shooting a rifle off the back of a moving horse. Other star shooters were Annie Oakley, Lillian Smith, and Seth Clover.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nThe show also demonstrated hunts executed by Buffalo Bill, cowboys, and Mexicans, which were staged as they would have been on the frontier, and were accompanied by one of the few remaining buffalo herds in the worlds. “People throughout North America and Europe who had never seen buffalo before felt the rush of being in the middle of the hunt.”\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nAnimals also did their share in the show through rodeo entertainment, an audience favorite. In rodeo events, cowboys like Lee Martin would try to rope and ride broncos. Broncos are unbroken horses that tend to throw or buck their riders. Other wild animals they would attempt to ride or deal with were mules, buffalo, Texas steers, elk, deer, bears, and moose. Some notable cowboys who participated in the events were Buck Taylor (dubbed “The First Cowboy King”), Bronco Bill, James Lawson (\\\"The Roper\\\"), Bill Bullock, Tim Clayton, Coyote Bill, and Bridle Bill.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nRaces were another form of entertainment employed in the Wild West show. Many different races were held, including those between cowboys, Mexicans, and Indians, a 100 yd foot race between Indian and Indian pony, a race between Sioux boys on bareback Indian ponies, races between Mexican thoroughbreds, and even a race between Lady Riders.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nPerformers\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nAll in all, the show had a relatively big entourage. It contained as many as 1,200 performers at one time (cowboys, scouts, Indians, military, Mexicans, and men from other heritages), and a large number of many animals including buffalo and Texas Longhorns. Performers in the show were often popular celebrities of the day. Some of the recognizably famous men who took part in the show were Will Rogers, Tom Mix, Pawnee Bill, James Lawson, Bill Pickett, Jess Willard, Mexican Joe, Capt. Adam Bogardus, Buck Taylor, Ralph and Nan Lohse, Antonio Esquibel, and \\\"Capt. Waterman and his Trained Buffalo\\\". Even more famous were Wild Bill Hickok and Johnny Baker. Wild Bill Hickok was well known as a gunfighter and as a marshal, and he was also an established dime novel hero, like Buffalo Bill. His name on the playbill gave a great draw of audiences because they knew him from dime-novels, and he was a genuine scout. Johnny Baker was nicknamed the “Cowboy Kid” and considered to be Annie Oakley’s boy counterpart.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nCody originally took him on in the show mainly because he would have been the same age as his own dead son, but little Johnny Baker turned out to be a great success, was very skilled and ended up becoming the arena director.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nThe list of famous Wild West show participants was not limited to men. Women were also a large part of Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show and attracted many spectators. In fact Annie Oakley, one of the show’s star attractions was a woman. Born Phoebe Ann Moses, Oakley first gained recognition as a sharpshooter when she defeated Frank Butler, a pro marksman at age 15, in a shooting exhibition. She became the star attraction of Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show for 16 years, under the management of Frank Butler, whom she ended up marrying. Annie was billed in the show as “Miss Annie Oakley, the Peerless Lady Wing-Shot”. She was also nicknamed “Little Sure Shot” by Chief Sitting Bull, who was also in the show. Annie was renowned for her trick shots. Annie was able to, from 30 paces, split the edge of a playing card, hit center of ace of spades, shoot down a playing card tossed in air, shatter glass balls thrown in air, hit dimes held between Butler’s fingers, shoot an apple out of poodle’s mouth and shoot off the butt of cigarette from Butler’s mouth.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nShe also performed the last trick shooting the cigarette out of Crown Prince Wilhelm’s mouth in Berlin. Her most famous trick was a mirror trick in which she hit a target behind her shooting backwards using a mirror for aim. These incredible feats of marksmanship amazed and excited people and she generated huge audiences eager to see the display\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nCalamity Jane (or Martha Cannary) was another distinguished woman participant of the show. Calamity Jane was a notorious frontierswoman who was the subject of many wild stories- many of which she made up herself. In the show, she was a skilled horsewoman and expert rifle and revolver handler. She also claimed to have a love affair with Wild Bill Hickok (and that she was married to him and had his child), which he denied and there is no proof of. Calamity Jane appeared in Wild West shows until 1902, when she was reportedly fired for drinking and fighting. Other mentionable females in the business were Lillian Smith and Bessie and Della Ferrel\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nNative Americans were also a part of Cody’s show. The Native Americans who took part in the show were mostly Plains Indians like the Pawnee and Sioux. They participated in staged “Indian Races” and historic battles, and often appeared in attack scenes attacking whites in which their savagery and wildness was played up. They also performed talented dances, such as the Sioux Ghost Dance. In reality the performance of the ghost dance meant that trouble was brewing and about to break out, but it wasn’t portrayed as such in the show. The Native Americans always wore their best regalia and full war paint. Cody treated them with great respect and paid them adequately. The extent of his respect was demonstrated when he named the Native Americans as “the former foe, present friend, the American”. Audiences were impressed by the presence of Native Americans in the show because they were extraordinarily “simultaneously exotic and accessible people”.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nNative Americans in the show also had their claim to fame, the best known being Chief Sitting Bull. Sitting Bull joined the show for a short time and was a star attraction alongside Annie Oakley. It was said that he only agreed to join the show because he was fascinated with Annie Oakley and Buffalo Bill assured him that if he joined, he could see her perform all the time. During his time at the show, Sitting Bull was introduced to President Grover Cleveland, which he thought proved his importance as chief. He was friends with Buffalo Bill and highly valued the horse that was given to him when he left the show. Other familiar Native Americans names who performed in the show were Chief Joseph, Geronimo, and Rains in Face (who reportedly killed George A. Custer).\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nTour history\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nBuffalo’s Bill’s Wild West show continued to captivate audiences and tour annually for a total of 30 years (1883–1913). After opening on May 19, 1883 in Omaha, Nebraska, the show was on what seemed to be a perpetual tour all over the east of America. The show “hopped the pond” in 1887 for the American Exhibition, and was then requested for a command performance at Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee in 1887 at Windsor Castle, in England. The whole troupe including 200 passengers plus 97 Natives, 18 buffalo, 181 horses, 10 elk, 4 donkeys, 5 longhorns (Texas steers), 2 deer, 10 mules, and the Deadwood Concord stagecoach crossed the Atlantic on several ships. They then toured England for the next six months and the following year returned to tour Europe until 1892. With his tour in Europe, Buffalo Bill established the myth of the American West overseas as well. To some Europeans, the Wild West show not only represented the west, but all of America. He also created the cowboy as an American icon. He gave the people of England, France, Spain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Germany a taste of the wild and romantic west.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nIn 1893 the show performed at the Chicago World’s Fair to a crowd of 18,000. This performance was a huge contributor to the show’s popularity. The show never again did as well as it did that year. That same year at the Fair, Frederick Turner, a young Wisconsin scholar, gave a speech that pronounced the first stage of American history over. “The frontier has gone”, he declared.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nDecline of show\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nThe Lussiure New of England predicted “The Business will degenerate into the hands of men devoid of Buffalo Bill’s exalted simplicity, and much more eager to finger the shillings of the public than to shake the hand of Mother Nature.” By 1894 the harsh economy made it hard to afford tickets. It did not help that the show was routed to go through the South in a year when the cotton was flooded and there was a general depression in the area. Buffalo Bill lost a lot of money and was on the brink of a financial disaster. Soon after, and in an attempt of recovery of monetary balance, Buffalo Bill signed a contract in which he was tricked by Bonfil and Temmen into selling them the show and demoting himself to a mere employee and attraction of the Sells-Floto Circus. From this point, the show began to destroy itself. Finally, in 1913 the show was declared bankrupt. “Cody was forced to take his tents down for the last time”.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nWestern shows “generated a passion for Western entertainment of all kinds.” This passion is still evidenced in western films, modern rodeos, and circuses. Western Films in the first half of the 20th century filled the gap left behind by Wild West shows. The first real western, The Great Train Robbery was made in 1903, and thousands followed after. Contemporary rodeos also still exist today as major productions, still employing the same events and skills as cowboys did in Wild West shows.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\n21st century Wild Westing\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nWild Westers still perform in movies, pow-wows, pageants and rodeosThere remains a great interest in Native peoples through much of the United States and Europe in pow-wow culture of native people. Some events are open to outside tourist who are able to observe traditional Native American skills; horse culture, ceremonial dancing, food, art, music and crafts.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nThere are several on-going national projects that celebrate Wild Westers and Wild Westing. The National Museum of American History's Photographic History Collection at the Smithsonian Institution preserves and displays Gertrude Käsebier's photographs, as well as many others by photographers who captured the displays of Wild Westing.\",\n \"Wild West shows\\n\\nThe Carlisle Indian School Resource Center of the Cumberland County Historical Society in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, houses an extensive collection of archival materials and photographs from the Carlisle Indian School. In 2000, the Cumberland County 250th Anniversary Committee worked with Native Americans from numerous tribes and non-natives to organize a pow-wow on Memorial Day to commemorate the Carlisle Indian School, the students and their stories. The Resource Center has over 3,000 photographs and recorded oral histories from school alumni, relatives of former students and local townspeople. \\nToday though many most of the population have changed their view on western culture as it has become less interesting.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nAnnie Oakley (born Phoebe Ann Mosey; August 13, 1860 – November 3, 1926) was an American sharpshooter and exhibition shooter. Her \\\"amazing talent\\\" first came to light when the then 15-year-old won a shooting match with traveling show marksman Frank E. Butler (whom she married). The couple joined Buffalo Bill's Wild West show a few years later. Oakley became a renowned international star, performing before royalty and heads of state.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nOakley also was variously known as \\\"Miss Annie Oakley\\\", \\\"Little Sure Shot\\\", \\\"Little Miss Sure Shot\\\", \\\"Watanya Cicilla\\\", \\\"Phoebe Anne Oakley\\\", \\\"Mrs. Annie Oakley\\\", \\\"Mrs. Annie Butler\\\", and \\\"Mrs. Frank Butler\\\". Her death certificate gives her name as \\\"Annie Oakley Butler\\\".\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nAnnie Oakley was born Phoebe Ann (Annie) Mosey on August 13, 1860, in a cabin less than 2 mi northwest of Woodland, now Willowdell, in Darke County, Ohio, a rural western border county of Ohio. Her birthplace log cabin site is about five miles east of North Star. There is a stone-mounted plaque in the vicinity of the cabin site, which was placed by the Annie Oakley Committee in 1981, 121 years after her birth.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nAnnie's parents were Quakers of English descent from Hollidaysburg, Blair County, Pennsylvania: Susan Wise, age 18, and Jacob Mosey, born 1799, age 49, married in 1848. They moved to a rented farm (later purchased with a mortgage) in Patterson Township, Darke County, Ohio, sometime around 1855.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nBorn in 1860, Annie was the sixth of Jacob and Susan's nine children, and the fifth out of the seven surviving. Her siblings were Mary Jane (1851–1867), Lydia (1852–1882), Elizabeth (1855–1881), Sarah Ellen (1857–1939), Catherine (1859–1859), John (1861–1949), Hulda (1864–1934) and a stillborn infant brother in 1865. Annie's father, who had fought in the War of 1812, became an invalid from overexposure during a blizzard in late 1865 and died of pneumonia in early 1866 at age 66. Her mother later married Daniel Brumbaugh, had one more child, Emily (1868–1937), and was widowed for a second time.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nBecause of poverty following the death of her father, Annie did not regularly attend school as a child, although she did attend later in childhood and in adulthood. On March 15, 1870, at age nine, Annie was admitted to the Darke County Infirmary, along with elder sister Sarah Ellen. According to her autobiography, she was put in the care of the infirmary's superintendent, Samuel Crawford Edington, and his wife Nancy, who taught her to sew and decorate. Beginning in the spring of 1870, she was \\\"bound out\\\" to a local family to help care for their infant son, on the false promise of fifty cents a week and an education. The couple had originally wanted someone who could pump water, cook, and who was bigger. She spent about two years in near-slavery to them where she endured mental and physical abuse. She would often have to do boys' work. One time the wife put Annie out in the freezing cold, without shoes, as a punishment because she had fallen asleep over some darning. Annie referred to them as \\\"the wolves\\\". Even in her autobiography, she kindly never revealed the couple's real name.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nAccording to biographer Glenda Riley, \\\"the wolves\\\" could have been the Studabaker family. However, the 1870 U.S. Census suggests that \\\"the wolves\\\" were the Abram Boose family of neighboring Preble County. Around the spring of 1872, Annie ran away from \\\"the wolves\\\". According to biographer Shirl Kasper, it was only at this point that Annie had met and lived with the Edingtons, returning to her mother's home around the age of 15. Annie's mother married a third time, to Joseph Shaw, on October 25, 1874.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nAnnie began trapping before the age of seven, and shooting and hunting by age eight to support her siblings and her widowed mother. She sold the hunted game to locals in Greenville, such as shopkeepers Charles and G. Anthony Katzenberger, who shipped it to hotels in Cincinnati and other cities; as well, she sold the game herself to restaurants and hotels in northern Ohio. Her skill eventually paid off the mortgage on her mother's farm when Annie was 15.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nDebut and marriage\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nAnnie soon became well known throughout the region. On Thanksgiving Day 1875, the Baughman & Butler shooting act was being performed in Cincinnati.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nTraveling show marksman and former dog trainer Frank E. Butler (1847–1926), an Irish immigrant, placed a $100 bet per side (worth $ today) with Cincinnati hotel owner Jack Frost, that Butler could beat any local fancy shooter. The hotelier arranged a shooting match between Butler and the 15-year-old Annie, saying, \\\"The last opponent Butler expected was a five-foot-tall 15-year-old girl named Annie.\\\" After missing on his 25th shot, Butler lost the match and the bet. Another account mentions that Butler hit on his last shot, but the bird fell dead about two feet beyond the boundary line. He soon began courting Annie, and they married on August 23, 1876. They did not have children.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nAccording to a modern-day account in The Cincinnati Enquirer, it is possible that the shooting match may have taken place in 1881 and not 1875. However it appears the time of the event was never recorded. Biographer Shirl Kasper states the shooting match took place in the spring of 1881 near Greenville, possibly in North Star as mentioned by Butler during interviews in 1903 and 1924. Other sources seem to coincide with the North Fairmount location near Cincinnati if the event occurred in 1881. The Annie Oakley Center Foundation mentions Oakley visiting her married sister, Lydia Stein, at her home near Cincinnati in 1875. That information is incorrect as Lydia didn't marry Joseph C. Stein until March 19, 1877. Although speculation, it is most likely that Oakley and her mother visited Lydia in 1881 as she was seriously ill from tuberculosis. The Bevis House hotel was still being operated by Martin Bevis and W. H. Ridenour in 1875. It first opened around 1860 after the building was previously used as a pork packaging facility. Jack Frost didn't obtain management of the hotel until 1879. The Baughman & Butler shooting act first appeared on the pages of The Cincinnati Enquirer in 1880.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nThey signed with Sells Brothers Circus in 1881 and made an appearance at the Coliseum Opera House later that year.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nRegardless of the actual date of the shooting match, Oakley and Butler were married a year afterward. A certificate is currently on file with the Archives of Ontario, Registration Number 49594, reporting Butler and Oakley being wed on June 20, 1882, in Windsor, Ontario. Many sources say that the marriage took place on August 23, 1876, in Cincinnati, yet there is no recorded certificate to validate that date. A possible reason for the contradicting dates may be that Butler's divorce from his first wife, Henrietta Saunders, was not yet final in 1876. An 1880 U.S. Federal Census record shows Saunders as married. Sources mentioning Butler's first wife as Elizabeth are inaccurate; Elizabeth is actually his granddaughter, her father being Edward F. Butler. Throughout Oakley's show-business career, the public was often led to believe that she was five to six years younger than her actual age. Claiming the later marriage date would have better supported her fictional age.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nCareer and touring\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nAnnie and Frank Butler lived in Cincinnati for a time. Oakley, the stage name she adopted when she and Frank began performing together, is believed to have been taken from the city's neighborhood of Oakley, where they resided. Some people believe she took on the name because that was the name of the man who had paid her train fare when she was a child.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nThey joined Buffalo Bill's Wild West in 1885. At five feet tall, Oakley was given the nickname of \\\"Watanya Cicilla\\\" by fellow performer Sitting Bull, rendered \\\"Little Sure Shot\\\" in the public advertisements.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nDuring her first engagement with the Buffalo Bill show, Oakley experienced a tense professional rivalry with rifle sharpshooter Lillian Smith. Smith was eleven years younger than Oakley, age 15 at the time she joined the show in 1886, which may have been a primary reason for Oakley to alter her actual age in later years due to Smith's press coverage becoming as favorable as hers. Oakley temporarily left the Buffalo Bill show but returned two years later, after Smith departed, in time for the Paris Exposition of 1889. This three-year tour only cemented Oakley as America's first female star. She earned more than any other performer in the show, except for \\\"Buffalo Bill\\\" Cody himself. She also performed in many shows on the side for extra income.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nIn Europe, she performed for Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, King Umberto I of Italy, President Marie François Sadi Carnot of France and other crowned heads of state. Oakley supposedly shot the ashes off a cigarette held by the newly crowned German Kaiser Wilhelm II at his request.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nFrom 1892 to 1904, Oakley and Butler made their home in Nutley, New Jersey.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nOakley promoted the service of women in combat operations for the United States armed forces. She wrote a letter to President William McKinley on April 5, 1898, \\\"offering the government the services of a company of 50 'lady sharpshooters' who would provide their own arms and ammunition should the U.S. go to war with Spain.\\\"\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nThe Spanish–American War did occur, but Oakley's offer was not accepted. Theodore Roosevelt, did, however, name his volunteer cavalry the \\\"Rough Riders\\\" after the \\\"Buffalo Bill's Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World\\\" where Oakley was a major star.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nThe same year that McKinley was fatally shot by an assassin, 1901, Oakley was also badly injured in a train accident, but she recovered after temporary paralysis and five spinal operations. She left the Buffalo Bill show and in 1902 began a quieter acting career in a stage play written especially for her, The Western Girl. Oakley played the role of Nancy Berry and used a pistol, a rifle and rope to outsmart a group of outlaws.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nFollowing her injury and change of career, it only added to her legend that her shooting expertise continued to increase into her 60s.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nThroughout her career, it is believed that Oakley taught upwards of 15,000 women how to use a gun. Oakley believed strongly that it was crucial for women to learn how to use a gun, as not only a form of physical and mental exercise, but also to defend themselves. She said: \\\"I would like to see every woman know how to handle guns as naturally as they know how to handle babies.\\\"\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nShooting prowess\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nBiographers, such as Shirl Kasper, repeat Oakley's own story about her very first shot at the age of eight. \\\"I saw a squirrel run down over the grass in front of the house, through the orchard and stop on a fence to get a hickory nut.\\\" Taking a rifle from the house, she fired at the squirrel, writing later that, \\\"It was a wonderful shot, going right through the head from side to side\\\". \\nThe Encyclopaedia Britannica notes that:Oakley never failed to delight her audiences, and her feats of marksmanship were truly incredible. At 30 paces she could split a playing card held edge-on, she hit dimes tossed into the air, she shot cigarettes from her husband's lips, and, a playing card being thrown into the air, she riddled it before it touched the ground.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nPerhaps Oakley's most famous trick was her ability to repeatedly split a playing card, edge-on, and put several more holes in it before it could touch the ground, while using a .22 caliber rifle, at 90 ft.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nR. A. Koestler-Grack reports that, on March 19, 1884, she was being watched by Chief Sitting Bull when:Oakley playfully skipped on stage, lifted her rifle, and aimed the barrel at a burning candle. In one shot, she snuffed out the flame with a whizzing bullet. Sitting Bull watched her knock corks off of bottles and slice through a cigar Butler held in his teeth.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nLibel cases\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nIn 1904, sensational cocaine prohibition stories were selling well. The newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst published a false story that Oakley had been arrested for stealing to support a cocaine habit. The woman actually arrested was a burlesque performer who told Chicago police that her name was \\\"Annie Oakley\\\".\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nMost of the newspapers that printed the story had relied on the Hearst article, and upon learning of the libelous error, they immediately retracted the false story with apologies. Hearst, however, tried to avoid paying the anticipated court judgments of $20,000 ($ in today's dollars) by sending an investigator to Darke County, Ohio, with the intent of collecting reputation-smearing gossip from Oakley's past. The investigator found nothing.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nThe original Annie Oakley spent much of the next six years winning 54 of 55 libel lawsuits against newspapers. She collected less in judgments than the total of her legal expenses; but, to her, a restored reputation justified the loss of time and money.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nLater years and death\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nIn 1912, the Butlers, now temporarily retired, traveled to Cambridge, Maryland, the Dorchester County seat. They soon bought a plot of land in an area called Hambrooks, situated on the Choptank River, and proceeded to have a brick rancher built, renting rooms at local hotels during the house's construction. They moved into the house by 1913. The Annie Oakley House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1996.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nThey became friends with the locals and in particular were good friends with the Andrews family (Sarah Ingalls Andrews, widow, and her six children), who migrated from South Dakota and settled in Dorchester County at about the same time as the Butlers. Sarah's husband was Cassian Andrews, a younger brother of Byron Andrews, both from Evansville, Wisconsin.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nIn 1917, the Butlers moved to North Carolina and returned to public life.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nOakley continued to set records into her sixties, and she also engaged in extensive, albeit quiet, philanthropy for women's rights and other causes, including the support of specific young women she knew. She embarked on a comeback and intended to star in a feature-length silent movie. In a 1922 shooting contest in Pinehurst, North Carolina, 62-year-old Oakley hit 100 clay targets in a row from 16 yd.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nIn late 1922, Oakley and Butler suffered a debilitating car accident that forced her to wear a steel brace on her right leg. Yet after a year and a half of recovery, she again performed and set records in 1924.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nHer health declined in 1925 and she died of pernicious anemia in Greenville, Ohio, at the age of 66 on November 3, 1926. Her body was cremated in Cincinnati two days later and the ashes buried at Brock Cemetery near Greenville, Ohio. Assuming their marriage had been in 1876, Oakley and Butler had been married just over 50 years.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nButler was so grieved by her death, according to B. Haugen, that he stopped eating and died 18 days later in Michigan. Biographer Shirl Kasper reported the death certificate said Butler died of \\\"Senility\\\". His body was buried next to Oakley's ashes, or, according to rumor, Oakley's ashes, placed in one of her prized trophies, were laid next to Butler's body in his coffin prior to burial. Both body and ashes were interred in the cemetery on Thanksgiving Day (November 25, 1926).\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nAfter her death, her incomplete autobiography was given to Fred Stone, the stage comedian, and it was discovered that her entire fortune had been spent on her family and her charities.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nA vast collection of Annie Oakley's personal possessions, performance memorabilia, and firearms are on permanent exhibit within the Garst Museum and The National Annie Oakley Center in Greenville, Ohio. The National Annie Oakley Center Foundation strives to preserve, expand, and share exhibits pertaining to Annie Oakley's life and experiences.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nShe has been inducted into the Trapshooting Hall of Fame, the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in Fort Worth, Texas, the National Women's Hall of Fame, the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame, and the New Jersey Hall of Fame.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nThe Little Sure Shot of the Wild West\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nIn 1894, Oakley and Butler performed in Edison's Kinetoscope film, The \\\"Little Sure Shot of the Wild West,\\\" an exhibition of rifle shooting at glass balls, etc. Filmed November 1, 1894, in Edison's Black Maria studio by William Heise (0:21 at 30 frame/s; 39 ft.), it was about the 11th film made after commercial showings began on April 14, 1894.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nOakley's early movie star opportunity followed from Buffalo Bill's friendship with Thomas Edison, which developed after Edison personally built, for the Wild West Show, what in the 1890s was the world's largest electrical power plant. Buffalo Bill and fifteen of his show Indians appeared in two Kinetoscopes filmed September 24, 1894.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nSurname\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nThere are a number of variations given for Oakley's family name, Mosey. Many biographers and other references give the name as \\\"Moses\\\". Although the 1860 U.S. Census shows the family name as \\\"Mauzy\\\", this is considered an error introduced by the census taker. Oakley's name appears as \\\"Ann Mosey\\\" in the 1870 U.S. Census and \\\"Mosey\\\" is engraved on her father's headstone and appears in his military record; \\\"Mosey\\\" is the official spelling by the Annie Oakley Foundation, maintained by her living relatives. (the answer is \\\"no\\\": \\\"Her mother, Susan, named her Phoebe Ann…\\\"; her father Jacob is surnamed \\\"Mosey\\\" in the National Archives War of 1812 military records; \\\"In the 1870 Census, Annie is listed as Ann Mosey\\\" - but, several other surname spellings appeared later. \\\"The professional name Oakley was assumed in 1882, when Annie began to perform with Frank Butler; it was not a family name.\\\") The spelling \\\"Mosie\\\" has also appeared.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nAccording to biographer Shirl Kasper, Oakley herself insisted that her family surname be spelled \\\"Mozee\\\", leading to arguments with her brother, John. Kasper speculates that Oakley may have considered \\\"Mozee\\\" to be a more phonetic spelling. There is also popular speculation that young Oakley had been teased about her name by other children.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nPrior to their double wedding in March 1884, both Oakley's brother, John, and one of her sisters, Hulda, changed their surnames to \\\"Moses\\\".\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nEponym\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nDuring her lifetime, the theatre business began referring to complimentary tickets as \\\"Annie Oakleys\\\". Such tickets traditionally have holes punched into them (to prevent them from being resold), reminiscent of the playing cards Oakley shot through during her sharpshooting act.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nRepresentations on stage, literature and screen\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\n* In 1935, Barbara Stanwyck played Oakley in a fictionalized film called Annie Oakley. * The 1946 Broadway musical Annie Get Your Gun is loosely based on her life. The original stage production starred Ethel Merman, who also starred in the 1966 revival. ** A 1950 film version of the musical starred Betty Hutton and Howard Keel. ** Some years after headlining the 1948 national tour, Broadway legend Mary Martin returned to the role for a 1957 NBC television special that also featured John Raitt as Frank Butler. * From 1954 to 1956, Gail Davis played Oakley in the Annie Oakley television series. * A fictionalized Oakley appeared in the 1966 comedy film Carry On Cowboy. Oakley was played by Angela Douglas. * In 1976, Geraldine Chaplin played Oakley in Buffalo Bill and the Indians with John Considine as Frank Butler. * In 1982, Diane Civita played Oakley, opposite Richard Donner as Bill Cody, in an episode of Voyagers!, where, during Cody's performances for Queen Victoria, Oakley engaged in a marksmanship contest with a Russian duke. * In 1982, the British rock band Squeeze released a song called \\\"Annie Get Your Gun\\\".\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\n* In 1983, New American Library published The Secret Annie Oakley, by Marcy Heidish, which established that her husband Frank Butler was not an envious competitor, as portrayed in the Broadway musical, but was her greatest support from the day they met. * In 1985, Jamie Lee Curtis portrayed her in the \\\"Annie Oakley\\\" episode of the children's video series Shelley Duvall's Tall Tales and Legends. * In 1996, Reba McEntire portrayed Oakley in Buffalo Girls alongside Anjelica Huston, Melanie Griffith and Tom Wopat. * In 1998, A Shooting Star: A Novel About Annie Oakley by Sheila Solomon Klass was republished. * In 1999, Annie Get Your Gun was revived on Broadway with Bernadette Peters in the title role. Susan Lucci assumed the role when Peters took a vacation from the show, Cheryl Ladd assumed the role from Peters and was followed by Reba McEntire and Crystal Bernard. That same year, Marilu Henner portrayed Oakley in an off-Broadway production. * In 2004, Elizabeth Berridge played Oakley in the Touchstone Pictures film Hidalgo. * In 2006, an episode of PBS's American Experience documented Oakley's life. * In 2009, the band Watchout! There's Ghosts released a song called \\\"Don't Shoot Me, Annie Oakley\\\".\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\n* In 2009, an episode of the Canadian television series Murdoch Mysteries entitled \\\"Mild, Mild West\\\" featured the character of Oakley, portrayed by Sarah Strange. * In 2010, The Geraghtys released a song titled \\\"Annie Oakley\\\", that references the famous sharpshooter. * In 2009, in an episode of the American television series Bones, Seeley Booth refers to his partner, Temperance \\\"Bones\\\" Brennan, as \\\"Annie Oakley\\\" when she seems too trigger-happy. * In 2010, in an episode of the American television series Castle, Richard Castle refers to detective Kevin Ryan as \\\"Annie Oakley\\\" after he shot at him but missed. * In 2013, a fictionalized version of Oakley appeared in the post-apocalyptic novel The Cartographer's Handbook by Alex Shaw. This was followed in 2015 by two subsequent books in the series: Secret Rooms and Arlington. * In 2014, the folk music group Love.Stop.Repeat released a song titled \\\"Annie Oakley\\\", with lyrics about her life and exploits.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nInfluence\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nOakley's world-wide stardom as a sharpshooter enabled her to earn more money than most of the other performers in the Buffalo Bill show. Gaining financial and economic power, Annie did not forget her roots. She and Butler together often donated to charitable organizations for orphans. Beyond her monetary influence, Oakley proved to be a great influence on women.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nOakley urged that women serve in war, though President McKinley rejected her offer of woman sharpshooters for service in the Spanish–American War. Beyond this offer to the president, Oakley believed women should learn to use a gun: not for skills like hers, but for the empowering image it gave. In Her Best Shot: Women and Guns In America, Laura Browder discussed how Oakley's stardom gave hope to women and youth. Oakley pressed for women to be independent and educated.\",\n \"Annie Oakley\\n\\nOakley was a key influence in the creation of the image of the American cowgirl. Through this image, Oakley provided substantial evidence that women are as capable as men, when offered the opportunity to prove themselves.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nSitting Bull (Lakota: Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake in Standard Lakota Orthography, also nicknamed Húŋkešni or \\\"Slow\\\"; c. 1831 – December 15, 1890) was a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man who led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies. He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him, at a time when authorities feared that he would join the Ghost Dance movement.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nBefore the Battle of the Little Bighorn, Sitting Bull had a vision in which he saw many soldiers, \\\"as thick as grasshoppers,\\\" falling upside down into the Lakota camp, which his people took as a foreshadowing of a major victory in which a large number of soldiers would be killed. About three weeks later, the confederated Lakota tribes with the Northern Cheyenne defeated the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer on June 25, 1876, annihilating Custer's battalion and seeming to bear out Sitting Bull's prophetic vision. Sitting Bull's leadership inspired his people to a major victory. Months after their victory at the battle, Sitting Bull and his group left the United States for Wood Mountain, North-West Territories (now Saskatchewan), where he remained until 1881, at which time he and most of his band returned to US territory and surrendered to U.S. forces. A small remnant of his band under Waŋblí Ǧi decided to stay at Wood Mountain.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nAfter working as a performer with Buffalo Bill's Wild West show, Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota. Because of fears that he would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement, Indian Service agent James McLaughlin at Fort Yates ordered his arrest. During an ensuing struggle between Sitting Bull's followers and the agency police, Sitting Bull was shot in the side and head by Standing Rock policemen Lieutenant Bull Head (Tatankapah Lakota: Tȟatȟáŋka Pȟá) and Red Tomahawk (Marcelus Chankpidutah Lakota: \\\"Čhaŋȟpí Dúta\\\") after the police were fired upon by Sitting Bull's supporters. His body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial. In 1953, his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains, reburying them near Mobridge, South Dakota, near his birthplace.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nSitting Bull was born in Dakota Territory. In 2007, Sitting Bull's great-grandson asserted from family oral tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River, south of present-day Miles City, Montana. He was named Jumping Badger at birth, and nicknamed Hunkesi, or \\\"Slow,\\\" said to describe his careful and unhurried nature. When the boy was fourteen years old he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors (which included his father and his uncle Four Horns) in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors. Jumping Badger displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow, which was witnessed by the other mounted Lakota. Upon returning to camp his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son. The name, Tȟatȟaŋka Iyotȟaŋka (Tatanka Iyotaka), which in the Lakota language means \\\"Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down\\\", would later be abbreviated to \\\"Sitting Bull\\\". Thereafter, Sitting Bull's father was known as Jumping Bull.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nAt this ceremony before the entire band, Sitting Bull's father presented his son with an eagle feather to wear in his hair, a warrior's horse, and a hardened buffalo hide shield to mark his son's passage into manhood as a Lakota warrior.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nDuring the Dakota War of 1862, in which Sitting Bull's people were not involved, several bands of eastern Dakota people killed an estimated 300 to 800 settlers and soldiers in south-central Minnesota in response to poor treatment by the government and in an effort to drive the whites away. Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War, the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864, even against bands which had not been involved in the hostilities. In 1864, two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village. The defenders were led by Sitting Bull, Gall and Inkpaduta. The Lakota and Dakota were driven out, but skirmishing continued into August.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nIn September, Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a small party near what is now Marmarth, North Dakota. They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect some repairs to an overturned wagon. When he led an attack, Sitting Bull was shot in the left hip by a soldier. The bullet exited out through the small of his back, and the wound was not serious.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nRed Cloud's War\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nFrom 1866 to 1868, Red Cloud as a leader of the Oglala Lakota fought against US forces, attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of the Powder River Country of Montana. In support of him, Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold, Fort Stevenson, and Fort Buford and their environs from 1865 through 1868. Sitting Bull also made guerrilla attacks on emigrant parties and smaller forts throughout the upper Missouri River region.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nBy early 1868, the U.S. government desired a peaceful settlement to Red Cloud's War. It agreed to Red Cloud's demands that the US abandon forts Phil Kearny and C.F. Smith. Gall of the Hunkpapa (among other representatives of the Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, and Yankton Dakota) signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2, 1868 at Fort Rice (near Bismarck, North Dakota). Sitting Bull did not agree to the treaty. He told the Jesuit missionary, Pierre Jean De Smet, who sought him out on behalf of the government: “I wish all to know that I do not propose to sell any part of part of my country.” He continued his hit-and-run attacks on forts in the upper Missouri area throughout the late 1860s and early 1870s.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nThe events of 1866-1868 mark a historically debated period of Sitting Bull's life. According to historian Stanley Vestal, who conducted interviews with surviving Hunkpapa in 1930, Sitting Bull was made \\\"Supreme Chief of the whole Sioux Nation\\\" at this time. Later historians and ethnologists have refuted this concept of authority, as the Lakota society was highly decentralized. Lakota bands and their elders made individual decisions, including whether to wage war.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nThe Great Sioux War of 1876\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nSitting Bull's band of Hunkpapa continued to attack migrating parties and forts in the late 1860s. When in 1871 the Northern Pacific Railway conducted a survey for a route across the northern plains directly through Hunkpapa lands, it encountered stiff Lakota resistance. The same railway people returned the following year accompanied by federal troops. Sitting Bull and the Hunkpapa attacked the survey party, which was forced to turn back. In 1873, the military accompaniment for the surveyors was increased again, but Sitting Bull's forces resisted the survey \\\"most vigorously.\\\" The Panic of 1873 forced the Northern Pacific Railway's backers (such as Jay Cooke) into bankruptcy. This halted construction of the railroad through Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota territory.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nAfter the 1848 finding of gold in the Sierra Nevada and dramatic gains in new wealth from it, other men became interested in the potential for gold mining in the Black Hills. In 1874, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer led a military expedition from Fort Abraham Lincoln near Bismarck, to explore the Black Hills for gold and to determine a suitable location for a military fort in the Hills. Custer's announcement of gold in the Black Hills triggered the Black Hills Gold Rush. Tensions increased between the Lakota and whites seeking to move into the Black Hills.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nAlthough Sitting Bull did not attack Custer's expedition in 1874, the US government was increasingly pressured by citizens to open the Black Hills to mining and settlement. Failing in an attempt to negotiate a purchase or lease of the Hills, the government in Washington had to find a way around the promise to protect the Sioux in their land, as specified in the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie. It was alarmed at reports of Sioux depredations (encouraged by Sitting Bull). In November 1875, President Grant ordered all Sioux bands outside the Great Sioux Reservation to move onto the reservation, knowing full well that not all would comply. As of February 1, 1876, the Interior Department certified as \\\"hostile\\\" those bands who continued to live off the reservation. This certification allowed the military to pursue Sitting Bull and other Lakota bands as \\\"hostiles\\\".\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nBased on tribal oral histories, historian Margot Liberty theorizes many Lakota bands allied with the Cheyenne during the Plains Wars because they thought the other nation was under attack by the US. Given this connection, she suggests the major war should have been called \\\"The Great Cheyenne War\\\". Since 1860, the Northern Cheyenne had led several battles among the Plains Indians. Before 1876, the U.S. Army had destroyed seven Cheyenne camps, more than those of any other nation.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nOther historians, such as Robert M. Utley and Jerome Greene, also use Lakota oral testimony, but they have concluded that the Lakota coalition, of which Sitting Bull was the ostensible head, was the primary target of the federal government's pacification campaign.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nBattle of the Little Bighorn\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nDuring the period 1868–1876, Sitting Bull developed into the most important of Native American political leaders. After the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) and the creation of the Great Sioux Reservation, many traditional Sioux warriors, such as Red Cloud of the Oglala and Spotted Tail of the Brulé, moved to reside permanently on the reservations. They were largely dependent for subsistence on the US Indian agencies. Many other chiefs, including members of Sitting Bull's Hunkpapa band such as Gall, at times lived temporarily at the agencies. They needed the supplies at a time when white encroachment and the depletion of buffalo herds reduced their resources and challenged Native American independence.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nIn 1875 the Northern Cheyenne, Hunkpapa, Oglala, Sans Arc, and Minneconjou camped together for a Sun Dance, with both the Cheyenne medicine man White Bull or Ice and Sitting Bull in association. This ceremonial alliance preceded their fighting together in 1876. Sitting Bull had a major revelation.\\nAt the climactic moment, \\\"Sitting Bull intoned, 'The Great Spirit has given our enemies to us. We are to destroy them. We do not know who they are. They may be soldiers.' Ice too observed, 'No one then knew who the enemy were – of what tribe.'...They were soon to find out.\\\"(Utley 1992: 122–24)\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nSitting Bull's refusal to adopt any dependence on the US government meant that at times he and his small band of warriors lived isolated on the Plains. When Native Americans were threatened by the United States, numerous members from various Sioux bands and other tribes, such as the North Cheyenne, came to Sitting Bull's camp. His reputation for \\\"strong medicine\\\" developed as he continued to evade the European Americans.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nAfter the January 1st ultimatum of 1876, when the US Army began to track down as hostiles those Sioux and others living off the reservation, Native Americans gathered at Sitting Bull's camp. He took an active role in encouraging this \\\"unity camp\\\". He sent scouts to the reservations to recruit warriors, and told the Hunkpapa to share supplies with those Native Americans who joined them. An example of his generosity was Sitting Bull's taking care of Wooden Leg's Northern Cheyenne tribe. They had been impoverished by Captain Reynold's March 17, 1876 attack and fled to Sitting Bull's camp for safety.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nOver the course of the first half of 1876, Sitting Bull's camp continually expanded, as natives joined him for safety in numbers. His leadership had attracted warriors and families, creating an extensive village estimated at more than 10,000 people. Lt. Col. Custer came across this large camp on June 25, 1876. Sitting Bull did not take a direct military role in the ensuing battle; instead he acted as a spiritual leader. A week prior to the attack, he had performed the Sun Dance, in which he fasted and sacrificed over 100 pieces of flesh from his arms.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nCuster’s 7th Cavalry advance party attacked Cheyenne and Lakota tribes at their camp on the Little Big Horn River (known as the Greasy Grass River to the Lakota) on June 25, 1876. The U.S. Army did not realize how large the camp was. More than 2,000 Native American warriors had left their reservations to follow Sitting Bull. Inspired by a vision of Sitting Bull’s, in which he saw U.S. soldiers being killed as they entered the tribe’s camp, the Cheyenne and Lakota fought back. Custer's badly outnumbered troops lost ground quickly and were forced to retreat. The tribes led a counter-attack against the soldiers on a nearby ridge, ultimately annihilating them.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nThe Native Americans' victory celebrations were short-lived. Public shock and outrage at Custer's death and defeat, and the government's knowledge about the remaining Sioux, led them to assign thousands more soldiers to the area. Over the next year, the new American military forces pursued the Lakota, forcing many of the Native Americans to surrender. Sitting Bull refused to surrender and in May 1877 led his band across the border into the North-West Territories, Canada. He remained in exile for four years near Wood Mountain, refusing a pardon and the chance to return. When crossing the border into Canadian territory, Sitting Bull was met by the Mounties of the region. During this meeting, James Morrow Walsh, commander of the North-West Mounted Police, explained to Sitting Bull that the Lakota were now on British soil and must obey British law. Walsh emphasized that he enforced the law equally and that every person in the territory had a right to justice. Walsh became an advocate for Sitting Bull and the two became good friends for the remainder of their lives.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nWhile in Canada, Sitting Bull also met with Crowfoot, who was a leader of the Blackfeet, long-time powerful enemies of the Lakota and Cheyenne. Sitting Bull wished to make peace with the Blackfeet Nation and Crowfoot. As an advocate for peace himself, Crowfoot eagerly accepted the tobacco peace offering. Sitting Bull was so impressed by Crowfoot that he named one of his sons after him. \\nSitting Bull and his people stayed in Canada for 4 years. Due to the smaller size of the buffalo herds in Canada, Sitting Bull and his men found it difficult to find enough food to feed his people, who were starving and exhausted. Sitting Bull’s presence in the country led to increased tensions between the Canadian and the United States governments. Before Sitting Bull left Canada, he may have visited Walsh for a final time and left a ceremonial headdress as a memento.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nSurrender\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nHunger and desperation eventually forced Sitting Bull, and 186 of his family and followers, to return to the United States and surrender on July 19, 1881. Sitting Bull had his young son Crow Foot surrender his Winchester lever-action carbine to Major David H. Brotherton, commanding officer of Fort Buford, Sitting Bull said to Major David H. Brotherton, \\\"I, Takanka Iyotanka, wish it to be remembered that I was the last man of my tribe to surrender my rifle.\\\" To the Oglala Lakotas, Dakotas and Nakota, \\\"to surrender my rifle\\\" in this context meant \\\"We have killed enough white men with your own rifles so I give this rifle back to you, for Tunkasila Wakantanka (Grandfather Great Mystery) will use a different way to help us overcome the white man.\\\" In the parlor of the Commanding Officer's Quarters in a ceremony the next day, he told the four soldiers, 20 warriors and other guests in the small room that he wished to regard the soldiers and the white race as friends but he wanted to know who would teach his son the new ways of the world.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nTwo weeks later, after waiting in vain for other members of his tribe to follow him from Canada, the Army transferred Sitting Bull and his band to Fort Yates, the military post located adjacent to the Standing Rock Agency. This reservation straddles the present-day boundary between North and South Dakota.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nSitting Bull and his band of 186 people were kept separate from the other Hunkpapa gathered at the agency. Army officials were concerned that he would stir up trouble among the recently surrendered northern bands. On August 26, 1881, he was visited by census taker William T. Selwyn, who counted twelve people in the Hunkpapa leader's immediate family. Forty-one families, totaling 195 people, were recorded in Sitting Bull's band.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nThe military decided to transfer Sitting Bull and his band to Fort Randall, to be held as prisoners of war. Loaded onto a steamboat, the band of 172 people was sent down the Missouri River to Fort Randall (near present-day Pickstown, South Dakota) on the southern border of the state. There they spent the next 20 months. They were allowed to return north to the Standing Rock Agency in May 1883.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nIn 1883, rumors were reported that Sitting Bull had been baptized into the Catholic Church. James McLaughlin, Indian agent at Standing Rock Agency, dismissed these reports, saying that \\\"The reported baptism of Sitting-Bull is erroneous. There is no immediate prospect of such ceremony so far as I am aware.\\\"\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nMeets Annie Oakley\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nIn 1884 show promoter Alvaren Allen asked Agent James McLaughlin to allow Sitting Bull to tour parts of Canada and the northern United States. The show was called the \\\"Sitting Bull Connection.\\\" It was during this tour that Sitting Bull met Annie Oakley in Minnesota. He was so impressed with Oakley's skills with firearms that he offered $65 for a photographer to take a photo of the two together. The admiration and respect was mutual. Oakley stated that Sitting Bull made a \\\"great pet\\\" of her. In observing Oakley, Sitting Bull's respect for the young sharpshooter grew. Oakley was quite modest in her attire, deeply respectful of others, and had a remarkable stage persona despite being a woman who stood only five feet in height. Sitting Bull felt that she was \\\"gifted\\\" by supernatural means in order to shoot so accurately with both hands. As a result of his esteem, he symbolically \\\"adopted\\\" her as a daughter in 1884. He named her \\\"Little Sure Shot\\\"—a name that Oakley used throughout her career.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nWild West Show\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nIn 1885, Sitting Bull was allowed to leave the reservation to go Wild Westing with Buffalo Bill Cody’s Buffalo Bill's Wild West. He earned about $50 a week for riding once around the arena, where he was a popular attraction. Although it is rumored that he cursed his audiences in his native tongue during the show, the historian Utley contends that he did not. Historians have reported that Sitting Bull gave speeches about his desire for education for the young, and reconciling relations between the Sioux and whites. The historian Edward Lazarus wrote that Sitting Bull reportedly cursed his audience in Lakota in 1884, during an opening address celebrating the completion of the Northern Pacific Railway.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nSitting Bull stayed with the show for four months before returning home. During that time, audiences considered him a celebrity and romanticized him as a warrior. He earned a small fortune by charging for his autograph and picture, although he often gave his money away to the homeless and beggars.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nGhost Dance Movement\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nSitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency after working in Buffalo Bill's Wild West show. Tension between Sitting Bull and Agent McLaughlin increased and each became more wary of the other over several issues including division and sale of parts of the Great Sioux Reservation. During that period, in 1889 Indian Rights Activist Caroline Weldon from Brooklyn, New York, a member of the National Indian Defense Association \\\"NIDA\\\", reached out to Sitting Bull, acting to be his voice, secretary, interpreter and advocate. She joined him, together with her young son Christy at his compound on the Grand River, sharing with him and his family home and hearth. A Paiute Indian, named Wovoka, spread a religious movement from Nevada eastward to the Plains in 1889 that preached a resurrection of the Native. This was a time of severe conditions of harsh winters and long droughts impacting the Sioux Reservation. It was known as the “Ghost Dance Movement”, because it called on the Indians to dance and chant for the rising up of deceased relatives and return of the buffalo. When the movement reached Standing Rock, Sitting Bull allowed the dancers to gather at his camp.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nAlthough he did not appear to participate in the dancing, he was viewed as a key instigator. Alarm spread to nearby white settlements as the Sioux added a new feature to the dance – shirts that were said to stop bullets.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nDeath and burial\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nIn 1890, James McLaughlin, the U.S. Indian Agent at Fort Yates on Standing Rock Agency, feared that the Lakota leader was about to flee the reservation with the Ghost Dancers, so he ordered the police to arrest him. On December 14, 1890, McLaughlin drafted a letter to Lt. Henry Bullhead (noted as Bull Head in lead), an Indian agency policeman, that included instructions and a plan to capture Sitting Bull. The plan called for the arrest to take place at dawn on December 15, and advised the use of a light spring wagon to facilitate removal before his followers could rally. Bullhead decided against using the wagon. He intended to have the police officers force Sitting Bull to mount a horse immediately after the arrest.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nAround 5:30 a.m. on December 15, 39 police officers and four volunteers approached Sitting Bull's house. They surrounded the house, knocked and entered. Lt. Bull Head told Sitting Bull that he was under arrest and led him outside. Sitting Bull and his wife noisily stalled for time, the camp awakened and men converged at the house. As Lt. Bullhead ordered Sitting Bull to mount a horse, he said the Indian Affairs agent needed to see the chief, and then he could return to his house. When Sitting Bull refused to comply, the police used force on him. The Sioux in the village were enraged. Catch-the-Bear, a Lakota, shouldered his rifle and shot Lt. Bullhead, who reacted by firing his revolver into the chest of Sitting Bull. Another police officer, Red Tomahawk, shot Sitting Bull in the head, and he dropped to the ground. He died between 12 and 1 p.m.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nA close-quarters fight erupted, and within minutes several men were dead. The Lakota killed six policemen immediately and two more died shortly after the fight, including Lt. Bullhead. The police killed Sitting Bull and seven of his supporters at the site, along with two horses.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nSitting Bull's body was taken to Fort Yates, where it was placed in a coffin (made by the Army carpenter) and buried. A monument was installed to mark his burial site after his remains were reportedly taken to South Dakota.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nIn 1953 Lakota family members exhumed what they believed to be Sitting Bull's remains, transporting them for reinterment near Mobridge, South Dakota, his birthplace. A monument to him was erected there.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\n*Following Sitting Bull's death, his cabin on the Grand River was taken to Chicago for use as an exhibit at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition. Native American dancers also performed at the Exposition. \\n*On September 14, 1989, the United States Postal Service released a Great Americans series 28¢ postage stamp featuring a likeness of Sitting Bull. \\n*On March 6, 1996, Standing Rock College was renamed Sitting Bull College in his honor. Sitting Bull College serves as an institution of higher education on Sitting Bull's home of Standing Rock in North Dakota and South Dakota.\\n*The American historian Gary Clayton Anderson of the University of Oklahoma published Sitting Bull and the Paradox of Lakota Nationhood (2010), a revisionist examination of the Lakota medicine man. Anderson stresses the Little Big Horn in light of past successes of the Lakota Nation and the merits of Sitting Bull himself, rather than simply a mishap by Custer. \\n*In August 2010, a research team led by Eske Willerslev, an ancient DNA expert at the University of Copenhagen, announced their intention to sequence the genome of Sitting Bull, with the approval of his descendants, using a hair sample obtained during his lifetime.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nRepresentation in popular culture\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nSitting Bull was the subject of, or a featured character in, several Hollywood motion pictures and documentaries, which have reflected changing ideas about him and Lakota culture in relation to the United States. Among them are:\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\n*Sitting Bull: The Hostile Sioux Indian Chief (1914)\\n*Sitting Bull at the Spirit Lake Massacre (1927)\\n*Annie Oakley (1935)\\n*Annie Get Your Gun (1950)\\n*Sitting Bull (1954), with J. Carrol Naish in the title role, Iron Eyes Cody as Crazy Horse; with Dale Robertson and William Tannen.\\n*Cheyenne (1957), with Clint Walker in the title role of the episode \\\"The Broken Pledge\\\"; Frank DeKova plays Sitting Bull, and Whit Bissell, George Custer\\n*Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson (1976)\\n*Buffalo Girls (1995 TV film)\\n*Into the West (2005)\\n*Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (2007)\\n*Sitting Bull: A Stone in My Heart (2008) Documentary\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nAs time passed, Sitting Bull has become a symbol and archetype of Native American resistance movements as well as a figure celebrated by descendants of his former enemies:\\n*Legoland Billund, the first Legoland park, contains a Lego sculpture of Sitting Bull, the largest sculpture in the park.\\n*Sitting Bull is featured as the leader for the Native American Civilization in the computer game Civilization IV. \\n*Sitting Bull is lionized as one of 13 great Americans in President Barack Obama's children's book, Of Thee I Sing: A Letter to My Daughters.\",\n \"Sitting Bull\\n\\nSitting Bull is a major character in Sharon Pollock's play \\\"Walsh\\\" (1973), in which he is depicted as a wise and tragic figure during the Lakota nation's time at Fort Walsh in Saskatchewan. The play is sympathetic to the character of Sitting Bull and hostile to the legend of George Armstrong Custer, re-presenting the General from the perspective of Native Americans as a butcher of women and children.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137081,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2303"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"The Oscar winning song \"A Whole New World\" accompanies Aladdin and Jasmine when they explore the world atop of what?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Magic Carpet"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["magic carpet disambiguation","magic carpet"],"string":"[\n \"magic carpet disambiguation\",\n \"magic carpet\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["A Whole New World\n\n\"A Whole New World\" is a song from Disney's 1992 animated feature film Aladdin, with music by Alan Menken and lyrics by Tim Rice. The song is a ballad between the primary characters Aladdin and Jasmine about the new world they are going to discover together while riding on Aladdin's magic carpet. The original version was sung by Brad Kane and Lea Salonga during the film. They also performed the song in their characters at the 65th Academy Awards, where it won Academy Award for Best Original Song as well as the first and only Disney song to win a Grammy Award for Song of the Year at the 36th Annual Grammy Awards. In 2014, Adam Jacobs and Courtney Reed performed the song as Aladdin and Jasmine in the film's Broadway adaptation.","A Whole New World\n\nA single version of the song was previously released that year and was performed by Peabo Bryson and Regina Belle. This version is played in the movie's end credits and is referred on the soundtrack as \"Aladdins Theme\". This version peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on March 6, 1993, replacing Whitney Houston's \"I Will Always Love You\", which had spent a then record 14 weeks at the top of the chart. It went gold and sold 600,000 copies domestically. The track peaked at number 12 in the UK Singles Chart in 1992. The song is the first and only song from a Disney animated film to top the Billboard Hot 100. The single version was later included on Belle's studio album Passion (1993) and on Bryson's studio album Through the Fire (1994). The Latin American rendition of the song, \"Un Mundo Ideal\", by Ricardo Montaner and Michelle received airplay throughout Latin America. This rendition was later included on Montaner's greatest hits album Éxitos y... Algo Más (1993).","A Whole New World\n\nCharts","A Whole New World\n\nCover versions","A Whole New World\n\n* Girl group Eternal released the song as the B-side to their 1996 single, \"Someday\", recorded for the Disney film The Hunchback of Notre Dame. * Country music artist Collin Raye performed the song for the collaboration album The Best of Country Sing the Best of Disney. * Hank Marvin did an instrumental version of the song in 1997 on his album Hank Plays the Music of Tim Rice & Andrew Lloyd Webber. * LMNT covered the song for DisneyMania 2, released in 2004. * Jessica Simpson and Nick Lachey covered the song for DisneyMania 3 released in 2005, and on the two-disc Platinum Edition DVD for the Aladdin film. * The song was covered in 2006 by British glamour model Katie Price (also known as Jordan) and her now ex-husband, Peter Andre. The track is included on their 2006 album of duets A Whole New World. * J-pop artist Kumi Koda and Peabo Bryson included a cover for Koda's 2006 album Best: Second Session. * K-pop boy-band TVXQ recorded the song for their 2007 Japanese album, Five in the Black, as a special track.","A Whole New World\n\n* In 2007, Pixar employee Nick Pitera uploaded a video to YouTube where he performs both the male and female characters,\n earning 30 million views (as of January 18, 2013). * Saxophonist Dave Koz covered the song on his album At The Movies. The song featured Donna Summer on vocals. * On Disney - Koe no Oujisama album the song was sung by Kenichi Suzumura\n* The song was covered in 2013 by Japanese hip-hop/EDM group M-Flo, featuring vocals by Matt Cab, for the album Electronic Disney Music. * Christian pop punk band Stellar Kart featured a cover on their Disney cover EP named after this song. * Pianist Alex Hardwick has recorded a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7kBIBtkU9Wo piano solo version] (released online as a single track). * A cappella singer and YouTube star Peter Hollens performed a portion of the song as part of his \"[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hfvehnyCQKU Epic Disney Medley]\" with fellow singer Alex G. As of March 2016, the video has 6.2 million views. * A Japanese male vocal-dance group Da-iCE members [http://da-ice.livejournal.com/1716.html Sota Hanamura] and [http://da-ice.livejournal.com/885.html Yudai Ohno] has recorded a cover of this song for their group's latest [http://www.jpopasia.com/group/daice/lyrics/watch-out::50647.html 8th Single] [https://itunes.apple.com/jp/album/watch-out-ep/id1095067982 Watch Out] [https://itunes.apple.com/jp/album/watch-out-ep/id1095067982 (Digital Version]).","A Whole New World\n\nLive cover performances","A Whole New World\n\nSome notable artists that have covered this song live include:\n* Sweetbox, for WOW! DisneyMania in Japan. * Charice Pempengco and Super Junior member Kyuhyun on Star King in 2007 \n* Peabo Bryson and Patti LaBelle performed the song along with all 77 contestants at the 1994 Miss Universe Pageant in Manila, Philippines\n* Bryson recorded a version of the song with Japanese pop artist Kumi Koda, which appeared as a bonus track on her album BEST ~second session~. * Peabo Bryson and Chilean singer Andrea Tessa performed the song on the Viña del Mar International Song Festival in 2001. * David Phelps and Sandi Patty performed the song on \"Mark Lowry On Broadway\" in 2001. * In the second season of American Idol in 2003, eventual winner Ruben Studdard sang the song on Movie Night. It was noted that season that \"A Whole New World\" was the most commonly used audition song, and a montage of \"A Whole New World\" auditions was aired to emphasize it. * In addition to recording a cover, Peter André and Katie Price performed the song live on Children in Need in 2005.","A Whole New World\n\n* K-pop artists Ivy and Brian Joo\n* K-pop artist BoA and TVXQ member Xiah Junsu performed the song live at the AnyBand Concert in Korea on December 29, 2007. * Glee's actor Darren Criss performed the song with Lea Salonga, the singing voice of Princess Jasmine on Aladdin at Billboard/Hollywood Reporter TV & Film Music Conference to Alan Menken. *Girls' Generation member Tiffany and K.Will \n* The song is performed during the fountain show World of Color at Disney California Adventure park while LED lights affixed to Mickey's Fun Wheel twinkle in the backdrop, appearing as stars. * [http://da-ice.livejournal.com/1716.html Sota Hanamura] and [http://da-ice.livejournal.com/885.html Yudai Ohno] from Da-iCE had recently [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nJ-ZHlTsdAE performed the song] on [http://www.sbs.com.au/popasia/blog/2016/05/15/da-ice-will-make-its-first-us-appearance-fanimecon-2016 their US debut] concert at 2016 \n[http://www.fanime.com/community/ FanimeCon] in San Jose, California. *Lea Salonga and Hamilton composer and star Lin-Manuel Miranda sang a cover at the Richard Rogers Theater during a Ham4Ham lottery in 2015.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nAladdin is a 1992 American animated musical fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. Aladdin is the 31st animated feature in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series, and was part of the Disney film era known as the Disney Renaissance. The film was directed by John Musker and Ron Clements, and is based on the Arab-style folktale Aladdin and the Magic Lamp from One Thousand and One Nights. The voice cast features Scott Weinger, Robin Williams, Linda Larkin, Jonathan Freeman, Frank Welker, Gilbert Gottfried, and Douglas Seale.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nLyricist Howard Ashman first pitched the idea, and the screenplay went through three drafts before then-Disney Studios president Jeffrey Katzenberg agreed to its production. The animators based their designs on the work of caricaturist Al Hirschfeld, and computers were used for both finishing the artwork and creating some animated elements. The musical score was written by Alan Menken and features six songs with lyrics written by both Ashman and Tim Rice, who took over after Ashman's death.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nAladdin was released on November 25, 1992 and was the most successful film of 1992, earning over $217 million in revenue in the United States, and over $504 million worldwide. The film also won many awards, most of them for its soundtrack. The film is considered by many as the best film that came out during the Disney Renaissance. success led to other material inspired by the film, including two direct-to-video sequels, The Return of Jafar and Aladdin and the King of Thieves, an animated television series of the same name, toys, video games, spin-offs, including a live-action remake about the genie titled Genies, Disney merchandise, and a Broadway adaptation that debuted in 2014.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nPlot","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nA peddler sets up shop in the fictional sultanate of Agrabah, offering to tell the audience about the story of an oil lamp in his possession. Jafar, the Grand Vizier of the Sultan, and his parrot Iago, seek the lamp hidden within the Cave of Wonders but is told that only a “diamond in the rough” may enter. Jafar identifies a street urchin named Aladdin as worthy. Aladdin and his pet monkey Abu cross paths with Princess Jasmine, who has run away from the palace, unwilling to be married off to another snobbish suitor. Aladdin and Jasmine become friends and fall in love, but Jafar has Aladdin apprehended, tricking Jasmine into thinking that he was decapitated.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nDisguised as an old man, Jafar frees Aladdin and Abu, taking them to the Cave and promises to reward them if they retrieve the lamp. Inside, Aladdin befriends a magic carpet. Abu greedily tries to steal a jewel, despite the Cave’s request, and it collapses. Trapped underground, Aladdin rubs the lamp, releasing the Genie trapped inside, who explains Aladdin has become his master and will grant him three wishes. Aladdin tricks the Genie into freeing them from the Cave without wasting a wish, and then uses his first to become a prince to be near Jasmine. Jafar, on Iago’s suggestion, plots to become Sultan by marrying Jasmine, but Aladdin parades into the city as “Prince Ali of Ababwa”. However, Jasmine is unimpressed with Aladdin’s bravado.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nDespite his friends advising him to tell Jasmine the truth, Aladdin refuses, believing she would never fall “for some street rat”. He takes Jasmine on a worldwide flight on the carpet, where she deduces his identity, though Aladdin says that he dresses as a peasant to escape the stresses of royal life, which convinces her. Aladdin returns Jasmine home, only to be attacked by the palace guards on Jafar’s orders and nearly drowned, until the Genie rescues him using his second wish. Jafar tries to hypnotise the Sultan into agreeing to his marriage to Jasmine, only for Aladdin to appear and expose Jafar’s schemes. Jafar flees, but notices Aladdin has the lamp, realising who he is.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nLearning he will become Sultan, Aladdin has second thoughts about freeing the Genie, believing that without him, he would not be able to keep up appearances. Iago steals the lamp, and Jafar becomes the Genie’s new master. He uses his first two wishes to usurp the Sultan and become the world’s most powerful sorcerer, exposing Aladdin’s lies and exiles him, Abu, and the carpet to a frozen wasteland, though they escape death and return to the palace. Jafar orders the Genie to brainwash Jasmine into falling in love with him, but the Genie reveals he is unable to grant the wish. Jasmine feigns interest to distract Jafar and allow Aladdin to get the lamp, but he is caught.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nJafar transforms himself into a giant cobra and ensnares Aladdin, saying he is the most powerful being in the world. However, Aladdin points out the Genie is more powerful, inspiring Jafar to use his last wish to become a genie, only to be sucked into his own lamp as part of the genie’s nature, dragging Iago in with him. The Genie chucks Jafar’s lamp into the Cave of Wonders, and asks Aladdin to use his third wish to regain his royal title. However, Aladdin decides to free the Genie. Learning of Aladdin and Jasmine’s love, the Sultan alters the law to allow his daughter to marry whom she chooses. The Genie leaves to explore the world, while Aladdin and Jasmine celebrate their engagement.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nCast","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\n*Scott Weinger as Aladdin, a poor, but kind-hearted Agrabah thief. Weinger sent in a homemade audition tape with his mother playing the Genie, and after several call backs he found six months later that he had the part. Aladdin's supervising animator was by Glen Keane. Brad Kane provides Aladdin's singing voice. *Robin Williams as The Genie, a comedic genie, with nigh omnipotent power that can only be exercised when his master wishes it. The Genie's supervising animator was Eric Goldberg. Clements and Musker wrote the part of the Genie for Williams, and, when met with resistance, created a reel of Williams' stand-up to animation of the Genie. The directors asked Goldberg to animate a Genie over one of Williams' old stand-up comedy routines to pitch the idea to the actor. The resulting test, where Williams talking about schizophrenia was translated into Genie growing another head to argue with himself, made Williams \"laugh his ass off\" and convinced him to sign on for the role.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nWilliams' appearance in Aladdin (despite his appearance along with Christian Slater and Tim Curry in the early 1992 animated film FernGully) marks the beginning of a transition in animated film to celebrity voice actors, rather than specifically trained voice actors in animated film. Williams provided many celebrity impressions during recording sessions, which were re-adapted into the fabric of the character. These included Ed Sullivan, Jack Nicholson, Robert De Niro, Groucho Marx, Rodney Dangerfield, William F. Buckley, Peter Lorre, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and Arsenio Hall. Williams also voices the Peddler, a mysterious merchant who appears at the beginning of the film. After promoting useless goods to the audience, he reveals the magic lamp and begins the story of Aladdin. Bruce Adler supplies his singing voice. The scene was completely unscripted — the production left Williams a table with props covered with a sheet and asked him to pull out objects without looking at them and describe them in-character. The double role originally led to the Peddler revealing to be the Genie disguised, but that idea was later dropped. In October 2015, Clements and Musker claimed that the Peddler is actually the Genie's human form.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\n*Jonathan Freeman as Jafar, the power-hungry Grand Vizier of Agrabah. Jafar was originally envisioned as an irritable character, but the directors decided that a calm villain would be scarier. Freeman was the first actor cast and spent one year and nine months recording his dialogue. He later readjusted his voice after Weinger and Larkin were cast as he felt \"Jafar had to be seen as a real threat to Aladdin and Jasmine\". Jafar's supervising animator was Andreas Deja, who tried to incorporate Freeman's facial expressions and gesturing into the character, while Jafar's beggar and snake forms are animated by Kathy Zielinski. *Linda Larkin as Princess Jasmine: The princess of Agrabah, who is tired of life in the royal palace. Larkin was chosen nine months after her audition, and had to adjust (or lower) her high-pitched voice to reach the voice the filmmakers were looking for in the character. Jasmine's supervising animator was Mark Henn. Lea Salonga provides Jasmine's singing voice. *Frank Welker as Abu, Aladdin's kleptomaniac pet monkey with a high-pitched voice. The animators filmed monkeys at the San Francisco Zoo to study their movements for Abu's character.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nIn the three years it took to record the film, Welker did not meet Weinger or Williams. Welker also voices Jasmine's tiger Rajah and the Cave of Wonders. Duncan Marjoribanks was the supervising animator for Abu, while Rajah was animated by Aaron Blaise. *Gilbert Gottfried as Iago, Jafar's sarcastic, foul-mouthed parrot assistant. Iago's supervising animator Will Finn tried to incorporate some aspects of Gottfried's appearance into Iago's design, especially his semi-closed eyes and the always-appearing teeth. *Douglas Seale as The Sultan, the pompous, but kind ruler of Agrabah, who desperately tries to find a suitor for his daughter Jasmine. Some aspects of the character were inspired by the Wizard of Oz, to create a bumbling authority figure. The Sultan's supervising animator was David Pruiksma. *Jim Cummings as Razoul, the Captain of the Guard. He was named after layout supervisor Rasoul Azadani. He and the other guards were animated by Phil Young and Chris Wahl. *Charlie Adler as Gazeem: A thief that Jafar sends into the Cave of Wonders at the beginning of the film but is trapped inside for being unworthy. Gazeem was animated by T. Daniel Hofstedt.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\n*Corey Burton as Prince Achmed, a snobbish prince who is rejected by Princess Jasmine as her suitor.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nProduction","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nScript and development","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nIn 1988, lyricist Howard Ashman pitched the idea of an animated musical adaptation of Aladdin. Ashman had written a 40-page film treatment remaining faithful to the plot and characters of the original story, but envisioned as a campy 1930s-style musical with a Cab Calloway/Fats Waller-like Genie. Along with partner Alan Menken, Ashman conceived several songs and added Aladdin's friends named Babkak, Omar, and Kasim to the story. However, the studio were dismissive of Ashman's treatment and removed the project from development in which Ashman and Menken were later recruited to compose songs for Beauty and the Beast. Linda Woolverton, who had also worked on Beauty and the Beast, used their treatment and developed a draft with inspired elements from The Thief of Bagdad such as a villain named Jaf'far, an aged sidekick retired human thief named Abu, and a human handmaiden for the princess. Then, directors John Musker and Ron Clements joined the production, picking Aladdin out of three projects offered, which also included an adaptation of Swan Lake and King of the Jungle – that eventually became The Lion King.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nBefore Ashman's death in March 1991, Ashman and Menken had composed \"Prince Ali\" and his last song, \"Humiliate the Boy\".","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nMusker and Clements wrote a draft of the screenplay, and then delivered a story reel to studio chief Jeffrey Katzenberg in April 1991. Katzenberg thought the script \"didn't engage\", and on a day known by the staff as \"Black Friday,\" demanded that the entire story to be rewritten without rescheduling the film's November 25, 1992 release date. Among the changes Katzenberg requested from Clements and Musker were to not be dependent on Ashman's vision, and the removal of Aladdin's mother, remarking, \"Eighty-six the mother. The mom's a zero.\" Screenwriting duo Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio were brought in to rework the story, and the changes they made included the removal of Aladdin's mother, the strengthening of the character of Princess Jasmine, and the deletion of several of the Ashman-Menken songs. Aladdin's personality was rewritten to be \"a little rougher, like a young Harrison Ford,\" and the parrot Iago, originally conceived as an uptight British archetype, was reworked into a comic role after the filmmakers saw Gilbert Gottfried in Beverly Hills Cop II. Gottfried was cast to provide Iago's voice. By October 1991, Katzenberg was satisfied with the new version of Aladdin.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nAs with Woolverton's screenplay, several characters and plot elements are based on the 1940 version of The Thief of Bagdad, the location of the film was changed from Baghdad, Iraq to the fictional Arabian city of Agrabah.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nDesign and animation","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nOne of the first issues that the animators faced during production of Aladdin was the depiction of Aladdin himself. Director and producer John Musker explains:","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nHe was initially going to be as young as 13, but that eventually changed to eighteen. Aladdin was designed by a team led by supervising animator Glen Keane, and was originally made to resemble actor Michael J. Fox. During production, it was decided that the design was too boyish and wasn't \"appealing enough,\" so the character was redesigned to add elements derived from actor Tom Cruise and Calvin Klein models.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nThe design for most characters was based on the work of caricaturist Al Hirschfeld, which production designer Richard Vander Wende also considered appropriate to the theme, due to similarities to the swooping lines of Persian miniatures and Arabic calligraphy. Jafar's design was not based on Hirschfeld's work because Jafar's supervising animator, Andreas Deja, wanted the character to be contrasting. Each character was animated alone, with the animators consulting each other to make scenes with interrelating characters. Since Aladdin's animator Glen Keane was working in the California branch of Walt Disney Feature Animation, and Jasmine's animator Mark Henn was in the Florida one at Disney-MGM Studios, they had to frequently phone, fax or send designs and discs to each other. The Magic Carpet is a sentient carpet who is able to fly. Animator Randy Cartwright described working on the Carpet as challenging, since it is only a rectangular shape, who expresses himself through pantomime – \"It's sort of like acting by origami\". Cartwright kept folding a piece of cloth while animating to see how to position the Carpet. After the character animation was done, the carpet's surface design was applied digitally.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nFor the scenery design, layout supervisor Rasoul Azadani took many pictures of his hometown of Isfahan, Iran for guidance. Other inspirations for design were Disney's animated films from the 1940s and 50s and the 1940 film The Thief of Bagdad. The coloring was done with the computerized CAPS process, and the color motifs were chosen according to the personality – the protagonists use light colors such as blue, the antagonists darker ones such as red and black, and Agrabah and its palace use the neutral color yellow. Computer animation was used for some elements of the film, such as the tiger entrance of the Cave of Wonders and the scene where Aladdin tries to escape the collapsing cave.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nMusker and Clements created the Genie with Robin Williams in mind; even though Katzenberg suggested actors such as John Candy, Steve Martin, and Eddie Murphy, Williams was approached and eventually accepted the role. Williams came for voice recording sessions during breaks in the shooting of two other films he was starring in at the time, Hook and Toys. Unusually for an animated film, much of Williams' dialogue was ad-libbed: for some scenes, Williams was given topics and dialogue suggestions, but allowed to improvise his lines. It was estimated that Williams improvised 52 characters. Eric Goldberg, the supervising animator for the Genie, then reviewed Williams' recorded dialogue and selected the best gags and lines that his crew would create character animation to match.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nThe producers added many in-jokes and references to Disney's previous works in the film, such as a \"cameo appearance\" from directors Clements and Musker and drawing some characters based on Disney workers. Beast, Sebastian from The Little Mermaid, and Pinocchio make brief appearances, and the wardrobe of the Genie at the end of the film—Goofy hat, Hawaiian shirt, and sandals—are a reference to a short film that Robin Williams did for the Disney-MGM Studios tour in the late 1980s.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nRobin Williams' conflicts with the studio","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nIn gratitude for his success with Touchstone Pictures' Good Morning, Vietnam, Robin Williams voiced the Genie for SAG scale pay ($75,000), on condition that his name or image not be used for marketing, and his (supporting) character not take more than 25% of space on advertising artwork, since Williams' film Toys was scheduled for release one month after Aladdins debut. For financial reasons, the studio went back on the deal on both counts, especially in poster art by having the Genie in 25% of the image, but having other major and supporting characters portrayed considerably smaller. The Disney Hyperion book Aladdin: The Making of an Animated Film listed both of Williams' characters \"The Peddler\" and \"The Genie\" ahead of main characters, but was forced to refer to him only as \"the actor signed to play the Genie\".","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nMusic","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nComposer Alan Menken and songwriters Howard Ashman and Tim Rice were praised for creating a soundtrack that is \"consistently good, rivaling the best of Disney's other animated musicals from the '90s.\" Menken and Ashman began work on the film together, with Rice taking over as lyricist after Ashman died of AIDS-related complications in early 1991. Although fourteen songs were written for Aladdin, only six are featured in the movie, three by each lyricist. The DVD Special Edition released in 2004 includes four songs in early animations tests, and a music video of one, \"Proud of Your Boy\", performed by Clay Aiken, which also appears on the album DisneyMania 3.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nThemes","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nThe filmmakers thought the moral message of the original tale was not appropriate, and decided to \"put a spin on it\", by making the fulfillment of wishes seem like a great thing, but eventually becoming a problem. Another major theme was avoiding an attempt to be what the person is not – both Aladdin and Jasmine get into trouble faking to be different people, and the Prince Ali persona fails to impress Jasmine, who only falls for Aladdin when she finds out who he truly is. Being \"imprisoned\" is also discussed, a fate that occurs to most of the characters – Aladdin and Jasmine are stuck to their lifestyles, Genie is attached to his lamp and Jafar, to the Sultan – and is represented visually by the prison-like walls and bars of the Agrabah palace, and the scene involving caged birds which Jasmine later frees. Jasmine is also depicted as a different Disney Princess, being rebellious to the royal life and the social structure, and trying to make her own way, unlike the princesses who just wait for rescue.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nRelease and reception","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nTheatrical run","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nA large promotion campaign preceded Aladdins debut in theaters, with the film's trailer being attached to most Disney VHS releases, and numerous tie-ins and licensees being released. After a limited release on November 13, 1992, Aladdin debuted in 1,131 theaters on November 25, 1992, grossing $19.2 million in its opening weekend – number two at the box office, behind Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. It took eight weeks for the film to reach number one at the US box office, breaking the record for the week between Christmas and New Year's Eve with $32.2 million. The film held the top spot five times during its 22-week run. Aladdin was the most successful film of 1992 grossing $217 million in the United States and over $504 million worldwide. It was the biggest gross for an animated film until The Lion King two years later. As of January 2014, it is the thirtieth highest grossing animated film and the third highest grossing traditionally animated feature worldwide, behind The Lion King and The Simpsons Movie. It sold an estimated 52,442,300 tickets in the US.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nCritical reception","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nThe review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 94% of critics gave the film a positive review based on a sample of 68 reviews, with an average score of 8.1/10.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nMost critics' praise went to Robin Williams' performance as Genie, with Janet Maslin of The New York Times declaring that children \"needn't know precisely what Mr. Williams is evoking to understand how funny he is\". Warner Bros. Cartoons director Chuck Jones even called the film \"the funniest feature ever made.\" Furthermore, English-Irish comedian Spike Milligan considered it to be the greatest film of all time. James Berardinelli gave it 3.5 out of 4 stars, praising the \"crisp visuals and wonderful song-and-dance numbers\". Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said the comedy made the film accessible to both children and adults, a vision shared with Desson Howe of The Washington Post, who also said \"kids are still going to be entranced by the magic and adventure.\" Brian Lowry of Variety praised the cast of characters, describing the expressive magic carpet as \"its most remarkable accomplishment\" and considered that \"Aladdin overcomes most story flaws thanks to sheer technical virtuosity\".","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nSome aspects of the film were widely criticized. Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine wrote a negative review, describing the film as racist, ridiculous, and a \"narcissistic circus act\" from Robin Williams. Roger Ebert, who generally praised the film in his review, considered the music inferior to its predecessors The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast, and claimed Aladdin and Jasmine were \"pale and routine\".","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nAwards","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nAladdin also received many award nominations, mostly for its music. It won two Academy Awards, Best Music, Original Score and Best Music, Original Song for \"A Whole New World\" and receiving nominations for Best Song (\"Friend Like Me\"), Best Sound Editing (Mark A. Mangini), and Best Sound (Terry Porter, Mel Metcalfe, David J. Hudson and Doc Kane). At the Golden Globes, Aladdin won Best Original Song (\"A Whole New World\") and Best Original Score, as well as a Special Achievement Award for Robin Williams, with a nomination for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy. Other awards included the Annie Award for Best Animated Feature, a MTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance to Robin Williams, Saturn Awards for Best Fantasy Film, Performance by a Younger Actor to Scott Weinger and Supporting Actor to Robin Williams, the Best Animated Feature by the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, and four Grammy Awards, Best Soundtrack Album, and Song of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media for \"A Whole New World\".","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nHome media","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nThe film was first released in VHS on October 1, 1993, as part of the \"Walt Disney Classics\" line. In its first week of availability, Aladdin sold over 10.6 million copies, and went on to sell over 25 million in total (a record only broken by the later release of The Lion King). It entered moratorium on April 30, 1994.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nOn October 5, 2004, Aladdin was released on DVD, as part of Disney's Platinum Edition line. The DVD release featured retouched and cleaned-up animation, prepared for Aladdin's planned but ultimately cancelled IMAX reissue in 2003, and a second disc with bonus features. Accompanied by a $19 million marketing campaign, the DVD sold about 3 million units in its first month, but it was less than the number of copies, sold in that amount of time, by any other Platinum Edition released before it. The film's soundtrack was available in its original Dolby 5.1 track or in a new Disney Enhanced Home Theater Mix. The DVD went into moratorium in January 2008, along with its sequels.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nAccording to an insert in the Lady and the Tramp Diamond Edition release case, Aladdin was going to be released on Blu-ray Disc as a Diamond Edition in Spring 2013. Instead, Peter Pan was released on Blu-ray as a Diamond Edition on February 5, 2013 to celebrate its 60th anniversary. A non-Diamond Edition Blu-ray was released in a few select European countries in March 2013. The Belgian edition (released without advertisements, commercials or any kind of fanfare) comes as a 1-disc version with its extras ported over from the Platinum Edition DVD). The same disc was released in the United Kingdom on April 14, 2013. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on a Diamond Edition Blu-ray on October 13, 2015. The film was released on Digital HD on September 29, 2015. Upon its first week of release on home media in the U.S., the film topped the Blu-ray Disc sales chart and debuted at number 2 at the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert chart, which tracks overall disc sales behind the disaster film San Andreas.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nControversies","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nOne of the verses of the opening song \"Arabian Nights\" was altered following protests from the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee (ADC). The lyrics were changed in July 1993 from \"Where they cut off your ear if they don't like your face,\" in the original release to \"Where it's flat and immense and the heat is intense.\" The change first appeared on the 1993 video release. The original lyric was intact on the initial CD soundtrack release, but the re-release uses the edited lyric. The rerecording has the original voice on all other lines and then a noticeably deeper voice says the edited line. The Broadway adaptation also uses the edited line. Entertainment Weekly ranked Aladdin in a list of the most controversial films in history, due to this incident. The ADC also complained about the portrayal of the lead characters Aladdin and Jasmine. They criticized the characters' Anglicized features and Anglo-American accents, in contrast to the other characters in the film, which are dark-skinned, have foreign accents and grotesque facial features, and appear villainous or greedy.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nProtests were also raised to another scene. When Aladdin is attacked by the tiger Rajah on the palace balcony, Aladdin quietly says a line that some people reported hearing as \"Good teenagers, take off your clothes,\" which they considered a subliminal reference to promiscuity. However, according to the director's commentary on the 2004 DVD, while Musker and Clements did admit Scott Weinger ad-libbed during the scene, they claimed \"we did not record that, we would not record that.\" and said the line was \"Good tiger, take off and go...\" and the word \"tiger\" is overlapped by Rajah's snarl. After the word tiger, a second voice can be heard which has been suggested was accidentally grafted onto the soundtrack. Because of the controversy, Disney removed the line on the DVD release.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nAnimation enthusiasts have noticed similarities between Aladdin and Richard Williams' unfinished film The Thief and the Cobbler (also known as Arabian Knight under Miramax Films and The Princess and the Cobbler under Majestic Films International). These similarities include a similar plot, similar characters, scenes and background designs, and the antagonist Zig-Zag's resemblance in character design and mannerisms to Genie and Jafar. Though Aladdin was released prior to The Thief and the Cobbler, The Thief and the Cobbler was started much earlier in the 1960s, its production being mired in difficulties including financial problems, copyright issues, and late production times caused by separate studios trying to finish the film after Richard Williams was fired from the project for lack of finished work. The late release, coupled with Miramax purchasing and re-editing the film, has sometimes resulted in The Thief and the Cobbler being labeled a copy of Aladdin.","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nLive-action prequel","Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\n\nOn July 15, 2015, the studio started developing a live-action comedy adventure prequel called Genies that is being written by Damian Shannon and Mark Swift, while Tripp Vinson is on board to produce via his Vinson Films banner. The film is planned to lead for a live-action Aladdin movie. On November 8, Disney revealed it had originally planned to use Robin Williams' unused lines from the 1991–92 recording sessions for the film, but his will prohibited the studio from using his likeness for twenty-five years after his death.","Princess Jasmine\n\nPrincess Jasmine is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures' 31st animated feature film Aladdin (1992). Voiced by American actress Linda Larkin – with a singing voice provided by Filipina singer Lea Salonga on her behalf – Jasmine is the spirited Princess of Agrabah who has grown weary of being confined to palace life and regulations. Despite an age-old law that requires the princess to marry a prince in time for her next birthday, Jasmine wishes to marry someone she loves for who he is as opposed to what he owns.","Princess Jasmine\n\nCreated by directors Ron Clements and John Musker, Jasmine was based on the princess from the \"Aladdin\" folktales. Jasmine was originally conceived as a spoiled, materialistic princess, but the writers eventually developed her into a stronger character after the elimination of Aladdin's mother. Six months into working on the film, Larkin was nearly fired from the project because Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg felt that her voice was not suitable for a princess, but Clements and Musker defended Larkin and managed to convince him otherwise. Salonga was hired as Jasmine's singing voice based on her performance in the musical Miss Saigon. Animated by Mark Henn, Jasmine's appearance was inspired by both Henn's sister and American actress Jennifer Connelly.","Princess Jasmine\n\nJasmine has garnered a generally mixed reception from critics, many of whom praised her strong-willed and free-spirited personality, while others criticized her role in the film, which they felt was \"bland\" and \"unoriginal\". Several critics also drew comparisons between the character and preceding Disney Princess Belle from Beauty and the Beast (1991). Jasmine is the 6th member of the Disney Princess line-up, and the franchise's first West Asian member. The character also appears in its sequels The Return of Jafar (1994) and Aladdin and the King of Thieves (1996), as well as its television series, and a Broadway musical adaption of the film, in which the role was originated by actress Courtney Reed.","Princess Jasmine\n\nDevelopment","Princess Jasmine\n\nConception and writing","Princess Jasmine\n\nJasmine is based on the princess who appears in the folktale One Thousand and One Nights. Lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken began developing Aladdin while they were writing songs for The Little Mermaid (1989), but further progression was abandoned in favor of working on Beauty and the Beast (1991) instead. However, Aladdin was finally resurrected as Beauty and the Beast neared completion. While the original princess was named Badroulbadour, the studio changed decided to change it to the more \"relatable\" \"Jasmine\" after actress Jasmine Guy. Additionally, the name \"Jasmine\" was one of the decades most popular names at the time. In Ashman's original treatment, Aladdin had two potential love interests: Jasmine, who was depicted as a spoiled and materialistic princess, as well as a \"Judy Garland-y tomboy\" whose romantic feelings for Aladdin were not reciprocated by the hero. Screenwriter Linda Woolverton eventually drafted a screenplay based on the film The Thief of Baghdad (1940); the revision included a handmaiden for Jasmine.","Princess Jasmine\n\nDirectors and screenwriters Ron Clements and John Musker disregarded Woolverton's script in favor of developing Ashman's attempt but making several adjustments to his original outline, among them approaching the princess \"a little differently\", while maintaining Woolverton's idea of \"a princess that Aladdin could woo.\" Despite the presence of a princess character, the directors treated Aladdin as \"an Arabian adventure\" as opposed to a fairy tale. Unlike Disney's previous fairy tales, the film's main character is not the princess, and thus uniquely the story does not revolve around her. The decision to adapt Aladdin into a high comedy ultimately eliminated the need to explore some of Jasmine's storylines of being confined and vulnerable. Although several aspects of the original folktale were altered, Jasmine's main plot of being pressured into marriage remained generally the same.","Princess Jasmine\n\nFollowing the elimination of Aladdin's mother, Jasmine and Aladdin's relationship was expanded upon to the point of which it became the film's focal point. The removal of Aladdin's mother consequently allowed for more screen time for the princess. Writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio re-wrote Jasmine into a \"stronger\" character who seeks freedom from her \"regal confinement\". The concept of Jasmine escaping the palace in the middle of the night was inspired by the film Roman Holiday (1953), in which Princess Ann, portrayed by actress Audrey Hepburn, similarly escapes the royal embassy in favor living as a regular citizen for a day. Additionally, Jasmine's handmaiden was also abandoned and replaced by a pet tiger.","Princess Jasmine\n\nVoice","Princess Jasmine\n\nThe successful casting of American actor and comedian Robin Williams as the Genie inspired the studio to recruit other similarly talented voice actors who were capable of matching his pace. The filmmakers had originally envisioned the princess' voice as similar to that of American actress Lauren Bacall. Jasmine is voiced by American actress Linda Larkin; the role was only one of several auditions Larkin had scheduled for the week in which she auditioned for Aladdin, and originally underestimated the scope of the project, joking, \"I thought it was going to be something like Duck Tales (sic)\". Initially presented with only a few pages of the screenplay, Larkin was particularly drawn to Jasmine's \"spirit of activism”, in addition to the ways in which the character was both similar to and different from previous Disney heroines.","Princess Jasmine\n\nLarkin's first audition was held in a Burbank, California recording studio, in which she performed solely for the film's casting director. The side used for Larkin's audition was the scene in which Jasmine first meets Aladdin in the marketplace. Although Larkin's voice was significantly different from what the filmmakers had originally envisioned for the character, her performance gradually changed their minds. In a series of callbacks, Larkin returned to the studio on several occasions over the next few months; while the audience of studio executives and filmmakers continued to increase, the number of actresses competing for the role decreased. Larkin's final audition lasted a total of four hours, during which she read the entire script. The animators also animated to Larkin's voice for the first time. The actress was finally cast several months later, by which time she had already forgotten she had ever auditioned.","Princess Jasmine\n\nHowever, six months into recording, Larkin was forced to re-audition by Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg, who \"didn't think Linda sounded forceful\" or \"regal enough to portray a princess.\" However, Clements and Musker thoroughly enjoyed Larkin's approach, and managed to convince Katzenberg to keep Larkin by staging a fake recording session during which they had Larkin speak lower and slower in Katzenberg`s presence, but ultimately asked her to return to her natural voice thereafter. At one point, Larkin begged the directors to allow her to record her one scene in the film with Williams alongside the actor, which she ultimately described as \"the best day of my life\". Meanwhile, Larkin is five years older than co-star Scott Weigner, who voices Aladdin.","Princess Jasmine\n\nBefore discovering Larkin, Disney had insisted on only auditioning performers who were able to sing as well as they could act. However, after the casting of Williams, the studio relented in favor of casting \"strong actors\" instead. When Larkin first auditioned for the role, Jasmine did not have a song at the time as \"A Whole New World\" had not yet been written; she admitted, \"there’s no way I would have even auditioned ... if there had been a song from the beginning.\" After writing Jasmine's first song, the filmmakers as Larkin if she was interested in recording it and providing the character's singing voice. Larkin immediately declined, explaining, \"I do [sing] … but not like a princess!\" Thus, Disney decided to recruit a singer capable of mimicking Larkin's voice instead, despite the actress' fear of the studio replacing her with a professional singer altogether. Larkin became one of Disney's first voice actors who did not provide the singing voice of the character she voiced, and Jasmine marked the first time Disney decided to separate a character's speaking and singing voice. Jasmine's singing voice is provided by Filipina singer Lea Salonga on Larkin's behalf.","Princess Jasmine\n\nSalonga's performance in the musical Miss Saigon drew the attention of one of Aladdin's casting directors, who proceeded to leave the singer a note on the stage door after the show. Salonga's agent then scheduled an audition for her, at which she performed \"Part of Your World\" from The Little Mermaid. Salonga began recording demos for \"A Whole New World\" a few days afterward. Apart from storyboards and images, Jasmine did not see much of her character until a screening of the film at the Museum of Modern Art.","Princess Jasmine\n\nPersonality and design","Princess Jasmine\n\nThe writers had originally conceived Jasmine as a spoiled and materialistic princess whose interests were limited to clothing and jewelry, but she was eventually developed into a stronger, more mature character. Larkin described Jasmine as \"a very strong, well defined character from the very beginning.\" Mark Henn served as Jasmine's supervising animator. Originally hired to animate Aladdin's mother, the eventual removal of the character ultimately allowed the animator to animate Jasmine, who ultimately became a much more prominent character. Throughout Disney's previous animated film Beauty and the Beast, the design of the character Belle – who Henn had also helped animate – suffered from various noticeable inconsistencies due to the character having been animated at two separate locations. To avoid experiencing a similar feat with the appearance of Jasmine, the filmmakers ultimately decided to have the princess animated entirely at one studio. Because Jasmine is not the film's main character, she was relegated to being animated at the company's secondary studio in Florida, while Aladdin was animated in California. However, the intimate love scenes between the two characters remained particularly difficult to animate due to the 2000 mile distance.","Princess Jasmine\n\nArt director Bill Perkins aspired to incorporate Arabian architecture into the film; Jasmine's figure was based on the famous mausoleum the Taj Mahal, specifically the curves found in the characters hair, clothing and jewelry.","Princess Jasmine\n\nHaving just recently animated two previous Disney heroines – Ariel from The Little Mermaid and Belle from Beauty and the Beast, Henn initially suffered from severe \"artist's block\" while designing Jasmine. While working on the character at Disney-MGM Studios in Florida, Henn witnessed a young amusement park guest with long black hair, who ultimately became his initial inspiration for Jasmine; the guest remains anonymous. Earliest sketches of Jasmine were based on exotic-looking supermodels in addition to her namesake Jasmine Guy, but the actress' dramatic features were ultimately considered to be too \"severe\". Henn explained that \"I needed something fresh to help with the physical look of her.\" The animator was eventually inspired by a high school graduation photograph of his younger sister Beth Allen, who donned a hairstyle similar to what would become Jasmine's. The directors ultimately approved of Henn's concept design of Jasmine. The character's appearance was also further inspired by American actress Jennifer Connelly, specifically incorporating the actress' eyebrows. Additionally, some of Larkin's own mannerisms were also incorporated into the character. One evening Henn and Larkin had dinner together during which, through conversation, the actress was \"very inspirational in terms of finding Jasmine's emotional side.\"","Princess Jasmine\n\nThe final appearance of Jasmine consequently inspired the studio to redesign Aladdin accordingly because Katzenberg felt that the lead character, who was originally depicted as a younger, \"scrawny\" underdog, did not resemble \"a suitable leading man for the beautiful Jasmine\", which they feared would have resulted in unconvincing chemistry between the two. Thus, they ultimately decided to base Aladdin on American actor Tom Cruise. Henn's favorite scene to animate was the scene in which Jasmine discovers Aladdin's true identity and gives the character \"a look\". The filmmakers decided to dress Jasmine in blue to represent water: \"the most precious substance one can find in a desert\"; the animators placed the character next to a fountain to further emphasize this motif. Jasmine became Disney's first non-white princess.","Princess Jasmine\n\nCharacterization and themes","Princess Jasmine\n\nNotably, Jasmine is not her film's protagonist, a role occupied instead by title character Aladdin. The character is both similar to and different from preceding Disney heroines. Brian Lowry of Variety likened Jasmine's strong-willed personality to that of Belle, describing her as an \"anachronistically liberated\" heroine. Belonging to \"a series of spunky heroines\" directly inspired by the girl power movement, Hearing a Film, Seeing a Sermon: Preaching and Popular Movies author Timothy B. Cargal recognized that Jasmine belongs to Disney's \"continued efforts to reshape their heroines for a more feminist age\". However, at only 15 years of age, the princess is more resourceful than her two immediate predecessors Ariel and Belle. The Art of the Princess and the Frog author Jeff Kurrti observed that although \"Jasmine is less prominent as a heroine ... she made decisions and was a little more strong-willed\". Samantha Rullo of Bustle agreed that, despite her secondary role, Jasmine is \"determined to live her life the way she wants to, rather than letting others make her decisions for her\" and remains one of Disney's most rebellious and spirited princesses.","Princess Jasmine\n\nLarkin believes that Jasmine takes initiative to change her kingdom's marriage laws, which she considers \"wrong,\" elaborating, \"Jasmine didn’t just believe in something, she fought against something that she saw was an injustice – about the marriage laws – and she triumphed in the end. She actively sought change and made it happen.\" Jasmine's personality remains among \"the strongest\" of Disney's heroines, as she is not concerned about wealth or class despite her noble upbringing. Notably, Jasmine remains Disney's only princess whose official costume is not a dress, while the character is also one of only two Disney Princesses to wear pants. Additionally, Jasmine is the only Disney Princess to have kissed her film's villain.","Princess Jasmine\n\nAccording to Orange Coast's Henry A. Giroux, Jasmine's life is almost entirely determined by men. According to The Washington Post's Desson Howe, Jasmine appears \"to have stepped out of the 1990s\" and \"resents this family glass ceiling.\" Movies and the Mind: Theories of the Great Psychoanalysts Applied to Film author William Indick observed that Jasmine represents \"the rejection of the father-king's domination and control over his daughter's life\", resembling \"a strong and assertive heroine who rebels against her father's tyranny rather than passively accepting his will.\" Musker agreed that the character \"rebel[s] against the social structure in choosing to marry someone of her own free will\". In Ulrich Marzolph's book The Arabian Nights Reader, the author described the character as \"the mouthpiece of opposition to a vaguely defined Middle Eastern backwardness and authoritarianism.\" Steve Daly of Entertainment Weekly identified Jasmine as \"a sexually aware, proto-feminist princess\".","Princess Jasmine\n\nThe Routledge Companion to Media & Gender author Cynthia Carter believes that, like most Disney heroines, Jasmine becomes \"the possession of their husband or another male.\" Additionally, the character shares the theme of seeking freedom with the film's other main characters, although Jasmine's wish \"to see something more beyond the palace that entraps her and avoid an unwanted marriage\" is arguably \"angrier\" than Aladdin's. Jasmine explores the theme that \"the idea that enclosing yourself behind walls can make you more vulnerable, not less\", as evidenced by the fact that the character knows little about money whens she leaves the palace for the first time. In the film, Jasmine releases a flock of birds from their cage to serve as a metaphor for her situation of being \"caged from a world she has never seen and yearns to be released.\" Jasmine's bedroom is also bird cage-shaped. Thematically, Jasmine also represents civil rights, racial tolerance, social hierarchy, as well as life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.","Princess Jasmine\n\nAppearances","Princess Jasmine\n\nAladdin","Princess Jasmine\n\nJasmine first appears in Aladdin (1992), as the oldest daughter of the wealthy Sultan of Agrabah. Jasmine was unhappy with having no choice in life, and being ruled over by her father, so she runs away from home the palace life for a free and more simple life. After escaping to the town of Agrabah that surrounds the palace walls, she meets Aladdin after he saves her from an irate merchant after she gave one of his apples to a street child without paying for it, by him claiming plea of mild insanity on her behalf. They run off together to Aladdin's hovel, where they both realize that they want to be free of the life that they are living and they have the same dreams. Shortly after this, Aladdin is arrested by guards led by Razoul. Jasmine reveals herself to them and demands them to let Aladdin go, but Razoul explains that he is doing so on Jafar's orders. Jasmine confronts Jafar and orders them to release Aladdin, but Jafar tells her that Aladdin has already been executed; Jasmine is left distraught and she blames herself for Aladdin's misfortune.","Princess Jasmine\n\nAfter Aladdin's wish to become a prince is granted to him by The Genie, he visits Jasmine in the guise of \"Prince Ali-Ababwa\". She initially believes him to be just another arrogant suitor, but later accepts his proposal after falling in love with him on a magic carpet ride. During this time, Jasmine sees through Aladdin's disguise, but Aladdin convinces her that he sometimes dressed up as a commoner to \"escape the pressures of palace life\", which she relates to. She is taken back to the palace and the two share a kiss.","Princess Jasmine\n\nHowever, upon announcing her decision to marry Aladdin, Jafar takes over Agrabah by stealing the lamp from Aladdin. At the same time, Aladdin attempts to reveal his true identity, but before he can do so, Jafar exposes it to Jasmine. After Jafar banishes Aladdin to the ends of the Earth, he then makes Jasmine his personal slavegirl. Jasmine was then forced to wear the revealing costume of a harem concubine and leashed to Jafar's throne to serve him. While Aladdin is banished to the frozen tundra, Jasmine must endure Jafar's lecherous advances and humiliations. When Aladdin finally returns, he goes to rescue Jasmine and saves the kingdom. Jasmine helps Aladdin to distract Jafar by pretending to fall madly in love with him. After Jafar discovers her ruse, Jasmine tries to steal the lamp, but is trapped in an hourglass and nearly dies from being buried alive. In the end, she is saved by Aladdin and returns to be the Princess of Agrabah, with her father, the Sultan. After seeing how much Jasmine loves Aladdin, her father changes the old law to enable the princess to \"marry any man she deems worthy\", and the two are engaged.","Princess Jasmine\n\nAladdin: The Return of Jafar","Princess Jasmine\n\nIn the first direct-to-video sequel, The Return of Jafar (1994), Jasmine begins to question her trust in Aladdin after he defends Iago, Jafar's former pet parrot who had terrorized her father, but she quickly gets over these questions with Iago's help (who convinces her that she cares about Aladdin by calling her bluff). She later accepts Iago as a friend after he helps her mend her relationship with Aladdin, frees the Genie to save Aladdin, and defeats Jafar under risk of his own life.","Princess Jasmine\n\nAladdin and the King of Thieves","Princess Jasmine\n\nFinally, in the second direct-to-video/DVD movie, Aladdin and the King of Thieves (1996) she and Aladdin are finally about to wed, when their wedding is interrupted by the Forty Thieves. After learning what they were after, Aladdin finds out from the Oracle that his father Cassim is still alive. Jasmine convinces him to seek out for his father, and that their wedding can be delayed a little bit longer.","Princess Jasmine\n\nWhile he is away, Jasmine grows worried, and Genie cheers her up by goofing around. When Aladdin returns with Cassim, she and the Sultan take an immediate liking to him. However, he later tries to steal the Oracle, and is put in prison; Aladdin helps him escape, which result in punishment. Jasmine and the Genie convince the Sultan that he helped his father out of love. At that moment, Iago (who was with Cassim) returns, telling them that Cassim has been captured by Sa'luk and the remaining Thieves.","Princess Jasmine\n\nJasmine goes with Aladdin to rescue his father, and afterward they return for their wedding, which Cassim attends from the shadows. They go for a ride on Carpet, waving good-bye to the Merchant from the first film and Iago and Cassim as they ride off.","Princess Jasmine\n\nDisney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams","Princess Jasmine\n\nPrincess Jasmine (Linda Larkin) is tired and bored of her usual princess duties. She is no longer satisfied with overseeing shop openings and assisting in the sale of a camel at the local market place. While having her portrait painted as a \"Peacock Princess,\" Jasmine loses patience and says she wants more responsibility. The Sultan (Jeff Bennett) gives her the job of \"Royal Assistant Educator\" at the Royal Academy. Jasmine is thrilled until she meets her pupils. They run amok, draw on the walls, pillow fight, and throw books. She calls Rajah (Frank Welker) to try to scare the children into behaving, but they ignore him and chase Jasmine and Rajah into the mud and up a tree. Jasmine gives up. Later that night, her lady-in-waiting tells her that she needs patience and perseverance and that with these tools, she can do anything she wants. The next day, Hakeem (Zack Shada), the stable boy, seeks Jasmine's help. The Sultan's prized horse, Sahara, is missing from the Stables. Jasmine takes it upon herself, with Carpet, Abu (Welker), and Iago's (Gilbert Gottfried) help, to find Sahara and return him to the Palace.","Princess Jasmine\n\nIn other media","Princess Jasmine\n\nJasmine is an official member of the Disney Princess line, a prominent franchise directed to young girls. The franchise covers a wide variety of merchandise, including but not limited to magazines, music albums, toys, video games, clothes and stationery. She is featured prominently in Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams, where she is the main character of one of the film's segments.","Princess Jasmine\n\nPrincess Jasmine has made many appearances outside of the Aladdin films, including appearances at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts as a meetable character. She is a frequently-seen character, and often accompanies Aladdin, and occasionally Genie. Jasmine is a featured character in the Mickey's PhilharMagic 3D show at Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom and Hong Kong Disneyland. Jasmine, Aladdin, Carpet, Abu and Genie make cameo appearances in the Hong Kong Disneyland version of It's a Small World. Jasmine also appears in various television series and was featured as a main character in the animated series based on the original 1992 feature. The series picked up where The Return of Jafar left off, with Aladdin still living on the streets of Agrabah, engaged to Jasmine. The character also made cameo appearances in Disney's House of Mouse and Hercules: The Animated Series. Recently, Jasmine appeared in the episode \"Two to Tangu\" of the Disney Junior series Sofia the First, in which she helps Sofia and Amber tame a wild magic carpet.","Princess Jasmine\n\nJasmine appears in Kingdom Hearts as a supporting character in Agrabah, based on the Aladdin films. She is one of the Princesses of Heart kidnapped by Maleficent. She appears again in Kingdom Hearts II, and explains the strange behavior of Aladdin to Sora, Duck and Goofy. The cause of Aladdin's behavior is his loneliness after Genie went to see the other worlds. When Genie comes back all is well again. Linda Larkin reprises her role in the English version. Aside from the Kingdom Hearts series, Jasmine makes appearances in the video game adaptations of the 1992 film.","Princess Jasmine\n\nIn the Broadway musical adaptation of the movie, Jasmine is played by actress, Courtney Reed.","Princess Jasmine\n\nJasmine is slated to make her live-action debut in the upcoming sixth season of Once Upon a Time where she'll be played by Karen David.","Princess Jasmine\n\nReception","Princess Jasmine\n\nThe reverse cover of the film's original home video release promoted Jasmine as \"a heroine of the Nineties.\" However, according to It's Not the Media: The Truth about Pop Culture's Influence on Children author Karen Sternheimer, despite being \"strong-willed and almost given feminist qualities\", the character \"resembles heroines of old, waiting for her 'prince' to come and rescue her and using traditional feminine wiles to get her out of trouble.\"","Princess Jasmine\n\nCritical reception towards Jasmine has been generally mixed. Ty Burr of Entertainment Weekly described Jasmine as Disney's \"most full-bodied\" heroine. Desson Howe of The Washington Post appreciated Jasmine for providing the film with \"feminist consciousness\". The Christian Science Monitor's David Sterrit opined, \"the princess ... is less carefully worked out [than Aladdin] but equally likable as a personality type.\" Contactmusic.com agreed that Jasmine has \"likeably cynical streaks\" despite being an \"essentially bland\" character. Gary Thompson of the Philadelphia Daily News wrote, \"Princess Jasmine is also more barbed, yet without the obvious feminist makeover given to Belle\".","Princess Jasmine\n\nSimilarly, James Berardinelli of ReelViews commended Jasmine for \"show[ing] the same streak of stubborn independence exhibited by Ariel and Belle,\" but ultimately criticized the fact that \"she doesn't fill a more pressing role than that of Aladdin's 'love interest.'\" Writing for Tor.com, Mari Ness agreed that \"Compared to these side characters, main characters Aladdin and Jasmine feel a bit, well, bland.\" Ness elaborated, \"Jasmine follows in the footsteps of Ariel and Belle as someone unhappy with the restrictions of her world and her lack of choices: like both of them, she takes active steps to change this, and it’s not entirely her fault that she’s a secondary character in a film not all that interested in her ... She’s perceptive, and fast thinking, but this isn’t her movie, and in the end, although she does get to choose her own husband, she doesn’t really get a chance, like Ariel and Belle, to move out of her world. She can be shown the world, but she stays in her palace.\"","Princess Jasmine\n\nOther critics have reacted less favorably towards Jasmine. Common Sense Media criticized the character for lacking an original predicament, while Creative Loafing's Matt Brunson described her as a \"liberated\" but \"stiff\" heroine. Janet Maslin of The New York Times panned Jasmine: \"the sloe-eyed Princess Jasmine ... a nymph in harem pants, use[s] words like 'fabulous' and 'amazing' to express unremarkable thoughts\", concluding, \"Luckily, they are surrounded by an overpowering array of secondary characters who make the film's sidelines much more interesting than its supposed center.\" While Time Out called the character disappointing, TV Guide criticized Jasmine for being \"bland\". Roger Ebert cited Jasmine among the film's \"weaknesses\", panning the relationship between her and Aladdin as \"pale and routine\". Additionally, Ebert concluded that the characters \"look unformed, as if even the filmmakers didn't see them as real individuals.\" Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine similarly derided the character, writing, \"Jasmine is another 'free-spirited' type in the Barbie-doll tradition, a faux feminist who wants everyone to know that she can do everything the boys can\". Orange Coast's Henry A.","Princess Jasmine\n\nGiroux panned Jasmine as little more than \"an object of [Aladdin]'s immediate desire\" and \"stepping stone to social mobility.\" When questioned about whether or not Jasmine is a positive role model because \"all she wants to do is get married\", Larkin defended her character, explaining, \"That's not true. Jasmine says to a generation of little kids about marriage that the law is wrong. She risks everything—her safety, her comfort, everything she knows—and goes out and finds a way to change the marriage law ... Yeah, she's a good role model!' Really good! Whether it's connected or not, that person that the writers created that I got to portray, I'm so proud of her. And I feel like she was ahead of her time.\"","Princess Jasmine\n\nDue to the film's popularity, Jasmine ultimately became one of the original members of the Disney Princess franchise, and remains the only member of the lineup who is not the main character of her film. After Aladdin's release, Jasmine would remain Disney's last fairy tale princess for 17 years. As Disney's first non-white princess, the character is credited with introducing ethnic diversity to Disney animated films, and was followed by three ethnic Disney Princesses: Pocahontas, Mulan and Tiana, thus \"paving the way in letting children believe that anyone of any race can be a princess and more importantly, to fight for what you believe in.\" Bustle included the moment Jasmine meets Aladdin for the first time in the website's ranking of the most feminist Disney Princess moments. Describing the character's storyline as \"pretty awesome,\" author Samantha Rullo scribed, \"when she meets Aladdin we learn just how strong-willed and independent she truly is.\" Tala Dayrit of Female Network included Jasmine in her list of \"30 Fierce and Fun Female Cartoon Characters\".","Princess Jasmine\n\nDescribing her as \"a new-age princess\", Dayrit wrote that Jasmine is \"opinionated and spirited, with a clear mind of her own\" who \"refus[es] to believe that her life should be lived according to the dictates of others\". According to Meghan O’Keefe of Overthinking It, Jasmine is \"introduced [as a] character with tremendous potential to be a feminist heroine ... but ultimately, ineffectual.\" O'Keefe continued, \"All we see Jasmine do is sit around with a docile tiger and pout. She doesn’t do chores because she’s a princess, but she also doesn’t read books, play music, or talk to any human beings\", ultimately criticizing her for lacking the \"violent thirst for learning\" that Ariel and Belle possessed. Sonia Saraiya of Nerve ranked Jasmine fifth in her article \"Ranked: Disney Princesses From Least To Most Feminist\". Saraiya praised her personality, likening her boldness, curiosity, and skepticism of marriage to that of Belle while commending her for \"falling for a completely inadequate 'street rat' and whisking him out of poverty, instead of the other way around.\" However, Saraiya labeled Jasmine's use of sexuality her \"only power\", criticizing her for sending a negative message to young girls.","Princess Jasmine\n\nDimas Sanfiorenzo of Complex ranked Jasmine second in his article \"The 25 Hottest Cartoon Women Of All Time\", awarding specific praise to her hair and her eyes.","Princess Jasmine\n\nJasmine was Disney's first non-white princess, which inspired the studio to continue becoming more ethnically diverse with their next princesses Pocahontas and Mulan. Jasmine and Aladdin's appearance garnered controversy by being similar in appearance to Caucasians. The Arabian Nights Reader author observed that the character speaks \"perfect American English\" despite her \"ostensibly Middle Eastern features.\""],"string":"[\n \"A Whole New World\\n\\n\\\"A Whole New World\\\" is a song from Disney's 1992 animated feature film Aladdin, with music by Alan Menken and lyrics by Tim Rice. The song is a ballad between the primary characters Aladdin and Jasmine about the new world they are going to discover together while riding on Aladdin's magic carpet. The original version was sung by Brad Kane and Lea Salonga during the film. They also performed the song in their characters at the 65th Academy Awards, where it won Academy Award for Best Original Song as well as the first and only Disney song to win a Grammy Award for Song of the Year at the 36th Annual Grammy Awards. In 2014, Adam Jacobs and Courtney Reed performed the song as Aladdin and Jasmine in the film's Broadway adaptation.\",\n \"A Whole New World\\n\\nA single version of the song was previously released that year and was performed by Peabo Bryson and Regina Belle. This version is played in the movie's end credits and is referred on the soundtrack as \\\"Aladdins Theme\\\". This version peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on March 6, 1993, replacing Whitney Houston's \\\"I Will Always Love You\\\", which had spent a then record 14 weeks at the top of the chart. It went gold and sold 600,000 copies domestically. The track peaked at number 12 in the UK Singles Chart in 1992. The song is the first and only song from a Disney animated film to top the Billboard Hot 100. The single version was later included on Belle's studio album Passion (1993) and on Bryson's studio album Through the Fire (1994). The Latin American rendition of the song, \\\"Un Mundo Ideal\\\", by Ricardo Montaner and Michelle received airplay throughout Latin America. This rendition was later included on Montaner's greatest hits album Éxitos y... Algo Más (1993).\",\n \"A Whole New World\\n\\nCharts\",\n \"A Whole New World\\n\\nCover versions\",\n \"A Whole New World\\n\\n* Girl group Eternal released the song as the B-side to their 1996 single, \\\"Someday\\\", recorded for the Disney film The Hunchback of Notre Dame. * Country music artist Collin Raye performed the song for the collaboration album The Best of Country Sing the Best of Disney. * Hank Marvin did an instrumental version of the song in 1997 on his album Hank Plays the Music of Tim Rice & Andrew Lloyd Webber. * LMNT covered the song for DisneyMania 2, released in 2004. * Jessica Simpson and Nick Lachey covered the song for DisneyMania 3 released in 2005, and on the two-disc Platinum Edition DVD for the Aladdin film. * The song was covered in 2006 by British glamour model Katie Price (also known as Jordan) and her now ex-husband, Peter Andre. The track is included on their 2006 album of duets A Whole New World. * J-pop artist Kumi Koda and Peabo Bryson included a cover for Koda's 2006 album Best: Second Session. * K-pop boy-band TVXQ recorded the song for their 2007 Japanese album, Five in the Black, as a special track.\",\n \"A Whole New World\\n\\n* In 2007, Pixar employee Nick Pitera uploaded a video to YouTube where he performs both the male and female characters,\\n earning 30 million views (as of January 18, 2013). * Saxophonist Dave Koz covered the song on his album At The Movies. The song featured Donna Summer on vocals. * On Disney - Koe no Oujisama album the song was sung by Kenichi Suzumura\\n* The song was covered in 2013 by Japanese hip-hop/EDM group M-Flo, featuring vocals by Matt Cab, for the album Electronic Disney Music. * Christian pop punk band Stellar Kart featured a cover on their Disney cover EP named after this song. * Pianist Alex Hardwick has recorded a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7kBIBtkU9Wo piano solo version] (released online as a single track). * A cappella singer and YouTube star Peter Hollens performed a portion of the song as part of his \\\"[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hfvehnyCQKU Epic Disney Medley]\\\" with fellow singer Alex G. As of March 2016, the video has 6.2 million views. * A Japanese male vocal-dance group Da-iCE members [http://da-ice.livejournal.com/1716.html Sota Hanamura] and [http://da-ice.livejournal.com/885.html Yudai Ohno] has recorded a cover of this song for their group's latest [http://www.jpopasia.com/group/daice/lyrics/watch-out::50647.html 8th Single] [https://itunes.apple.com/jp/album/watch-out-ep/id1095067982 Watch Out] [https://itunes.apple.com/jp/album/watch-out-ep/id1095067982 (Digital Version]).\",\n \"A Whole New World\\n\\nLive cover performances\",\n \"A Whole New World\\n\\nSome notable artists that have covered this song live include:\\n* Sweetbox, for WOW! DisneyMania in Japan. * Charice Pempengco and Super Junior member Kyuhyun on Star King in 2007 \\n* Peabo Bryson and Patti LaBelle performed the song along with all 77 contestants at the 1994 Miss Universe Pageant in Manila, Philippines\\n* Bryson recorded a version of the song with Japanese pop artist Kumi Koda, which appeared as a bonus track on her album BEST ~second session~. * Peabo Bryson and Chilean singer Andrea Tessa performed the song on the Viña del Mar International Song Festival in 2001. * David Phelps and Sandi Patty performed the song on \\\"Mark Lowry On Broadway\\\" in 2001. * In the second season of American Idol in 2003, eventual winner Ruben Studdard sang the song on Movie Night. It was noted that season that \\\"A Whole New World\\\" was the most commonly used audition song, and a montage of \\\"A Whole New World\\\" auditions was aired to emphasize it. * In addition to recording a cover, Peter André and Katie Price performed the song live on Children in Need in 2005.\",\n \"A Whole New World\\n\\n* K-pop artists Ivy and Brian Joo\\n* K-pop artist BoA and TVXQ member Xiah Junsu performed the song live at the AnyBand Concert in Korea on December 29, 2007. * Glee's actor Darren Criss performed the song with Lea Salonga, the singing voice of Princess Jasmine on Aladdin at Billboard/Hollywood Reporter TV & Film Music Conference to Alan Menken. *Girls' Generation member Tiffany and K.Will \\n* The song is performed during the fountain show World of Color at Disney California Adventure park while LED lights affixed to Mickey's Fun Wheel twinkle in the backdrop, appearing as stars. * [http://da-ice.livejournal.com/1716.html Sota Hanamura] and [http://da-ice.livejournal.com/885.html Yudai Ohno] from Da-iCE had recently [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nJ-ZHlTsdAE performed the song] on [http://www.sbs.com.au/popasia/blog/2016/05/15/da-ice-will-make-its-first-us-appearance-fanimecon-2016 their US debut] concert at 2016 \\n[http://www.fanime.com/community/ FanimeCon] in San Jose, California. *Lea Salonga and Hamilton composer and star Lin-Manuel Miranda sang a cover at the Richard Rogers Theater during a Ham4Ham lottery in 2015.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nAladdin is a 1992 American animated musical fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. Aladdin is the 31st animated feature in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series, and was part of the Disney film era known as the Disney Renaissance. The film was directed by John Musker and Ron Clements, and is based on the Arab-style folktale Aladdin and the Magic Lamp from One Thousand and One Nights. The voice cast features Scott Weinger, Robin Williams, Linda Larkin, Jonathan Freeman, Frank Welker, Gilbert Gottfried, and Douglas Seale.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nLyricist Howard Ashman first pitched the idea, and the screenplay went through three drafts before then-Disney Studios president Jeffrey Katzenberg agreed to its production. The animators based their designs on the work of caricaturist Al Hirschfeld, and computers were used for both finishing the artwork and creating some animated elements. The musical score was written by Alan Menken and features six songs with lyrics written by both Ashman and Tim Rice, who took over after Ashman's death.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nAladdin was released on November 25, 1992 and was the most successful film of 1992, earning over $217 million in revenue in the United States, and over $504 million worldwide. The film also won many awards, most of them for its soundtrack. The film is considered by many as the best film that came out during the Disney Renaissance. success led to other material inspired by the film, including two direct-to-video sequels, The Return of Jafar and Aladdin and the King of Thieves, an animated television series of the same name, toys, video games, spin-offs, including a live-action remake about the genie titled Genies, Disney merchandise, and a Broadway adaptation that debuted in 2014.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nPlot\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nA peddler sets up shop in the fictional sultanate of Agrabah, offering to tell the audience about the story of an oil lamp in his possession. Jafar, the Grand Vizier of the Sultan, and his parrot Iago, seek the lamp hidden within the Cave of Wonders but is told that only a “diamond in the rough” may enter. Jafar identifies a street urchin named Aladdin as worthy. Aladdin and his pet monkey Abu cross paths with Princess Jasmine, who has run away from the palace, unwilling to be married off to another snobbish suitor. Aladdin and Jasmine become friends and fall in love, but Jafar has Aladdin apprehended, tricking Jasmine into thinking that he was decapitated.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nDisguised as an old man, Jafar frees Aladdin and Abu, taking them to the Cave and promises to reward them if they retrieve the lamp. Inside, Aladdin befriends a magic carpet. Abu greedily tries to steal a jewel, despite the Cave’s request, and it collapses. Trapped underground, Aladdin rubs the lamp, releasing the Genie trapped inside, who explains Aladdin has become his master and will grant him three wishes. Aladdin tricks the Genie into freeing them from the Cave without wasting a wish, and then uses his first to become a prince to be near Jasmine. Jafar, on Iago’s suggestion, plots to become Sultan by marrying Jasmine, but Aladdin parades into the city as “Prince Ali of Ababwa”. However, Jasmine is unimpressed with Aladdin’s bravado.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nDespite his friends advising him to tell Jasmine the truth, Aladdin refuses, believing she would never fall “for some street rat”. He takes Jasmine on a worldwide flight on the carpet, where she deduces his identity, though Aladdin says that he dresses as a peasant to escape the stresses of royal life, which convinces her. Aladdin returns Jasmine home, only to be attacked by the palace guards on Jafar’s orders and nearly drowned, until the Genie rescues him using his second wish. Jafar tries to hypnotise the Sultan into agreeing to his marriage to Jasmine, only for Aladdin to appear and expose Jafar’s schemes. Jafar flees, but notices Aladdin has the lamp, realising who he is.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nLearning he will become Sultan, Aladdin has second thoughts about freeing the Genie, believing that without him, he would not be able to keep up appearances. Iago steals the lamp, and Jafar becomes the Genie’s new master. He uses his first two wishes to usurp the Sultan and become the world’s most powerful sorcerer, exposing Aladdin’s lies and exiles him, Abu, and the carpet to a frozen wasteland, though they escape death and return to the palace. Jafar orders the Genie to brainwash Jasmine into falling in love with him, but the Genie reveals he is unable to grant the wish. Jasmine feigns interest to distract Jafar and allow Aladdin to get the lamp, but he is caught.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nJafar transforms himself into a giant cobra and ensnares Aladdin, saying he is the most powerful being in the world. However, Aladdin points out the Genie is more powerful, inspiring Jafar to use his last wish to become a genie, only to be sucked into his own lamp as part of the genie’s nature, dragging Iago in with him. The Genie chucks Jafar’s lamp into the Cave of Wonders, and asks Aladdin to use his third wish to regain his royal title. However, Aladdin decides to free the Genie. Learning of Aladdin and Jasmine’s love, the Sultan alters the law to allow his daughter to marry whom she chooses. The Genie leaves to explore the world, while Aladdin and Jasmine celebrate their engagement.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nCast\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\n*Scott Weinger as Aladdin, a poor, but kind-hearted Agrabah thief. Weinger sent in a homemade audition tape with his mother playing the Genie, and after several call backs he found six months later that he had the part. Aladdin's supervising animator was by Glen Keane. Brad Kane provides Aladdin's singing voice. *Robin Williams as The Genie, a comedic genie, with nigh omnipotent power that can only be exercised when his master wishes it. The Genie's supervising animator was Eric Goldberg. Clements and Musker wrote the part of the Genie for Williams, and, when met with resistance, created a reel of Williams' stand-up to animation of the Genie. The directors asked Goldberg to animate a Genie over one of Williams' old stand-up comedy routines to pitch the idea to the actor. The resulting test, where Williams talking about schizophrenia was translated into Genie growing another head to argue with himself, made Williams \\\"laugh his ass off\\\" and convinced him to sign on for the role.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nWilliams' appearance in Aladdin (despite his appearance along with Christian Slater and Tim Curry in the early 1992 animated film FernGully) marks the beginning of a transition in animated film to celebrity voice actors, rather than specifically trained voice actors in animated film. Williams provided many celebrity impressions during recording sessions, which were re-adapted into the fabric of the character. These included Ed Sullivan, Jack Nicholson, Robert De Niro, Groucho Marx, Rodney Dangerfield, William F. Buckley, Peter Lorre, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and Arsenio Hall. Williams also voices the Peddler, a mysterious merchant who appears at the beginning of the film. After promoting useless goods to the audience, he reveals the magic lamp and begins the story of Aladdin. Bruce Adler supplies his singing voice. The scene was completely unscripted — the production left Williams a table with props covered with a sheet and asked him to pull out objects without looking at them and describe them in-character. The double role originally led to the Peddler revealing to be the Genie disguised, but that idea was later dropped. In October 2015, Clements and Musker claimed that the Peddler is actually the Genie's human form.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\n*Jonathan Freeman as Jafar, the power-hungry Grand Vizier of Agrabah. Jafar was originally envisioned as an irritable character, but the directors decided that a calm villain would be scarier. Freeman was the first actor cast and spent one year and nine months recording his dialogue. He later readjusted his voice after Weinger and Larkin were cast as he felt \\\"Jafar had to be seen as a real threat to Aladdin and Jasmine\\\". Jafar's supervising animator was Andreas Deja, who tried to incorporate Freeman's facial expressions and gesturing into the character, while Jafar's beggar and snake forms are animated by Kathy Zielinski. *Linda Larkin as Princess Jasmine: The princess of Agrabah, who is tired of life in the royal palace. Larkin was chosen nine months after her audition, and had to adjust (or lower) her high-pitched voice to reach the voice the filmmakers were looking for in the character. Jasmine's supervising animator was Mark Henn. Lea Salonga provides Jasmine's singing voice. *Frank Welker as Abu, Aladdin's kleptomaniac pet monkey with a high-pitched voice. The animators filmed monkeys at the San Francisco Zoo to study their movements for Abu's character.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nIn the three years it took to record the film, Welker did not meet Weinger or Williams. Welker also voices Jasmine's tiger Rajah and the Cave of Wonders. Duncan Marjoribanks was the supervising animator for Abu, while Rajah was animated by Aaron Blaise. *Gilbert Gottfried as Iago, Jafar's sarcastic, foul-mouthed parrot assistant. Iago's supervising animator Will Finn tried to incorporate some aspects of Gottfried's appearance into Iago's design, especially his semi-closed eyes and the always-appearing teeth. *Douglas Seale as The Sultan, the pompous, but kind ruler of Agrabah, who desperately tries to find a suitor for his daughter Jasmine. Some aspects of the character were inspired by the Wizard of Oz, to create a bumbling authority figure. The Sultan's supervising animator was David Pruiksma. *Jim Cummings as Razoul, the Captain of the Guard. He was named after layout supervisor Rasoul Azadani. He and the other guards were animated by Phil Young and Chris Wahl. *Charlie Adler as Gazeem: A thief that Jafar sends into the Cave of Wonders at the beginning of the film but is trapped inside for being unworthy. Gazeem was animated by T. Daniel Hofstedt.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\n*Corey Burton as Prince Achmed, a snobbish prince who is rejected by Princess Jasmine as her suitor.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nProduction\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nScript and development\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nIn 1988, lyricist Howard Ashman pitched the idea of an animated musical adaptation of Aladdin. Ashman had written a 40-page film treatment remaining faithful to the plot and characters of the original story, but envisioned as a campy 1930s-style musical with a Cab Calloway/Fats Waller-like Genie. Along with partner Alan Menken, Ashman conceived several songs and added Aladdin's friends named Babkak, Omar, and Kasim to the story. However, the studio were dismissive of Ashman's treatment and removed the project from development in which Ashman and Menken were later recruited to compose songs for Beauty and the Beast. Linda Woolverton, who had also worked on Beauty and the Beast, used their treatment and developed a draft with inspired elements from The Thief of Bagdad such as a villain named Jaf'far, an aged sidekick retired human thief named Abu, and a human handmaiden for the princess. Then, directors John Musker and Ron Clements joined the production, picking Aladdin out of three projects offered, which also included an adaptation of Swan Lake and King of the Jungle – that eventually became The Lion King.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nBefore Ashman's death in March 1991, Ashman and Menken had composed \\\"Prince Ali\\\" and his last song, \\\"Humiliate the Boy\\\".\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nMusker and Clements wrote a draft of the screenplay, and then delivered a story reel to studio chief Jeffrey Katzenberg in April 1991. Katzenberg thought the script \\\"didn't engage\\\", and on a day known by the staff as \\\"Black Friday,\\\" demanded that the entire story to be rewritten without rescheduling the film's November 25, 1992 release date. Among the changes Katzenberg requested from Clements and Musker were to not be dependent on Ashman's vision, and the removal of Aladdin's mother, remarking, \\\"Eighty-six the mother. The mom's a zero.\\\" Screenwriting duo Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio were brought in to rework the story, and the changes they made included the removal of Aladdin's mother, the strengthening of the character of Princess Jasmine, and the deletion of several of the Ashman-Menken songs. Aladdin's personality was rewritten to be \\\"a little rougher, like a young Harrison Ford,\\\" and the parrot Iago, originally conceived as an uptight British archetype, was reworked into a comic role after the filmmakers saw Gilbert Gottfried in Beverly Hills Cop II. Gottfried was cast to provide Iago's voice. By October 1991, Katzenberg was satisfied with the new version of Aladdin.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nAs with Woolverton's screenplay, several characters and plot elements are based on the 1940 version of The Thief of Bagdad, the location of the film was changed from Baghdad, Iraq to the fictional Arabian city of Agrabah.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nDesign and animation\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nOne of the first issues that the animators faced during production of Aladdin was the depiction of Aladdin himself. Director and producer John Musker explains:\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nHe was initially going to be as young as 13, but that eventually changed to eighteen. Aladdin was designed by a team led by supervising animator Glen Keane, and was originally made to resemble actor Michael J. Fox. During production, it was decided that the design was too boyish and wasn't \\\"appealing enough,\\\" so the character was redesigned to add elements derived from actor Tom Cruise and Calvin Klein models.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nThe design for most characters was based on the work of caricaturist Al Hirschfeld, which production designer Richard Vander Wende also considered appropriate to the theme, due to similarities to the swooping lines of Persian miniatures and Arabic calligraphy. Jafar's design was not based on Hirschfeld's work because Jafar's supervising animator, Andreas Deja, wanted the character to be contrasting. Each character was animated alone, with the animators consulting each other to make scenes with interrelating characters. Since Aladdin's animator Glen Keane was working in the California branch of Walt Disney Feature Animation, and Jasmine's animator Mark Henn was in the Florida one at Disney-MGM Studios, they had to frequently phone, fax or send designs and discs to each other. The Magic Carpet is a sentient carpet who is able to fly. Animator Randy Cartwright described working on the Carpet as challenging, since it is only a rectangular shape, who expresses himself through pantomime – \\\"It's sort of like acting by origami\\\". Cartwright kept folding a piece of cloth while animating to see how to position the Carpet. After the character animation was done, the carpet's surface design was applied digitally.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nFor the scenery design, layout supervisor Rasoul Azadani took many pictures of his hometown of Isfahan, Iran for guidance. Other inspirations for design were Disney's animated films from the 1940s and 50s and the 1940 film The Thief of Bagdad. The coloring was done with the computerized CAPS process, and the color motifs were chosen according to the personality – the protagonists use light colors such as blue, the antagonists darker ones such as red and black, and Agrabah and its palace use the neutral color yellow. Computer animation was used for some elements of the film, such as the tiger entrance of the Cave of Wonders and the scene where Aladdin tries to escape the collapsing cave.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nMusker and Clements created the Genie with Robin Williams in mind; even though Katzenberg suggested actors such as John Candy, Steve Martin, and Eddie Murphy, Williams was approached and eventually accepted the role. Williams came for voice recording sessions during breaks in the shooting of two other films he was starring in at the time, Hook and Toys. Unusually for an animated film, much of Williams' dialogue was ad-libbed: for some scenes, Williams was given topics and dialogue suggestions, but allowed to improvise his lines. It was estimated that Williams improvised 52 characters. Eric Goldberg, the supervising animator for the Genie, then reviewed Williams' recorded dialogue and selected the best gags and lines that his crew would create character animation to match.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nThe producers added many in-jokes and references to Disney's previous works in the film, such as a \\\"cameo appearance\\\" from directors Clements and Musker and drawing some characters based on Disney workers. Beast, Sebastian from The Little Mermaid, and Pinocchio make brief appearances, and the wardrobe of the Genie at the end of the film—Goofy hat, Hawaiian shirt, and sandals—are a reference to a short film that Robin Williams did for the Disney-MGM Studios tour in the late 1980s.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nRobin Williams' conflicts with the studio\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nIn gratitude for his success with Touchstone Pictures' Good Morning, Vietnam, Robin Williams voiced the Genie for SAG scale pay ($75,000), on condition that his name or image not be used for marketing, and his (supporting) character not take more than 25% of space on advertising artwork, since Williams' film Toys was scheduled for release one month after Aladdins debut. For financial reasons, the studio went back on the deal on both counts, especially in poster art by having the Genie in 25% of the image, but having other major and supporting characters portrayed considerably smaller. The Disney Hyperion book Aladdin: The Making of an Animated Film listed both of Williams' characters \\\"The Peddler\\\" and \\\"The Genie\\\" ahead of main characters, but was forced to refer to him only as \\\"the actor signed to play the Genie\\\".\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nComposer Alan Menken and songwriters Howard Ashman and Tim Rice were praised for creating a soundtrack that is \\\"consistently good, rivaling the best of Disney's other animated musicals from the '90s.\\\" Menken and Ashman began work on the film together, with Rice taking over as lyricist after Ashman died of AIDS-related complications in early 1991. Although fourteen songs were written for Aladdin, only six are featured in the movie, three by each lyricist. The DVD Special Edition released in 2004 includes four songs in early animations tests, and a music video of one, \\\"Proud of Your Boy\\\", performed by Clay Aiken, which also appears on the album DisneyMania 3.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nThemes\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nThe filmmakers thought the moral message of the original tale was not appropriate, and decided to \\\"put a spin on it\\\", by making the fulfillment of wishes seem like a great thing, but eventually becoming a problem. Another major theme was avoiding an attempt to be what the person is not – both Aladdin and Jasmine get into trouble faking to be different people, and the Prince Ali persona fails to impress Jasmine, who only falls for Aladdin when she finds out who he truly is. Being \\\"imprisoned\\\" is also discussed, a fate that occurs to most of the characters – Aladdin and Jasmine are stuck to their lifestyles, Genie is attached to his lamp and Jafar, to the Sultan – and is represented visually by the prison-like walls and bars of the Agrabah palace, and the scene involving caged birds which Jasmine later frees. Jasmine is also depicted as a different Disney Princess, being rebellious to the royal life and the social structure, and trying to make her own way, unlike the princesses who just wait for rescue.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nRelease and reception\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nTheatrical run\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nA large promotion campaign preceded Aladdins debut in theaters, with the film's trailer being attached to most Disney VHS releases, and numerous tie-ins and licensees being released. After a limited release on November 13, 1992, Aladdin debuted in 1,131 theaters on November 25, 1992, grossing $19.2 million in its opening weekend – number two at the box office, behind Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. It took eight weeks for the film to reach number one at the US box office, breaking the record for the week between Christmas and New Year's Eve with $32.2 million. The film held the top spot five times during its 22-week run. Aladdin was the most successful film of 1992 grossing $217 million in the United States and over $504 million worldwide. It was the biggest gross for an animated film until The Lion King two years later. As of January 2014, it is the thirtieth highest grossing animated film and the third highest grossing traditionally animated feature worldwide, behind The Lion King and The Simpsons Movie. It sold an estimated 52,442,300 tickets in the US.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nCritical reception\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nThe review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 94% of critics gave the film a positive review based on a sample of 68 reviews, with an average score of 8.1/10.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nMost critics' praise went to Robin Williams' performance as Genie, with Janet Maslin of The New York Times declaring that children \\\"needn't know precisely what Mr. Williams is evoking to understand how funny he is\\\". Warner Bros. Cartoons director Chuck Jones even called the film \\\"the funniest feature ever made.\\\" Furthermore, English-Irish comedian Spike Milligan considered it to be the greatest film of all time. James Berardinelli gave it 3.5 out of 4 stars, praising the \\\"crisp visuals and wonderful song-and-dance numbers\\\". Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said the comedy made the film accessible to both children and adults, a vision shared with Desson Howe of The Washington Post, who also said \\\"kids are still going to be entranced by the magic and adventure.\\\" Brian Lowry of Variety praised the cast of characters, describing the expressive magic carpet as \\\"its most remarkable accomplishment\\\" and considered that \\\"Aladdin overcomes most story flaws thanks to sheer technical virtuosity\\\".\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nSome aspects of the film were widely criticized. Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine wrote a negative review, describing the film as racist, ridiculous, and a \\\"narcissistic circus act\\\" from Robin Williams. Roger Ebert, who generally praised the film in his review, considered the music inferior to its predecessors The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast, and claimed Aladdin and Jasmine were \\\"pale and routine\\\".\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nAwards\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nAladdin also received many award nominations, mostly for its music. It won two Academy Awards, Best Music, Original Score and Best Music, Original Song for \\\"A Whole New World\\\" and receiving nominations for Best Song (\\\"Friend Like Me\\\"), Best Sound Editing (Mark A. Mangini), and Best Sound (Terry Porter, Mel Metcalfe, David J. Hudson and Doc Kane). At the Golden Globes, Aladdin won Best Original Song (\\\"A Whole New World\\\") and Best Original Score, as well as a Special Achievement Award for Robin Williams, with a nomination for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy. Other awards included the Annie Award for Best Animated Feature, a MTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance to Robin Williams, Saturn Awards for Best Fantasy Film, Performance by a Younger Actor to Scott Weinger and Supporting Actor to Robin Williams, the Best Animated Feature by the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, and four Grammy Awards, Best Soundtrack Album, and Song of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media for \\\"A Whole New World\\\".\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nHome media\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nThe film was first released in VHS on October 1, 1993, as part of the \\\"Walt Disney Classics\\\" line. In its first week of availability, Aladdin sold over 10.6 million copies, and went on to sell over 25 million in total (a record only broken by the later release of The Lion King). It entered moratorium on April 30, 1994.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nOn October 5, 2004, Aladdin was released on DVD, as part of Disney's Platinum Edition line. The DVD release featured retouched and cleaned-up animation, prepared for Aladdin's planned but ultimately cancelled IMAX reissue in 2003, and a second disc with bonus features. Accompanied by a $19 million marketing campaign, the DVD sold about 3 million units in its first month, but it was less than the number of copies, sold in that amount of time, by any other Platinum Edition released before it. The film's soundtrack was available in its original Dolby 5.1 track or in a new Disney Enhanced Home Theater Mix. The DVD went into moratorium in January 2008, along with its sequels.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nAccording to an insert in the Lady and the Tramp Diamond Edition release case, Aladdin was going to be released on Blu-ray Disc as a Diamond Edition in Spring 2013. Instead, Peter Pan was released on Blu-ray as a Diamond Edition on February 5, 2013 to celebrate its 60th anniversary. A non-Diamond Edition Blu-ray was released in a few select European countries in March 2013. The Belgian edition (released without advertisements, commercials or any kind of fanfare) comes as a 1-disc version with its extras ported over from the Platinum Edition DVD). The same disc was released in the United Kingdom on April 14, 2013. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on a Diamond Edition Blu-ray on October 13, 2015. The film was released on Digital HD on September 29, 2015. Upon its first week of release on home media in the U.S., the film topped the Blu-ray Disc sales chart and debuted at number 2 at the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert chart, which tracks overall disc sales behind the disaster film San Andreas.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nControversies\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nOne of the verses of the opening song \\\"Arabian Nights\\\" was altered following protests from the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee (ADC). The lyrics were changed in July 1993 from \\\"Where they cut off your ear if they don't like your face,\\\" in the original release to \\\"Where it's flat and immense and the heat is intense.\\\" The change first appeared on the 1993 video release. The original lyric was intact on the initial CD soundtrack release, but the re-release uses the edited lyric. The rerecording has the original voice on all other lines and then a noticeably deeper voice says the edited line. The Broadway adaptation also uses the edited line. Entertainment Weekly ranked Aladdin in a list of the most controversial films in history, due to this incident. The ADC also complained about the portrayal of the lead characters Aladdin and Jasmine. They criticized the characters' Anglicized features and Anglo-American accents, in contrast to the other characters in the film, which are dark-skinned, have foreign accents and grotesque facial features, and appear villainous or greedy.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nProtests were also raised to another scene. When Aladdin is attacked by the tiger Rajah on the palace balcony, Aladdin quietly says a line that some people reported hearing as \\\"Good teenagers, take off your clothes,\\\" which they considered a subliminal reference to promiscuity. However, according to the director's commentary on the 2004 DVD, while Musker and Clements did admit Scott Weinger ad-libbed during the scene, they claimed \\\"we did not record that, we would not record that.\\\" and said the line was \\\"Good tiger, take off and go...\\\" and the word \\\"tiger\\\" is overlapped by Rajah's snarl. After the word tiger, a second voice can be heard which has been suggested was accidentally grafted onto the soundtrack. Because of the controversy, Disney removed the line on the DVD release.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nAnimation enthusiasts have noticed similarities between Aladdin and Richard Williams' unfinished film The Thief and the Cobbler (also known as Arabian Knight under Miramax Films and The Princess and the Cobbler under Majestic Films International). These similarities include a similar plot, similar characters, scenes and background designs, and the antagonist Zig-Zag's resemblance in character design and mannerisms to Genie and Jafar. Though Aladdin was released prior to The Thief and the Cobbler, The Thief and the Cobbler was started much earlier in the 1960s, its production being mired in difficulties including financial problems, copyright issues, and late production times caused by separate studios trying to finish the film after Richard Williams was fired from the project for lack of finished work. The late release, coupled with Miramax purchasing and re-editing the film, has sometimes resulted in The Thief and the Cobbler being labeled a copy of Aladdin.\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nLive-action prequel\",\n \"Aladdin (1992 Disney film)\\n\\nOn July 15, 2015, the studio started developing a live-action comedy adventure prequel called Genies that is being written by Damian Shannon and Mark Swift, while Tripp Vinson is on board to produce via his Vinson Films banner. The film is planned to lead for a live-action Aladdin movie. On November 8, Disney revealed it had originally planned to use Robin Williams' unused lines from the 1991–92 recording sessions for the film, but his will prohibited the studio from using his likeness for twenty-five years after his death.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nPrincess Jasmine is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures' 31st animated feature film Aladdin (1992). Voiced by American actress Linda Larkin – with a singing voice provided by Filipina singer Lea Salonga on her behalf – Jasmine is the spirited Princess of Agrabah who has grown weary of being confined to palace life and regulations. Despite an age-old law that requires the princess to marry a prince in time for her next birthday, Jasmine wishes to marry someone she loves for who he is as opposed to what he owns.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nCreated by directors Ron Clements and John Musker, Jasmine was based on the princess from the \\\"Aladdin\\\" folktales. Jasmine was originally conceived as a spoiled, materialistic princess, but the writers eventually developed her into a stronger character after the elimination of Aladdin's mother. Six months into working on the film, Larkin was nearly fired from the project because Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg felt that her voice was not suitable for a princess, but Clements and Musker defended Larkin and managed to convince him otherwise. Salonga was hired as Jasmine's singing voice based on her performance in the musical Miss Saigon. Animated by Mark Henn, Jasmine's appearance was inspired by both Henn's sister and American actress Jennifer Connelly.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nJasmine has garnered a generally mixed reception from critics, many of whom praised her strong-willed and free-spirited personality, while others criticized her role in the film, which they felt was \\\"bland\\\" and \\\"unoriginal\\\". Several critics also drew comparisons between the character and preceding Disney Princess Belle from Beauty and the Beast (1991). Jasmine is the 6th member of the Disney Princess line-up, and the franchise's first West Asian member. The character also appears in its sequels The Return of Jafar (1994) and Aladdin and the King of Thieves (1996), as well as its television series, and a Broadway musical adaption of the film, in which the role was originated by actress Courtney Reed.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nDevelopment\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nConception and writing\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nJasmine is based on the princess who appears in the folktale One Thousand and One Nights. Lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken began developing Aladdin while they were writing songs for The Little Mermaid (1989), but further progression was abandoned in favor of working on Beauty and the Beast (1991) instead. However, Aladdin was finally resurrected as Beauty and the Beast neared completion. While the original princess was named Badroulbadour, the studio changed decided to change it to the more \\\"relatable\\\" \\\"Jasmine\\\" after actress Jasmine Guy. Additionally, the name \\\"Jasmine\\\" was one of the decades most popular names at the time. In Ashman's original treatment, Aladdin had two potential love interests: Jasmine, who was depicted as a spoiled and materialistic princess, as well as a \\\"Judy Garland-y tomboy\\\" whose romantic feelings for Aladdin were not reciprocated by the hero. Screenwriter Linda Woolverton eventually drafted a screenplay based on the film The Thief of Baghdad (1940); the revision included a handmaiden for Jasmine.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nDirectors and screenwriters Ron Clements and John Musker disregarded Woolverton's script in favor of developing Ashman's attempt but making several adjustments to his original outline, among them approaching the princess \\\"a little differently\\\", while maintaining Woolverton's idea of \\\"a princess that Aladdin could woo.\\\" Despite the presence of a princess character, the directors treated Aladdin as \\\"an Arabian adventure\\\" as opposed to a fairy tale. Unlike Disney's previous fairy tales, the film's main character is not the princess, and thus uniquely the story does not revolve around her. The decision to adapt Aladdin into a high comedy ultimately eliminated the need to explore some of Jasmine's storylines of being confined and vulnerable. Although several aspects of the original folktale were altered, Jasmine's main plot of being pressured into marriage remained generally the same.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nFollowing the elimination of Aladdin's mother, Jasmine and Aladdin's relationship was expanded upon to the point of which it became the film's focal point. The removal of Aladdin's mother consequently allowed for more screen time for the princess. Writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio re-wrote Jasmine into a \\\"stronger\\\" character who seeks freedom from her \\\"regal confinement\\\". The concept of Jasmine escaping the palace in the middle of the night was inspired by the film Roman Holiday (1953), in which Princess Ann, portrayed by actress Audrey Hepburn, similarly escapes the royal embassy in favor living as a regular citizen for a day. Additionally, Jasmine's handmaiden was also abandoned and replaced by a pet tiger.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nVoice\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nThe successful casting of American actor and comedian Robin Williams as the Genie inspired the studio to recruit other similarly talented voice actors who were capable of matching his pace. The filmmakers had originally envisioned the princess' voice as similar to that of American actress Lauren Bacall. Jasmine is voiced by American actress Linda Larkin; the role was only one of several auditions Larkin had scheduled for the week in which she auditioned for Aladdin, and originally underestimated the scope of the project, joking, \\\"I thought it was going to be something like Duck Tales (sic)\\\". Initially presented with only a few pages of the screenplay, Larkin was particularly drawn to Jasmine's \\\"spirit of activism”, in addition to the ways in which the character was both similar to and different from previous Disney heroines.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nLarkin's first audition was held in a Burbank, California recording studio, in which she performed solely for the film's casting director. The side used for Larkin's audition was the scene in which Jasmine first meets Aladdin in the marketplace. Although Larkin's voice was significantly different from what the filmmakers had originally envisioned for the character, her performance gradually changed their minds. In a series of callbacks, Larkin returned to the studio on several occasions over the next few months; while the audience of studio executives and filmmakers continued to increase, the number of actresses competing for the role decreased. Larkin's final audition lasted a total of four hours, during which she read the entire script. The animators also animated to Larkin's voice for the first time. The actress was finally cast several months later, by which time she had already forgotten she had ever auditioned.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nHowever, six months into recording, Larkin was forced to re-audition by Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg, who \\\"didn't think Linda sounded forceful\\\" or \\\"regal enough to portray a princess.\\\" However, Clements and Musker thoroughly enjoyed Larkin's approach, and managed to convince Katzenberg to keep Larkin by staging a fake recording session during which they had Larkin speak lower and slower in Katzenberg`s presence, but ultimately asked her to return to her natural voice thereafter. At one point, Larkin begged the directors to allow her to record her one scene in the film with Williams alongside the actor, which she ultimately described as \\\"the best day of my life\\\". Meanwhile, Larkin is five years older than co-star Scott Weigner, who voices Aladdin.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nBefore discovering Larkin, Disney had insisted on only auditioning performers who were able to sing as well as they could act. However, after the casting of Williams, the studio relented in favor of casting \\\"strong actors\\\" instead. When Larkin first auditioned for the role, Jasmine did not have a song at the time as \\\"A Whole New World\\\" had not yet been written; she admitted, \\\"there’s no way I would have even auditioned ... if there had been a song from the beginning.\\\" After writing Jasmine's first song, the filmmakers as Larkin if she was interested in recording it and providing the character's singing voice. Larkin immediately declined, explaining, \\\"I do [sing] … but not like a princess!\\\" Thus, Disney decided to recruit a singer capable of mimicking Larkin's voice instead, despite the actress' fear of the studio replacing her with a professional singer altogether. Larkin became one of Disney's first voice actors who did not provide the singing voice of the character she voiced, and Jasmine marked the first time Disney decided to separate a character's speaking and singing voice. Jasmine's singing voice is provided by Filipina singer Lea Salonga on Larkin's behalf.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nSalonga's performance in the musical Miss Saigon drew the attention of one of Aladdin's casting directors, who proceeded to leave the singer a note on the stage door after the show. Salonga's agent then scheduled an audition for her, at which she performed \\\"Part of Your World\\\" from The Little Mermaid. Salonga began recording demos for \\\"A Whole New World\\\" a few days afterward. Apart from storyboards and images, Jasmine did not see much of her character until a screening of the film at the Museum of Modern Art.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nPersonality and design\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nThe writers had originally conceived Jasmine as a spoiled and materialistic princess whose interests were limited to clothing and jewelry, but she was eventually developed into a stronger, more mature character. Larkin described Jasmine as \\\"a very strong, well defined character from the very beginning.\\\" Mark Henn served as Jasmine's supervising animator. Originally hired to animate Aladdin's mother, the eventual removal of the character ultimately allowed the animator to animate Jasmine, who ultimately became a much more prominent character. Throughout Disney's previous animated film Beauty and the Beast, the design of the character Belle – who Henn had also helped animate – suffered from various noticeable inconsistencies due to the character having been animated at two separate locations. To avoid experiencing a similar feat with the appearance of Jasmine, the filmmakers ultimately decided to have the princess animated entirely at one studio. Because Jasmine is not the film's main character, she was relegated to being animated at the company's secondary studio in Florida, while Aladdin was animated in California. However, the intimate love scenes between the two characters remained particularly difficult to animate due to the 2000 mile distance.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nArt director Bill Perkins aspired to incorporate Arabian architecture into the film; Jasmine's figure was based on the famous mausoleum the Taj Mahal, specifically the curves found in the characters hair, clothing and jewelry.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nHaving just recently animated two previous Disney heroines – Ariel from The Little Mermaid and Belle from Beauty and the Beast, Henn initially suffered from severe \\\"artist's block\\\" while designing Jasmine. While working on the character at Disney-MGM Studios in Florida, Henn witnessed a young amusement park guest with long black hair, who ultimately became his initial inspiration for Jasmine; the guest remains anonymous. Earliest sketches of Jasmine were based on exotic-looking supermodels in addition to her namesake Jasmine Guy, but the actress' dramatic features were ultimately considered to be too \\\"severe\\\". Henn explained that \\\"I needed something fresh to help with the physical look of her.\\\" The animator was eventually inspired by a high school graduation photograph of his younger sister Beth Allen, who donned a hairstyle similar to what would become Jasmine's. The directors ultimately approved of Henn's concept design of Jasmine. The character's appearance was also further inspired by American actress Jennifer Connelly, specifically incorporating the actress' eyebrows. Additionally, some of Larkin's own mannerisms were also incorporated into the character. One evening Henn and Larkin had dinner together during which, through conversation, the actress was \\\"very inspirational in terms of finding Jasmine's emotional side.\\\"\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nThe final appearance of Jasmine consequently inspired the studio to redesign Aladdin accordingly because Katzenberg felt that the lead character, who was originally depicted as a younger, \\\"scrawny\\\" underdog, did not resemble \\\"a suitable leading man for the beautiful Jasmine\\\", which they feared would have resulted in unconvincing chemistry between the two. Thus, they ultimately decided to base Aladdin on American actor Tom Cruise. Henn's favorite scene to animate was the scene in which Jasmine discovers Aladdin's true identity and gives the character \\\"a look\\\". The filmmakers decided to dress Jasmine in blue to represent water: \\\"the most precious substance one can find in a desert\\\"; the animators placed the character next to a fountain to further emphasize this motif. Jasmine became Disney's first non-white princess.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nCharacterization and themes\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nNotably, Jasmine is not her film's protagonist, a role occupied instead by title character Aladdin. The character is both similar to and different from preceding Disney heroines. Brian Lowry of Variety likened Jasmine's strong-willed personality to that of Belle, describing her as an \\\"anachronistically liberated\\\" heroine. Belonging to \\\"a series of spunky heroines\\\" directly inspired by the girl power movement, Hearing a Film, Seeing a Sermon: Preaching and Popular Movies author Timothy B. Cargal recognized that Jasmine belongs to Disney's \\\"continued efforts to reshape their heroines for a more feminist age\\\". However, at only 15 years of age, the princess is more resourceful than her two immediate predecessors Ariel and Belle. The Art of the Princess and the Frog author Jeff Kurrti observed that although \\\"Jasmine is less prominent as a heroine ... she made decisions and was a little more strong-willed\\\". Samantha Rullo of Bustle agreed that, despite her secondary role, Jasmine is \\\"determined to live her life the way she wants to, rather than letting others make her decisions for her\\\" and remains one of Disney's most rebellious and spirited princesses.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nLarkin believes that Jasmine takes initiative to change her kingdom's marriage laws, which she considers \\\"wrong,\\\" elaborating, \\\"Jasmine didn’t just believe in something, she fought against something that she saw was an injustice – about the marriage laws – and she triumphed in the end. She actively sought change and made it happen.\\\" Jasmine's personality remains among \\\"the strongest\\\" of Disney's heroines, as she is not concerned about wealth or class despite her noble upbringing. Notably, Jasmine remains Disney's only princess whose official costume is not a dress, while the character is also one of only two Disney Princesses to wear pants. Additionally, Jasmine is the only Disney Princess to have kissed her film's villain.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nAccording to Orange Coast's Henry A. Giroux, Jasmine's life is almost entirely determined by men. According to The Washington Post's Desson Howe, Jasmine appears \\\"to have stepped out of the 1990s\\\" and \\\"resents this family glass ceiling.\\\" Movies and the Mind: Theories of the Great Psychoanalysts Applied to Film author William Indick observed that Jasmine represents \\\"the rejection of the father-king's domination and control over his daughter's life\\\", resembling \\\"a strong and assertive heroine who rebels against her father's tyranny rather than passively accepting his will.\\\" Musker agreed that the character \\\"rebel[s] against the social structure in choosing to marry someone of her own free will\\\". In Ulrich Marzolph's book The Arabian Nights Reader, the author described the character as \\\"the mouthpiece of opposition to a vaguely defined Middle Eastern backwardness and authoritarianism.\\\" Steve Daly of Entertainment Weekly identified Jasmine as \\\"a sexually aware, proto-feminist princess\\\".\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nThe Routledge Companion to Media & Gender author Cynthia Carter believes that, like most Disney heroines, Jasmine becomes \\\"the possession of their husband or another male.\\\" Additionally, the character shares the theme of seeking freedom with the film's other main characters, although Jasmine's wish \\\"to see something more beyond the palace that entraps her and avoid an unwanted marriage\\\" is arguably \\\"angrier\\\" than Aladdin's. Jasmine explores the theme that \\\"the idea that enclosing yourself behind walls can make you more vulnerable, not less\\\", as evidenced by the fact that the character knows little about money whens she leaves the palace for the first time. In the film, Jasmine releases a flock of birds from their cage to serve as a metaphor for her situation of being \\\"caged from a world she has never seen and yearns to be released.\\\" Jasmine's bedroom is also bird cage-shaped. Thematically, Jasmine also represents civil rights, racial tolerance, social hierarchy, as well as life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nAppearances\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nAladdin\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nJasmine first appears in Aladdin (1992), as the oldest daughter of the wealthy Sultan of Agrabah. Jasmine was unhappy with having no choice in life, and being ruled over by her father, so she runs away from home the palace life for a free and more simple life. After escaping to the town of Agrabah that surrounds the palace walls, she meets Aladdin after he saves her from an irate merchant after she gave one of his apples to a street child without paying for it, by him claiming plea of mild insanity on her behalf. They run off together to Aladdin's hovel, where they both realize that they want to be free of the life that they are living and they have the same dreams. Shortly after this, Aladdin is arrested by guards led by Razoul. Jasmine reveals herself to them and demands them to let Aladdin go, but Razoul explains that he is doing so on Jafar's orders. Jasmine confronts Jafar and orders them to release Aladdin, but Jafar tells her that Aladdin has already been executed; Jasmine is left distraught and she blames herself for Aladdin's misfortune.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nAfter Aladdin's wish to become a prince is granted to him by The Genie, he visits Jasmine in the guise of \\\"Prince Ali-Ababwa\\\". She initially believes him to be just another arrogant suitor, but later accepts his proposal after falling in love with him on a magic carpet ride. During this time, Jasmine sees through Aladdin's disguise, but Aladdin convinces her that he sometimes dressed up as a commoner to \\\"escape the pressures of palace life\\\", which she relates to. She is taken back to the palace and the two share a kiss.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nHowever, upon announcing her decision to marry Aladdin, Jafar takes over Agrabah by stealing the lamp from Aladdin. At the same time, Aladdin attempts to reveal his true identity, but before he can do so, Jafar exposes it to Jasmine. After Jafar banishes Aladdin to the ends of the Earth, he then makes Jasmine his personal slavegirl. Jasmine was then forced to wear the revealing costume of a harem concubine and leashed to Jafar's throne to serve him. While Aladdin is banished to the frozen tundra, Jasmine must endure Jafar's lecherous advances and humiliations. When Aladdin finally returns, he goes to rescue Jasmine and saves the kingdom. Jasmine helps Aladdin to distract Jafar by pretending to fall madly in love with him. After Jafar discovers her ruse, Jasmine tries to steal the lamp, but is trapped in an hourglass and nearly dies from being buried alive. In the end, she is saved by Aladdin and returns to be the Princess of Agrabah, with her father, the Sultan. After seeing how much Jasmine loves Aladdin, her father changes the old law to enable the princess to \\\"marry any man she deems worthy\\\", and the two are engaged.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nAladdin: The Return of Jafar\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nIn the first direct-to-video sequel, The Return of Jafar (1994), Jasmine begins to question her trust in Aladdin after he defends Iago, Jafar's former pet parrot who had terrorized her father, but she quickly gets over these questions with Iago's help (who convinces her that she cares about Aladdin by calling her bluff). She later accepts Iago as a friend after he helps her mend her relationship with Aladdin, frees the Genie to save Aladdin, and defeats Jafar under risk of his own life.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nAladdin and the King of Thieves\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nFinally, in the second direct-to-video/DVD movie, Aladdin and the King of Thieves (1996) she and Aladdin are finally about to wed, when their wedding is interrupted by the Forty Thieves. After learning what they were after, Aladdin finds out from the Oracle that his father Cassim is still alive. Jasmine convinces him to seek out for his father, and that their wedding can be delayed a little bit longer.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nWhile he is away, Jasmine grows worried, and Genie cheers her up by goofing around. When Aladdin returns with Cassim, she and the Sultan take an immediate liking to him. However, he later tries to steal the Oracle, and is put in prison; Aladdin helps him escape, which result in punishment. Jasmine and the Genie convince the Sultan that he helped his father out of love. At that moment, Iago (who was with Cassim) returns, telling them that Cassim has been captured by Sa'luk and the remaining Thieves.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nJasmine goes with Aladdin to rescue his father, and afterward they return for their wedding, which Cassim attends from the shadows. They go for a ride on Carpet, waving good-bye to the Merchant from the first film and Iago and Cassim as they ride off.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nDisney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nPrincess Jasmine (Linda Larkin) is tired and bored of her usual princess duties. She is no longer satisfied with overseeing shop openings and assisting in the sale of a camel at the local market place. While having her portrait painted as a \\\"Peacock Princess,\\\" Jasmine loses patience and says she wants more responsibility. The Sultan (Jeff Bennett) gives her the job of \\\"Royal Assistant Educator\\\" at the Royal Academy. Jasmine is thrilled until she meets her pupils. They run amok, draw on the walls, pillow fight, and throw books. She calls Rajah (Frank Welker) to try to scare the children into behaving, but they ignore him and chase Jasmine and Rajah into the mud and up a tree. Jasmine gives up. Later that night, her lady-in-waiting tells her that she needs patience and perseverance and that with these tools, she can do anything she wants. The next day, Hakeem (Zack Shada), the stable boy, seeks Jasmine's help. The Sultan's prized horse, Sahara, is missing from the Stables. Jasmine takes it upon herself, with Carpet, Abu (Welker), and Iago's (Gilbert Gottfried) help, to find Sahara and return him to the Palace.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nIn other media\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nJasmine is an official member of the Disney Princess line, a prominent franchise directed to young girls. The franchise covers a wide variety of merchandise, including but not limited to magazines, music albums, toys, video games, clothes and stationery. She is featured prominently in Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams, where she is the main character of one of the film's segments.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nPrincess Jasmine has made many appearances outside of the Aladdin films, including appearances at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts as a meetable character. She is a frequently-seen character, and often accompanies Aladdin, and occasionally Genie. Jasmine is a featured character in the Mickey's PhilharMagic 3D show at Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom and Hong Kong Disneyland. Jasmine, Aladdin, Carpet, Abu and Genie make cameo appearances in the Hong Kong Disneyland version of It's a Small World. Jasmine also appears in various television series and was featured as a main character in the animated series based on the original 1992 feature. The series picked up where The Return of Jafar left off, with Aladdin still living on the streets of Agrabah, engaged to Jasmine. The character also made cameo appearances in Disney's House of Mouse and Hercules: The Animated Series. Recently, Jasmine appeared in the episode \\\"Two to Tangu\\\" of the Disney Junior series Sofia the First, in which she helps Sofia and Amber tame a wild magic carpet.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nJasmine appears in Kingdom Hearts as a supporting character in Agrabah, based on the Aladdin films. She is one of the Princesses of Heart kidnapped by Maleficent. She appears again in Kingdom Hearts II, and explains the strange behavior of Aladdin to Sora, Duck and Goofy. The cause of Aladdin's behavior is his loneliness after Genie went to see the other worlds. When Genie comes back all is well again. Linda Larkin reprises her role in the English version. Aside from the Kingdom Hearts series, Jasmine makes appearances in the video game adaptations of the 1992 film.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nIn the Broadway musical adaptation of the movie, Jasmine is played by actress, Courtney Reed.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nJasmine is slated to make her live-action debut in the upcoming sixth season of Once Upon a Time where she'll be played by Karen David.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nReception\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nThe reverse cover of the film's original home video release promoted Jasmine as \\\"a heroine of the Nineties.\\\" However, according to It's Not the Media: The Truth about Pop Culture's Influence on Children author Karen Sternheimer, despite being \\\"strong-willed and almost given feminist qualities\\\", the character \\\"resembles heroines of old, waiting for her 'prince' to come and rescue her and using traditional feminine wiles to get her out of trouble.\\\"\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nCritical reception towards Jasmine has been generally mixed. Ty Burr of Entertainment Weekly described Jasmine as Disney's \\\"most full-bodied\\\" heroine. Desson Howe of The Washington Post appreciated Jasmine for providing the film with \\\"feminist consciousness\\\". The Christian Science Monitor's David Sterrit opined, \\\"the princess ... is less carefully worked out [than Aladdin] but equally likable as a personality type.\\\" Contactmusic.com agreed that Jasmine has \\\"likeably cynical streaks\\\" despite being an \\\"essentially bland\\\" character. Gary Thompson of the Philadelphia Daily News wrote, \\\"Princess Jasmine is also more barbed, yet without the obvious feminist makeover given to Belle\\\".\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nSimilarly, James Berardinelli of ReelViews commended Jasmine for \\\"show[ing] the same streak of stubborn independence exhibited by Ariel and Belle,\\\" but ultimately criticized the fact that \\\"she doesn't fill a more pressing role than that of Aladdin's 'love interest.'\\\" Writing for Tor.com, Mari Ness agreed that \\\"Compared to these side characters, main characters Aladdin and Jasmine feel a bit, well, bland.\\\" Ness elaborated, \\\"Jasmine follows in the footsteps of Ariel and Belle as someone unhappy with the restrictions of her world and her lack of choices: like both of them, she takes active steps to change this, and it’s not entirely her fault that she’s a secondary character in a film not all that interested in her ... She’s perceptive, and fast thinking, but this isn’t her movie, and in the end, although she does get to choose her own husband, she doesn’t really get a chance, like Ariel and Belle, to move out of her world. She can be shown the world, but she stays in her palace.\\\"\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nOther critics have reacted less favorably towards Jasmine. Common Sense Media criticized the character for lacking an original predicament, while Creative Loafing's Matt Brunson described her as a \\\"liberated\\\" but \\\"stiff\\\" heroine. Janet Maslin of The New York Times panned Jasmine: \\\"the sloe-eyed Princess Jasmine ... a nymph in harem pants, use[s] words like 'fabulous' and 'amazing' to express unremarkable thoughts\\\", concluding, \\\"Luckily, they are surrounded by an overpowering array of secondary characters who make the film's sidelines much more interesting than its supposed center.\\\" While Time Out called the character disappointing, TV Guide criticized Jasmine for being \\\"bland\\\". Roger Ebert cited Jasmine among the film's \\\"weaknesses\\\", panning the relationship between her and Aladdin as \\\"pale and routine\\\". Additionally, Ebert concluded that the characters \\\"look unformed, as if even the filmmakers didn't see them as real individuals.\\\" Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine similarly derided the character, writing, \\\"Jasmine is another 'free-spirited' type in the Barbie-doll tradition, a faux feminist who wants everyone to know that she can do everything the boys can\\\". Orange Coast's Henry A.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nGiroux panned Jasmine as little more than \\\"an object of [Aladdin]'s immediate desire\\\" and \\\"stepping stone to social mobility.\\\" When questioned about whether or not Jasmine is a positive role model because \\\"all she wants to do is get married\\\", Larkin defended her character, explaining, \\\"That's not true. Jasmine says to a generation of little kids about marriage that the law is wrong. She risks everything—her safety, her comfort, everything she knows—and goes out and finds a way to change the marriage law ... Yeah, she's a good role model!' Really good! Whether it's connected or not, that person that the writers created that I got to portray, I'm so proud of her. And I feel like she was ahead of her time.\\\"\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nDue to the film's popularity, Jasmine ultimately became one of the original members of the Disney Princess franchise, and remains the only member of the lineup who is not the main character of her film. After Aladdin's release, Jasmine would remain Disney's last fairy tale princess for 17 years. As Disney's first non-white princess, the character is credited with introducing ethnic diversity to Disney animated films, and was followed by three ethnic Disney Princesses: Pocahontas, Mulan and Tiana, thus \\\"paving the way in letting children believe that anyone of any race can be a princess and more importantly, to fight for what you believe in.\\\" Bustle included the moment Jasmine meets Aladdin for the first time in the website's ranking of the most feminist Disney Princess moments. Describing the character's storyline as \\\"pretty awesome,\\\" author Samantha Rullo scribed, \\\"when she meets Aladdin we learn just how strong-willed and independent she truly is.\\\" Tala Dayrit of Female Network included Jasmine in her list of \\\"30 Fierce and Fun Female Cartoon Characters\\\".\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nDescribing her as \\\"a new-age princess\\\", Dayrit wrote that Jasmine is \\\"opinionated and spirited, with a clear mind of her own\\\" who \\\"refus[es] to believe that her life should be lived according to the dictates of others\\\". According to Meghan O’Keefe of Overthinking It, Jasmine is \\\"introduced [as a] character with tremendous potential to be a feminist heroine ... but ultimately, ineffectual.\\\" O'Keefe continued, \\\"All we see Jasmine do is sit around with a docile tiger and pout. She doesn’t do chores because she’s a princess, but she also doesn’t read books, play music, or talk to any human beings\\\", ultimately criticizing her for lacking the \\\"violent thirst for learning\\\" that Ariel and Belle possessed. Sonia Saraiya of Nerve ranked Jasmine fifth in her article \\\"Ranked: Disney Princesses From Least To Most Feminist\\\". Saraiya praised her personality, likening her boldness, curiosity, and skepticism of marriage to that of Belle while commending her for \\\"falling for a completely inadequate 'street rat' and whisking him out of poverty, instead of the other way around.\\\" However, Saraiya labeled Jasmine's use of sexuality her \\\"only power\\\", criticizing her for sending a negative message to young girls.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nDimas Sanfiorenzo of Complex ranked Jasmine second in his article \\\"The 25 Hottest Cartoon Women Of All Time\\\", awarding specific praise to her hair and her eyes.\",\n \"Princess Jasmine\\n\\nJasmine was Disney's first non-white princess, which inspired the studio to continue becoming more ethnically diverse with their next princesses Pocahontas and Mulan. Jasmine and Aladdin's appearance garnered controversy by being similar in appearance to Caucasians. The Arabian Nights Reader author observed that the character speaks \\\"perfect American English\\\" despite her \\\"ostensibly Middle Eastern features.\\\"\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137082,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2304"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"First settled in 1565, what is the oldest, continually occupied European-established city in the continental US?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"St. Augustine, FL"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["st augustine flordida","st augustine florida","saint augustine city","saint augustine fl","st augustine fla","st augustine fl","excelsior high school st augustine florida","saint augustine florida"],"string":"[\n \"st augustine flordida\",\n \"st augustine florida\",\n \"saint augustine city\",\n \"saint augustine fl\",\n \"st augustine fla\",\n \"st augustine fl\",\n \"excelsior high school st augustine florida\",\n \"saint augustine florida\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["St. Augustine, Florida\n\nSt. Augustine () is a city in northeastern Florida. It is the oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement within the borders of the contiguous United States.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nThe county seat of St. Johns County, it is part of Florida's First Coast region and the Jacksonville metropolitan area. According to the 2010 census, the city population was 12,975. The United States Census Bureau's 2013 estimate of the city's population was 13,679, while the urban area had a population of 69,173 in 2012.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nSaint Augustine was founded on September 8, 1565, by Spanish admiral and Florida's first governor, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. He named the settlement \"San Agustín\", as his ships bearing settlers, troops, and supplies from Spain had first sighted land in Florida on August 28, 1565, the feast day of St. Augustine. The city served as the capital of Spanish Florida for over 200 years, and became the capital of British East Florida when the territory briefly changed hands between Spain and Britain. Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1819, and when the treaty was ratified in 1821, St. Augustine was designated the capital of the Florida Territory until Tallahassee was made the capital in 1824. Since the late 19th century, St. Augustine's distinct historical character has made the city a major tourist attraction. It is also the headquarters for the Florida National Guard.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nHistory","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nFounding by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nFounded in 1565 by the Spanish conquistador, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the United States. In 1562, a group of French Protestants known as Huguenots, led by Jean Ribault, arrived in Spanish Florida to establish a colony in the territory claimed by Spain. They explored the mouth of the St. Johns River, calling it la Rivière de Mai (the River May), then sailed northward and established a settlement called Charlesfort at Port Royal Sound in present-day South Carolina. Spain learned of this French expedition through its spies at ports on the Atlantic coast of France. The Huguenot nobleman René de Laudonnière, who had participated in the expedition, returned to Florida in 1564 with three ships and 300 Huguenot colonists. He arrived at the mouth of the River May on June 22, 1564, sailed up it a few miles, and founded Fort Caroline.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nDesiring to protect its claimed territories in North America against such incursions, the Spanish Crown issued an asiento to Menéndez, signed by King Philip II on March 20, 1565, granting him expansive trade privileges, the power to distribute lands, licenses to sell 500 slaves, as well as various titles, including that of adelantado of Florida. This contract directed Menéndez to sail for La Florida, reconnoitre it from the Florida Keys to present-day Canada, and report on its coastal features, with a view to establishing a permanent colony for the defense of the Spanish treasure fleet. He was ordered as well to drive away any intruders who were not subjects of the Spanish crown.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nOn July 28, Menéndez set sail from Cádiz with a fleet led by his 600-ton flagship, the San Pelayo, accompanied by several smaller ships, and carrying over 1,000 sailors, soldiers, and settlers. On the feast day of St. Augustine, August 28, the fleet sighted land and anchored off the north inlet of the tidal channel the French called the River of Dolphins. Menéndez then sailed north and confronted Ribault's fleet outside the bar of the River May in a brief skirmish. On September 6, he returned to the site of his first landfall, naming it after the Catholic saint, disembarked his troops, and quickly constructed fortifications to protect his people and supplies.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nMenéndez then marched his soldiers overland for a surprise attack on Fort Caroline, where they killed almost everyone in the fort except for the women and children. Jean Ribault had already put out to sea with his ships for an assault on St. Augustine, but was surprised by a storm that wrecked his ships further south. Informed by his Indian allies that the survivors were walking northward on the coast, Menéndez began to search for the Frenchmen, who had made it as far as the banks of the river's south entrance. There they were confronted by the Spaniard and his men on the opposite side. After several parleys with the Spanish, Jean Ribault and the Frenchmen with him (between 150–350, sources differ) surrendered; almost all of them were executed in the dunes near the inlet, thereafter called Matanzas (Spanish for \"slaughters\").","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nIn May 1566, as relations with the neighboring Timucua Indians deteriorated, Menéndez moved the Spanish settlement to a more defensible position on the north end of the barrier island between the mainland and the sea, and built a wooden fort there. In 1572, the settlement was relocated to the mainland, in the area just south of the future town plaza. Confident that he had fulfilled the primary conditions of his contract with the King, including the building of forts along the coast of La Florida, Menéndez returned to Spain in 1567. After several more transatlantic crossings, Menéndez fell ill and died on September 17, 1574.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nInvasions by pirates and enemies of Spain","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nSucceeding governors of the province maintained a peaceful coexistence with the local Native Americans, allowing the isolated outpost of St. Augustine some stability for a few years. On May 28 and 29, 1586, soon after the Anglo-Spanish War began between England and Spain, the English privateer Sir Francis Drake sacked and burned St. Augustine. The approach of his large fleet obliged Governor Pedro Menéndez Márquez and the townspeople to flee for their safety. When the English got ashore, they seized some artillery pieces and a royal strongbox containing gold ducats, the garrison payroll. The killing of their sergeant major by the Spanish rearguard caused Drake to order the town burnt.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nIn 1609 and 1611, expeditions were sent out from St. Augustine against the English settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. In the second half of the 17th century, unsettled groups of Indians, forced southward by the expanding English colony in Carolina, made raids into Florida and killed the Franciscan priests who served at the Catholic missions. Requests by successive governors of the province to strengthen the presidio’s garrison and fortifications were ignored by the Crown. The charter of 1663 for the new Province of Carolina, issued by King Charles II of England, was revised in 1665, claiming lands as far southward as 29 degrees north latitude, about 65 miles south of the existing Spanish settlement at St. Augustine.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nThe English buccaneer Robert Searle sacked St. Augustine in 1688, killing sixty people and pillaging government buildings, churches and houses, after which his pirates ransomed off some of their hostages and sold others into slavery. This raid and the establishment of the English settlement at Charles Town spurred the Spanish monarchy to finally acknowledge the threat represented by the new English colonies to the north and strengthen the city's defenses. In 1669, Queen Regent Mariana ordered the Viceroy of New Spain to disburse funds for the construction of a permanent masonry fortress, which began in 1672. The Castillo de San Marcos was completed in 1695, not long before an attack by Governor Moore's forces from Carolina in November, 1702. Failing to take the fort after a siege of 58 days, the British troops burned St. Augustine to the ground as they retreated. In 1740, the town was again besieged, this time by the governor of the British colony of Georgia, General James Oglethorpe, who was also unable to take the fort.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nLoyalist haven under British rule","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nThe Treaty of Paris (1763), signed after Great Britain's victory over France and Spain during the Seven Years' War, ceded Florida to Great Britain and consequently St. Augustine became a Loyalist haven during the American Revolutionary War. The second Treaty of Paris (1783), which recognized the independence of the former British colonies north of Florida, ceded Florida back to Spain, and many of the town's Spanish citizens returned in 1784. Refugees from Dr. Andrew Turnbull's troubled colony in New Smyrna had fled to St. Augustine in 1777, and made up the majority of the city's population when the British left. This group was (and still is) referred to locally as \"Minorcans\", even though it included settlers from Corsica, Italy and the Greek islands as well as those from the Mediterranean island of Minorca, who were the most numerous among them.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nSecond Spanish Period","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nDuring the Second Spanish Period (1784-1821) of its rule in Florida, Spain was dealing with invasions of the Iberian peninsula by Napoleon's armies in the Peninsular War, and struggled to maintain a tenuous hold on its colonies in the western hemisphere as revolution swept South America. The royal administration of Florida was neglected, as the province had long been regarded as an unprofitable backwater by the Crown. The United States, however, considered Florida vital to its political and military interests as it expanded its territory in North America, and maneuvered by sometimes clandestine means to acquire it. The Adams–Onís Treaty, negotiated in 1819 and concluded in 1821, ceded Florida and St. Augustine, still its capital at the time, to the United States.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nTerritory of Florida","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nFlorida remained an organized territory of the United States until 1845, when it was admitted into the Union as the State of Florida. The Territorial Period (1821-1845) was marked by protracted wars with the Creek Indian groups who occupied the peninsula, collectively known as \"Seminoles\", during the Second Seminole War (1835-1842). The United States Army took command of the Castillo de San Marcos and renamed it Fort Marion after General Francis Marion, who fought in the American Revolutionary War.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nCivil War","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nFlorida joined the Confederacy after the Civil War began in 1861, and Confederate authorities remained in control of St. Augustine for fourteen months, even though it was barely defended, and in spite of the Union blockade of shipping off the coast. Union troops occupied St. Augustine in 1862 and controlled the city through the rest of the war. Its economy already devastated, many of the town's citizens fled.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nHenry Flagler and the railroad","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nHenry Flagler, a co-founder with John D. Rockefeller of the Standard Oil Company, spent the winter of 1883 in St. Augustine and found the city charming, but considered its hotels and transportation systems inadequate. He had the idea to make St. Augustine a winter resort for wealthy Americans from the north, and to bring them south he bought several short line railroads and combined these in 1885 to form the Florida East Coast Railway. He built a railroad bridge over the St. Johns River in 1888, opening up the Atlantic coast of Florida to development.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nFlagler began construction in 1887 of two large ornate hotels, the 540-room Ponce de León Hotel and the Hotel Alcazar, and bought the Casa Monica Hotel the next year. His chosen architectural firm, Carrère and Hastings, radically altered the appearance of St. Augustine and gave it a skyline, beginning an architectural trend in the state characterized by the use of elements of the Moorish Revival style. With the opening of the Ponce in 1888, St. Augustine became the winter resort of American high society for a few years.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nAfter Flagler's Florida East Coast Railroad had been extended southward to Palm Beach and then Miami, the rich mostly abandoned St. Augustine in the early 20th century and began to customarily spend their winters in South Florida, where the climate was warmer and freezes were rare. St. Augustine nevertheless still attracted tourists, and eventually became a destination for families traveling in automobiles as new roads were built and Americans took to the road for annual summer vacations. The tourist industry soon became the dominant sector of the local economy. With the help of state and federal government monies, St. Augustine began a program in 1935 to preserve thirty-six surviving colonial buildings and reconstruct others that were gone.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\n400th year","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nIn 1965, St. Augustine celebrated the quadricentennial of its founding, and jointly with the State of Florida, inaugurated a program to restore part of the colonial city. When the State of Florida abolished the Historic St. Augustine Preservation Board in 1997, the City of St. Augustine assumed control of more than thirty-six buildings that had been reconstructed or restored to their historical appearance, as well as other historic properties including the Government House.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nGeography and climate","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nSt. Augustine is located at (29.8946910, −81.3145170).\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (21.99%) is water. Access to the Atlantic Ocean is via the St. Augustine Inlet of the Matanzas River.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nSt. Augustine has a humid subtropical climate or Cfa – typical of the Gulf and South Atlantic states. The low latitude and coastal location gives the city a mostly warm and sunny climate. Like much of Florida, St. Augustine enjoys a high number of sunny days, averaging 2,900 hours annually. Unlike much of the continental United States, St. Augustine’s driest time of year is winter. The hot and wet season extends from May through October, while the cool and dry season extends November through April.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nIn the hot season average daytime highs are in the upper 80s to low 90s °F (26° to 33 °C) and average night-time lows are in the low 70s °F (21 °C). The Bermuda High pumps in hot and unstable tropical air from the Bahamas and Gulf of Mexico, which help create the daily thundershowers that are so typical in the summer months. Intense but very brief downpours are common in mid-summer in the city. Fall and spring are warm and sunny with highs in the 75 to 80 F (21 to 24 °C) range and overnight lows in the 50s to low 60s (10 to 17 °C).","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nIn the dry winter season, St. Augustine has mild and sunny weather typical of the Florida peninsula. The coolest months are from December through February, with average daytime highs that range from 65 to 70 °F (18 to 21 °C) and nighttime lows in the 46-49 F (8 to 10 °C) range. From November through April, St. Augustine often has long periods of rainless weather. Early spring (April) can see near drought conditions with brush fires and water restrictions in place. St. Augustine averages six frosts per year. Tropical cyclones occasionally impact the region; however, like most areas prone to tropical cyclones, a direct hit by a major hurricane is rare. The last direct hit by a major hurricane to the city was Hurricane Dora in 1964.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nDemographics","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nAs of the 2010 United States Census, there were 12,975 people, 5,743 households, and 2,679 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,376.2 people per square mile (531/km²). There were 6,978 housing units at an average density of 549.4 per square mile (211.4/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 84.2% Caucasian, 11.6% African American, 0.4% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.8% from other races, and 1.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.1% of the population.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nThere were 5,743 households out of which 14.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.7% were married couples living together, 10.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 53.4% were non-families. 37.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.03 and the average family size was 2.67.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nIn the city the population was spread out with 13.1% under the age of 18, 15.3% from 18 to 24, 23.9% from 25 to 44, 25.2% from 45 to 64, and 19% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42.6 years. For every 100 females there were 88.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.8 males.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nThe median income for a household in the city was $36,424, and the median income for a family was $56,055. Males had a median income of $32,409 versus $30,188 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,485. About 7.6% of families and 21.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.8% of those under age 18 and 24.4% of those age 65 or over.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nTransportation","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nHighways","St. Augustine, Florida\n\n* Interstate 95 runs north–south.\n* U.S. Route 1 runs north–south.\n* State Road A1A runs north–south.\n* State Road 16 runs east–west\n* State Road 207 runs northeast–southwest\n* State Road 312 runs east–west","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nBuses","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nBus service is operated by the Sunshine Bus Company. Buses operate mainly between shopping centers across town, but a few go to Hastings and Jacksonville, where one can connect to JTA for additional service across Jacksonville.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nAirport","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nSt. Augustine has one public airport 4 mi north of town. It has six runways (with three water runways for seaplanes). The airport was once served by Skybus, however Skybus ceased operations as of April 4, 2008. In addition to private flights and tour helicopters, Frontier Airlines provides service to Philadelphia International Airport and Chicago O’Hare International Airport.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nPoints of interest","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nSpanish Eras\n* Avero House\n* Castillo de San Marcos National Monument\n* Fort Matanzas National Monument\n* Fort Mose Historic State Park\n* Nombre de Dios\n* Gonzalez-Alvarez House\n* Fountain of Youth Archaeological Park\n* The Spanish Military Hospital Museum\n* St. Francis Barracks\n* Colonial Quarter\n* Ximenez-Fatio House\n* Oldest Wooden Schoolhouse\n* Tolomato Cemetery and Huguenot Cemetery\nBritish Era\n* The King's Bakery\nPre-Flagler Era\n* St. Augustine Lighthouse and Museum\n* Markland Mansion\nFlagler Era\n* Ponce de León Hotel\n* Casa Monica Hotel\n* Hotel Alcazar\n* Zorayda Castle\n* Bridge of Lions\n* Old St. Johns County Jail\n* Ripley's Believe it or Not! Museum located in 1887 mansion of William Worden.\n* Alligator Farm","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nHistoric Churches\n* Grace United Methodist Church\n* Cathedral Basilica of St. Augustine\n* Memorial Presbyterian Church\n* Trinity Church of St. Augustine\n* First Congregation Sons of Israel\nLincolnville National Historic District – Civil Rights Era\n* Freedom Trail of Historic Sites of the Civil Rights Movement\n* Excelsior School Museum of African American History\n* St. Benedict the Moor School","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nOther\n* Anastasia State Park\n* Florida School for the Deaf and Blind\n* St. Augustine Amphitheatre\n* St. Augustine Pirate & Treasure Museum\n* World Golf Hall of Fame","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nSister cities","St. Augustine, Florida\n\n* Avilés, Asturias, Spain\n* Cartagena, Colombia\n* Minorca, Balearic Islands, Spain\n* Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nEducation","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nPrimary and secondary education in St. Augustine is overseen by the St. Johns County School District. There are no county high schools located within St. Augustine's current city limits, but St. Augustine High School, Pedro Menendez High School, and St. Johns Technical High School are located in the vicinity. The Florida School for the Deaf and Blind, a state-operated boarding school for deaf and blind students, was founded in the city in 1885. The Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine operates the St. Joseph Academy, Florida's oldest Catholic high school, to the west of the city.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nThere are several institutions of higher education in and around St. Augustine. Flagler College is a four-year liberal arts college founded in 1968. It is located in the former Ponce de León Hotel in downtown St. Augustine. St. Johns River State College, a state college in the Florida College System, has its St. Augustine campus just west of the city. Also in the area are the University of North Florida, Jacksonville University, and Florida State College at Jacksonville in Jacksonville.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nThe institution now known as Florida Memorial University was located in St. Augustine from 1918 to 1968, when it relocated to its present campus in Miami. Originally known as Florida Baptist Academy, then Florida Normal, and then Florida Memorial College, it was a historically black institution and had a wide impact on St. Augustine while it was located there. During World War II it was chosen as the site for training the first blacks in the U. S. Signal Corps. Among its faculty members was Zora Neale Hurston; a historic marker is placed at the house where she lived while teaching at Florida Memorial (and where she wrote her autobiography Dust Tracks on a Road.)","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nNotable residents","St. Augustine, Florida\n\n* Jim Albrecht, poker tournament director and commentator\n* Andrew Anderson, physician, St. Augustine mayor\n* John Alexander Armstrong, political theorist and scholar\n* Murray Armstrong, hockey coach\n* Frances Bemis, public relations specialist\n* Jorge Biassou, Haitian revolutionary and first black American general\n* Richard Boone, actor\n* James Branch Cabell, novelist\n* Doug Carn, jazz musician\n* Cris Carpenter, Major League baseball player\n* Ray Charles, pianist, singer, composer\n* George J. F. Clarke, Surveyor General of Spanish East Florida\n* Earl Cunningham, artist\n* Alexander Darnes, born a slave, became a celebrated physician\n* Edmund Jackson Davis, governor of Texas\n* Frederick Delius, composer\n* Henry Flagler, industrialist\n* Willie Galimore, football player\n* Michael Gannon, historian\n* Laura Jane Grace, singer\n* William H. Gray, U. S. congressman and president of the United Negro College Fund\n* Robert Hayling, civil rights leader\n* Hurley Haywood endurance race car driver \n* Martin Johnson Heade, artist\n* Louise Homer, opera singer\n* Sidney Homer, composer\n* Jack D.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nHunter, novelist, author of The Blue Max\n* Zora Neale Hurston, novelist and folklorist\n* Lindy Infante, professional football coach\n* Willie Irvin, professional football player\n* Brandon James, professional football player\n* Stetson Kennedy, author and human rights activist\n* Jack Temple Kirby, historian\n* LaChanze, Tony Award & Emmy Award winning actor, singer, and dancer\n* Scott Lagasse Jr., race car driver\n* Charlie LaPradd, college football player, college president\n* Jacob Lawrence, artist\n* Sinclair Lewis, novelist\n* John C. Lilly, neuroscientist, developer of the isolation tank\n* William W. Loring, Confederate general\n* Mary MacLane, author\n* Albert Manucy, historian, author, Fulbright Scholar\n* George McGovern, U.S. Senator, presidential candidate\n* Howell W. Melton, United States district judge\n* Howell W. Melton Jr., attorney, law firm managing partner\n* Johnny Mize, Hall of Fame baseball player\n* Prince Achille Murat, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte\n* David Nolan, author and historian\n* Osceola, Seminole War leader (held prisoner at Fort Marion, now Castillo de San Marcos)\n* Tom Petty, rock musician\n* Scott Player, professional football punter\n* Verle A.","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nPope, state legislator\n* Richard Henry Pratt, soldier and educator\n* Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, novelist\n* Marcus Roberts, musician\n* Gamble Rogers, folksinger\n* John M. Schofield, Union general\n* Steven L. Sears, television writer-producer\n* Sheamus, Irish professional wrestler\n* Edmund Kirby Smith, Confederate general\n* Steve Spurrier, college/pro (American) football coach\n* Peter Taylor, novelist\n* Travis Tomko, professional wrestler\n* The Wobbly Toms, music group\n* Felix Varela, Cuban national hero\n* Augustin Verot, first Bishop of St. Augustine\n* Patty Wagstaff, aerobatic pilot\n* DeWitt Webb, physician, St. Augustine mayor, state representative\n* David Levy Yulee, first Jewish U.S. Senator, Levy County and Yulee, Florida namesake\n* Lisa Lewis, noted dermatologist and pilot","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nGallery","St. Augustine, Florida\n\nFile:St. Augustine Waterfront 1860s 2.jpg|St. Augustine waterfront with Castillo de San Marcos in distance (1860s).\nFile:Town Plaza Government House St. Augustine.jpg|Government House as seen from the Town Plaza c. 1861–65\nFile:Hugenot Cemetery St. Augustine.png|Historic Huguenot Cemetery\nFile:St. Francis Barracks.jpg|St. Francis Barracks, c.1890\nFile:Tovar House St. Augustine Florida.jpg|Tovar House, 22 St. Francis St.\nFile:Fort Marion Entrance Civil War.jpg|Castillo de San Marcos, Civil War era.\nFile:St. Augustine Florida Panoramic View.jpg|Panorama of Castillo de San Marcos, Flagler College and downtown St. Augustine from lighthouse, June 2011\nFile:Replicas of the Medici lions at the Bridge of Lions.jpg|Replicas of the Medici lions at the Bridge of Lions, post restoration in 2011"],"string":"[\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nSt. Augustine () is a city in northeastern Florida. It is the oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement within the borders of the contiguous United States.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nThe county seat of St. Johns County, it is part of Florida's First Coast region and the Jacksonville metropolitan area. According to the 2010 census, the city population was 12,975. The United States Census Bureau's 2013 estimate of the city's population was 13,679, while the urban area had a population of 69,173 in 2012.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nSaint Augustine was founded on September 8, 1565, by Spanish admiral and Florida's first governor, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. He named the settlement \\\"San Agustín\\\", as his ships bearing settlers, troops, and supplies from Spain had first sighted land in Florida on August 28, 1565, the feast day of St. Augustine. The city served as the capital of Spanish Florida for over 200 years, and became the capital of British East Florida when the territory briefly changed hands between Spain and Britain. Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1819, and when the treaty was ratified in 1821, St. Augustine was designated the capital of the Florida Territory until Tallahassee was made the capital in 1824. Since the late 19th century, St. Augustine's distinct historical character has made the city a major tourist attraction. It is also the headquarters for the Florida National Guard.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nFounding by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nFounded in 1565 by the Spanish conquistador, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the United States. In 1562, a group of French Protestants known as Huguenots, led by Jean Ribault, arrived in Spanish Florida to establish a colony in the territory claimed by Spain. They explored the mouth of the St. Johns River, calling it la Rivière de Mai (the River May), then sailed northward and established a settlement called Charlesfort at Port Royal Sound in present-day South Carolina. Spain learned of this French expedition through its spies at ports on the Atlantic coast of France. The Huguenot nobleman René de Laudonnière, who had participated in the expedition, returned to Florida in 1564 with three ships and 300 Huguenot colonists. He arrived at the mouth of the River May on June 22, 1564, sailed up it a few miles, and founded Fort Caroline.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nDesiring to protect its claimed territories in North America against such incursions, the Spanish Crown issued an asiento to Menéndez, signed by King Philip II on March 20, 1565, granting him expansive trade privileges, the power to distribute lands, licenses to sell 500 slaves, as well as various titles, including that of adelantado of Florida. This contract directed Menéndez to sail for La Florida, reconnoitre it from the Florida Keys to present-day Canada, and report on its coastal features, with a view to establishing a permanent colony for the defense of the Spanish treasure fleet. He was ordered as well to drive away any intruders who were not subjects of the Spanish crown.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nOn July 28, Menéndez set sail from Cádiz with a fleet led by his 600-ton flagship, the San Pelayo, accompanied by several smaller ships, and carrying over 1,000 sailors, soldiers, and settlers. On the feast day of St. Augustine, August 28, the fleet sighted land and anchored off the north inlet of the tidal channel the French called the River of Dolphins. Menéndez then sailed north and confronted Ribault's fleet outside the bar of the River May in a brief skirmish. On September 6, he returned to the site of his first landfall, naming it after the Catholic saint, disembarked his troops, and quickly constructed fortifications to protect his people and supplies.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nMenéndez then marched his soldiers overland for a surprise attack on Fort Caroline, where they killed almost everyone in the fort except for the women and children. Jean Ribault had already put out to sea with his ships for an assault on St. Augustine, but was surprised by a storm that wrecked his ships further south. Informed by his Indian allies that the survivors were walking northward on the coast, Menéndez began to search for the Frenchmen, who had made it as far as the banks of the river's south entrance. There they were confronted by the Spaniard and his men on the opposite side. After several parleys with the Spanish, Jean Ribault and the Frenchmen with him (between 150–350, sources differ) surrendered; almost all of them were executed in the dunes near the inlet, thereafter called Matanzas (Spanish for \\\"slaughters\\\").\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nIn May 1566, as relations with the neighboring Timucua Indians deteriorated, Menéndez moved the Spanish settlement to a more defensible position on the north end of the barrier island between the mainland and the sea, and built a wooden fort there. In 1572, the settlement was relocated to the mainland, in the area just south of the future town plaza. Confident that he had fulfilled the primary conditions of his contract with the King, including the building of forts along the coast of La Florida, Menéndez returned to Spain in 1567. After several more transatlantic crossings, Menéndez fell ill and died on September 17, 1574.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nInvasions by pirates and enemies of Spain\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nSucceeding governors of the province maintained a peaceful coexistence with the local Native Americans, allowing the isolated outpost of St. Augustine some stability for a few years. On May 28 and 29, 1586, soon after the Anglo-Spanish War began between England and Spain, the English privateer Sir Francis Drake sacked and burned St. Augustine. The approach of his large fleet obliged Governor Pedro Menéndez Márquez and the townspeople to flee for their safety. When the English got ashore, they seized some artillery pieces and a royal strongbox containing gold ducats, the garrison payroll. The killing of their sergeant major by the Spanish rearguard caused Drake to order the town burnt.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nIn 1609 and 1611, expeditions were sent out from St. Augustine against the English settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. In the second half of the 17th century, unsettled groups of Indians, forced southward by the expanding English colony in Carolina, made raids into Florida and killed the Franciscan priests who served at the Catholic missions. Requests by successive governors of the province to strengthen the presidio’s garrison and fortifications were ignored by the Crown. The charter of 1663 for the new Province of Carolina, issued by King Charles II of England, was revised in 1665, claiming lands as far southward as 29 degrees north latitude, about 65 miles south of the existing Spanish settlement at St. Augustine.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nThe English buccaneer Robert Searle sacked St. Augustine in 1688, killing sixty people and pillaging government buildings, churches and houses, after which his pirates ransomed off some of their hostages and sold others into slavery. This raid and the establishment of the English settlement at Charles Town spurred the Spanish monarchy to finally acknowledge the threat represented by the new English colonies to the north and strengthen the city's defenses. In 1669, Queen Regent Mariana ordered the Viceroy of New Spain to disburse funds for the construction of a permanent masonry fortress, which began in 1672. The Castillo de San Marcos was completed in 1695, not long before an attack by Governor Moore's forces from Carolina in November, 1702. Failing to take the fort after a siege of 58 days, the British troops burned St. Augustine to the ground as they retreated. In 1740, the town was again besieged, this time by the governor of the British colony of Georgia, General James Oglethorpe, who was also unable to take the fort.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nLoyalist haven under British rule\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nThe Treaty of Paris (1763), signed after Great Britain's victory over France and Spain during the Seven Years' War, ceded Florida to Great Britain and consequently St. Augustine became a Loyalist haven during the American Revolutionary War. The second Treaty of Paris (1783), which recognized the independence of the former British colonies north of Florida, ceded Florida back to Spain, and many of the town's Spanish citizens returned in 1784. Refugees from Dr. Andrew Turnbull's troubled colony in New Smyrna had fled to St. Augustine in 1777, and made up the majority of the city's population when the British left. This group was (and still is) referred to locally as \\\"Minorcans\\\", even though it included settlers from Corsica, Italy and the Greek islands as well as those from the Mediterranean island of Minorca, who were the most numerous among them.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nSecond Spanish Period\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nDuring the Second Spanish Period (1784-1821) of its rule in Florida, Spain was dealing with invasions of the Iberian peninsula by Napoleon's armies in the Peninsular War, and struggled to maintain a tenuous hold on its colonies in the western hemisphere as revolution swept South America. The royal administration of Florida was neglected, as the province had long been regarded as an unprofitable backwater by the Crown. The United States, however, considered Florida vital to its political and military interests as it expanded its territory in North America, and maneuvered by sometimes clandestine means to acquire it. The Adams–Onís Treaty, negotiated in 1819 and concluded in 1821, ceded Florida and St. Augustine, still its capital at the time, to the United States.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nTerritory of Florida\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nFlorida remained an organized territory of the United States until 1845, when it was admitted into the Union as the State of Florida. The Territorial Period (1821-1845) was marked by protracted wars with the Creek Indian groups who occupied the peninsula, collectively known as \\\"Seminoles\\\", during the Second Seminole War (1835-1842). The United States Army took command of the Castillo de San Marcos and renamed it Fort Marion after General Francis Marion, who fought in the American Revolutionary War.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nCivil War\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nFlorida joined the Confederacy after the Civil War began in 1861, and Confederate authorities remained in control of St. Augustine for fourteen months, even though it was barely defended, and in spite of the Union blockade of shipping off the coast. Union troops occupied St. Augustine in 1862 and controlled the city through the rest of the war. Its economy already devastated, many of the town's citizens fled.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nHenry Flagler and the railroad\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nHenry Flagler, a co-founder with John D. Rockefeller of the Standard Oil Company, spent the winter of 1883 in St. Augustine and found the city charming, but considered its hotels and transportation systems inadequate. He had the idea to make St. Augustine a winter resort for wealthy Americans from the north, and to bring them south he bought several short line railroads and combined these in 1885 to form the Florida East Coast Railway. He built a railroad bridge over the St. Johns River in 1888, opening up the Atlantic coast of Florida to development.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nFlagler began construction in 1887 of two large ornate hotels, the 540-room Ponce de León Hotel and the Hotel Alcazar, and bought the Casa Monica Hotel the next year. His chosen architectural firm, Carrère and Hastings, radically altered the appearance of St. Augustine and gave it a skyline, beginning an architectural trend in the state characterized by the use of elements of the Moorish Revival style. With the opening of the Ponce in 1888, St. Augustine became the winter resort of American high society for a few years.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nAfter Flagler's Florida East Coast Railroad had been extended southward to Palm Beach and then Miami, the rich mostly abandoned St. Augustine in the early 20th century and began to customarily spend their winters in South Florida, where the climate was warmer and freezes were rare. St. Augustine nevertheless still attracted tourists, and eventually became a destination for families traveling in automobiles as new roads were built and Americans took to the road for annual summer vacations. The tourist industry soon became the dominant sector of the local economy. With the help of state and federal government monies, St. Augustine began a program in 1935 to preserve thirty-six surviving colonial buildings and reconstruct others that were gone.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\n400th year\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nIn 1965, St. Augustine celebrated the quadricentennial of its founding, and jointly with the State of Florida, inaugurated a program to restore part of the colonial city. When the State of Florida abolished the Historic St. Augustine Preservation Board in 1997, the City of St. Augustine assumed control of more than thirty-six buildings that had been reconstructed or restored to their historical appearance, as well as other historic properties including the Government House.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nGeography and climate\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nSt. Augustine is located at (29.8946910, −81.3145170).\\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (21.99%) is water. Access to the Atlantic Ocean is via the St. Augustine Inlet of the Matanzas River.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nSt. Augustine has a humid subtropical climate or Cfa – typical of the Gulf and South Atlantic states. The low latitude and coastal location gives the city a mostly warm and sunny climate. Like much of Florida, St. Augustine enjoys a high number of sunny days, averaging 2,900 hours annually. Unlike much of the continental United States, St. Augustine’s driest time of year is winter. The hot and wet season extends from May through October, while the cool and dry season extends November through April.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nIn the hot season average daytime highs are in the upper 80s to low 90s °F (26° to 33 °C) and average night-time lows are in the low 70s °F (21 °C). The Bermuda High pumps in hot and unstable tropical air from the Bahamas and Gulf of Mexico, which help create the daily thundershowers that are so typical in the summer months. Intense but very brief downpours are common in mid-summer in the city. Fall and spring are warm and sunny with highs in the 75 to 80 F (21 to 24 °C) range and overnight lows in the 50s to low 60s (10 to 17 °C).\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nIn the dry winter season, St. Augustine has mild and sunny weather typical of the Florida peninsula. The coolest months are from December through February, with average daytime highs that range from 65 to 70 °F (18 to 21 °C) and nighttime lows in the 46-49 F (8 to 10 °C) range. From November through April, St. Augustine often has long periods of rainless weather. Early spring (April) can see near drought conditions with brush fires and water restrictions in place. St. Augustine averages six frosts per year. Tropical cyclones occasionally impact the region; however, like most areas prone to tropical cyclones, a direct hit by a major hurricane is rare. The last direct hit by a major hurricane to the city was Hurricane Dora in 1964.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nAs of the 2010 United States Census, there were 12,975 people, 5,743 households, and 2,679 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,376.2 people per square mile (531/km²). There were 6,978 housing units at an average density of 549.4 per square mile (211.4/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 84.2% Caucasian, 11.6% African American, 0.4% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.8% from other races, and 1.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.1% of the population.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nThere were 5,743 households out of which 14.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.7% were married couples living together, 10.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 53.4% were non-families. 37.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.03 and the average family size was 2.67.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nIn the city the population was spread out with 13.1% under the age of 18, 15.3% from 18 to 24, 23.9% from 25 to 44, 25.2% from 45 to 64, and 19% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42.6 years. For every 100 females there were 88.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.8 males.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nThe median income for a household in the city was $36,424, and the median income for a family was $56,055. Males had a median income of $32,409 versus $30,188 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,485. About 7.6% of families and 21.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.8% of those under age 18 and 24.4% of those age 65 or over.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nTransportation\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nHighways\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\n* Interstate 95 runs north–south.\\n* U.S. Route 1 runs north–south.\\n* State Road A1A runs north–south.\\n* State Road 16 runs east–west\\n* State Road 207 runs northeast–southwest\\n* State Road 312 runs east–west\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nBuses\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nBus service is operated by the Sunshine Bus Company. Buses operate mainly between shopping centers across town, but a few go to Hastings and Jacksonville, where one can connect to JTA for additional service across Jacksonville.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nAirport\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nSt. Augustine has one public airport 4 mi north of town. It has six runways (with three water runways for seaplanes). The airport was once served by Skybus, however Skybus ceased operations as of April 4, 2008. In addition to private flights and tour helicopters, Frontier Airlines provides service to Philadelphia International Airport and Chicago O’Hare International Airport.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nPoints of interest\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nSpanish Eras\\n* Avero House\\n* Castillo de San Marcos National Monument\\n* Fort Matanzas National Monument\\n* Fort Mose Historic State Park\\n* Nombre de Dios\\n* Gonzalez-Alvarez House\\n* Fountain of Youth Archaeological Park\\n* The Spanish Military Hospital Museum\\n* St. Francis Barracks\\n* Colonial Quarter\\n* Ximenez-Fatio House\\n* Oldest Wooden Schoolhouse\\n* Tolomato Cemetery and Huguenot Cemetery\\nBritish Era\\n* The King's Bakery\\nPre-Flagler Era\\n* St. Augustine Lighthouse and Museum\\n* Markland Mansion\\nFlagler Era\\n* Ponce de León Hotel\\n* Casa Monica Hotel\\n* Hotel Alcazar\\n* Zorayda Castle\\n* Bridge of Lions\\n* Old St. Johns County Jail\\n* Ripley's Believe it or Not! Museum located in 1887 mansion of William Worden.\\n* Alligator Farm\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nHistoric Churches\\n* Grace United Methodist Church\\n* Cathedral Basilica of St. Augustine\\n* Memorial Presbyterian Church\\n* Trinity Church of St. Augustine\\n* First Congregation Sons of Israel\\nLincolnville National Historic District – Civil Rights Era\\n* Freedom Trail of Historic Sites of the Civil Rights Movement\\n* Excelsior School Museum of African American History\\n* St. Benedict the Moor School\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nOther\\n* Anastasia State Park\\n* Florida School for the Deaf and Blind\\n* St. Augustine Amphitheatre\\n* St. Augustine Pirate & Treasure Museum\\n* World Golf Hall of Fame\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nSister cities\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\n* Avilés, Asturias, Spain\\n* Cartagena, Colombia\\n* Minorca, Balearic Islands, Spain\\n* Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nPrimary and secondary education in St. Augustine is overseen by the St. Johns County School District. There are no county high schools located within St. Augustine's current city limits, but St. Augustine High School, Pedro Menendez High School, and St. Johns Technical High School are located in the vicinity. The Florida School for the Deaf and Blind, a state-operated boarding school for deaf and blind students, was founded in the city in 1885. The Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine operates the St. Joseph Academy, Florida's oldest Catholic high school, to the west of the city.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nThere are several institutions of higher education in and around St. Augustine. Flagler College is a four-year liberal arts college founded in 1968. It is located in the former Ponce de León Hotel in downtown St. Augustine. St. Johns River State College, a state college in the Florida College System, has its St. Augustine campus just west of the city. Also in the area are the University of North Florida, Jacksonville University, and Florida State College at Jacksonville in Jacksonville.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nThe institution now known as Florida Memorial University was located in St. Augustine from 1918 to 1968, when it relocated to its present campus in Miami. Originally known as Florida Baptist Academy, then Florida Normal, and then Florida Memorial College, it was a historically black institution and had a wide impact on St. Augustine while it was located there. During World War II it was chosen as the site for training the first blacks in the U. S. Signal Corps. Among its faculty members was Zora Neale Hurston; a historic marker is placed at the house where she lived while teaching at Florida Memorial (and where she wrote her autobiography Dust Tracks on a Road.)\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nNotable residents\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\n* Jim Albrecht, poker tournament director and commentator\\n* Andrew Anderson, physician, St. Augustine mayor\\n* John Alexander Armstrong, political theorist and scholar\\n* Murray Armstrong, hockey coach\\n* Frances Bemis, public relations specialist\\n* Jorge Biassou, Haitian revolutionary and first black American general\\n* Richard Boone, actor\\n* James Branch Cabell, novelist\\n* Doug Carn, jazz musician\\n* Cris Carpenter, Major League baseball player\\n* Ray Charles, pianist, singer, composer\\n* George J. F. Clarke, Surveyor General of Spanish East Florida\\n* Earl Cunningham, artist\\n* Alexander Darnes, born a slave, became a celebrated physician\\n* Edmund Jackson Davis, governor of Texas\\n* Frederick Delius, composer\\n* Henry Flagler, industrialist\\n* Willie Galimore, football player\\n* Michael Gannon, historian\\n* Laura Jane Grace, singer\\n* William H. Gray, U. S. congressman and president of the United Negro College Fund\\n* Robert Hayling, civil rights leader\\n* Hurley Haywood endurance race car driver \\n* Martin Johnson Heade, artist\\n* Louise Homer, opera singer\\n* Sidney Homer, composer\\n* Jack D.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nHunter, novelist, author of The Blue Max\\n* Zora Neale Hurston, novelist and folklorist\\n* Lindy Infante, professional football coach\\n* Willie Irvin, professional football player\\n* Brandon James, professional football player\\n* Stetson Kennedy, author and human rights activist\\n* Jack Temple Kirby, historian\\n* LaChanze, Tony Award & Emmy Award winning actor, singer, and dancer\\n* Scott Lagasse Jr., race car driver\\n* Charlie LaPradd, college football player, college president\\n* Jacob Lawrence, artist\\n* Sinclair Lewis, novelist\\n* John C. Lilly, neuroscientist, developer of the isolation tank\\n* William W. Loring, Confederate general\\n* Mary MacLane, author\\n* Albert Manucy, historian, author, Fulbright Scholar\\n* George McGovern, U.S. Senator, presidential candidate\\n* Howell W. Melton, United States district judge\\n* Howell W. Melton Jr., attorney, law firm managing partner\\n* Johnny Mize, Hall of Fame baseball player\\n* Prince Achille Murat, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte\\n* David Nolan, author and historian\\n* Osceola, Seminole War leader (held prisoner at Fort Marion, now Castillo de San Marcos)\\n* Tom Petty, rock musician\\n* Scott Player, professional football punter\\n* Verle A.\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nPope, state legislator\\n* Richard Henry Pratt, soldier and educator\\n* Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, novelist\\n* Marcus Roberts, musician\\n* Gamble Rogers, folksinger\\n* John M. Schofield, Union general\\n* Steven L. Sears, television writer-producer\\n* Sheamus, Irish professional wrestler\\n* Edmund Kirby Smith, Confederate general\\n* Steve Spurrier, college/pro (American) football coach\\n* Peter Taylor, novelist\\n* Travis Tomko, professional wrestler\\n* The Wobbly Toms, music group\\n* Felix Varela, Cuban national hero\\n* Augustin Verot, first Bishop of St. Augustine\\n* Patty Wagstaff, aerobatic pilot\\n* DeWitt Webb, physician, St. Augustine mayor, state representative\\n* David Levy Yulee, first Jewish U.S. Senator, Levy County and Yulee, Florida namesake\\n* Lisa Lewis, noted dermatologist and pilot\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nGallery\",\n \"St. Augustine, Florida\\n\\nFile:St. Augustine Waterfront 1860s 2.jpg|St. Augustine waterfront with Castillo de San Marcos in distance (1860s).\\nFile:Town Plaza Government House St. Augustine.jpg|Government House as seen from the Town Plaza c. 1861–65\\nFile:Hugenot Cemetery St. Augustine.png|Historic Huguenot Cemetery\\nFile:St. Francis Barracks.jpg|St. Francis Barracks, c.1890\\nFile:Tovar House St. Augustine Florida.jpg|Tovar House, 22 St. Francis St.\\nFile:Fort Marion Entrance Civil War.jpg|Castillo de San Marcos, Civil War era.\\nFile:St. Augustine Florida Panoramic View.jpg|Panorama of Castillo de San Marcos, Flagler College and downtown St. Augustine from lighthouse, June 2011\\nFile:Replicas of the Medici lions at the Bridge of Lions.jpg|Replicas of the Medici lions at the Bridge of Lions, post restoration in 2011\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137083,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2305"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Durum, Spelt, and Einkorn are all types of what?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Wheat"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["atcvet code qa06ac07","wheat grains","triticum genus","dwarf wheat","cracked wheat","atc code a06ac07","triticum spp","triticum","triticum sphaerococcum","wheat","wheat grain","wheats"],"string":"[\n \"atcvet code qa06ac07\",\n \"wheat grains\",\n \"triticum genus\",\n \"dwarf wheat\",\n \"cracked wheat\",\n \"atc code a06ac07\",\n \"triticum spp\",\n \"triticum\",\n \"triticum sphaerococcum\",\n \"wheat\",\n \"wheat grain\",\n \"wheats\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Durum\n\nDurum wheat, pasta wheat or macaroni wheat (Triticum durum or Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) is the only tetraploid species of wheat of commercial importance that is widely cultivated today. It was developed by artificial selection of the domesticated emmer wheat strains formerly grown in Central Europe and the Near East around 7000 BC, which developed a naked, free-threshing form. Like emmer, durum wheat is awned.","Durum\n\nDurum in Latin means \"hard\", and the species is the hardest of all wheats. This refers to the resistance of the grain to milling, in particular of the endosperm, implying dough made from its flour is weak or \"soft\". This makes durum favorable for semolina production and less practical for flour production which requires more work than with hexaploid wheats like common bread wheats. Despite its high protein content, durum is not a strong wheat in the sense of giving strength to dough through the formation of a gluten network. Durum contains 27% extractable, wet gluten, about 3% higher than in common wheat (T. aestivum L.).","Durum\n\nGenealogy","Durum\n\nDurum wheat is a tetraploid wheat, having 28 chromosomes, unlike hard red winter and hard red spring wheats, which are hexaploid and have 42 chromosomes each.","Durum\n\nDurum wheat originated through intergeneric hybridization and polyploidization involving two diploid grass species: T. urartu (2n 2x \n 14, AA genome) and a B-genome diploid related to Aegilops speltoides (2n 2x \n 14, SS genome) and is thus an allotetraploid species.","Durum\n\nUses","Durum\n\nCommercially produced dry pasta, or pasta secca, is made almost exclusively from durum semolina. Most home made fresh pastas (pasta fresca), such as orecchiette, cavatelli, and malloreddus, also use durum wheat or a combination of soft and hard wheats.","Durum\n\nHusked but unground, or coarsely ground, it is used to produce the semolina in the couscous of North Africa and the Levant. It is also used for Levantine dishes such as tabbula, kishk, kibba, bitfun and the bulghur for pilafs. In North African cuisine and Levantine cuisine, it forms the basis of many soups, gruels, stuffings, puddings and pastries. When ground as fine as flour, it is used for making bread. In the Middle East, it is used for flat round breads, and in Europe and elsewhere, it can be used for pizza, torte, etc. It is not, however, good for cakes, which are made from soft wheat to ensure softness.","Durum\n\nDurum flour and semolina are good for making pasta because it does not create doughs hard to shape, e.g. into sheets. Technically, the dough is relatively plastic, as opposed to elastic, strong doughs, obtained from bread flours. The French language differentiates strength (force) from hardness (dureté), resolving a contradiction present in English language presentations: durum is rich in gluten but that is not readily available as the endosperm is hard to break to release that gluten. Durum wheat is thus less used in breadmaking. Its protein content is almost as high as that of hard spring or winter wheat and so is its gluten content, necessary for bread to rise. Although 100 percent durum wheat breads do exist (such as pagnotte di Enna or \"rimacinato\" bread from Sicily, as well as Altamura bread from Apulia and Matera bread from Basilicata) in most instances bread doughs contain only a portion of durum wheat and are supplemented substantially with commercial white flours, often those higher in gluten necessary to offset the poor contribution of durum flour to the gluten network. Pure durum wheat breads are often dense, containing little air bubbles, with relatively little elastic structure (continuum).","Durum\n\nThe uncooked dough splits easily and is easier to shape, as for instance to make pies or pastas.","Durum\n\nThe use of wheat to produce pasta was described as early as the 10th century by Ibn Wahshīya of Cairo. The North Africans called the product itrīya, from which Italian sources derived the term tria (or aletria in the case of Spanish sources) during the 15th century.","Durum\n\nAnother type of pasta, al-fidawsh (called \"dry pasta\"), was popular in al-Andalus. From there it was transmitted to Christian Spain, and it frequently appears in Hispano-Muslim cookbooks. From al-fidawsh was derived the Spanish word for noodles, fideos, and the Italian fidelli or fidellini.","Durum\n\nIn the American Great Plains, durum wheat is used almost exclusively for making pasta products such as spaghetti and macaroni.","Durum\n\nProduction","Durum\n\nMost of the durum grown today is amber durum, the grains of which are amber-colored and larger than those of other types of wheat. Durum has a yellow endosperm, which gives pasta its color. When durum is milled, the endosperm is ground into a granular product called semolina. Semolina made from durum is used for premium pastas and breads. There is also a red durum, used mostly for livestock feed.","Durum\n\nThe cultivation of durum generates greater yield than other wheats in areas of low precipitation (3–5 dm). Good yields can be obtained by irrigation, but this is rarely done. In the first half of the 20th century, the crop was widely grown in Russia. Durum is one of the most important food crops in West Asia. Although the variety of the wheat there is diverse, it is not extensively grown there, and thus must be imported. West amber durum produced in Canada is used mostly as semolina/pasta, but some is also exported to Italy for bread production.","Durum\n\nIn the Middle East and North Africa, local bread-making accounts for half the consumption of durum. Some flour is even imported. On the other hand, many countries in Europe produce durum in commercially significant quantities.","Durum\n\nProcessing and protein content","Durum\n\nDurum wheat is subject to four processes: cleaning, tempering, milling and purifying. First, durum wheat is cleaned to remove foreign material and shrunken and broken kernels. Then it is tempered to a moisture content, toughening the seed coat for efficient separation of bran and endosperm. Durum milling is a complex procedure involving repetitive grinding and sieving. Proper purifying results in maximum semolina yield and the least amount of bran powder.","Durum\n\nTo produce bread, durum wheat is ground into flour. The flour is mixed with water to produce dough. The quantities mixed vary, depending on the acidity of the mixture. The dough is mixed with yeast and lukewarm water, and then fermented for hours.","Durum\n\nThe quality of the bread produced depends on the viscoelastic properties of gluten, the protein content and protein composition. Containing about 12% total protein in defatted flour compared to 11% in common wheat, durum wheat yields 27% extractable, wet gluten compared to 24% in common wheat.","Durum\n\nHealth concerns","Durum\n\nAs durum wheat contains gluten, it is unsuitable for people with gluten-related disorders, such as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers, among others.","Spelt\n\nSpelt (Triticum spelta), also known as dinkel wheat, or hulled wheat, is a species of wheat cultivated since 5000 BC.","Spelt\n\nSpelt was an important staple in parts of Europe from the Bronze Age to medieval times; it now survives as a relict crop in Central Europe and northern Spain and has found a new market as a health food. Spelt is sometimes considered a subspecies of the closely related species common wheat (Triticum aestivum), in which case its botanical name is considered to be Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta. It is a hexaploid wheat, which means it has six sets of chromosomes.","Spelt\n\nEvolution","Spelt\n\nSpelt has a complex history. It is a wheat species known from genetic evidence to have originated as a naturally occurring hybrid of a domesticated tetraploid wheat such as emmer wheat and the wild goat-grass Aegilops tauschii. This hybridisation must have taken place in the Near East because this is where Ae. tauschii grows, and it must have taken place before the appearance of common or bread wheat (Triticum aestivum, a hexaploid free-threshing derivative of spelt) in the archaeological record about 8,000 years ago.","Spelt\n\nGenetic evidence shows that spelt wheat can also arise as the result of hybridisation of bread wheat and emmer wheat, although only at some date following the initial Aegilops–tetraploid wheat hybridisation. The much later appearance of spelt in Europe might thus be the result of a later, second, hybridisation between emmer and bread wheat. Recent DNA evidence supports an independent origin for European spelt through this hybridisation. Whether spelt has two separate origins in Asia and Europe, or single origin in the Near East, is currently unresolved.","Spelt\n\nHistory","Spelt\n\nIn Greek mythology spelt (ζειά [zeiá] in Greek) was a gift to the Greeks from the goddess Demeter, and was first used by the Greeks. Being a sailing people, the Greeks taught the rest of the world wherever they touched how to use, cultivate and honour zeiá. The earliest archaeological evidence of spelt is from the fifth millennium BC in Transcaucasia, north-east of the Black Sea, though the most abundant and best-documented archaeological evidence of spelt is in Europe. Remains of spelt have been found in some later Neolithic sites (2500–1700 BC) in Central Europe. During the Bronze Age, spelt spread widely in central Europe. In the Iron Age (750–15 BC), spelt became a principal wheat species in southern Germany and Switzerland; by 500 BC, it was in common use in southern Britain.","Spelt\n\nReferences to the cultivation of spelt wheat in Biblical times (see matzo), in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and in ancient Greece are incorrect and result from confusion with emmer wheat.","Spelt\n\nIn the Middle Ages, spelt was cultivated in parts of Switzerland, Tyrol, and Germany. Spelt was introduced to the United States in the 1890s. In the 20th century, spelt was replaced by bread wheat in almost all areas where it was still grown. The organic farming movement revived its popularity somewhat toward the end of the century, as spelt requires less fertilizer.","Spelt\n\nNutrition","Spelt\n\nIn a 100 gram serving, uncooked spelt provides 338 calories and is an excellent source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins and numerous dietary minerals (table). Richest nutrient contents include manganese (143% DV), phosphorus (57% DV) and niacin (46% DV) (table). Cooking substantially reduces all nutrient contents. Spelt contains about 70% total carbohydrates, including 11% as dietary fiber, and is low in fat (table).","Spelt\n\nAs spelt contains a moderate amount of gluten, it is suitable for baking, but this component also makes it unsuitable for people with gluten-related disorders, such as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers. In comparison to hard red winter wheat, spelt has a more soluble protein matrix characterized by a higher gliadin:glutenin ratio.","Spelt\n\nProducts","Spelt\n\nSpelt flour is becoming more easily available. Spelt bread is sold in health food shops and some bakeries in an increasing variety of types of loaf, similar in colour to light rye breads but usually with a slightly sweet and nutty flavour. Biscuits, crackers, and pretzels are also produced, but are more likely to be found in a specialty bakery or health food store than in a regular grocer's shop. In Germany and Austria, spelt loaves and rolls (Dinkelbrot) are widely available in bakeries as is spelt flour in supermarkets. The unripe spelt grains are dried and eaten as Grünkern (\"green grain\").","Spelt\n\nDutch Jenever makers distill with spelt. Beer brewed from spelt is sometimes seen in Bavaria and Belgium and spelt is distilled to make vodka in Poland.","Spelt\n\nLiterary references","Spelt\n\nWhile today spelt is a specialty crop, its popularity as a peasants' staple food of the past has been attested in literature. Although today's Russian-speaking children perhaps do not know exactly what polba (spelt) looks or tastes like, they may recognize the word as something-or-other that can be made into porridge, having heard Pushkin's well-rhymed story in which the poor workman Balda asks his employer the priest \"to feed me boiled spelt\" (\"есть же мне давай варёную полбу\"). In Horace's Satire 2.6 (late 31 – 30 B.C.), which ends with the story of the Country Mouse and the City Mouse, the country mouse eats spelt at dinner while serving his city guest finer foods.","Spelt\n\nIn The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri, Pietro della Vigna appears as a suicide in Circle VII, ring ii, Canto XIII of the Inferno. Pietro describes the fate awaiting souls guilty of suicide to Dante the Pilgrim and Virgil. According to Pietro, the soul of the suicide grows into a wild tree and is tormented by harpies that feast upon its leaves. Pietro likens the initial growth and transformation of the soul of the suicide to the germination of a grain of spelt (Inferno XIII, 94–102).","Spelt\n\nSpelt is also mentioned in the Bible. The seventh plague in Egypt reported in Exodus, chapter 9 was said not to have damaged the harvest of wheat and spelt, as these were \"late crops\". says: \"Take thou also unto thee wheat, and barley, and beans, and lentils, and millet, and spelt, and put them in one vessel, and make thee bread thereof ...\", though as noted above this is presumably a mistranslation and should be \"emmer\". It is mentioned again in : \"...and put in the wheat in rows and the barley in the appointed place and the spelt in the border thereof?\"","Einkorn wheat\n\nEinkorn wheat (from German Einkorn, literally \"single grain\") can refer either to the wild species of wheat, Triticum boeoticum, or to the domesticated form, Triticum monococcum. The wild and domesticated forms are either considered separate species, as here, or as subspecies: Triticum monococcum subsp. boeoticum (wild) and T. monococcum subsp. monococcum (domesticated). Einkorn is a diploid species (2n = 14 chromosomes) of hulled wheat, with tough glumes ('husks') that tightly enclose the grains. The cultivated form is similar to the wild, except that the ear stays intact when ripe and the seeds are larger. The domestic form is known as petit épeautre in French, Einkorn in German, einkorn or littlespelt in English, piccolo farro in Italian and espelta petita in Catalan.","Einkorn wheat\n\nEinkorn wheat was one of the first plants to be domesticated and cultivated. The earliest clear evidence of the domestication of Einkorn dates from 10,600 to 9,900 years before present (8,650 BC to 7,950 BC) from two archaeological sites in southern Turkey. Remnants of Einkorn have been found with the iceman mummy Ötzi.","Einkorn wheat\n\nHistory","Einkorn wheat\n\nEinkorn wheat commonly grows wild in the hill country in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent and Anatolia although it has a wider distribution reaching into the Balkans and south to Jordan near the Dead Sea. It is a short variety of wild wheat, usually less than 70 cm tall and is not very productive of edible seeds.","Einkorn wheat\n\nThe principal difference between wild einkorn and cultivated einkorn is the method of seed dispersal. In the wild variety the seed head usually shatters and drops the kernels (seeds) of wheat onto the ground. This facilitates a new crop of wheat. In the domestic variety, the seed head remains intact. While such a mutation may occasionally occur in the wild, it is not viable there in the long term: the intact seed head will only drop to the ground when the stalk rots, and the kernels will not scatter but form a tight clump which inhibits germination and makes the mutant seedlings susceptible to disease. But harvesting einkorn with intact seed heads was easier for early human harvesters, who could then manually break apart the seed heads and scatter any kernels not eaten. Over time and through selection, conscious or unconscious, the human preference for intact seed heads created the domestic variety, which also has slightly larger kernels than wild einkorn. Domesticated einkorn thus requires human planting and harvesting for its continuing existence. This process of domestication might have taken only 20 to 200 years with the end product a wheat easier for humans to harvest.","Einkorn wheat\n\nEinkorn wheat is one of the earliest cultivated forms of wheat, alongside emmer wheat (T. dicoccum). Grains of wild einkorn have been found in Epi-Paleolithic sites of the Fertile Crescent. Although gathered from the wild for thousands of years, Einkorn Wheat was first domesticated approximately 10,000 years BP in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) or B (PPNB) periods. Evidence from DNA finger-printing suggests einkorn was first domesticated near Karaca Dağ in southeast Turkey, an area in which a number of PPNB farming villages have been found.","Einkorn wheat\n\nAn important characteristic facilitating the domestication of einkorn and other annual grains is that the plants are largely self-pollinating. Thus, the desirable (for human management) traits of einkorn could be perpetuated at less risk of cross-fertilization with wild plants which might have traits—e.g. smaller seeds, shattering seed heads, etc. -- less desirable for human management.","Einkorn wheat\n\nFrom the northern part of the Fertile Crescent, the cultivation of einkorn wheat spread to the Caucasus, the Balkans, and central Europe. Einkorn wheat was more commonly grown in cooler climates than emmer wheat, the other domesticated wheat. Cultivation of einkorn in the Middle East began to decline in favor of emmer wheat around 2000 BC. Cultivation of einkorn was never extensive in Italy, southern France, and Spain. Einkorn continued to be cultivated in some areas of northern Europe throughout the Middle Ages and until the early part of the 20th century.","Einkorn wheat\n\nEinkorn vs. common modern wheat varieties","Einkorn wheat\n\nEinkorn wheat is low-yielding but can survive on poor, dry, marginal soils where other varieties of wheat will not. It is primarily eaten boiled in whole grains or in porridge. Its flour lacks the rising characteristics desirable for bread.","Einkorn wheat\n\nEinkorn, as with other ancient varieties of wheat, is grouped with \"the covered wheats\" as its kernels do not break free from its seed coat (glume) with threshing and it is, therefore, difficult to separate the husk from the seed.Stallknecht, G. F., Gilbertson, K. M., and Ranney, J.E. (1996), \"Alternative Wheat Cereals as Food Grains: Einkorn, Emmer, Spelt, Kamut, and Triticale\" in J. Janick, ed., Progress in New Crops, Alexandria, VA: ASHA Press, pp. 156-170","Einkorn wheat\n\nCurrent use","Einkorn wheat\n\nEinkorn is a popular food in northern Provence. It is also used for bulgur or as animal feed in mountainous areas of France, India, Italy, Morocco, the former Yugoslavia, Turkey and other countries.","Einkorn wheat\n\nNutrition and gluten toxicity","Einkorn wheat\n\nEinkorn has a higher percentage of protein than modern red wheats and is considered more nutritious because it has also higher levels of fat, phosphorus, potassium, pyridoxine, and beta-carotene.","Einkorn wheat\n\nAll of species and hybrids of wheat are not suitable for people with gluten related disorders, as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy.","Einkorn wheat\n\nSalt-tolerance gene","Einkorn wheat\n\nAustralian scientists have succeeded in breeding the salt-tolerance feature of T. monococcum into durum wheat."],"string":"[\n \"Durum\\n\\nDurum wheat, pasta wheat or macaroni wheat (Triticum durum or Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) is the only tetraploid species of wheat of commercial importance that is widely cultivated today. It was developed by artificial selection of the domesticated emmer wheat strains formerly grown in Central Europe and the Near East around 7000 BC, which developed a naked, free-threshing form. Like emmer, durum wheat is awned.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nDurum in Latin means \\\"hard\\\", and the species is the hardest of all wheats. This refers to the resistance of the grain to milling, in particular of the endosperm, implying dough made from its flour is weak or \\\"soft\\\". This makes durum favorable for semolina production and less practical for flour production which requires more work than with hexaploid wheats like common bread wheats. Despite its high protein content, durum is not a strong wheat in the sense of giving strength to dough through the formation of a gluten network. Durum contains 27% extractable, wet gluten, about 3% higher than in common wheat (T. aestivum L.).\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nGenealogy\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nDurum wheat is a tetraploid wheat, having 28 chromosomes, unlike hard red winter and hard red spring wheats, which are hexaploid and have 42 chromosomes each.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nDurum wheat originated through intergeneric hybridization and polyploidization involving two diploid grass species: T. urartu (2n 2x \\n 14, AA genome) and a B-genome diploid related to Aegilops speltoides (2n 2x \\n 14, SS genome) and is thus an allotetraploid species.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nUses\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nCommercially produced dry pasta, or pasta secca, is made almost exclusively from durum semolina. Most home made fresh pastas (pasta fresca), such as orecchiette, cavatelli, and malloreddus, also use durum wheat or a combination of soft and hard wheats.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nHusked but unground, or coarsely ground, it is used to produce the semolina in the couscous of North Africa and the Levant. It is also used for Levantine dishes such as tabbula, kishk, kibba, bitfun and the bulghur for pilafs. In North African cuisine and Levantine cuisine, it forms the basis of many soups, gruels, stuffings, puddings and pastries. When ground as fine as flour, it is used for making bread. In the Middle East, it is used for flat round breads, and in Europe and elsewhere, it can be used for pizza, torte, etc. It is not, however, good for cakes, which are made from soft wheat to ensure softness.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nDurum flour and semolina are good for making pasta because it does not create doughs hard to shape, e.g. into sheets. Technically, the dough is relatively plastic, as opposed to elastic, strong doughs, obtained from bread flours. The French language differentiates strength (force) from hardness (dureté), resolving a contradiction present in English language presentations: durum is rich in gluten but that is not readily available as the endosperm is hard to break to release that gluten. Durum wheat is thus less used in breadmaking. Its protein content is almost as high as that of hard spring or winter wheat and so is its gluten content, necessary for bread to rise. Although 100 percent durum wheat breads do exist (such as pagnotte di Enna or \\\"rimacinato\\\" bread from Sicily, as well as Altamura bread from Apulia and Matera bread from Basilicata) in most instances bread doughs contain only a portion of durum wheat and are supplemented substantially with commercial white flours, often those higher in gluten necessary to offset the poor contribution of durum flour to the gluten network. Pure durum wheat breads are often dense, containing little air bubbles, with relatively little elastic structure (continuum).\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nThe uncooked dough splits easily and is easier to shape, as for instance to make pies or pastas.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nThe use of wheat to produce pasta was described as early as the 10th century by Ibn Wahshīya of Cairo. The North Africans called the product itrīya, from which Italian sources derived the term tria (or aletria in the case of Spanish sources) during the 15th century.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nAnother type of pasta, al-fidawsh (called \\\"dry pasta\\\"), was popular in al-Andalus. From there it was transmitted to Christian Spain, and it frequently appears in Hispano-Muslim cookbooks. From al-fidawsh was derived the Spanish word for noodles, fideos, and the Italian fidelli or fidellini.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nIn the American Great Plains, durum wheat is used almost exclusively for making pasta products such as spaghetti and macaroni.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nProduction\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nMost of the durum grown today is amber durum, the grains of which are amber-colored and larger than those of other types of wheat. Durum has a yellow endosperm, which gives pasta its color. When durum is milled, the endosperm is ground into a granular product called semolina. Semolina made from durum is used for premium pastas and breads. There is also a red durum, used mostly for livestock feed.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nThe cultivation of durum generates greater yield than other wheats in areas of low precipitation (3–5 dm). Good yields can be obtained by irrigation, but this is rarely done. In the first half of the 20th century, the crop was widely grown in Russia. Durum is one of the most important food crops in West Asia. Although the variety of the wheat there is diverse, it is not extensively grown there, and thus must be imported. West amber durum produced in Canada is used mostly as semolina/pasta, but some is also exported to Italy for bread production.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nIn the Middle East and North Africa, local bread-making accounts for half the consumption of durum. Some flour is even imported. On the other hand, many countries in Europe produce durum in commercially significant quantities.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nProcessing and protein content\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nDurum wheat is subject to four processes: cleaning, tempering, milling and purifying. First, durum wheat is cleaned to remove foreign material and shrunken and broken kernels. Then it is tempered to a moisture content, toughening the seed coat for efficient separation of bran and endosperm. Durum milling is a complex procedure involving repetitive grinding and sieving. Proper purifying results in maximum semolina yield and the least amount of bran powder.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nTo produce bread, durum wheat is ground into flour. The flour is mixed with water to produce dough. The quantities mixed vary, depending on the acidity of the mixture. The dough is mixed with yeast and lukewarm water, and then fermented for hours.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nThe quality of the bread produced depends on the viscoelastic properties of gluten, the protein content and protein composition. Containing about 12% total protein in defatted flour compared to 11% in common wheat, durum wheat yields 27% extractable, wet gluten compared to 24% in common wheat.\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nHealth concerns\",\n \"Durum\\n\\nAs durum wheat contains gluten, it is unsuitable for people with gluten-related disorders, such as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers, among others.\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nSpelt (Triticum spelta), also known as dinkel wheat, or hulled wheat, is a species of wheat cultivated since 5000 BC.\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nSpelt was an important staple in parts of Europe from the Bronze Age to medieval times; it now survives as a relict crop in Central Europe and northern Spain and has found a new market as a health food. Spelt is sometimes considered a subspecies of the closely related species common wheat (Triticum aestivum), in which case its botanical name is considered to be Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta. It is a hexaploid wheat, which means it has six sets of chromosomes.\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nEvolution\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nSpelt has a complex history. It is a wheat species known from genetic evidence to have originated as a naturally occurring hybrid of a domesticated tetraploid wheat such as emmer wheat and the wild goat-grass Aegilops tauschii. This hybridisation must have taken place in the Near East because this is where Ae. tauschii grows, and it must have taken place before the appearance of common or bread wheat (Triticum aestivum, a hexaploid free-threshing derivative of spelt) in the archaeological record about 8,000 years ago.\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nGenetic evidence shows that spelt wheat can also arise as the result of hybridisation of bread wheat and emmer wheat, although only at some date following the initial Aegilops–tetraploid wheat hybridisation. The much later appearance of spelt in Europe might thus be the result of a later, second, hybridisation between emmer and bread wheat. Recent DNA evidence supports an independent origin for European spelt through this hybridisation. Whether spelt has two separate origins in Asia and Europe, or single origin in the Near East, is currently unresolved.\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nIn Greek mythology spelt (ζειά [zeiá] in Greek) was a gift to the Greeks from the goddess Demeter, and was first used by the Greeks. Being a sailing people, the Greeks taught the rest of the world wherever they touched how to use, cultivate and honour zeiá. The earliest archaeological evidence of spelt is from the fifth millennium BC in Transcaucasia, north-east of the Black Sea, though the most abundant and best-documented archaeological evidence of spelt is in Europe. Remains of spelt have been found in some later Neolithic sites (2500–1700 BC) in Central Europe. During the Bronze Age, spelt spread widely in central Europe. In the Iron Age (750–15 BC), spelt became a principal wheat species in southern Germany and Switzerland; by 500 BC, it was in common use in southern Britain.\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nReferences to the cultivation of spelt wheat in Biblical times (see matzo), in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and in ancient Greece are incorrect and result from confusion with emmer wheat.\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nIn the Middle Ages, spelt was cultivated in parts of Switzerland, Tyrol, and Germany. Spelt was introduced to the United States in the 1890s. In the 20th century, spelt was replaced by bread wheat in almost all areas where it was still grown. The organic farming movement revived its popularity somewhat toward the end of the century, as spelt requires less fertilizer.\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nNutrition\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nIn a 100 gram serving, uncooked spelt provides 338 calories and is an excellent source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins and numerous dietary minerals (table). Richest nutrient contents include manganese (143% DV), phosphorus (57% DV) and niacin (46% DV) (table). Cooking substantially reduces all nutrient contents. Spelt contains about 70% total carbohydrates, including 11% as dietary fiber, and is low in fat (table).\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nAs spelt contains a moderate amount of gluten, it is suitable for baking, but this component also makes it unsuitable for people with gluten-related disorders, such as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers. In comparison to hard red winter wheat, spelt has a more soluble protein matrix characterized by a higher gliadin:glutenin ratio.\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nProducts\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nSpelt flour is becoming more easily available. Spelt bread is sold in health food shops and some bakeries in an increasing variety of types of loaf, similar in colour to light rye breads but usually with a slightly sweet and nutty flavour. Biscuits, crackers, and pretzels are also produced, but are more likely to be found in a specialty bakery or health food store than in a regular grocer's shop. In Germany and Austria, spelt loaves and rolls (Dinkelbrot) are widely available in bakeries as is spelt flour in supermarkets. The unripe spelt grains are dried and eaten as Grünkern (\\\"green grain\\\").\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nDutch Jenever makers distill with spelt. Beer brewed from spelt is sometimes seen in Bavaria and Belgium and spelt is distilled to make vodka in Poland.\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nLiterary references\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nWhile today spelt is a specialty crop, its popularity as a peasants' staple food of the past has been attested in literature. Although today's Russian-speaking children perhaps do not know exactly what polba (spelt) looks or tastes like, they may recognize the word as something-or-other that can be made into porridge, having heard Pushkin's well-rhymed story in which the poor workman Balda asks his employer the priest \\\"to feed me boiled spelt\\\" (\\\"есть же мне давай варёную полбу\\\"). In Horace's Satire 2.6 (late 31 – 30 B.C.), which ends with the story of the Country Mouse and the City Mouse, the country mouse eats spelt at dinner while serving his city guest finer foods.\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nIn The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri, Pietro della Vigna appears as a suicide in Circle VII, ring ii, Canto XIII of the Inferno. Pietro describes the fate awaiting souls guilty of suicide to Dante the Pilgrim and Virgil. According to Pietro, the soul of the suicide grows into a wild tree and is tormented by harpies that feast upon its leaves. Pietro likens the initial growth and transformation of the soul of the suicide to the germination of a grain of spelt (Inferno XIII, 94–102).\",\n \"Spelt\\n\\nSpelt is also mentioned in the Bible. The seventh plague in Egypt reported in Exodus, chapter 9 was said not to have damaged the harvest of wheat and spelt, as these were \\\"late crops\\\". says: \\\"Take thou also unto thee wheat, and barley, and beans, and lentils, and millet, and spelt, and put them in one vessel, and make thee bread thereof ...\\\", though as noted above this is presumably a mistranslation and should be \\\"emmer\\\". It is mentioned again in : \\\"...and put in the wheat in rows and the barley in the appointed place and the spelt in the border thereof?\\\"\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nEinkorn wheat (from German Einkorn, literally \\\"single grain\\\") can refer either to the wild species of wheat, Triticum boeoticum, or to the domesticated form, Triticum monococcum. The wild and domesticated forms are either considered separate species, as here, or as subspecies: Triticum monococcum subsp. boeoticum (wild) and T. monococcum subsp. monococcum (domesticated). Einkorn is a diploid species (2n = 14 chromosomes) of hulled wheat, with tough glumes ('husks') that tightly enclose the grains. The cultivated form is similar to the wild, except that the ear stays intact when ripe and the seeds are larger. The domestic form is known as petit épeautre in French, Einkorn in German, einkorn or littlespelt in English, piccolo farro in Italian and espelta petita in Catalan.\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nEinkorn wheat was one of the first plants to be domesticated and cultivated. The earliest clear evidence of the domestication of Einkorn dates from 10,600 to 9,900 years before present (8,650 BC to 7,950 BC) from two archaeological sites in southern Turkey. Remnants of Einkorn have been found with the iceman mummy Ötzi.\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nEinkorn wheat commonly grows wild in the hill country in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent and Anatolia although it has a wider distribution reaching into the Balkans and south to Jordan near the Dead Sea. It is a short variety of wild wheat, usually less than 70 cm tall and is not very productive of edible seeds.\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nThe principal difference between wild einkorn and cultivated einkorn is the method of seed dispersal. In the wild variety the seed head usually shatters and drops the kernels (seeds) of wheat onto the ground. This facilitates a new crop of wheat. In the domestic variety, the seed head remains intact. While such a mutation may occasionally occur in the wild, it is not viable there in the long term: the intact seed head will only drop to the ground when the stalk rots, and the kernels will not scatter but form a tight clump which inhibits germination and makes the mutant seedlings susceptible to disease. But harvesting einkorn with intact seed heads was easier for early human harvesters, who could then manually break apart the seed heads and scatter any kernels not eaten. Over time and through selection, conscious or unconscious, the human preference for intact seed heads created the domestic variety, which also has slightly larger kernels than wild einkorn. Domesticated einkorn thus requires human planting and harvesting for its continuing existence. This process of domestication might have taken only 20 to 200 years with the end product a wheat easier for humans to harvest.\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nEinkorn wheat is one of the earliest cultivated forms of wheat, alongside emmer wheat (T. dicoccum). Grains of wild einkorn have been found in Epi-Paleolithic sites of the Fertile Crescent. Although gathered from the wild for thousands of years, Einkorn Wheat was first domesticated approximately 10,000 years BP in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) or B (PPNB) periods. Evidence from DNA finger-printing suggests einkorn was first domesticated near Karaca Dağ in southeast Turkey, an area in which a number of PPNB farming villages have been found.\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nAn important characteristic facilitating the domestication of einkorn and other annual grains is that the plants are largely self-pollinating. Thus, the desirable (for human management) traits of einkorn could be perpetuated at less risk of cross-fertilization with wild plants which might have traits—e.g. smaller seeds, shattering seed heads, etc. -- less desirable for human management.\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nFrom the northern part of the Fertile Crescent, the cultivation of einkorn wheat spread to the Caucasus, the Balkans, and central Europe. Einkorn wheat was more commonly grown in cooler climates than emmer wheat, the other domesticated wheat. Cultivation of einkorn in the Middle East began to decline in favor of emmer wheat around 2000 BC. Cultivation of einkorn was never extensive in Italy, southern France, and Spain. Einkorn continued to be cultivated in some areas of northern Europe throughout the Middle Ages and until the early part of the 20th century.\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nEinkorn vs. common modern wheat varieties\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nEinkorn wheat is low-yielding but can survive on poor, dry, marginal soils where other varieties of wheat will not. It is primarily eaten boiled in whole grains or in porridge. Its flour lacks the rising characteristics desirable for bread.\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nEinkorn, as with other ancient varieties of wheat, is grouped with \\\"the covered wheats\\\" as its kernels do not break free from its seed coat (glume) with threshing and it is, therefore, difficult to separate the husk from the seed.Stallknecht, G. F., Gilbertson, K. M., and Ranney, J.E. (1996), \\\"Alternative Wheat Cereals as Food Grains: Einkorn, Emmer, Spelt, Kamut, and Triticale\\\" in J. Janick, ed., Progress in New Crops, Alexandria, VA: ASHA Press, pp. 156-170\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nCurrent use\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nEinkorn is a popular food in northern Provence. It is also used for bulgur or as animal feed in mountainous areas of France, India, Italy, Morocco, the former Yugoslavia, Turkey and other countries.\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nNutrition and gluten toxicity\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nEinkorn has a higher percentage of protein than modern red wheats and is considered more nutritious because it has also higher levels of fat, phosphorus, potassium, pyridoxine, and beta-carotene.\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nAll of species and hybrids of wheat are not suitable for people with gluten related disorders, as celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy.\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nSalt-tolerance gene\",\n \"Einkorn wheat\\n\\nAustralian scientists have succeeded in breeding the salt-tolerance feature of T. monococcum into durum wheat.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137084,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2308"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"For a point each, name the 2 countries that share a border with the Republic of Ecuador."},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Colombia, Peru"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["colombia peru"],"string":"[\n \"colombia peru\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Ecuador\n\nEcuador ( ,), officially the Republic of Ecuador (, which literally translates as \"Republic of the Equator\"), is a representative democratic republic in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about 1000 km west of the mainland.","Ecuador\n\nWhat is now Ecuador was home to a variety of Amerindian groups that were gradually incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century. The territory was colonized by Spain during the 16th century, achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, from which it emerged as its own sovereign state in 1830. The legacy of both empires is reflected in Ecuador's ethnically diverse population, with most of its 15.2 million people being mestizos, followed by large minorities of European, Amerindian, and African descendants.","Ecuador\n\nSpanish is the official language and is spoken by a majority of the population, though 13 Amerindian languages are also recognized, including Quichua and Shuar. The capital city is Quito, while the largest city is Guayaquil. In reflection of the country's rich cultural heritage, the historical center of Quito was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978. Cuenca, the third-largest city, was also declared a World Heritage Site in 1999 as an outstanding example of a planned, inland Spanish-style colonial city in the Americas.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador has a developing economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum and agricultural products. The country is classified as a medium-income country. Ecuador is a democratic presidential republic. The new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, or ecosystem rights. Ecuador is also known for its rich ecology, hosting many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands. It is one of 17 megadiverse countries in the world.","Ecuador\n\nHistory","Ecuador\n\nPre-Inca era","Ecuador\n\nBefore the arrival of the Incas, the area was settled by various peoples. Some likely sailed to Ecuador by rafts from Central America, others came to Ecuador via the Amazon tributaries, others descended from northern South America, and others ascended from the southern part of South America through the Andes or by sailing on rafts. They developed different languages while emerging as unique ethnic groups.","Ecuador\n\nEven though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar cultures because they lived in the same environment. The people of the coast developed a fishing, hunting, and gathering culture; the people of the highland Andes developed a sedentary agricultural way of life; and the people of the Amazon basin developed a nomadic hunting and gathering way of life.","Ecuador\n\nOver time these groups began to interact and intermingle with each other so that groups of families in one area became one community or tribe, with a similar language and culture. Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus (near present-day Quito), and the Cañari (near present-day Cuenca). Each civilization developed its own distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests.","Ecuador\n\nIn the highland Andes mountains, where life was more sedentary, groups of tribes cooperated and formed villages; thus, the first nations based on agricultural resources and the domestication of animals were formed. Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders, a group of nations formed confederations. One region was consolidated under a confederation called the Shyris, which exercised organized trading and bartering between the different regions. Its political and military power was under the rule of the Duchicela blood line.","Ecuador\n\nInca era","Ecuador\n\nWhen the Incas arrived, they found that these confederations were so developed that it took the Incas two generations of rulers - Topa Inca Yupanqui and Huayna Capac - to absorb them into the Inca Empire. The native confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru, Bolivia, and north Argentina. Similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion. Thus, the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language.","Ecuador\n\nIn contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador, they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile. Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them, these indigenous people withdrew to the interior and resorted to guerrilla tactics. As a result, Inca expansion into the Amazon basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered. The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived in force. The Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist Inca and Spanish domination, maintaining their language and culture well into the 21st century.","Ecuador\n\nBefore the arrival of the Spaniards, the Inca Empire was involved in a civil war. The untimely death of both the heir Ninan Cuchi and the Emperor Huayna Capac, from a European disease that spread into Ecuador, created a power vacuum between two factions. The northern faction headed by Atahualpa claims that Huayna Capac gave a verbal decree before his death about how the empire should be divided. He gave the territories pertaining to present-day Ecuador and northern Peru to his favorite son Atahualpa, who was to rule from Quito; and he gave the rest to Huáscar, who was to rule from Cuzco. He willed that his heart be buried in Quito, his favorite city, and the rest of his body be buried with his ancestors in Cuzco.","Ecuador\n\nHuáscar did not recognize his father's will, since it did not follow Inca traditions of naming an Inca through the priests. Huáscar ordered Atahualpa to attend their father's burial in Cuzco and pay homage to him as the new Inca ruler. Atahualpa, with a large number of his father's veteran soldiers, decided to ignore Huáscar, and a civil war ensued. A number of bloody battles took place until finally Huáscar was captured. Atahualpa marched south to Cuzco and massacred the royal family associated with his brother.","Ecuador\n\nA small band of Spaniards headed by Francisco Pizarro landed in Tumbez and marched over the Andes Mountains until they reached Cajamarca, where the new Inca Atahualpa was to hold an interview with them. Valverde, the priest, tried to convince Atahualpa that he should join the Catholic Church and declare himself a vassal of Spain. This infuriated Atahualpa so much that he threw the Bible to the ground. At this point the enraged Spaniards, with orders from Valverde, attacked and massacred unarmed escorts of the Inca and captured Atahualpa. Pizarro promised to release Atahualpa if he made good his promise of filling a room full of gold. But, after a mock trial, the Spaniards executed Atahualpa by strangulation.","Ecuador\n\nSpanish Rule","Ecuador\n\nNew infectious diseases, endemic to the Europeans, caused high fatalities among the Amerindian population during the first decades of Spanish rule, as they had no immunity. At the same time, the natives were forced into the encomienda labor system for the Spanish. In 1563, Quito became the seat of a real audiencia (administrative district) of Spain and part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and later the Viceroyalty of New Granada.","Ecuador\n\nAfter nearly 300 years of Spanish rule, Quito was still a small city numbering 10,000 inhabitants. On August 10, 1809, the city's criollos called for independence from Spain (first among the peoples of Latin America). They were led by Juan Pío Montúfar, Quiroga, Salinas, and Bishop Cuero y Caicedo. Quito's nickname, \"Luz de América\" (\"Light of America\"), is based on its leading role in trying to secure an independent, local government. Although the new government lasted no more than two months, it had important repercussions and was an inspiration for the independence movement of the rest of Spanish America.","Ecuador\n\nFile:Ecuador ingapirca inca ruins.jpg|Ingapirca ruins northeast of Cañar canton, Cañar Province\nFile:Luis Montero - The Funerals of Inca Atahualpa - Google Art Project.jpg|One of the main events in the conquest of the Incan Empire was the death of Atahualpa, the last Sapa Inca on August 29, 1533\nFile:Quito-San Diego-01.jpg|Spanish Historical Center in Quito\nFile:Pizarroshipbuilding.jpg|Shipwrights from Francisco de Orellana's expedition building a small brigantine, the San Pedro.","Ecuador\n\nIndependence","Ecuador\n\nOn October 9, 1820, Guayaquil became the first city in Ecuador to gain its independence from Spain. The people were very happy about the independence and celebrated, which is now Ecuador's independence day, officially on May 24, 1822. The rest of Ecuador gained its independence after Antonio José de Sucre defeated the Spanish Royalist forces at the Battle of Pichincha, near Quito. Following the battle, Ecuador joined Simón Bolívar's Republic of Gran Colombia, also including modern-day Colombia, Venezuela and Panama. In 1830 Ecuador separated from Gran Colombia and became an independent republic.","Ecuador\n\nThe 19th century was marked by instability for Ecuador with a rapid succession of rulers. The first president of Ecuador was the Venezuelan-born Juan José Flores, who was ultimately deposed, followed by several authoritarian leaders, such as Vicente Rocafuerte; José Joaquín de Olmedo; José María Urbina; Diego Noboa; Pedro José de Arteta; Manuel de Ascásubi; and Flores's own son, Antonio Flores Jijón, among others. The conservative Gabriel Garcia Moreno unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the Roman Catholic Church. In the late 19th century, world demand for cocoa tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador abolished slavery and freed its black slaves in 1851.","Ecuador\n\nLiberal Revolution","Ecuador\n\nThe Liberal Revolution of 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and the conservative land owners. This liberal wing retained power until the military \"Julian Revolution\" of 1925. The 1930s and 1940s were marked by instability and emergence of populist politicians, such as five-time President José María Velasco Ibarra.","Ecuador\n\nLoss of claimed territories since 1830","Ecuador\n\nPresident Juan José Flores de Jure Territorial Claims for Ecuador","Ecuador\n\nSince Ecuador's separation from Colombia in May 13, 1830, its first President, General Juan José Flores, laid claim to the territory that was called the Real Audiencia of Quito, also referred to as the Presidencia of Quito. He supported his claims with Spanish Royal decrees or Real Cedulas, that delineated the borders of Spain's former overseas colonies. In the case of Ecuador, Flores-based Ecuador's de jure claims on the following cedulas - Real Cedula of 1563, 1739, and 1740; with modifications in the Amazon Basin and Andes Mountains that were introduced through the Treaty of Guayaquil (1829) which Peru reluctantly signed, after the overwhelmingly outnumbered Gran Colombian force led by Antonio José de Sucre defeated President and General La Mar's Peruvian invasion force in the Battle of Tarqui. In addition, Ecuador's eastern border with the Portuguese colony of Brazil in the Amazon Basin was modified before the wars of Independence by the First Treaty of San Ildefonso (1777) between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire.","Ecuador\n\nMoreover, to add legitimacy to his claims, on February 16, 1840, Flores signed a treaty with Spain, whereby Flores convinced Spain to officially recognize Ecuadorian independence and its sole rights to colonial titles over Spain's former colonial territory known anciently to Spain as the Kingdom and Presidency of Quito.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador during its long and turbulent history has lost most of its contested territories to each of its more powerful neighbors, such as Colombia in 1832 and 1916, Brazil in 1904 through a series of peaceful treaties, and Peru after a short war in which the Protocol of Rio de Janeiro was signed in 1942.","Ecuador\n\nStruggle for independence","Ecuador\n\nDuring the struggle for independence, before Peru or Ecuador became independent nations, a few areas of the former Vice Royalty of New Granada - Guayaquil, Tumbez, and Jaén - declared themselves independent from Spain. A few months later, a part of the Peruvian liberation army of San Martin decided to occupy the independent cities of Tumbez and Jaén with the intention of using these towns as springboards to occupy the independent city of Guayaquil and then to liberate the rest of the Audiencia de Quito (Ecuador). It was common knowledge among the top officers of the liberation army from the south that their leader San Martin wished to liberate present-day Ecuador and add it to the future republic of Peru, since it had been part of the Inca Empire before the Spaniards conquered it.","Ecuador\n\nHowever, Bolívar's intention was to form a new republic known as the Gran Colombia, out of the liberated Spanish territory of New Granada which consisted of Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador. San Martin's plans were thwarted when Bolívar, with the help of Marshal Antonio José de Sucre and the Gran Colombian liberation force, descended from the Andes mountains and occupied Guayaquil; they also annexed the newly liberated Audiencia de Quito to the Republic of Gran Colombia. This happened a few days before San Martin's Peruvian forces could arrive and occupy Guayaquil, with the intention of annexing Guayaquil to the rest of Audiencia of Quito (Ecuador) and to the future republic of Peru. Historic documents repeatedly stated that San Martin told Bolivar he came to Guayaquil to liberate the land of the Incas from Spain. Bolivar countered by sending a message from Guayaquil welcoming San Martin and his troops to Colombian soil.","Ecuador\n\nPeruvian occupation of Jaén, Tumbes, and Guayaquil","Ecuador\n\nIn the south, Ecuador had de jure claims to a small piece of land beside the Pacific Ocean known as Tumbes which lay between the Zarumilla and Tumbes rivers. In Ecuador's southern Andes Mountain region where the Marañon cuts across, Ecuador had de jure claims to an area it called Jaén de Bracamoros. These areas were included as part of the territory of Gran Colombia by Bolivar in December 17, 1819, during the Congress of Angostura when the Republic of Gran Colombia was created. Tumbes declared itself independent from Spain on January 17, 1821, and Jaen de Bracamoros on June 17, 1821, without any outside help from revolutionary armies. However, that same year, 1821, Peruvian forces participating in the Trujillo revolution occupied both Jaen and Tumbes. Some Peruvian generals, without any legal titles backing them up and with Ecuador still federated with the Gran Colombia, had the desire to annex Ecuador to the Republic of Peru at the expense of the Gran Colombia, feeling that Ecuador was once part of the Inca Empire.","Ecuador\n\nOn July 28, 1821, Peruvian independence was proclaimed in Lima by the Liberator San Martin and Tumbes and Jaen which were included as part of the revolution of Trujillo by the Peruvian occupying force, had the whole region swear allegiance to the new Peruvian flag and incorporated itself into Peru, even though Peru was not completely liberated from Spain. After Peru was completely liberated from Spain by the patriot armies led by Bolivar and Antonio Jose de Sucre at the Battle of Ayacucho dated December 9, 1824, there was a strong desire by some Peruvians to resurrect the Inca Empire and to include Bolivia and Ecuador. One of these Peruvian Generals was the Ecuadorian-born José de La Mar, who became one of Peru's presidents after Bolivar resigned as dictator of Peru and returned to Colombia. Gran Colombia had always protested Peru for the return of Jaen and Tumbes for almost a decade, then finally Bolivar after long and futile discussion over the return of Jaen, Tumbes, and part of Mainas, declared war.","Ecuador\n\nPresident and General José de La Mar, who was born in Ecuador, believing his opportunity had come to annex the District of Ecuador to Peru, personally, with a Peruvian force, invaded and occupied Guayaquil and a few cities in the Loja region of southern Ecuador on November 28, 1828.","Ecuador\n\nThe war ended when a triumphant heavily outnumbered southern Gran Colombian army at Battle of Tarqui dated February 27, 1829, led by Antonio José de Sucre, defeated the Peruvian invasion force led by President La Mar. This defeat led to the signing of the Treaty of Guayaquil dated September 22, 1829, whereby Peru and its Congress recognized Gran Colombian rights over Tumbes, Jaen, and Maynas. Through protocolized meetings between representatives of Peru and Gran Colombia, the border was set as Tumbes river in the west and in the east the Maranon and Amazon rivers were to be followed toward Brazil as the most natural borders between them. However, what was pending was whether the new border around the Jaen region should follow the Chinchipe river or the Huancabamba river. According to the peace negotiations Peru agreed to return Guayaquil, Tumbez, and Jaén; despite this, Peru returned Guayaquil, but failed to return Tumbes and Jaén, alleging that it was not obligated to follow the agreements, since the Gran Colombia ceased to exist when it divided itself into three different nations - Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.","Ecuador\n\nThe dissolution of The Gran Colombia","Ecuador\n\nThe Central District of the Gran Colombia, known as Cundinamarca or New Granada (modern Colombia) with its capital in Bogota, did not recognize the separation of the Southern District of the Gran Colombia, with its capital in Quito, from the Gran Colombian federation on May 13, 1830. After Ecuador's separation, the Department of Cauca voluntarily decided to unite itself with Ecuador due to instability in the central government of Bogota. President Juan José Flores with the approval of the Ecuadorian congress annexed the Department of Cauca on December 20, 1830, since the government of Cauca had called for union with the District of the South as far back as April 1830. Moreover, the Cauca region throughout its long history had very strong economic and cultural ties with the people of Ecuador. Also, the Cauca region which included such cities as Pasto, Popayan, and Buenaventura had always been dependent on the Presidencia or Audiencia of Quito.","Ecuador\n\nFruitless negotiations continued between the governments of Bogota and Quito, where the government of Bogota did not recognize the separation of Ecuador or that of Cauca from the Gran Colombia until war broke out in May 1832. In five months, New Granada defeated Ecuador due to the fact that the majority of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces were composed of rebellious angry unpaid veterans from Venezuela and Colombia that did not want to fight against their fellow countrymen. Seeing that his officers were rebelling, mutinying, and changing sides, President Flores had no option but to reluctantly make peace with New Granada. The Treaty of Pasto of 1832 was signed by which the Department of Cauca was turned over to New Granada (modern Colombia), the government of Bogota recognized Ecuador as an independent country and the border was to follow the Ley de División Territorial de la República de Colombia (Law of the Division of Territory of the Gran Colombia) passed on June 25, 1824. This law set the border at the river Carchi and the eastern border that stretched to Brazil at the Caquetá river.","Ecuador\n\nLater, Ecuador contended that the Republic of Colombia, while reorganizing its government, unlawfully made its eastern border provisional and that Colombia extended its claims south to the Napo River because it said that the Government of Popayan extended its control all the way to the Napo River.","Ecuador\n\nStruggle for possession of the Amazon Basin","Ecuador\n\nWhen Ecuador seceded from the Gran Colombia, Peru decided not to follow the treaty of Guayaquil of 1829 or the protocoled agreements made. Peru contested Ecuador's claims with the newly discovered Real Cedula of 1802, by which Peru claims the King of Spain had transferred these lands from the Viceroyalty of New Granada to the Viceroyalty of Peru. During colonial times this was to halt the ever-expanding Portuguese settlements into Spanish domains, which were left vacant and in disorder after the expulsion of Jesuit missionaries from their bases along the Amazon Basin. Ecuador countered by labeling the Cedula of 1802 an ecclesiastical instrument, which had nothing to do with political borders. Peru began its de facto occupation of disputed Amazonian territories, after it signed a secret 1851 peace treaty in favor of Brazil. This treaty disregarded Spanish rights that were confirmed during colonial times by a Spanish-Portuguese treaty over the Amazon regarding territories held by illegal Portuguese settlers.","Ecuador\n\nPeru began occupying the defenseless missionary villages in the Mainas or Maynas region which it began calling Loreto with its capital in Iquitos. During its negotiations with Brazil, Peru stated that based on the royal cedula of 1802, it claimed Amazonian Basin territories up to Caqueta River in the north and toward the Andes Mountain range, depriving Ecuador and Colombia of all their claims to the Amazon Basin. Colombia protested stating that its claims extended south toward the Napo and Amazon Rivers. Ecuador protested that it claimed the Amazon Basin between the Caqueta river and the Marañon-Amazon river. Peru ignored these protests and created the Department of Loreto in 1853 with its capital in Iquitos which it had recently invaded and systematically began to occupy using the river systems in all the territories claimed by both Colombia and Ecuador. Peru briefly occupied Guayaquil again in 1860, since Peru thought that Ecuador was selling some of the disputed land for development to British bond holders, but returned Guayaquil after a few months. The border dispute was then submitted to Spain for arbitration from 1880 to 1910, but to no avail.","Ecuador\n\nIn the early part of the 20th century Ecuador made an effort to peacefully define its eastern Amazonian borders with its neighbors through negotiation. On May 6, 1904, Ecuador signed the Tobar-Rio Branco Treaty recognizing Brazil's claims to the Amazon in recognition of Ecuador's claim to be an Amazonian country to counter Peru's earlier Treaty with Brazil back in October 23, 1851. Then after a few meetings with the Colombian government's representatives an agreement was reached and the Muñoz Vernaza-Suarez Treaty was signed July 15, 1916, in which Colombian rights to the Putumayo river were recognized as well as Ecuador's rights to the Napo river and the new border was a line that ran midpoint between those two rivers. In this way Ecuador gave up the claims it had to the Amazonian territories between the Caquetá River and Napo River to Colombia, thus cutting itself off from Brazil. Later a brief war erupted between Colombia and Peru, over Peru's claims to the Caquetá region, which ended with the Peru reluctantly signing the Salomon-Lozano Treaty on March 24, 1922.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador protested this secret treaty, since Colombia gave away Ecuadorian claimed land to Peru that Ecuador had given to Colombia in 1916.","Ecuador\n\nIn July 21, 1924 the Ponce-Castro Oyanguren Protocol was signed between Ecuador and Peru where both agreed to hold direct negotiations and to resolve the dispute in an equitable manner and to submit the differing points of the dispute to the United States for arbitration. Negotiations between the Ecuadorian and Peruvian representatives began in Washington on September 30, 1935. These negotiations were long and tiresome. Both sides logically presented their cases, but no one seemed to give up their claims. Then on February 6, 1937, Ecuador presented a transactional line which Peru rejected the next day. The negotiations turned into intense arguments during the next 7 months and finally on September 29, 1937 the Peruvian representatives decided to break off the negotiations without submitting the dispute to arbitration because the direct negotiations were going nowhere.","Ecuador\n\nFour years later in 1941, amid fast-growing tensions within disputed territories around the Zarumilla River, war broke out with Peru. Peru claimed that Ecuador's military presence in Peruvian-claimed territory was an invasion; Ecuador, for its part, claimed that Peru had recently invaded Ecuador around the Zarumilla River and that Peru since Ecuador's independence from Spain has systematically occupied Tumbez, Jaen, and most of the disputed territories in the Amazonian Basin between the Putomayo and Marañon Rivers. In July 1941, troops were mobilized in both countries. Peru had an army of 11,681 troops who faced a poorly supplied and inadequately armed Ecuadorian force of 2,300, of which only 1,300 were deployed in the southern provinces. Hostilities erupted on July 5, 1941, when Peruvian forces crossed the Zarumilla river at several locations, testing the strength and resolve of the Ecuadorian border troops. Finally, on July 23, 1941, the Peruvians launched a major invasion, crossing the Zarumilla river in force and advancing into the Ecuadorian province of El Oro.","Ecuador\n\nDuring the course of the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War, Peru gained control over part of the disputed territory and some parts of the province of El Oro, and some parts of the province of Loja, demanding that the Ecuadorian government give up its territorial claims. The Peruvian Navy blocked the port of Guayaquil, almost cutting all supplies to the Ecuadorian troops. After a few weeks of war and under pressure by the United States and several Latin American nations, all fighting came to a stop. Ecuador and Peru came to an accord formalized in the Rio Protocol, signed on January 29, 1942, in favor of hemispheric unity against the Axis Powers in World War II favoring Peru with the territory they occupied at the time the war came to an end.","Ecuador\n\nThe 1944 Glorious May Revolution followed a military-civilian rebellion and a subsequent civic strike which successfully removed Carlos Arroyo del Río as a dictator from Ecuador's government. However a post-Second World War recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the 1960s, while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In 1972, construction of the Andean pipeline was completed. The pipeline brought oil from the east side of the Andes to the coast, making Ecuador South America's second largest oil exporter. The pipeline in southern Ecuador did nothing to resolve tensions between Ecuador and Peru, however.","Ecuador\n\nThe Rio Protocol failed to precisely resolve the border along a little river in the remote Cordillera del Cóndor region in southern Ecuador. This caused a long-simmering dispute between Ecuador and Peru, which ultimately led to fighting between the two countries; first a border skirmish in January–February 1981 known as the Paquisha Incident, and ultimately full-scale warfare in January 1995 where the Ecuadorian military shot down Peruvian aircraft and helicopters and Peruvian infantry marched into southern Ecuador. Each country blamed the other for the onset of hostilities, known as the Cenepa War. Sixto Durán Ballén, the Ecuadorian president, famously declared that he would not give up a single centimeter of Ecuador. Popular sentiment in Ecuador became strongly nationalistic against Peru: graffiti could be seen on the walls of Quito referring to Peru as the \"Cain de Latinoamérica\", a reference to the murder of Abel by his brother Cain in the Book of Genesis.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador and Peru signed the Brasilia Presidential Act peace agreement on October 26, 1998, which ended hostilities, and effectively put an end to the Western Hemisphere's longest running territorial dispute. The Guarantors of the Rio Protocol (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States of America) ruled that the border of the undelineated zone was to be set at the line of the Cordillera del Cóndor. While Ecuador had to give up its decades-old territorial claims to the eastern slopes of the Cordillera, as well as to the entire western area of Cenepa headwaters, Peru was compelled to give to Ecuador, in perpetual lease but without sovereignty, 1 km2 of its territory, in the area where the Ecuadorian base of Tiwinza – focal point of the war – had been located within Peruvian soil and which the Ecuadorian Army held during the conflict. The final border demarcation came into effect on May 13, 1999 and the multi-national MOMEP (Military Observer Mission for Ecuador and Peru) troop deployment withdrew on June 17, 1999.","Ecuador\n\nMilitary governments (1972–79)","Ecuador\n\nIn 1972, a \"revolutionary and nationalist\" military junta overthrew the government of Velasco Ibarra. The coup d'état was led by General Guillermo Rodríguez and executed by navy commander Jorge Queirolo G. The new president exiled José María Velasco to Argentina. He remained in power until 1976, when he was removed by another military government. That military junta was led by Admiral Alfredo Poveda, who was declared chairman of the Supreme Council. The Supreme Council included two other members:General Guillermo Durán Arcentales and General Luis Leoro Franco. The civil society more and more insistently called for democratic elections. Colonel Richelieu Levoyer, Government Minister, proposed and implemented a Plan to return to the constitutional system through universal elections. This plan enabled the new democratically elected president to assume the duties of the executive office.","Ecuador\n\nReturn to democracy","Ecuador\n\nElections were held on April 29, 1979, under a new constitution. Jaime Roldós Aguilera was elected president, garnering over one million votes, the most in Ecuadorian history. He took office on August 10, as the first constitutionally elected president after nearly a decade of civilian and military dictatorships. In 1980, he founded the Partido Pueblo, Cambio y Democracia (People, Change, and Democracy Party) after withdrawing from the Concentración de Fuerzas Populares (Popular Forces Concentration) and governed until May 24, 1981, when he died along with his wife and the minister of defense, Marco Subia Martinez, when his Air Force plane crashed in heavy rain near the Peruvian border. Many people believe that he was assassinated by the CIA, given the multiple death threats leveled against him because of his reformist agenda, deaths in automobile crashes of two key witnesses before they could testify during the investigation, and the sometimes contradictory accounts of the incident.","Ecuador\n\nRoldos was immediately succeeded by Vice President Osvaldo Hurtado, who was followed in 1984 by León Febres Cordero from the Social Christian Party. Rodrigo Borja Cevallos of the Democratic Left (Izquierda Democrática, or ID) party won the presidency in 1988, running in the runoff election against Abdalá Bucaram (brother in law of Jaime Roldos and founder of the Ecuadorian Roldosist Party). His government was committed to improving human rights protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade. The Borja government concluded an accord leading to the disbanding of the small terrorist group, \"¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!\" (\"Alfaro Lives, Dammit!\"), named after Eloy Alfaro. However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 1999.","Ecuador\n\nThe emergence of the Amerindian population as an active constituency has added to the democratic volatility of the country in recent years. The population has been motivated by government failures to deliver on promises of land reform, lower unemployment and provision of social services, and historical exploitation by the land-holding elite. Their movement, along with the continuing destabilizing efforts by both the elite and leftist movements, has led to a deterioration of the executive office. The populace and the other branches of government give the president very little political capital, as illustrated by the most recent removal of President Lucio Gutiérrez from office by Congress in April 2005. Vice President Alfredo Palacio took his place and remained in office until the presidential election of 2006, in which Rafael Correa gained the presidency.","Ecuador\n\nIn December 2008, president Correa declared Ecuador's national debt illegitimate, based on the argument that it was odious debt contracted by corrupt and despotic prior regimes. He announced that the country would default on over $3 billion worth of bonds; he then pledged to fight creditors in international courts and succeeded in reducing the price of outstanding bonds by more than 60%. He brought Ecuador into the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas in June 2009. To date, Correa's administration has succeeded in reducing the high levels of poverty and unemployment in Ecuador.","Ecuador\n\nGovernment and politics","Ecuador\n\nThe Ecuadorian State consists of five branches of government: the Executive Branch, the Legislative Branch, the Judicial Branch, the Electoral Branch, and Transparency and Social Control.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador is governed by a democratically elected President, for a four-year term. The current president of Ecuador, Rafael Correa, exercises his power from the presidential Palacio de Carondelet in Quito. The current constitution was written by the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly elected in 2007, and was approved by referendum in 2008. Since 1936, voting is compulsory for all literate persons aged 18–65, optional for all other citizens.","Ecuador\n\nThe executive branch includes 25 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors (mayors, aldermen, and parish boards) are directly elected. The National Assembly of Ecuador meets throughout the year except for recesses in July and December. There are thirteen permanent committees. Members of the National Court of Justice are appointed by the National Judicial Council for nine-year terms.","Ecuador\n\nExecutive branch","Ecuador\n\nThe executive branch is led by the president, an office currently held by Rafael Correa. He is accompanied by the vice-president, currently Jorge Glas, elected for four years (with the ability to be re-elected only once). As head of state and chief government official, he is responsible for public administration including the appointing of national coordinators, ministers, ministers of State and public servants. The executive branch defines foreign policy, appoints the Chancellor of the Republic, as well as ambassadors and consuls, being the ultimate authority over the Armed Forces of Ecuador, National Police of Ecuador, and appointing authorities. The acting president's wife receives the title of First Lady of Ecuador.","Ecuador\n\nLegislative branch","Ecuador\n\nThe legislative branch is embodied by the National Assembly, which is headquartered in the city of Quito in the Legislative Palace, and consists of 130 assemblymen, divided into ten committees and elected for a four-year term. Fifteen national constituency elected assembly, two Assembly members elected from each province and one for every 100,000 inhabitants or fraction exceeding 150,000, according to the latest national population census. In addition, statute determines the election of assembly of regions, and metropolitan districts.","Ecuador\n\nJudicial branch","Ecuador\n\nEcuador's judiciary has as its main body the Judicial Council, and also includes the National Court of Justice, provincial courts, and lower courts. Legal representation is made by the Judicial Council.\nThe National Court of Justice is composed of 21 judges elected for a term of nine years. Judges are renewed by thirds every three years pursuant to the Judicial Code. These are elected by the Judicial Council on the basis of opposition proceedings and merits.\nThe justice system is buttressed by the independent offices of public prosecutor and the public defender. Auxiliary organs are as follows: notaries, court auctioneers, and court receivers. Also there is a special legal regime for Amerindians.","Ecuador\n\nElectoral branch","Ecuador\n\nThe electoral system functions by authorities which enter only every four years or when elections or referendums occur. Its main functions are to organize, control elections, and punish the infringement of electoral rules. Its main body is the National Electoral Council, which is based in the city of Quito, and consists of seven members of the political parties most voted, enjoying complete financial and administrative autonomy. This body, along with the electoral court, forms the Electoral Branch which is one of Ecuador's five branches of government.","Ecuador\n\nTransparency and social control branch","Ecuador\n\nThe Transparency and Social Control consists of the Council of Citizen Participation and Social Control, an ombudsman, the Comptroller General of the State, and the superintendents. Branch members hold office for five years. This branch is responsible for promoting transparency and control plans publicly, as well as plans to design mechanisms to combat corruption, as also designate certain authorities, and be the regulatory mechanism of accountability in the country.","Ecuador\n\nHuman rights","Ecuador\n\nUN's Human Rights Council's (HRC) Universal Periodic Review (UPR) has treated the restrictions on freedom of expression and efforts to control NGOs and recommended that Ecuador should stop the criminal sanctions for the expression of opinions, and delay in implementing judicial reforms. Ecuador rejected the recommendation on decriminalization of libel.","Ecuador\n\nAccording to Human Rights Watch (HRW) President Correa has intimidated journalists and subjected them to \"public denunciation and retaliatory litigation\". The sentences to journalists have been years of imprisonment and millions of dollars of compensation, even though defendants have been pardoned. Correa has stated he was only seeking a retraction for slanderous statements.","Ecuador\n\nAccording to HRW, Correa's government has weakened the freedom of press and independence of the judicial system. In Ecuador's current judicial system, judges are selected in a contest of merits, rather than government appointments. However, the process of selection has been criticized as biased and subjective. In particular, the final interview is said to be given \"excessive weighing.\" Judges and prosecutors that have made decisions in favor of Correa in his lawsuits have received permanent posts, while others with better assessment grades have been rejected.[http://web.archive.org/web/20131102052404/http://diariodigitalcentro.com/index.php/455-reforma-judicial-en-ecuador-debe-hacerse-hasta-el-2015 Reforma judicial en Ecuador debe hacerse hasta el 2015], diariodigitalcentro.com","Ecuador\n\nThe laws also forbid articles and media messages that could favor or disfavor some political message or candidate. In the first half of 2012, twenty private TV or radio stations were closed down.","Ecuador\n\nIn July 2012 the officials warned the judges that they would be sanctioned and possibly dismissed if they allowed the citizens to appeal to the protection of their constitutional rights against the state.","Ecuador\n\nPeople engaging in public protests against environmental and other issues are prosecuted for \"terrorism and sabotage\", which may lead to an eight-year prison sentence.","Ecuador\n\nHuman Rights Watch has been criticized for bias on its reports on Ecuador.","Ecuador\n\nForeign affairs","Ecuador\n\nEcuador's principal foreign policy objectives have traditionally included defense of its territory from external aggression and support for the objectives of the United Nations and the OAS. Ecuador's membership in the OPEC in the 1970s and 1980s allowed Ecuadorian leaders to exercise somewhat greater foreign policy autonomy. In Antarctica, Ecuador has maintained a peaceful research station for scientific study as a member nation of the Antarctica Treaty. Ecuador has often placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international issues. Ecuador is a member of the United Nations (and most of its specialized agencies) and a member of many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America, the Andean Community of Nations, the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR), and The Bank of the South (Spanish: Banco del Sur or BancoSur).","Ecuador\n\nAdministrative divisions","Ecuador\n\nEcuador is divided into 24 provinces (), each with its own administrative capital:","Ecuador\n\nThe provinces are divided into cantons and further subdivided into parishes (parroquias).","Ecuador\n\nRegions and planning areas","Ecuador\n\nRegionalization, or zoning, is the union of two or more adjoining provinces in order to decentralize the administrative functions of the capital Quito.\nIn Ecuador there are seven regions or zones, each shaped by the following provinces:\n* Region 1 (42,126 km², or 16,265 mi2): Esmeraldas, Carchi, Imbabura, and Sucumbios. Administrative city: Ibarra\n* Region 2 (43,498 km², or 16,795 mi2): Pichincha, Napo, and Orellana. Administrative city: Tena\n* Region 3 (44,710 km², or 17,263 mi2): Chimborazo, Tungurahua, Pastaza, and Cotopaxi. Administrative city: Riobamba\n* Region 4 (22,257 km², or 8,594 mi2): Manabí and Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas. Administrative city: Ciudad Alfaro\n* Region 5 (38,420 km², or 14,834 mi2): Santa Elena, Guayas, Los Ríos, Galápagos, and Bolívar. Administrative city: Milagro\n* Region 6 (38,237 km², or 14,763 mi2): Cañar, Azuay, and Morona Santiago. Administrative city: Cuenca\n* Region 7 (27,571 km², or 10,645 mi2): El Oro, Loja, and Zamora Chinchipe. Administrative city: Loja","Ecuador\n\nQuito and Guayaquil are Metropolitan Districts. Galápagos, despite being included within Region 5, is also under a special unit.","Ecuador\n\nMilitary","Ecuador\n\nThe Ecuadorian Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas del Ecuador), consists of the Army, Air Force, and Navy and have the stated responsibility for the preservation of the integrity and national sovereignty of the national territory.","Ecuador\n\nThe military tradition starts in Gran Colombia, where a sizable army was stationed in Ecuador due to border disputes with Peru, which claimed territories under its political control when it was a Spanish vice-royalty. Once Gran Colombia was dissolved after the death of Simón Bolívar in 1830, Ecuador inherited the same border disputes and had the need of creating its own professional military force. So influential was the military in Ecuador in the early republican period that its first decade was under the control of General Juan Jose Flores, first president of Ecuador of Venezuelan origin. General Jose Ma. Urbina and General Robles are examples of military figures who became presidents of the country in the early republican period.","Ecuador\n\nDue to the continuous border disputes with Peru, finally settled in the early 2000s, and due to the ongoing problem with the Colombian guerrilla insurgency infiltrating Amazonian provinces, the Ecuadorian Armed Forces has gone through a series of changes. In 2009, the new administration at the Defense Ministry launched a deep restructuring within the forces, increasing spending budget to $1,691,776,803, an increase of 25%.","Ecuador\n\nThe icons of the Ecuadorian military forces are the Marshall Antonio José de Sucre and General Eloy Alfaro. The Military Academy General Eloy Alfaro (c. 1838) graduates the army officers and is located in Quito. The Ecuadorian Navy Academy (c. 1837), located in Salinas graduates the navy officers, and the Air Academy \"Cosme Rennella (c. 1920), also located in Salinas, graduates the air force officers. Other training academies for different military specialties are found across the country.","Ecuador\n\nGeography","Ecuador\n\nEcuador has a total area of 283520 km2, including the Galápagos Islands. Of this, 283520 km2 is land and 6720 km2 water. Ecuador is bigger than Uruguay, Suriname, Guyana and French Guyana in South America.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador lies between latitudes 2°N and 5°S,\nbounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and has 2337 km of coastline. It has 2010 km of land boundaries, with Colombia in the north 590 km border and Peru in the east and south 1420 km border. It is the westernmost country that lies on the equator.","Ecuador\n\nThe country has four main geographic regions:\n*La Costa, or \"the coast\": The coastal region consists of the provinces to the West of the Andean range -, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ríos, Manabí, El Oro, Santa Elena. It is the country's most fertile and productive land, and is the seat of the large banana exportation plantations of the companies Dole and Chiquita. This region is also where most of Ecuador's rice crop is grown. The truly coastal provinces have active fisheries. The largest coastal city is Guayaquil. *La Sierra, or \"the highlands\": The sierra consists of the Andean and Interandean highland provinces - Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha, and Tungurahua. This land contains most of Ecuador's volcanoes and all of its snow-capped peaks. Agriculture is focused on the traditional crops of potato, maize, and quinua and the population is predominantly Amerindian Kichua. The largest Sierran city is Quito. *La Amazonía, also known as El Oriente, or \"the east\": The oriente consists of the Amazon jungle provinces - Morona Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Sucumbíos, and Zamora-Chinchipe.","Ecuador\n\nThis region is primarily made up of the huge Amazon national parks and Amerindian untouchable zones, which are vast stretches of land set aside for the Amazon Amerindian tribes to continue living traditionally. It is also the area with the largest reserves of petroleum in Ecuador, and parts of the upper Amazon here have been extensively exploited by petroleum companies. The population is primarily mixed Amerindian Shuar, Huaorani and Kichua, although there are numerous tribes in the deep jungle which are little-contacted. The largest city in the Oriente is probably Lago Agrio in Sucumbíos, although Macas in Morona Santiago runs a close second. *La Región Insular is the region comprising the Galápagos Islands, some 1000 km west of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador's capital is Quito, which is in the province of Pichincha in the Sierra region. Its largest city is Guayaquil, in the Guayas Province. Cotopaxi, which is just south of Quito, features one of the world's highest active volcanoes. The top of Mount Chimborazo (6,268 m, or 20,560 ft, above sea level) is considered to be the most distant point of the Earth's surface from the center of the Earth, given the approximately ellipsoid shape of the planet.","Ecuador\n\nClimate","Ecuador\n\nThere is great variety in the climate, largely determined by altitude. It is mild year-round in the mountain valleys, with a humid subtropical climate in coastal areas and rainforest in lowlands. The Pacific coastal area has a tropical climate with a severe rainy season. The climate in the Andean highlands is temperate and relatively dry, and the Amazon basin on the eastern side of the mountains shares the climate of other rainforest zones.","Ecuador\n\nBecause of its location at the equator, Ecuador experiences little variation in daylight hours during the course of a year. Both sunrise and sunset occur each day at the two six o'clock hours.","Ecuador\n\nHydrology","Ecuador\n\nThe Andes is the watershed divisor between the Amazon watershed, which runs to the east, and the Pacific, including the north–south rivers Mataje, Santiago, Esmeraldas, Chone, Guayas, Jubones, and Puyango-Tumbes.","Ecuador\n\nAlmost all of the rivers in Ecuador form in the La Sierra region and flow east toward the Amazon River or west toward the Pacific Ocean. The rivers rise from snowmelt at the edges of the snowcapped peaks or from the abundant precipitation that falls at higher elevations. In the La Sierra region, the streams and rivers are narrow and flow rapidly over precipitous slopes. Rivers may slow and widen as they cross the hoyas yet become rapid again as they flow from the heights of the Andes to the lower elevations of the other regions. The highland rivers broaden as they enter the more level areas of the Costa and the Oriente.","Ecuador\n\nIn the Costa, the external coast has mostly intermittent rivers that are fed by constant rains from December through May and become empty riverbeds during the dry season. The few exceptions are the longer, perennial rivers that flow throughout the external coast from the internal coast and La Sierra on their way to the Pacific Ocean. The internal coast, by contrast, is crossed by perennial rivers that may flood during the rainy season, sometimes forming swamps.","Ecuador\n\nMajor rivers in the Oriente include the Pastaza, Napo, and Putumayo. The Pastaza is formed by the confluence of the Chambo and the Patate rivers, both of which rise in the Sierra. The Pastaza includes the Agoyan waterfall, which at sixty-one meters (200 feet) is the highest waterfall in Ecuador. The Napo rises near Mount Cotopaxi and is the major river used for transport in the eastern lowlands. The Napo ranges in width from 500 to. In its upper reaches, the Napo flows rapidly until the confluence with one of its major tributaries, the Coca River, where it slows and levels off. The Putumayo forms part of the border with Colombia. All of these rivers flow into the Amazon River. The Galápagos Islands have no significant rivers. Several of the larger islands, however, have freshwater springs although they are surrounded by the Pacific Ocean.","Ecuador\n\nBiodiversity","Ecuador\n\nEcuador is one of seventeen megadiverse countries in the world according to Conservation International, and it has the most biodiversity per square kilometer of any nation.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador has 1,600 bird species (15% of the world's known bird species) in the continental area and 38 more endemic in the Galápagos. In addition to over 16,000 species of plants, the country has 106 endemic reptiles, 138 endemic amphibians, and 6,000 species of butterfly. The Galápagos Islands are well known as a region of distinct fauna, famous as the place of birth of Darwin's Theory of Evolution and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador has the first constitution to recognize the rights of nature. The protection of the nation's biodiversity is an explicit national priority as stated in the National Plan of \"Buen Vivir\", or good living, Objective 4, \"Guarantee the rights of nature\", Policy 1: \"Sustainably conserve and manage the natural heritage, including its land and marine biodiversity, which is considered a strategic sector\". As of the writing of the Plan in 2008, 19% of Ecuador's land area was in a protected area; however, the Plan also states that 32% of the land must be protected in order to truly preserve the nation's biodiversity. Current protected areas include 11 national parks, 10 wildlife refuges, 9 ecological reserves, and other areas. A program begun in 2008, Sociobosque, is preserving another 2.3% of total land area (6,295 km², or 629,500 ha) by paying private landowners or community landowners (such as Amerindian tribes) incentives to maintain their land as native ecosystems such as native forests or grasslands.","Ecuador\n\nEligibility and subsidy rates for this program are determined based on the poverty in the region, the number of hectares that will be protected, and the type of ecosystem of the land to be protected, among other factors.","Ecuador\n\nDespite being on the UNESCO list, the Galápagos are endangered by a range of negative environmental effects, threatening the existence of this exotic ecosystem. Additionally, oil exploitation of the Amazon rainforest has led to the release of billions of gallons of untreated wastes, gas, and crude oil into the environment, contaminating ecosystems and causing detrimental health effects to Amerindian peoples.","Ecuador\n\nFile:Galapagos dominance display.jpg|Galápagos tortoise, Santa Cruz Island\nFile:SulaNebouxi.jpg|Blue-footed booby\nFile:Sphyrna lewini galapagos.jpg|Hammerhead sharks\nFile:Seegurke-Galapagos-Champion.jpg|Sea cucumber Isostichopus fuscus near Floreana\nFile:Galapagos plants I 01.jpg|Galapagos plant by Klaus Schönitzer","Ecuador\n\nEconomy","Ecuador\n\nEcuador has a developing economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum and agricultural products. The country is classified as a medium-income country. Ecuador's economy is the eighth largest in Latin America and experienced an average growth of 4.6% between 2000 and 2006. From 2007 to 2012 Ecuador's GDP grew at an annual average of 4.3 percent, above the average for Latin America and the Caribbean, which was 3.5%, according to the United Nations' Economic Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Ecuador was able to maintain relatively superior growth during the crisis. In January 2009 the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE) put the 2010 growth forecast at 6.88%. In 2011 its GDP grew at 8% and ranked 3rd highest in Latin America, behind Argentina (2nd) and Panama (1st). Between 1999 and 2007, GDP doubled, reaching $65,490 million according to BCE. Inflation rate up to January 2008 was located about 1.14%, the highest recorded in the last year, according to the government. The monthly unemployment rate remained at about 6 and 8 percent from December 2007 until September 2008; however, it went up to about 9 percent in October and dropped again in November 2008 to 8 percent.","Ecuador\n\nUnemployment mean annual rate for 2009 in Ecuador was 8.5% because the global economic crisis continued to affect the Latin American economies. From this point unemployment rates started a downward trend: 7.6% in 2010, 6.0% in 2011, and 4.8% in 2012.","Ecuador\n\nThe extreme poverty rate has declined significantly between 1999 and 2010. In 2001 it was estimated at 40% of the population, while by 2011 the figure dropped to 17.4% of the total population.Rebeca, Ray and Sara, Kozameh. (May 2012) [http://www.scribd.com/doc/92086279/Ecuador%E2%80%99s-Economy-Since-2007 Ecuador's Economy Since 2007]. p. 15. This is explained to an extent by emigration and the economic stability achieved after adopting the U.S. dollar as official means of transaction. However, starting in 2008 with the bad economic performance of the nations where most Ecuadorian emigrants work, the reduction of poverty has been realized through social spending mainly in education and health.","Ecuador\n\nOil accounts for 40% of exports and contributes to maintaining a positive trade balance. Since the late 1960s, the exploitation of oil increased production, and proven reserves are estimated at 6.51 billion barrels .","Ecuador\n\nThe overall trade balance for August 2012 was a surplus of almost $390 million for the first six months of 2012, a huge figure compared with that of 2007, which reached only $5.7 million; the surplus had risen by about $425 million compared to 2006. The oil trade balance positive had revenues of $3.295 million in 2008, while non-oil was negative, amounting to $2.842 million. The trade balance with the United States, Chile, the European Union, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, and Mexico is positive. The trade balance with Argentina, Colombia, and Asia is negative.","Ecuador\n\nIn the agricultural sector, Ecuador is a major exporter of bananas (first place worldwide in production and export), flowers, and the seventh largest producer of cocoa. The shrimp, sugar cane, rice, cotton, corn, palm, and coffee productions are also significant. The country's vast resources include large amounts of timber across the country, like eucalyptus and mangroves. Pines and cedars are planted in the region of La Sierra and walnuts, rosemary, and balsa wood in the Guayas River Basin. \nThe industry is concentrated mainly in Guayaquil, the largest industrial center, and in Quito, where in recent years the industry has grown considerably. This city is also the largest business center of the country. Industrial production is directed primarily to the domestic market. Despite this, there is limited export of products produced or processed industrially. These include canned foods, liquor, jewelry, furniture, and more. A minor industrial activity is also concentrated in Cuenca. The incomes due to the tourism have been increasing during the last years because of the efforts of the Government of showing the variety of climates and the biodiversity in Ecuador.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador has negotiated bilateral treaties with other countries, besides belonging to the Andean Community of Nations, and an associate member of Mercosur. It also serves on the World Trade Organization (WTO), in addition to the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), Corporación Andina de Fomento (CAF) and other multilateral agencies. In April 2007, Ecuador paid off its debt to the IMF, thus ending an era of interventionism of the Agency in the country.\nThe public finance of Ecuador consists of the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE), the National Development Bank (BNF), the State Bank, the National Finance Corporation, the Ecuadorian Housing Bank (BEV) and the Ecuadorian Educational Loans and Grants.","Ecuador\n\nBetween 2006 and 2009, the government increased social spending on social welfare and education from 2.6% to 5.2% of its GDP. Starting in 2007, with an economy surpassed by the economic crisis, Ecuador was subject to a number of economic policy reforms by the government that have helped steer the Ecuadorian economy to a sustained, substantial, and focused financial stability and social policy. Such policies were expansionary fiscal policies, of access to housing finance, stimulus packs, and limiting the amount of money reserves banks could keep abroad. The Ecuadorian Government has made huge investments in education and infrastructure throughout the nation, which have improved the lives of the poor.","Ecuador\n\nIn 2000, Ecuador changed its currency from the sucre to the U.S. dollar following a banking crisis.","Ecuador\n\nOn December 12, 2008, president Correa announced that Ecuador would not pay $30.6 million in interest to lenders of a $510-million loan, claiming that they were illegitimate.Mapstone, (December 13, 2008). [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7170e224-c897-11dd-b86f-000077b07658.html Ecuador defaults on sovereign bonds]. Financial Times In addition, it claimed that $3.8 billion in foreign debt negotiated by previous administrations was illegitimate because it was authorized without executive decree. At the time of the announcement, the country had $5.65 billion in cash reserves. worlddiplomacy.org states that \"Since Ecuador's President Rafael Correa won a third term in 2013, this should provide further stability and a good rate of growth for Ecuador's economy.\"","Ecuador\n\nEcuador, as part of the Mercosur, have signed a free trade agreement with Lebanon on December 18, 2014.","Ecuador\n\nIndustry","Ecuador\n\nThe country has potential for the industry in a variety of sectors, including domestic production of raw materials and manufactured textiles, mining, chemical, petrochemical, and oil refinement. Power generation is also a potential sector that is starting to be developed due to Ecuador's high water potential in various sectors of the country; the development of products based on the melting or glass materials, production and agro-processed foods, and pharmaceutical production, among others. The most relevant project currently under development is the Pacific refinery, located in Manta, which will be one of the largest in the region.","Ecuador\n\nCurrency","Ecuador\n\nIn its infancy, Ecuador was part of Gran Colombia until 1830 as Departamento del Sur. Gran Colombia's monetary regulations retained the old Spanish colonial system. Ecuador officially began its own monetary unit on June 28, 1835, when the inscription (rev.) \"EL ECUADOR EN COLOMBIA\" was changed to \"REPÚBLICA DEL ECUADOR\". Many regional coins from neighboring Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, etc., as well as international units, were in circulation and accepted while Quito fought counterfeiting and tried to unify its currency. Counterfeiting had reached alarming proportions during 1842. At this time, Ecuador was on the verge of bankruptcy, and, since legitimate coins had such imperfections, it was impossible to tell them from the bad coins.","Ecuador\n\nOn December 29, 1845, President Vicente Ramón Roca authorized a coin to compete with the fuertes (full-bodied coin) of other countries. This was the peso fuerte. The standard of 903 fineness for silver, however, resulted in a heavy export of the coin. It disappeared as soon as it entered circulation (Gresham's law), grabbed up by the merchants of Guayaquil.","Ecuador\n\nBy the 1850s, the Quito mint was not receiving enough precious metals to justify its operation. It had to coin a minimum of 6,000 pesos a year just to meet overhead. The mint was shut down temporarily during 1853 while the government considered the options of keeping it open or shutting it down permanently. The mint equipment was worn and could not produce coins in sufficient quantity to compete with the foreign coin that entered Ecuador.","Ecuador\n\nCongress passed a new monetary law on December 5, 1856, adopting the French decimal system, a standard of 0.900 for silver, and the Ecuadorian Franco. The peso remained a unit of account equal to 5 francos. Paper money was first issued in 1859 by the Banco de Circulación y Descuento de Manuel Antonio de Luzarraga in Guayaquil, with banknote denominations of 1, 4, 5, 10, and 20 pesos.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador's monetary unit, the peso, was renamed sucre (decree of March 22, 1884, effective April 1). The 1884 monetary law permitted free circulation of the gold coins of France, Italy, Switzerland, Colombia, etc. As for silver, the law permitted the import of 5-franc pieces of France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland etc. opper (vellón) was made legal tender to 5 décimos. Bank reserves were in silver coins, and banknotes were convertible solely into silver. Ecuador was on a de facto silver standard and did not coin any gold between 1884 and 1892. President Antonio Flores Jijón announced that from August 15, 1890, only national coins were allowed to circulate in Ecuador, and Ecuador's monetary system was unified.","Ecuador\n\nFollowing the financial banking crisis of 1999, the U.S. dollar became legal tender in Ecuador on March 13, 2000, and sucre notes ceased being legal tender on September 11. Sucre notes remained exchangeable at Banco Central until March 30, 2001, at 25,000 sucres per dollar. Ecuador now only issues its own centavo coins.","Ecuador\n\nTransport","Ecuador\n\nThe rehabilitation and reopening of the Ecuadorian railroad and use of it as a tourist attraction is one of the recent developments in transportation matters.","Ecuador\n\nThe roads of Ecuador in recent years have undergone important improvement. The major routes are Pan American (under enhancement from four to six lanes from Rumichaca to Ambato, the conclusion of 4 lanes on the entire stretch of Ambato and Riobamba and running via Riobamba to Loja). In the absence of the section between Loja and the border with Peru, there are the Route Espondilus and/or Ruta del Sol (oriented to travel along the Ecuadorian coastline) and the Amazon backbone (which crosses from north to south along the Ecuadorian Amazon, linking most and more major cities of it).","Ecuador\n\nAnother major project is developing the road Manta – Tena, the highway Guayaquil – Salinas Highway Aloag Santo Domingo, Riobamba – Macas (which crosses Sangay National Park). Other new developments include the National Unity bridge complex in Guayaquil, the bridge over the Napo river in Francisco de Orellana, the Esmeraldas River Bridge in the city of the same name, and, perhaps the most remarkable of all, the Bahia – San Vincente Bridge, being the largest on the Latin American Pacific coast.","Ecuador\n\nThe Mariscal Sucre International Airport in Quito and the José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport in Guayaquil have experienced a high increase in demand and have required modernization. In the case of Guayaquil it involved a new air terminal, once considered the best in South America and the best in Latin America and in Quito where an entire new airport has been built in Tababela and was inaugurated in February 2013, with Canadian assistance. However, the main road leading from Quito city centre to the new airport will only be finished in late 2014, making current travelling from the airport to downtown Quito as long as two hours during rush hour. Quito's old city-centre airport is being turned into parkland, with some light industrial use.","Ecuador\n\nElectrical power outlets","Ecuador\n\nElectrical power outlets in Ecuador are the same as in the US (110v).","Ecuador\n\nWater supply and sanitation","Ecuador\n\nDrinking water supply and sanitation in Ecuador is characterized by a number of achievements and challenges. One key achievement is a significant increase in both access to an improved water source (82% in 1990 to 96% in 2010 in urban areas) http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ and improved sanitation (77% in 1990 to 96% in 2010 in urban areas). Significant increases in coverage in urban areas were achieved both by the public utility EMAAP-Q, serving the capital Quito, and the private concessionaire Interagua in the country's largest city Guayaquil. However, municipalities rely overwhelmingly upon central government investment, rather than recouping the costs at a local level. Another problem is intermittent water supply, which affects half of the urban areas. Also, only 8% of all collected wastewater is being treated. The level of non-revenue water is estimated at 65%, one of the highest in Latin America.","Ecuador\n\nMobile (cellular) phone frequencies","Ecuador\n\nMobile (cellular) phone frequencies in Ecuador are 850 MHz, 1900 MHz, and 1700/2100 MHz (LTE).","Ecuador\n\nDemographics","Ecuador\n\nEcuador's population is ethnically diverse and the 2011 estimates put Ecuador's population at 15,007,343. The largest ethnic group () is the Mestizos, who are the descendants of Spanish colonists that interbred with Amerindian peoples, and constitute about 71% of the population. The White Ecuadorians (White Latin American) account for 6.1% of the population of Ecuador and can be found throughout all of Ecuador primarily around the urban areas. Even though Ecuador's white population during its colonial era were mainly descendants from Spain, today Ecuador's white population is a result of a mixture of European immigrants, predominantly from Spain with people from Italy, France, Germany, and Switzerland who have settled in the early 20th century. Ecuador also has people of middle eastern extraction that have also joined the ranks of the white minority. These include economically well off immigrants of Lebanese and Palestinian descent, who are either Christian or Muslim (Islam in Ecuador). In addition, there is a small European Jewish (Ecuadorian Jews) population, which is based mainly in Quito and to a lesser extent in Guayaquil. Amerindians account for 7% of the current population.","Ecuador\n\nThe mostly rural Montubio population of the coastal provinces of Ecuador, who might be classified as Pardo account for 7.4% of the population. The Afro-Ecuadorians is a minority population (7%) in Ecuador, that includes the Mulattos and zambos, and are largely based in the Esmeraldas province and to a lesser degree in the predominantly Mestizo provinces of Coastal Ecuador - Guayas and Manabi. In the Highland Andes where a predominantly Mestizo, white and Amerindian population exist, the African presence is almost non-existent except for a small community in the province of Imbabura called Chota Valley.","Ecuador\n\nReligion","Ecuador\n\nAccording to the Ecuadorian National Institute of Statistics and Census, 91.95% of the country's population have a religion, 7.94% are atheists and 0.11% are agnostics. Among the people that have a religion, 80.44% are Roman Catholic Latin Rite (see List of Roman Catholic dioceses in Ecuador), 11.30% are Evangelical Protestants, 1.29% are Jehovah's Witnesses and 6.97% other (mainly Jewish, Buddhists and Latter-day Saints).","Ecuador\n\nIn the rural parts of Ecuador, Amerindian beliefs and Catholicism are sometimes syncretized. Most festivals and annual parades are based on religious celebrations, many incorporating a mixture of rites and icons.","Ecuador\n\nThere is a small number of Eastern Orthodox Christians, Amerindian religions, Muslims (see Islam in Ecuador), Buddhists and Bahá'í. According to their own estimates, the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints accounts for about 1.4% of the population, or 211,165 members at the end of 2012. According to their own sources, in 2012 there were 77,323 Jehovah's Witnesses in the country.","Ecuador\n\nThe first Jews arrived in Ecuador in the 16th and 17th centuries. Most of them are Sephardic Anusim (Crypto-Jews) and many still speak Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) language. Today the Jewish Community of Ecuador (Comunidad Judía del Ecuador) has its seat in Quito and has approximately 200 members. Nevertheless, this number is declining because young people leave the country for the United States or Israel. The Community has a Jewish Center with a synagogue, a country club, and a cemetery. It supports the \"Albert Einstein School\", where Jewish history, religion, and Hebrew classes are offered.\nThere are very small communities in Cuenca. The \"Comunidad de Culto Israelita\" reunites the Jews of Guayaquil. This community works independently from the \"Jewish Community of Ecuador\" and is composed of only 30 people.","Ecuador\n\nNations","Ecuador\n\nThe Ecuadorian constitution recognizes the \"pluri-nationality\" of those who want to exercise their affiliation with their native ethnic groups. Thus, in addition to criollos, mestizos, and Afro-Ecuadorians, some people belong to the Amerindian nations scattered in a few places in the coast, Quechua Andean villages, and the Amazonian jungle.","Ecuador\n\nPopulation genetics","Ecuador\n\nAccording to a 2015 genealogical DNA testing, the average Ecuadorian is estimated to be 52.96% Native American, 41.77% European, and 5.26% Sub-Saharan African overall.","Ecuador\n\nPopulation density","Ecuador\n\nThe majority of Ecuadorians live in the central provinces, the Andes mountains, or along the Pacific coast. The tropical forest region to the east of the mountains (El Oriente) remains sparsely populated and contains only about 3% of the population. Birth rate is 2-1 for each death. Marriages are usually from 14 and above using parental consent. About 12.4% of the population is married in the ages 15–19. Divorce rates are moderate.Population cities (2010)","Ecuador\n\nStatus According to the 2010 Census","Ecuador\n\nImmigration and emigration","Ecuador\n\nA small east Asian Latino community, estimated at 2,500, mainly consists of those of Japanese and Chinese descent, whose ancestors arrived as miners, farmhands and fishermen in the late 19th century.","Ecuador\n\nIn the early years of World War II, Ecuador still admitted a certain number of immigrants, and in 1939, when several South American countries refused to accept 165 Jewish refugees from Germany aboard the ship Koenigstein, Ecuador granted them entry permits.","Ecuador\n\nIn recent years, Ecuador has grown in popularity among North American expatriates. They're drawn there by the authentic cultural experience and beautiful natural surroundings. Also, Ecuador's favorable residency options make for an easy transition for those who decide to settle there indefinitely.","Ecuador\n\nAnother perk that draws many expats to Ecuador is its low cost of living. Since everything from gas to groceries costs far less than in North America, it's a popular choice for those who are looking to make the most of their retirement budget.","Ecuador\n\nEven real estate in Ecuador is much less than its tropical counterparts. However, as more and more North Americans are discovering Ecuador's potential, property prices are beginning to rise from where they were a decade ago, particularly in the areas that are popular among expats and tourists.","Ecuador\n\nCulture","Ecuador\n\nEcuador's mainstream culture is defined by its Hispanic mestizo majority, and, like their ancestry, it is traditionally of Spanish heritage, influenced in different degrees by Amerindian traditions and in some cases by African elements. The first and most substantial wave of modern immigration to Ecuador consisted of Spanish colonists, following the arrival of Europeans in 1499. A lower number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early twentieth centuries and, in smaller numbers, Poles, Lithuanians, English, Irish, and Croats during and after the Second World War.","Ecuador\n\nSince African slavery was not the workforce of the Spanish colonies in the Andes Mountains, given the subjugation of the Amerindian people through proselytization and encomiendas, the minority population of African descent is mostly found in the coastal northern province of Esmeraldas. This is largely owing to the 17th-century shipwreck of a slave-trading galleon off the northern coast of Ecuador. The few black African survivors swam to the shore and penetrated the then-thick jungle under the leadership of Anton, the chief of the group, where they remained as free men maintaining their original culture, not influenced by the typical elements found in other provinces of the coast or in the Andean region. A little later, runaway slaves from Colombia known as cimarrones joined them. In the small Chota Valley of the province of Imbabura exists a small community of Africans among the province's predominantly mestizo population. These blacks are descendants of Africans, who were brought over from Colombia by Jesuits to work their colonial sugar plantations as slaves.","Ecuador\n\nAs a general rule, small elements of zambos and mulattoes coexisted among the overwhelming mestizo population of coastal Ecuador throughout its history as gold miners in Loja, Zaruma, and Zamora and as shipbuilders and plantation workers around the city of Guayaquil. Today you can find a small community of Africans in the Catamayo valley of the predominantly mestizo population of Loja.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador's Amerindian communities are integrated into the mainstream culture to varying degrees, but some may also practice their own native cultures, particularly the more remote Amerindian communities of the Amazon basin. Spanish is spoken as the first language by more than 90% of the population and as a first or second language by more than 98%. Part of Ecuador's population can speak Amerindian languages, in some cases as a second language. Two percent of the population speak only Amerindian languages.","Ecuador\n\nLanguage","Ecuador\n\nMost Ecuadorians speak Spanish, though many speak Amerindian language, such as Kichwa (also spelt Quichua), which is one of the Quechuan languages and is spoken by approximately 2.5 million people in Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru. Other Amerindian languages spoken in Ecuador include Awapit (spoken by the Awá), A'ingae (spoken by the Cofan), Shuar Chicham (spoken by the Shuar), Achuar-Shiwiar (spoken by the Achuar and the Shiwiar), Cha'palaachi (spoken by the Chachi), Tsa'fiki (spoken by the Tsáchila), Paicoca (spoken by the Siona and Secoya), and Wao Tededeo (spoken by the Waorani). Though most features of Ecuadorian Spanish are those universal to the Spanish-speaking world, there are several idiosyncrasies.","Ecuador\n\nMusic","Ecuador\n\nThe music of Ecuador has a long history. Pasillo is a genre of indigenous Latin music. In Ecuador it is the \"national genre of music\". Through the years, many cultures have brought their influences together to create new types of music. There are also different kinds of traditional music like albazo, pasacalle, fox incaico, tonada, capishca, Bomba (highly established in Afro-Ecuadorian societies), and so on.\nTecnocumbia and Rockola are clear examples of the influence of foreign cultures. One of the most traditional forms of dancing in Ecuador is Sanjuanito. It's originally from northern Ecuador (Otavalo-Imbabura). Sanjuanito is a type of dance music played during festivities by the mestizo and Amerindian communities. According to the Ecuadorian musicologist Segundo Luis Moreno, Sanjuanito was danced by Amerindian people during San Juan Bautista's birthday. This important date was established by the Spaniards on June 24, coincidentally the same date when Amerindian people celebrated their rituals of Inti Raymi.","Ecuador\n\nCuisine","Ecuador\n\nEcuadorian cuisine is diverse, varying with the altitude and associated agricultural conditions. Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional three course meal of soup, a course that includes rice and a protein, and then dessert and coffee to finish. Supper is usually lighter and sometimes consists only of coffee or herbal tea with bread.","Ecuador\n\nIn the highland region, pork, chicken, beef, and cuy (guinea pig) are popular and are served with a variety of grains (especially rice and corn) or potatoes.","Ecuador\n\nIn the coastal region, seafood is very popular, with fish, shrimp, and ceviche being key parts of the diet. Generally, ceviches are served with fried plantain (chifles y patacones), popcorn, or tostado. Plantain- and peanut-based dishes are the basis of most coastal meals. Encocados (dishes that contain a coconut sauce) are also very popular. Churrasco is a staple food of the coastal region, especially Guayaquil. Arroz con menestra y carne asada (rice with beans and grilled beef) is one of the traditional dishes of Guayaquil, as is fried plantain, which is often served with it. This region is a leading producer of bananas, Cocoa beans (to make chocolate), shrimp, tilapia, mango, and passion fruit, among other products.","Ecuador\n\nIn the Amazon region, a dietary staple is the yuca, elsewhere called cassava. Many fruits are available in this region, including bananas, tree grapes, and peach palms.","Ecuador\n\nLiterature","Ecuador\n\nEarly literature in colonial Ecuador, as in the rest of Spanish America, was influenced by the Spanish Golden Age. One of the earliest examples is Jacinto Collahuazo,Borja, Piedad. [http://revistas.ucm.es/fll/02104547/articulos/ALHI7272110053A.PDF Boceto de Poesía Ecuatoriana,'Journal de la Academia de Literatura Hispanoamericana', 1972] an Amerindian chief of a northern village in today's Ibarra, born in the late 1600s. Despite the early repression and discrimination of the native people by the Spanish, Collahuazo learned to read and write in Castilian, but his work was written in Quechua. The use of Quipu was banned by the Spanish, and in order to preserve their work, many Inca poets had to resort to the use of the Latin alphabet to write in their native Quechua language. The history behind the Inca drama \"Ollantay\", the oldest literary piece in existence for any Amerindian language in America, shares some similarities with the work of Collahuazo. Collahuazo was imprisoned and all of his work burned. The existence of his literary work came to light many centuries later, when a crew of masons was restoring the walls of a colonial church in Quito and found a hidden manuscript.","Ecuador\n\nThe salvaged fragment is a Spanish translation from Quechua of the \"Elegy to the Dead of Atahualpa\", a poem written by Collahuazo, which describes the sadness and impotence of the Inca people of having lost their king Atahualpa.","Ecuador\n\nOther early Ecuadorian writers include the Jesuits Juan Bautista Aguirre, born in Daule in 1725, and Father Juan de Velasco, born in Riobamba in 1727. De Velasco wrote about the nations and chiefdoms that had existed in the Kingdom of Quito (today Ecuador) before the arrival of the Spanish. His historical accounts are nationalistic, featuring a romantic perspective of precolonial history.","Ecuador\n\nFamous authors from the late colonial and early republic period include Eugenio Espejo, a printer and main author of the first newspaper in Ecuadorian colonial times; Jose Joaquin de Olmedo (born in Guayaquil), famous for his ode to Simón Bolívar titled Victoria de Junin; Juan Montalvo, a prominent essayist and novelist; Juan Leon Mera, famous for his work \"Cumanda\" or \"Tragedy among Savages\" and the Ecuadorian National Anthem; Juan A. Martinez with A la Costa';, Dolores Veintimilla; and others.","Ecuador\n\nContemporary Ecuadorian writers include the novelist Jorge Enrique Adoum; the poet Jorge Carrera Andrade; the essayist Benjamín Carrión; the poets Medardo Angel Silva, Jorge Carrera Andrade, and Luis Alberto Costales; the novelist Enrique Gil Gilbert; the novelist Jorge Icaza (author of the novel Huasipungo, translated to many languages); the short story author Pablo Palacio; and the novelist Alicia Yanez Cossio.","Ecuador\n\nIn spite of Ecuador's considerable mystique, it is rarely featured as a setting in contemporary western literature. One exception is \"The Ecuadorian Deception,\" a murder mystery/thriller authored by American Bear Mills. In it, George d'Hout, a website designer from the United States is lured under false pretenses to Guayaquil. A corrupt American archaeologist is behind the plot, believing d'Hout holds the keys to locating a treasure hidden by a buccaneer ancestor. The story is based on a real pirate by the name of George d'Hout who terrorized Guayaquil in the 16th Century.","Ecuador\n\nArt","Ecuador\n\nThe best known art styles from Ecuador belonged to the Escuela Quiteña, which developed from the 16th to 18th centuries, examples of which are on display in various old churches in Quito. Ecuadorian painters include Eduardo Kingman, Oswaldo Guayasamín, and Camilo Egas from the Indiginist Movement; Manuel Rendon, Jaime Zapata, Enrique Tábara, Aníbal Villacís, Theo Constanté, Luis Molinari, Araceli Gilbert, Judith Gutierrez, Felix Arauz, and Estuardo Maldonado from the Informalist Movement; and Luis Burgos Flor with his abstract, futuristic style. The Amerindian people of Tigua, Ecuador, are also world-renowned for their traditional paintings.","Ecuador\n\nSports","Ecuador\n\nThe most popular sport in Ecuador, as in most South American countries, is football (soccer). Its best known professional teams include Liga De Quito from Quito; is the most important in the Ecuadorian football. Also Emelec from Guayaquil; Deportivo Quito, and El Nacional from Quito; Olmedo from Riobamba; and Deportivo Cuenca from Cuenca. Currently the most successful soccer team in Ecuador is LDU Quito, and it is the only Ecuadorian team that has won the Copa Libertadores, the Copa Sudamericana, and the Recopa Sudamericana; they were also runners-up in the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup. The matches of the Ecuadorian national team are the most-watched sporting events in the country. Ecuador has qualified for the final rounds of the 2002, the 2006, & the 2014 FIFA World Cups. The 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign was considered a huge success for the country and its inhabitants. The unusually high elevation of the home stadium in Quito often affects the performance of visiting teams. Ecuador finished in 2nd place in the CONMEBOL qualifiers behind Argentina and above the team that would become World Champions, Brazil.","Ecuador\n\nIn the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Ecuador finished ahead of Poland and Costa Rica finishing second behind Germany in Group A in the 2006 World Cup. They were defeated by England in the second round.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador has won only two medals in the Olympic Games, both gained by 20-km (12 mi) racewalker Jefferson Pérez, who took gold in the 1996 games and silver 12 years later. Pérez also set a world best in the 2003 World Championships of 1:17:21 for the 20-km (12 mi) distance.","Ecuador\n\nHealth","Ecuador\n\nThe current structure of the Ecuadorian public health care system dates back to 1967. The Ministry of the Public Health (Ministerio de Salud Pública del Ecuador) is the responsible entity of the regulation and creation of the public health policies and health care plans. The Minister of Public Health is appointed directly by the President of the Republic. The current minister, or Ecuadorian general surgeon, is Margarita Guevara.","Ecuador\n\nThe philosophy of the Ministry of Public Health is the social support and service to the most vulnerable population, and its main plan of action lies around communitarian health and preventive medicine.","Ecuador\n\nThe public healthcare system allows patients to be treated without an appointment in public general hospitals by general practitioners and specialists in the outpatient clinic (Consulta Externa) at no cost. This is done in the four basic specialties of pediatric, gynecology, clinic medicine, and surgery. There are also public hospitals specialized to treat chronic diseases, target a particular group of the population, or provide better treatment in some medical specialties. Some examples in this group are the Gynecologic Hospitals, or Maternities, Children Hospitals, Geriatric Hospitals, and Oncology Institutes.","Ecuador\n\nAlthough well-equipped general hospitals are found in the major cities or capitals of provinces, there are basic hospitals in the smaller towns and canton cities for family care consultation and treatments in pediatrics, gynecology, clinical medicine, and surgery.","Ecuador\n\nCommunity health care centers (Centros de Salud) are found inside metropolitan areas of cities and in rural areas. These are day hospitals that provide treatment to patients whose hospitalization is under 24 hours.\nThe doctors assigned to rural communities, where the Amerindian population can be substantial, have small clinics under their responsibility for the treatment of patients in the same fashion as the day hospitals in the major cities. The treatment in this case respects the culture of the community.","Ecuador\n\nThe public healthcare system should not be confused with the Ecuadorian Social Security healthcare service, which is dedicated to individuals with formal employment and who are affiliated obligatorily through their employers. Citizens with no formal employment may still contribute to the social security system voluntarily and have access to the medical services rendered by the social security system. The Ecuadorian Institute of Social Security (IESS) has several major hospitals and medical sub-centers under its administration across the nation.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador currently ranks 20, in most efficient health care countries, compared to 111 back in the year 2000. \nEcuadorians have a life expectancy of 75.6 years. The infant mortality rate is 13 per 1,000 live births, a major improvement from approximately 76 in the early 1980s and 140 in 1950. 23% of children under five are chronically malnourished. Population in some rural areas have no access to potable water, and its supply is provided by mean of water tankers. There are 686 malaria cases per 100,000 people. Basic health care, including doctor's visits, basic surgeries, and basic medications, has been provided free since 2008. However, some public hospitals are in poor condition and often lack necessary supplies to attend the high demand of patients. Private hospitals and clinics are well equipped but still expensive for the majority of the population.","Ecuador\n\nEducation","Ecuador\n\nThe Ecuadorian Constitution requires that all children attend school until they achieve a \"basic level of education\", which is estimated at nine school years. In 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 96.9%, and 71.8% of children stayed in school until the fifth grade. The cost of primary and secondary education is borne by the government, but families often face significant additional expenses such as fees and transportation costs.","Ecuador\n\nProvision of public schools falls far below the levels needed, and class sizes are often very large, and families of limited means often find it necessary to pay for education. In rural areas, only 10% of the children go on to high school. The Ministry of Education states that the mean number of years completed is 6.7.","Ecuador\n\nEcuador has 61 universities, many of which still confer terminal degrees according to the traditional Spanish education system, honoring a long tradition of having some of the oldest universities in the Americas: University of San Fulgencio, founded in 1586 by the Augustines; San Gregorio Magno University, founded in 1651 by the Jesuits; and University of Santo Tomás of Aquino, founded in 1681 by the Dominican order.","Ecuador\n\nAmong the traditional conferred terminal degrees can be noted the doctorate for medicine and law schools or engineering, physics, chemistry, or mathematics for polytechnic or technology institutes. These terminal degrees, as in the case of the PhD in other countries, were the main requirement for an individual to be accepted in academia as a professor or researcher. In the professional realm, a terminal degree granted by an accredited institution automatically provides a professional license to the individual.","Ecuador\n\nHowever, in 2004, the National Council of Higher Education (CONESUP), started the reorganization of all the degree-granting schemes of the accredited universities in order to pair them with foreign counterparts. The new structure of some careers caused the dropping of subjects, credits, or even the name of the previously conferred diplomas. The terminal degree in law, previously known as JD Juris Doctor (Doctor en Jurisprudencia) was replaced by the one of abogado (attorney) with the exception of the modification of the number of credits to equate it to an undergraduate degree. In the same fashion for medical school, the required time of education was considerably reduced from nine years (the minimum needed to obtain the title of MD in Medicine and Surgery) to almost five, with the provision that the diploma is not terminal anymore, and it is given with the title of médico (medic). Therefore, an MD or PhD in medicine is only to be obtained overseas until the universities adjust themselves to granting schemes and curriculum as in foreign counterparts. Nonetheless, a \"médico\" can start a career as family practitioner or general medicine physician.","Ecuador\n\nThis new reorganization, although very ambitious, lacked the proper path to the homologation of diplomas for highly educated professionals graduated in the country or even for the ones graduated in foreign institutions. One of the points of conflict was the imposition of obtaining foreign degrees to current academicians. As today, a master's degree is a requirement to keep an academic position and at least a foreign PhD to attain or retain the status of rector (president of a university) or décano (dean). For Ecuadorian researchers and many academicians trained in the country, these regulations sounded illogical, disappointing, and unlawful since it appeared a question of a title name conflict rather than specialization or science advancement.","Ecuador\n\nA debate to modify this and other reforms, especially the one which granted control of the Higher Education System by the government, was practically passed with consensus by the multi-partisan National Assembly on August 4, 2010, but vetoed by President Rafael Correa, who wanted to keep the law strictly as it was originally redacted by his political party and SENPLADES (National Secretary of Planning and Development). Due to this change, there are many highly educated professionals and academicians under the old structure but estimated that only 87% of the faculty in public universities have already obtained a master's degree, and fewer than 5% have a PhD (although many of them already have Ecuadorian-granted doctorate degrees).","Ecuador\n\nAbout 300 institutes of higher education offer two to three years of post-secondary vocational or technical training.","Ecuador\n\nSciences and research","Ecuador\n\nEcuador is currently placed in 96th position, of innovation in technology. \nThe most notable icons in Ecuadorian sciences are the mathematician and cartographer Pedro Vicente Maldonado, born in Riobamba in 1707, and the printer, independence precursor, and medical pioneer Eugenio Espejo, born in 1747 in Quito.\nAmong other notable Ecuadorian scientists and engineers are Lieutenant Jose Rodriguez Lavandera, a pioneer who built the first submarine in Latin America in 1837; Reinaldo Espinosa Aguilar (1898–1950), a botanist and biologist of Andean flora; and José Aurelio Dueñas (1880–1961), a chemist and inventor of a method of textile serigraphy.","Ecuador\n\nThe major areas of scientific research in Ecuador have been in the medical fields, tropical and infectious diseases treatments, agricultural engineering, pharmaceutical research, and bioengineering. Being a small country and a consumer of foreign technology, Ecuador has favored research supported by entrepreneurship in information technology. The antivirus program Checkprogram, banking protection system MdLock, and Core Banking Software Cobis are products of Ecuadorian development.","Ecuador\n\nThe scientific production in hard sciences has been limited due to lack of funding but focused around physics, statistics, and partial differential equations in mathematics. In the case of engineering fields, the majority of scientific production comes from the top three polytechnic institutions: Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral - ESPOL, Universidad de Las Fuerzas Armadas - ESPE, and Escuela Politécnica Nacional EPN.","Ecuador\n\nEPN is known for research and education in the applied science, astronomy, atmospheric physics, engineering and physical sciences. The Geophysics Institute monitors over the country's volcanoes in the Andes Mountains of Ecuador and in the Galápagos Islands, all of which is part of the Ring of Fire. EPN adopted the polytechnic university model that stresses laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering.","Ecuador\n\nThe Oldest Observatory in South America is the Quito Astronomical Observatory and is located in Quito, Ecuador. The Quito Astronomical Observatory, which gives the global community of a Virtual Telescope System that is connected via the Internet and allows the world to watch by streaming, is managed by EPN.","Ecuador\n\nContemporary Ecuadorian scientists who have been recognized by international institutions are Eugenia del Pino (born 1945), the first Ecuadorian to be elected to the United States National Academy of Science, and Arturo Villavicencio, who was part of the working group of the IPCC, which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore for their dissemination of the effects of climate change.","Ecuador\n\nCurrently, the politics of research and investigation are managed by the National Secretary of Higher Education, Science, and Technology (Senescyt)."],"string":"[\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador ( ,), officially the Republic of Ecuador (, which literally translates as \\\"Republic of the Equator\\\"), is a representative democratic republic in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about 1000 km west of the mainland.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nWhat is now Ecuador was home to a variety of Amerindian groups that were gradually incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century. The territory was colonized by Spain during the 16th century, achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, from which it emerged as its own sovereign state in 1830. The legacy of both empires is reflected in Ecuador's ethnically diverse population, with most of its 15.2 million people being mestizos, followed by large minorities of European, Amerindian, and African descendants.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nSpanish is the official language and is spoken by a majority of the population, though 13 Amerindian languages are also recognized, including Quichua and Shuar. The capital city is Quito, while the largest city is Guayaquil. In reflection of the country's rich cultural heritage, the historical center of Quito was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978. Cuenca, the third-largest city, was also declared a World Heritage Site in 1999 as an outstanding example of a planned, inland Spanish-style colonial city in the Americas.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador has a developing economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum and agricultural products. The country is classified as a medium-income country. Ecuador is a democratic presidential republic. The new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, or ecosystem rights. Ecuador is also known for its rich ecology, hosting many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands. It is one of 17 megadiverse countries in the world.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nPre-Inca era\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nBefore the arrival of the Incas, the area was settled by various peoples. Some likely sailed to Ecuador by rafts from Central America, others came to Ecuador via the Amazon tributaries, others descended from northern South America, and others ascended from the southern part of South America through the Andes or by sailing on rafts. They developed different languages while emerging as unique ethnic groups.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEven though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar cultures because they lived in the same environment. The people of the coast developed a fishing, hunting, and gathering culture; the people of the highland Andes developed a sedentary agricultural way of life; and the people of the Amazon basin developed a nomadic hunting and gathering way of life.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nOver time these groups began to interact and intermingle with each other so that groups of families in one area became one community or tribe, with a similar language and culture. Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus (near present-day Quito), and the Cañari (near present-day Cuenca). Each civilization developed its own distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn the highland Andes mountains, where life was more sedentary, groups of tribes cooperated and formed villages; thus, the first nations based on agricultural resources and the domestication of animals were formed. Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders, a group of nations formed confederations. One region was consolidated under a confederation called the Shyris, which exercised organized trading and bartering between the different regions. Its political and military power was under the rule of the Duchicela blood line.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nInca era\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nWhen the Incas arrived, they found that these confederations were so developed that it took the Incas two generations of rulers - Topa Inca Yupanqui and Huayna Capac - to absorb them into the Inca Empire. The native confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru, Bolivia, and north Argentina. Similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion. Thus, the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador, they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile. Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them, these indigenous people withdrew to the interior and resorted to guerrilla tactics. As a result, Inca expansion into the Amazon basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered. The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived in force. The Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist Inca and Spanish domination, maintaining their language and culture well into the 21st century.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nBefore the arrival of the Spaniards, the Inca Empire was involved in a civil war. The untimely death of both the heir Ninan Cuchi and the Emperor Huayna Capac, from a European disease that spread into Ecuador, created a power vacuum between two factions. The northern faction headed by Atahualpa claims that Huayna Capac gave a verbal decree before his death about how the empire should be divided. He gave the territories pertaining to present-day Ecuador and northern Peru to his favorite son Atahualpa, who was to rule from Quito; and he gave the rest to Huáscar, who was to rule from Cuzco. He willed that his heart be buried in Quito, his favorite city, and the rest of his body be buried with his ancestors in Cuzco.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nHuáscar did not recognize his father's will, since it did not follow Inca traditions of naming an Inca through the priests. Huáscar ordered Atahualpa to attend their father's burial in Cuzco and pay homage to him as the new Inca ruler. Atahualpa, with a large number of his father's veteran soldiers, decided to ignore Huáscar, and a civil war ensued. A number of bloody battles took place until finally Huáscar was captured. Atahualpa marched south to Cuzco and massacred the royal family associated with his brother.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nA small band of Spaniards headed by Francisco Pizarro landed in Tumbez and marched over the Andes Mountains until they reached Cajamarca, where the new Inca Atahualpa was to hold an interview with them. Valverde, the priest, tried to convince Atahualpa that he should join the Catholic Church and declare himself a vassal of Spain. This infuriated Atahualpa so much that he threw the Bible to the ground. At this point the enraged Spaniards, with orders from Valverde, attacked and massacred unarmed escorts of the Inca and captured Atahualpa. Pizarro promised to release Atahualpa if he made good his promise of filling a room full of gold. But, after a mock trial, the Spaniards executed Atahualpa by strangulation.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nSpanish Rule\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nNew infectious diseases, endemic to the Europeans, caused high fatalities among the Amerindian population during the first decades of Spanish rule, as they had no immunity. At the same time, the natives were forced into the encomienda labor system for the Spanish. In 1563, Quito became the seat of a real audiencia (administrative district) of Spain and part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and later the Viceroyalty of New Granada.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAfter nearly 300 years of Spanish rule, Quito was still a small city numbering 10,000 inhabitants. On August 10, 1809, the city's criollos called for independence from Spain (first among the peoples of Latin America). They were led by Juan Pío Montúfar, Quiroga, Salinas, and Bishop Cuero y Caicedo. Quito's nickname, \\\"Luz de América\\\" (\\\"Light of America\\\"), is based on its leading role in trying to secure an independent, local government. Although the new government lasted no more than two months, it had important repercussions and was an inspiration for the independence movement of the rest of Spanish America.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nFile:Ecuador ingapirca inca ruins.jpg|Ingapirca ruins northeast of Cañar canton, Cañar Province\\nFile:Luis Montero - The Funerals of Inca Atahualpa - Google Art Project.jpg|One of the main events in the conquest of the Incan Empire was the death of Atahualpa, the last Sapa Inca on August 29, 1533\\nFile:Quito-San Diego-01.jpg|Spanish Historical Center in Quito\\nFile:Pizarroshipbuilding.jpg|Shipwrights from Francisco de Orellana's expedition building a small brigantine, the San Pedro.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIndependence\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nOn October 9, 1820, Guayaquil became the first city in Ecuador to gain its independence from Spain. The people were very happy about the independence and celebrated, which is now Ecuador's independence day, officially on May 24, 1822. The rest of Ecuador gained its independence after Antonio José de Sucre defeated the Spanish Royalist forces at the Battle of Pichincha, near Quito. Following the battle, Ecuador joined Simón Bolívar's Republic of Gran Colombia, also including modern-day Colombia, Venezuela and Panama. In 1830 Ecuador separated from Gran Colombia and became an independent republic.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe 19th century was marked by instability for Ecuador with a rapid succession of rulers. The first president of Ecuador was the Venezuelan-born Juan José Flores, who was ultimately deposed, followed by several authoritarian leaders, such as Vicente Rocafuerte; José Joaquín de Olmedo; José María Urbina; Diego Noboa; Pedro José de Arteta; Manuel de Ascásubi; and Flores's own son, Antonio Flores Jijón, among others. The conservative Gabriel Garcia Moreno unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the Roman Catholic Church. In the late 19th century, world demand for cocoa tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador abolished slavery and freed its black slaves in 1851.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nLiberal Revolution\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe Liberal Revolution of 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and the conservative land owners. This liberal wing retained power until the military \\\"Julian Revolution\\\" of 1925. The 1930s and 1940s were marked by instability and emergence of populist politicians, such as five-time President José María Velasco Ibarra.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nLoss of claimed territories since 1830\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nPresident Juan José Flores de Jure Territorial Claims for Ecuador\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nSince Ecuador's separation from Colombia in May 13, 1830, its first President, General Juan José Flores, laid claim to the territory that was called the Real Audiencia of Quito, also referred to as the Presidencia of Quito. He supported his claims with Spanish Royal decrees or Real Cedulas, that delineated the borders of Spain's former overseas colonies. In the case of Ecuador, Flores-based Ecuador's de jure claims on the following cedulas - Real Cedula of 1563, 1739, and 1740; with modifications in the Amazon Basin and Andes Mountains that were introduced through the Treaty of Guayaquil (1829) which Peru reluctantly signed, after the overwhelmingly outnumbered Gran Colombian force led by Antonio José de Sucre defeated President and General La Mar's Peruvian invasion force in the Battle of Tarqui. In addition, Ecuador's eastern border with the Portuguese colony of Brazil in the Amazon Basin was modified before the wars of Independence by the First Treaty of San Ildefonso (1777) between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nMoreover, to add legitimacy to his claims, on February 16, 1840, Flores signed a treaty with Spain, whereby Flores convinced Spain to officially recognize Ecuadorian independence and its sole rights to colonial titles over Spain's former colonial territory known anciently to Spain as the Kingdom and Presidency of Quito.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador during its long and turbulent history has lost most of its contested territories to each of its more powerful neighbors, such as Colombia in 1832 and 1916, Brazil in 1904 through a series of peaceful treaties, and Peru after a short war in which the Protocol of Rio de Janeiro was signed in 1942.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nStruggle for independence\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nDuring the struggle for independence, before Peru or Ecuador became independent nations, a few areas of the former Vice Royalty of New Granada - Guayaquil, Tumbez, and Jaén - declared themselves independent from Spain. A few months later, a part of the Peruvian liberation army of San Martin decided to occupy the independent cities of Tumbez and Jaén with the intention of using these towns as springboards to occupy the independent city of Guayaquil and then to liberate the rest of the Audiencia de Quito (Ecuador). It was common knowledge among the top officers of the liberation army from the south that their leader San Martin wished to liberate present-day Ecuador and add it to the future republic of Peru, since it had been part of the Inca Empire before the Spaniards conquered it.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nHowever, Bolívar's intention was to form a new republic known as the Gran Colombia, out of the liberated Spanish territory of New Granada which consisted of Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador. San Martin's plans were thwarted when Bolívar, with the help of Marshal Antonio José de Sucre and the Gran Colombian liberation force, descended from the Andes mountains and occupied Guayaquil; they also annexed the newly liberated Audiencia de Quito to the Republic of Gran Colombia. This happened a few days before San Martin's Peruvian forces could arrive and occupy Guayaquil, with the intention of annexing Guayaquil to the rest of Audiencia of Quito (Ecuador) and to the future republic of Peru. Historic documents repeatedly stated that San Martin told Bolivar he came to Guayaquil to liberate the land of the Incas from Spain. Bolivar countered by sending a message from Guayaquil welcoming San Martin and his troops to Colombian soil.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nPeruvian occupation of Jaén, Tumbes, and Guayaquil\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn the south, Ecuador had de jure claims to a small piece of land beside the Pacific Ocean known as Tumbes which lay between the Zarumilla and Tumbes rivers. In Ecuador's southern Andes Mountain region where the Marañon cuts across, Ecuador had de jure claims to an area it called Jaén de Bracamoros. These areas were included as part of the territory of Gran Colombia by Bolivar in December 17, 1819, during the Congress of Angostura when the Republic of Gran Colombia was created. Tumbes declared itself independent from Spain on January 17, 1821, and Jaen de Bracamoros on June 17, 1821, without any outside help from revolutionary armies. However, that same year, 1821, Peruvian forces participating in the Trujillo revolution occupied both Jaen and Tumbes. Some Peruvian generals, without any legal titles backing them up and with Ecuador still federated with the Gran Colombia, had the desire to annex Ecuador to the Republic of Peru at the expense of the Gran Colombia, feeling that Ecuador was once part of the Inca Empire.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nOn July 28, 1821, Peruvian independence was proclaimed in Lima by the Liberator San Martin and Tumbes and Jaen which were included as part of the revolution of Trujillo by the Peruvian occupying force, had the whole region swear allegiance to the new Peruvian flag and incorporated itself into Peru, even though Peru was not completely liberated from Spain. After Peru was completely liberated from Spain by the patriot armies led by Bolivar and Antonio Jose de Sucre at the Battle of Ayacucho dated December 9, 1824, there was a strong desire by some Peruvians to resurrect the Inca Empire and to include Bolivia and Ecuador. One of these Peruvian Generals was the Ecuadorian-born José de La Mar, who became one of Peru's presidents after Bolivar resigned as dictator of Peru and returned to Colombia. Gran Colombia had always protested Peru for the return of Jaen and Tumbes for almost a decade, then finally Bolivar after long and futile discussion over the return of Jaen, Tumbes, and part of Mainas, declared war.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nPresident and General José de La Mar, who was born in Ecuador, believing his opportunity had come to annex the District of Ecuador to Peru, personally, with a Peruvian force, invaded and occupied Guayaquil and a few cities in the Loja region of southern Ecuador on November 28, 1828.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe war ended when a triumphant heavily outnumbered southern Gran Colombian army at Battle of Tarqui dated February 27, 1829, led by Antonio José de Sucre, defeated the Peruvian invasion force led by President La Mar. This defeat led to the signing of the Treaty of Guayaquil dated September 22, 1829, whereby Peru and its Congress recognized Gran Colombian rights over Tumbes, Jaen, and Maynas. Through protocolized meetings between representatives of Peru and Gran Colombia, the border was set as Tumbes river in the west and in the east the Maranon and Amazon rivers were to be followed toward Brazil as the most natural borders between them. However, what was pending was whether the new border around the Jaen region should follow the Chinchipe river or the Huancabamba river. According to the peace negotiations Peru agreed to return Guayaquil, Tumbez, and Jaén; despite this, Peru returned Guayaquil, but failed to return Tumbes and Jaén, alleging that it was not obligated to follow the agreements, since the Gran Colombia ceased to exist when it divided itself into three different nations - Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe dissolution of The Gran Colombia\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe Central District of the Gran Colombia, known as Cundinamarca or New Granada (modern Colombia) with its capital in Bogota, did not recognize the separation of the Southern District of the Gran Colombia, with its capital in Quito, from the Gran Colombian federation on May 13, 1830. After Ecuador's separation, the Department of Cauca voluntarily decided to unite itself with Ecuador due to instability in the central government of Bogota. President Juan José Flores with the approval of the Ecuadorian congress annexed the Department of Cauca on December 20, 1830, since the government of Cauca had called for union with the District of the South as far back as April 1830. Moreover, the Cauca region throughout its long history had very strong economic and cultural ties with the people of Ecuador. Also, the Cauca region which included such cities as Pasto, Popayan, and Buenaventura had always been dependent on the Presidencia or Audiencia of Quito.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nFruitless negotiations continued between the governments of Bogota and Quito, where the government of Bogota did not recognize the separation of Ecuador or that of Cauca from the Gran Colombia until war broke out in May 1832. In five months, New Granada defeated Ecuador due to the fact that the majority of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces were composed of rebellious angry unpaid veterans from Venezuela and Colombia that did not want to fight against their fellow countrymen. Seeing that his officers were rebelling, mutinying, and changing sides, President Flores had no option but to reluctantly make peace with New Granada. The Treaty of Pasto of 1832 was signed by which the Department of Cauca was turned over to New Granada (modern Colombia), the government of Bogota recognized Ecuador as an independent country and the border was to follow the Ley de División Territorial de la República de Colombia (Law of the Division of Territory of the Gran Colombia) passed on June 25, 1824. This law set the border at the river Carchi and the eastern border that stretched to Brazil at the Caquetá river.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nLater, Ecuador contended that the Republic of Colombia, while reorganizing its government, unlawfully made its eastern border provisional and that Colombia extended its claims south to the Napo River because it said that the Government of Popayan extended its control all the way to the Napo River.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nStruggle for possession of the Amazon Basin\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nWhen Ecuador seceded from the Gran Colombia, Peru decided not to follow the treaty of Guayaquil of 1829 or the protocoled agreements made. Peru contested Ecuador's claims with the newly discovered Real Cedula of 1802, by which Peru claims the King of Spain had transferred these lands from the Viceroyalty of New Granada to the Viceroyalty of Peru. During colonial times this was to halt the ever-expanding Portuguese settlements into Spanish domains, which were left vacant and in disorder after the expulsion of Jesuit missionaries from their bases along the Amazon Basin. Ecuador countered by labeling the Cedula of 1802 an ecclesiastical instrument, which had nothing to do with political borders. Peru began its de facto occupation of disputed Amazonian territories, after it signed a secret 1851 peace treaty in favor of Brazil. This treaty disregarded Spanish rights that were confirmed during colonial times by a Spanish-Portuguese treaty over the Amazon regarding territories held by illegal Portuguese settlers.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nPeru began occupying the defenseless missionary villages in the Mainas or Maynas region which it began calling Loreto with its capital in Iquitos. During its negotiations with Brazil, Peru stated that based on the royal cedula of 1802, it claimed Amazonian Basin territories up to Caqueta River in the north and toward the Andes Mountain range, depriving Ecuador and Colombia of all their claims to the Amazon Basin. Colombia protested stating that its claims extended south toward the Napo and Amazon Rivers. Ecuador protested that it claimed the Amazon Basin between the Caqueta river and the Marañon-Amazon river. Peru ignored these protests and created the Department of Loreto in 1853 with its capital in Iquitos which it had recently invaded and systematically began to occupy using the river systems in all the territories claimed by both Colombia and Ecuador. Peru briefly occupied Guayaquil again in 1860, since Peru thought that Ecuador was selling some of the disputed land for development to British bond holders, but returned Guayaquil after a few months. The border dispute was then submitted to Spain for arbitration from 1880 to 1910, but to no avail.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn the early part of the 20th century Ecuador made an effort to peacefully define its eastern Amazonian borders with its neighbors through negotiation. On May 6, 1904, Ecuador signed the Tobar-Rio Branco Treaty recognizing Brazil's claims to the Amazon in recognition of Ecuador's claim to be an Amazonian country to counter Peru's earlier Treaty with Brazil back in October 23, 1851. Then after a few meetings with the Colombian government's representatives an agreement was reached and the Muñoz Vernaza-Suarez Treaty was signed July 15, 1916, in which Colombian rights to the Putumayo river were recognized as well as Ecuador's rights to the Napo river and the new border was a line that ran midpoint between those two rivers. In this way Ecuador gave up the claims it had to the Amazonian territories between the Caquetá River and Napo River to Colombia, thus cutting itself off from Brazil. Later a brief war erupted between Colombia and Peru, over Peru's claims to the Caquetá region, which ended with the Peru reluctantly signing the Salomon-Lozano Treaty on March 24, 1922.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador protested this secret treaty, since Colombia gave away Ecuadorian claimed land to Peru that Ecuador had given to Colombia in 1916.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn July 21, 1924 the Ponce-Castro Oyanguren Protocol was signed between Ecuador and Peru where both agreed to hold direct negotiations and to resolve the dispute in an equitable manner and to submit the differing points of the dispute to the United States for arbitration. Negotiations between the Ecuadorian and Peruvian representatives began in Washington on September 30, 1935. These negotiations were long and tiresome. Both sides logically presented their cases, but no one seemed to give up their claims. Then on February 6, 1937, Ecuador presented a transactional line which Peru rejected the next day. The negotiations turned into intense arguments during the next 7 months and finally on September 29, 1937 the Peruvian representatives decided to break off the negotiations without submitting the dispute to arbitration because the direct negotiations were going nowhere.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nFour years later in 1941, amid fast-growing tensions within disputed territories around the Zarumilla River, war broke out with Peru. Peru claimed that Ecuador's military presence in Peruvian-claimed territory was an invasion; Ecuador, for its part, claimed that Peru had recently invaded Ecuador around the Zarumilla River and that Peru since Ecuador's independence from Spain has systematically occupied Tumbez, Jaen, and most of the disputed territories in the Amazonian Basin between the Putomayo and Marañon Rivers. In July 1941, troops were mobilized in both countries. Peru had an army of 11,681 troops who faced a poorly supplied and inadequately armed Ecuadorian force of 2,300, of which only 1,300 were deployed in the southern provinces. Hostilities erupted on July 5, 1941, when Peruvian forces crossed the Zarumilla river at several locations, testing the strength and resolve of the Ecuadorian border troops. Finally, on July 23, 1941, the Peruvians launched a major invasion, crossing the Zarumilla river in force and advancing into the Ecuadorian province of El Oro.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nDuring the course of the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War, Peru gained control over part of the disputed territory and some parts of the province of El Oro, and some parts of the province of Loja, demanding that the Ecuadorian government give up its territorial claims. The Peruvian Navy blocked the port of Guayaquil, almost cutting all supplies to the Ecuadorian troops. After a few weeks of war and under pressure by the United States and several Latin American nations, all fighting came to a stop. Ecuador and Peru came to an accord formalized in the Rio Protocol, signed on January 29, 1942, in favor of hemispheric unity against the Axis Powers in World War II favoring Peru with the territory they occupied at the time the war came to an end.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe 1944 Glorious May Revolution followed a military-civilian rebellion and a subsequent civic strike which successfully removed Carlos Arroyo del Río as a dictator from Ecuador's government. However a post-Second World War recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the 1960s, while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In 1972, construction of the Andean pipeline was completed. The pipeline brought oil from the east side of the Andes to the coast, making Ecuador South America's second largest oil exporter. The pipeline in southern Ecuador did nothing to resolve tensions between Ecuador and Peru, however.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe Rio Protocol failed to precisely resolve the border along a little river in the remote Cordillera del Cóndor region in southern Ecuador. This caused a long-simmering dispute between Ecuador and Peru, which ultimately led to fighting between the two countries; first a border skirmish in January–February 1981 known as the Paquisha Incident, and ultimately full-scale warfare in January 1995 where the Ecuadorian military shot down Peruvian aircraft and helicopters and Peruvian infantry marched into southern Ecuador. Each country blamed the other for the onset of hostilities, known as the Cenepa War. Sixto Durán Ballén, the Ecuadorian president, famously declared that he would not give up a single centimeter of Ecuador. Popular sentiment in Ecuador became strongly nationalistic against Peru: graffiti could be seen on the walls of Quito referring to Peru as the \\\"Cain de Latinoamérica\\\", a reference to the murder of Abel by his brother Cain in the Book of Genesis.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador and Peru signed the Brasilia Presidential Act peace agreement on October 26, 1998, which ended hostilities, and effectively put an end to the Western Hemisphere's longest running territorial dispute. The Guarantors of the Rio Protocol (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and the United States of America) ruled that the border of the undelineated zone was to be set at the line of the Cordillera del Cóndor. While Ecuador had to give up its decades-old territorial claims to the eastern slopes of the Cordillera, as well as to the entire western area of Cenepa headwaters, Peru was compelled to give to Ecuador, in perpetual lease but without sovereignty, 1 km2 of its territory, in the area where the Ecuadorian base of Tiwinza – focal point of the war – had been located within Peruvian soil and which the Ecuadorian Army held during the conflict. The final border demarcation came into effect on May 13, 1999 and the multi-national MOMEP (Military Observer Mission for Ecuador and Peru) troop deployment withdrew on June 17, 1999.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nMilitary governments (1972–79)\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn 1972, a \\\"revolutionary and nationalist\\\" military junta overthrew the government of Velasco Ibarra. The coup d'état was led by General Guillermo Rodríguez and executed by navy commander Jorge Queirolo G. The new president exiled José María Velasco to Argentina. He remained in power until 1976, when he was removed by another military government. That military junta was led by Admiral Alfredo Poveda, who was declared chairman of the Supreme Council. The Supreme Council included two other members:General Guillermo Durán Arcentales and General Luis Leoro Franco. The civil society more and more insistently called for democratic elections. Colonel Richelieu Levoyer, Government Minister, proposed and implemented a Plan to return to the constitutional system through universal elections. This plan enabled the new democratically elected president to assume the duties of the executive office.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nReturn to democracy\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nElections were held on April 29, 1979, under a new constitution. Jaime Roldós Aguilera was elected president, garnering over one million votes, the most in Ecuadorian history. He took office on August 10, as the first constitutionally elected president after nearly a decade of civilian and military dictatorships. In 1980, he founded the Partido Pueblo, Cambio y Democracia (People, Change, and Democracy Party) after withdrawing from the Concentración de Fuerzas Populares (Popular Forces Concentration) and governed until May 24, 1981, when he died along with his wife and the minister of defense, Marco Subia Martinez, when his Air Force plane crashed in heavy rain near the Peruvian border. Many people believe that he was assassinated by the CIA, given the multiple death threats leveled against him because of his reformist agenda, deaths in automobile crashes of two key witnesses before they could testify during the investigation, and the sometimes contradictory accounts of the incident.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nRoldos was immediately succeeded by Vice President Osvaldo Hurtado, who was followed in 1984 by León Febres Cordero from the Social Christian Party. Rodrigo Borja Cevallos of the Democratic Left (Izquierda Democrática, or ID) party won the presidency in 1988, running in the runoff election against Abdalá Bucaram (brother in law of Jaime Roldos and founder of the Ecuadorian Roldosist Party). His government was committed to improving human rights protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade. The Borja government concluded an accord leading to the disbanding of the small terrorist group, \\\"¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!\\\" (\\\"Alfaro Lives, Dammit!\\\"), named after Eloy Alfaro. However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 1999.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe emergence of the Amerindian population as an active constituency has added to the democratic volatility of the country in recent years. The population has been motivated by government failures to deliver on promises of land reform, lower unemployment and provision of social services, and historical exploitation by the land-holding elite. Their movement, along with the continuing destabilizing efforts by both the elite and leftist movements, has led to a deterioration of the executive office. The populace and the other branches of government give the president very little political capital, as illustrated by the most recent removal of President Lucio Gutiérrez from office by Congress in April 2005. Vice President Alfredo Palacio took his place and remained in office until the presidential election of 2006, in which Rafael Correa gained the presidency.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn December 2008, president Correa declared Ecuador's national debt illegitimate, based on the argument that it was odious debt contracted by corrupt and despotic prior regimes. He announced that the country would default on over $3 billion worth of bonds; he then pledged to fight creditors in international courts and succeeded in reducing the price of outstanding bonds by more than 60%. He brought Ecuador into the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas in June 2009. To date, Correa's administration has succeeded in reducing the high levels of poverty and unemployment in Ecuador.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nGovernment and politics\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe Ecuadorian State consists of five branches of government: the Executive Branch, the Legislative Branch, the Judicial Branch, the Electoral Branch, and Transparency and Social Control.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador is governed by a democratically elected President, for a four-year term. The current president of Ecuador, Rafael Correa, exercises his power from the presidential Palacio de Carondelet in Quito. The current constitution was written by the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly elected in 2007, and was approved by referendum in 2008. Since 1936, voting is compulsory for all literate persons aged 18–65, optional for all other citizens.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe executive branch includes 25 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors (mayors, aldermen, and parish boards) are directly elected. The National Assembly of Ecuador meets throughout the year except for recesses in July and December. There are thirteen permanent committees. Members of the National Court of Justice are appointed by the National Judicial Council for nine-year terms.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nExecutive branch\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe executive branch is led by the president, an office currently held by Rafael Correa. He is accompanied by the vice-president, currently Jorge Glas, elected for four years (with the ability to be re-elected only once). As head of state and chief government official, he is responsible for public administration including the appointing of national coordinators, ministers, ministers of State and public servants. The executive branch defines foreign policy, appoints the Chancellor of the Republic, as well as ambassadors and consuls, being the ultimate authority over the Armed Forces of Ecuador, National Police of Ecuador, and appointing authorities. The acting president's wife receives the title of First Lady of Ecuador.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nLegislative branch\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe legislative branch is embodied by the National Assembly, which is headquartered in the city of Quito in the Legislative Palace, and consists of 130 assemblymen, divided into ten committees and elected for a four-year term. Fifteen national constituency elected assembly, two Assembly members elected from each province and one for every 100,000 inhabitants or fraction exceeding 150,000, according to the latest national population census. In addition, statute determines the election of assembly of regions, and metropolitan districts.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nJudicial branch\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador's judiciary has as its main body the Judicial Council, and also includes the National Court of Justice, provincial courts, and lower courts. Legal representation is made by the Judicial Council.\\nThe National Court of Justice is composed of 21 judges elected for a term of nine years. Judges are renewed by thirds every three years pursuant to the Judicial Code. These are elected by the Judicial Council on the basis of opposition proceedings and merits.\\nThe justice system is buttressed by the independent offices of public prosecutor and the public defender. Auxiliary organs are as follows: notaries, court auctioneers, and court receivers. Also there is a special legal regime for Amerindians.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nElectoral branch\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe electoral system functions by authorities which enter only every four years or when elections or referendums occur. Its main functions are to organize, control elections, and punish the infringement of electoral rules. Its main body is the National Electoral Council, which is based in the city of Quito, and consists of seven members of the political parties most voted, enjoying complete financial and administrative autonomy. This body, along with the electoral court, forms the Electoral Branch which is one of Ecuador's five branches of government.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nTransparency and social control branch\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe Transparency and Social Control consists of the Council of Citizen Participation and Social Control, an ombudsman, the Comptroller General of the State, and the superintendents. Branch members hold office for five years. This branch is responsible for promoting transparency and control plans publicly, as well as plans to design mechanisms to combat corruption, as also designate certain authorities, and be the regulatory mechanism of accountability in the country.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nHuman rights\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nUN's Human Rights Council's (HRC) Universal Periodic Review (UPR) has treated the restrictions on freedom of expression and efforts to control NGOs and recommended that Ecuador should stop the criminal sanctions for the expression of opinions, and delay in implementing judicial reforms. Ecuador rejected the recommendation on decriminalization of libel.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAccording to Human Rights Watch (HRW) President Correa has intimidated journalists and subjected them to \\\"public denunciation and retaliatory litigation\\\". The sentences to journalists have been years of imprisonment and millions of dollars of compensation, even though defendants have been pardoned. Correa has stated he was only seeking a retraction for slanderous statements.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAccording to HRW, Correa's government has weakened the freedom of press and independence of the judicial system. In Ecuador's current judicial system, judges are selected in a contest of merits, rather than government appointments. However, the process of selection has been criticized as biased and subjective. In particular, the final interview is said to be given \\\"excessive weighing.\\\" Judges and prosecutors that have made decisions in favor of Correa in his lawsuits have received permanent posts, while others with better assessment grades have been rejected.[http://web.archive.org/web/20131102052404/http://diariodigitalcentro.com/index.php/455-reforma-judicial-en-ecuador-debe-hacerse-hasta-el-2015 Reforma judicial en Ecuador debe hacerse hasta el 2015], diariodigitalcentro.com\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe laws also forbid articles and media messages that could favor or disfavor some political message or candidate. In the first half of 2012, twenty private TV or radio stations were closed down.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn July 2012 the officials warned the judges that they would be sanctioned and possibly dismissed if they allowed the citizens to appeal to the protection of their constitutional rights against the state.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nPeople engaging in public protests against environmental and other issues are prosecuted for \\\"terrorism and sabotage\\\", which may lead to an eight-year prison sentence.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nHuman Rights Watch has been criticized for bias on its reports on Ecuador.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nForeign affairs\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador's principal foreign policy objectives have traditionally included defense of its territory from external aggression and support for the objectives of the United Nations and the OAS. Ecuador's membership in the OPEC in the 1970s and 1980s allowed Ecuadorian leaders to exercise somewhat greater foreign policy autonomy. In Antarctica, Ecuador has maintained a peaceful research station for scientific study as a member nation of the Antarctica Treaty. Ecuador has often placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international issues. Ecuador is a member of the United Nations (and most of its specialized agencies) and a member of many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America, the Andean Community of Nations, the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR), and The Bank of the South (Spanish: Banco del Sur or BancoSur).\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAdministrative divisions\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador is divided into 24 provinces (), each with its own administrative capital:\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe provinces are divided into cantons and further subdivided into parishes (parroquias).\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nRegions and planning areas\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nRegionalization, or zoning, is the union of two or more adjoining provinces in order to decentralize the administrative functions of the capital Quito.\\nIn Ecuador there are seven regions or zones, each shaped by the following provinces:\\n* Region 1 (42,126 km², or 16,265 mi2): Esmeraldas, Carchi, Imbabura, and Sucumbios. Administrative city: Ibarra\\n* Region 2 (43,498 km², or 16,795 mi2): Pichincha, Napo, and Orellana. Administrative city: Tena\\n* Region 3 (44,710 km², or 17,263 mi2): Chimborazo, Tungurahua, Pastaza, and Cotopaxi. Administrative city: Riobamba\\n* Region 4 (22,257 km², or 8,594 mi2): Manabí and Santo Domingo de los Tsachilas. Administrative city: Ciudad Alfaro\\n* Region 5 (38,420 km², or 14,834 mi2): Santa Elena, Guayas, Los Ríos, Galápagos, and Bolívar. Administrative city: Milagro\\n* Region 6 (38,237 km², or 14,763 mi2): Cañar, Azuay, and Morona Santiago. Administrative city: Cuenca\\n* Region 7 (27,571 km², or 10,645 mi2): El Oro, Loja, and Zamora Chinchipe. Administrative city: Loja\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nQuito and Guayaquil are Metropolitan Districts. Galápagos, despite being included within Region 5, is also under a special unit.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nMilitary\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe Ecuadorian Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas del Ecuador), consists of the Army, Air Force, and Navy and have the stated responsibility for the preservation of the integrity and national sovereignty of the national territory.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe military tradition starts in Gran Colombia, where a sizable army was stationed in Ecuador due to border disputes with Peru, which claimed territories under its political control when it was a Spanish vice-royalty. Once Gran Colombia was dissolved after the death of Simón Bolívar in 1830, Ecuador inherited the same border disputes and had the need of creating its own professional military force. So influential was the military in Ecuador in the early republican period that its first decade was under the control of General Juan Jose Flores, first president of Ecuador of Venezuelan origin. General Jose Ma. Urbina and General Robles are examples of military figures who became presidents of the country in the early republican period.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nDue to the continuous border disputes with Peru, finally settled in the early 2000s, and due to the ongoing problem with the Colombian guerrilla insurgency infiltrating Amazonian provinces, the Ecuadorian Armed Forces has gone through a series of changes. In 2009, the new administration at the Defense Ministry launched a deep restructuring within the forces, increasing spending budget to $1,691,776,803, an increase of 25%.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe icons of the Ecuadorian military forces are the Marshall Antonio José de Sucre and General Eloy Alfaro. The Military Academy General Eloy Alfaro (c. 1838) graduates the army officers and is located in Quito. The Ecuadorian Navy Academy (c. 1837), located in Salinas graduates the navy officers, and the Air Academy \\\"Cosme Rennella (c. 1920), also located in Salinas, graduates the air force officers. Other training academies for different military specialties are found across the country.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador has a total area of 283520 km2, including the Galápagos Islands. Of this, 283520 km2 is land and 6720 km2 water. Ecuador is bigger than Uruguay, Suriname, Guyana and French Guyana in South America.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador lies between latitudes 2°N and 5°S,\\nbounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and has 2337 km of coastline. It has 2010 km of land boundaries, with Colombia in the north 590 km border and Peru in the east and south 1420 km border. It is the westernmost country that lies on the equator.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe country has four main geographic regions:\\n*La Costa, or \\\"the coast\\\": The coastal region consists of the provinces to the West of the Andean range -, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ríos, Manabí, El Oro, Santa Elena. It is the country's most fertile and productive land, and is the seat of the large banana exportation plantations of the companies Dole and Chiquita. This region is also where most of Ecuador's rice crop is grown. The truly coastal provinces have active fisheries. The largest coastal city is Guayaquil. *La Sierra, or \\\"the highlands\\\": The sierra consists of the Andean and Interandean highland provinces - Azuay, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Imbabura, Loja, Pichincha, and Tungurahua. This land contains most of Ecuador's volcanoes and all of its snow-capped peaks. Agriculture is focused on the traditional crops of potato, maize, and quinua and the population is predominantly Amerindian Kichua. The largest Sierran city is Quito. *La Amazonía, also known as El Oriente, or \\\"the east\\\": The oriente consists of the Amazon jungle provinces - Morona Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Sucumbíos, and Zamora-Chinchipe.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThis region is primarily made up of the huge Amazon national parks and Amerindian untouchable zones, which are vast stretches of land set aside for the Amazon Amerindian tribes to continue living traditionally. It is also the area with the largest reserves of petroleum in Ecuador, and parts of the upper Amazon here have been extensively exploited by petroleum companies. The population is primarily mixed Amerindian Shuar, Huaorani and Kichua, although there are numerous tribes in the deep jungle which are little-contacted. The largest city in the Oriente is probably Lago Agrio in Sucumbíos, although Macas in Morona Santiago runs a close second. *La Región Insular is the region comprising the Galápagos Islands, some 1000 km west of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador's capital is Quito, which is in the province of Pichincha in the Sierra region. Its largest city is Guayaquil, in the Guayas Province. Cotopaxi, which is just south of Quito, features one of the world's highest active volcanoes. The top of Mount Chimborazo (6,268 m, or 20,560 ft, above sea level) is considered to be the most distant point of the Earth's surface from the center of the Earth, given the approximately ellipsoid shape of the planet.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThere is great variety in the climate, largely determined by altitude. It is mild year-round in the mountain valleys, with a humid subtropical climate in coastal areas and rainforest in lowlands. The Pacific coastal area has a tropical climate with a severe rainy season. The climate in the Andean highlands is temperate and relatively dry, and the Amazon basin on the eastern side of the mountains shares the climate of other rainforest zones.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nBecause of its location at the equator, Ecuador experiences little variation in daylight hours during the course of a year. Both sunrise and sunset occur each day at the two six o'clock hours.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nHydrology\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe Andes is the watershed divisor between the Amazon watershed, which runs to the east, and the Pacific, including the north–south rivers Mataje, Santiago, Esmeraldas, Chone, Guayas, Jubones, and Puyango-Tumbes.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAlmost all of the rivers in Ecuador form in the La Sierra region and flow east toward the Amazon River or west toward the Pacific Ocean. The rivers rise from snowmelt at the edges of the snowcapped peaks or from the abundant precipitation that falls at higher elevations. In the La Sierra region, the streams and rivers are narrow and flow rapidly over precipitous slopes. Rivers may slow and widen as they cross the hoyas yet become rapid again as they flow from the heights of the Andes to the lower elevations of the other regions. The highland rivers broaden as they enter the more level areas of the Costa and the Oriente.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn the Costa, the external coast has mostly intermittent rivers that are fed by constant rains from December through May and become empty riverbeds during the dry season. The few exceptions are the longer, perennial rivers that flow throughout the external coast from the internal coast and La Sierra on their way to the Pacific Ocean. The internal coast, by contrast, is crossed by perennial rivers that may flood during the rainy season, sometimes forming swamps.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nMajor rivers in the Oriente include the Pastaza, Napo, and Putumayo. The Pastaza is formed by the confluence of the Chambo and the Patate rivers, both of which rise in the Sierra. The Pastaza includes the Agoyan waterfall, which at sixty-one meters (200 feet) is the highest waterfall in Ecuador. The Napo rises near Mount Cotopaxi and is the major river used for transport in the eastern lowlands. The Napo ranges in width from 500 to. In its upper reaches, the Napo flows rapidly until the confluence with one of its major tributaries, the Coca River, where it slows and levels off. The Putumayo forms part of the border with Colombia. All of these rivers flow into the Amazon River. The Galápagos Islands have no significant rivers. Several of the larger islands, however, have freshwater springs although they are surrounded by the Pacific Ocean.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nBiodiversity\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador is one of seventeen megadiverse countries in the world according to Conservation International, and it has the most biodiversity per square kilometer of any nation.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador has 1,600 bird species (15% of the world's known bird species) in the continental area and 38 more endemic in the Galápagos. In addition to over 16,000 species of plants, the country has 106 endemic reptiles, 138 endemic amphibians, and 6,000 species of butterfly. The Galápagos Islands are well known as a region of distinct fauna, famous as the place of birth of Darwin's Theory of Evolution and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador has the first constitution to recognize the rights of nature. The protection of the nation's biodiversity is an explicit national priority as stated in the National Plan of \\\"Buen Vivir\\\", or good living, Objective 4, \\\"Guarantee the rights of nature\\\", Policy 1: \\\"Sustainably conserve and manage the natural heritage, including its land and marine biodiversity, which is considered a strategic sector\\\". As of the writing of the Plan in 2008, 19% of Ecuador's land area was in a protected area; however, the Plan also states that 32% of the land must be protected in order to truly preserve the nation's biodiversity. Current protected areas include 11 national parks, 10 wildlife refuges, 9 ecological reserves, and other areas. A program begun in 2008, Sociobosque, is preserving another 2.3% of total land area (6,295 km², or 629,500 ha) by paying private landowners or community landowners (such as Amerindian tribes) incentives to maintain their land as native ecosystems such as native forests or grasslands.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEligibility and subsidy rates for this program are determined based on the poverty in the region, the number of hectares that will be protected, and the type of ecosystem of the land to be protected, among other factors.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nDespite being on the UNESCO list, the Galápagos are endangered by a range of negative environmental effects, threatening the existence of this exotic ecosystem. Additionally, oil exploitation of the Amazon rainforest has led to the release of billions of gallons of untreated wastes, gas, and crude oil into the environment, contaminating ecosystems and causing detrimental health effects to Amerindian peoples.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nFile:Galapagos dominance display.jpg|Galápagos tortoise, Santa Cruz Island\\nFile:SulaNebouxi.jpg|Blue-footed booby\\nFile:Sphyrna lewini galapagos.jpg|Hammerhead sharks\\nFile:Seegurke-Galapagos-Champion.jpg|Sea cucumber Isostichopus fuscus near Floreana\\nFile:Galapagos plants I 01.jpg|Galapagos plant by Klaus Schönitzer\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador has a developing economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum and agricultural products. The country is classified as a medium-income country. Ecuador's economy is the eighth largest in Latin America and experienced an average growth of 4.6% between 2000 and 2006. From 2007 to 2012 Ecuador's GDP grew at an annual average of 4.3 percent, above the average for Latin America and the Caribbean, which was 3.5%, according to the United Nations' Economic Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Ecuador was able to maintain relatively superior growth during the crisis. In January 2009 the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE) put the 2010 growth forecast at 6.88%. In 2011 its GDP grew at 8% and ranked 3rd highest in Latin America, behind Argentina (2nd) and Panama (1st). Between 1999 and 2007, GDP doubled, reaching $65,490 million according to BCE. Inflation rate up to January 2008 was located about 1.14%, the highest recorded in the last year, according to the government. The monthly unemployment rate remained at about 6 and 8 percent from December 2007 until September 2008; however, it went up to about 9 percent in October and dropped again in November 2008 to 8 percent.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nUnemployment mean annual rate for 2009 in Ecuador was 8.5% because the global economic crisis continued to affect the Latin American economies. From this point unemployment rates started a downward trend: 7.6% in 2010, 6.0% in 2011, and 4.8% in 2012.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe extreme poverty rate has declined significantly between 1999 and 2010. In 2001 it was estimated at 40% of the population, while by 2011 the figure dropped to 17.4% of the total population.Rebeca, Ray and Sara, Kozameh. (May 2012) [http://www.scribd.com/doc/92086279/Ecuador%E2%80%99s-Economy-Since-2007 Ecuador's Economy Since 2007]. p. 15. This is explained to an extent by emigration and the economic stability achieved after adopting the U.S. dollar as official means of transaction. However, starting in 2008 with the bad economic performance of the nations where most Ecuadorian emigrants work, the reduction of poverty has been realized through social spending mainly in education and health.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nOil accounts for 40% of exports and contributes to maintaining a positive trade balance. Since the late 1960s, the exploitation of oil increased production, and proven reserves are estimated at 6.51 billion barrels .\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe overall trade balance for August 2012 was a surplus of almost $390 million for the first six months of 2012, a huge figure compared with that of 2007, which reached only $5.7 million; the surplus had risen by about $425 million compared to 2006. The oil trade balance positive had revenues of $3.295 million in 2008, while non-oil was negative, amounting to $2.842 million. The trade balance with the United States, Chile, the European Union, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, and Mexico is positive. The trade balance with Argentina, Colombia, and Asia is negative.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn the agricultural sector, Ecuador is a major exporter of bananas (first place worldwide in production and export), flowers, and the seventh largest producer of cocoa. The shrimp, sugar cane, rice, cotton, corn, palm, and coffee productions are also significant. The country's vast resources include large amounts of timber across the country, like eucalyptus and mangroves. Pines and cedars are planted in the region of La Sierra and walnuts, rosemary, and balsa wood in the Guayas River Basin. \\nThe industry is concentrated mainly in Guayaquil, the largest industrial center, and in Quito, where in recent years the industry has grown considerably. This city is also the largest business center of the country. Industrial production is directed primarily to the domestic market. Despite this, there is limited export of products produced or processed industrially. These include canned foods, liquor, jewelry, furniture, and more. A minor industrial activity is also concentrated in Cuenca. The incomes due to the tourism have been increasing during the last years because of the efforts of the Government of showing the variety of climates and the biodiversity in Ecuador.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador has negotiated bilateral treaties with other countries, besides belonging to the Andean Community of Nations, and an associate member of Mercosur. It also serves on the World Trade Organization (WTO), in addition to the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), Corporación Andina de Fomento (CAF) and other multilateral agencies. In April 2007, Ecuador paid off its debt to the IMF, thus ending an era of interventionism of the Agency in the country.\\nThe public finance of Ecuador consists of the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE), the National Development Bank (BNF), the State Bank, the National Finance Corporation, the Ecuadorian Housing Bank (BEV) and the Ecuadorian Educational Loans and Grants.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nBetween 2006 and 2009, the government increased social spending on social welfare and education from 2.6% to 5.2% of its GDP. Starting in 2007, with an economy surpassed by the economic crisis, Ecuador was subject to a number of economic policy reforms by the government that have helped steer the Ecuadorian economy to a sustained, substantial, and focused financial stability and social policy. Such policies were expansionary fiscal policies, of access to housing finance, stimulus packs, and limiting the amount of money reserves banks could keep abroad. The Ecuadorian Government has made huge investments in education and infrastructure throughout the nation, which have improved the lives of the poor.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn 2000, Ecuador changed its currency from the sucre to the U.S. dollar following a banking crisis.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nOn December 12, 2008, president Correa announced that Ecuador would not pay $30.6 million in interest to lenders of a $510-million loan, claiming that they were illegitimate.Mapstone, (December 13, 2008). [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7170e224-c897-11dd-b86f-000077b07658.html Ecuador defaults on sovereign bonds]. Financial Times In addition, it claimed that $3.8 billion in foreign debt negotiated by previous administrations was illegitimate because it was authorized without executive decree. At the time of the announcement, the country had $5.65 billion in cash reserves. worlddiplomacy.org states that \\\"Since Ecuador's President Rafael Correa won a third term in 2013, this should provide further stability and a good rate of growth for Ecuador's economy.\\\"\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador, as part of the Mercosur, have signed a free trade agreement with Lebanon on December 18, 2014.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIndustry\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe country has potential for the industry in a variety of sectors, including domestic production of raw materials and manufactured textiles, mining, chemical, petrochemical, and oil refinement. Power generation is also a potential sector that is starting to be developed due to Ecuador's high water potential in various sectors of the country; the development of products based on the melting or glass materials, production and agro-processed foods, and pharmaceutical production, among others. The most relevant project currently under development is the Pacific refinery, located in Manta, which will be one of the largest in the region.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nCurrency\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn its infancy, Ecuador was part of Gran Colombia until 1830 as Departamento del Sur. Gran Colombia's monetary regulations retained the old Spanish colonial system. Ecuador officially began its own monetary unit on June 28, 1835, when the inscription (rev.) \\\"EL ECUADOR EN COLOMBIA\\\" was changed to \\\"REPÚBLICA DEL ECUADOR\\\". Many regional coins from neighboring Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, etc., as well as international units, were in circulation and accepted while Quito fought counterfeiting and tried to unify its currency. Counterfeiting had reached alarming proportions during 1842. At this time, Ecuador was on the verge of bankruptcy, and, since legitimate coins had such imperfections, it was impossible to tell them from the bad coins.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nOn December 29, 1845, President Vicente Ramón Roca authorized a coin to compete with the fuertes (full-bodied coin) of other countries. This was the peso fuerte. The standard of 903 fineness for silver, however, resulted in a heavy export of the coin. It disappeared as soon as it entered circulation (Gresham's law), grabbed up by the merchants of Guayaquil.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nBy the 1850s, the Quito mint was not receiving enough precious metals to justify its operation. It had to coin a minimum of 6,000 pesos a year just to meet overhead. The mint was shut down temporarily during 1853 while the government considered the options of keeping it open or shutting it down permanently. The mint equipment was worn and could not produce coins in sufficient quantity to compete with the foreign coin that entered Ecuador.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nCongress passed a new monetary law on December 5, 1856, adopting the French decimal system, a standard of 0.900 for silver, and the Ecuadorian Franco. The peso remained a unit of account equal to 5 francos. Paper money was first issued in 1859 by the Banco de Circulación y Descuento de Manuel Antonio de Luzarraga in Guayaquil, with banknote denominations of 1, 4, 5, 10, and 20 pesos.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador's monetary unit, the peso, was renamed sucre (decree of March 22, 1884, effective April 1). The 1884 monetary law permitted free circulation of the gold coins of France, Italy, Switzerland, Colombia, etc. As for silver, the law permitted the import of 5-franc pieces of France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland etc. opper (vellón) was made legal tender to 5 décimos. Bank reserves were in silver coins, and banknotes were convertible solely into silver. Ecuador was on a de facto silver standard and did not coin any gold between 1884 and 1892. President Antonio Flores Jijón announced that from August 15, 1890, only national coins were allowed to circulate in Ecuador, and Ecuador's monetary system was unified.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nFollowing the financial banking crisis of 1999, the U.S. dollar became legal tender in Ecuador on March 13, 2000, and sucre notes ceased being legal tender on September 11. Sucre notes remained exchangeable at Banco Central until March 30, 2001, at 25,000 sucres per dollar. Ecuador now only issues its own centavo coins.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe rehabilitation and reopening of the Ecuadorian railroad and use of it as a tourist attraction is one of the recent developments in transportation matters.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe roads of Ecuador in recent years have undergone important improvement. The major routes are Pan American (under enhancement from four to six lanes from Rumichaca to Ambato, the conclusion of 4 lanes on the entire stretch of Ambato and Riobamba and running via Riobamba to Loja). In the absence of the section between Loja and the border with Peru, there are the Route Espondilus and/or Ruta del Sol (oriented to travel along the Ecuadorian coastline) and the Amazon backbone (which crosses from north to south along the Ecuadorian Amazon, linking most and more major cities of it).\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAnother major project is developing the road Manta – Tena, the highway Guayaquil – Salinas Highway Aloag Santo Domingo, Riobamba – Macas (which crosses Sangay National Park). Other new developments include the National Unity bridge complex in Guayaquil, the bridge over the Napo river in Francisco de Orellana, the Esmeraldas River Bridge in the city of the same name, and, perhaps the most remarkable of all, the Bahia – San Vincente Bridge, being the largest on the Latin American Pacific coast.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe Mariscal Sucre International Airport in Quito and the José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport in Guayaquil have experienced a high increase in demand and have required modernization. In the case of Guayaquil it involved a new air terminal, once considered the best in South America and the best in Latin America and in Quito where an entire new airport has been built in Tababela and was inaugurated in February 2013, with Canadian assistance. However, the main road leading from Quito city centre to the new airport will only be finished in late 2014, making current travelling from the airport to downtown Quito as long as two hours during rush hour. Quito's old city-centre airport is being turned into parkland, with some light industrial use.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nElectrical power outlets\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nElectrical power outlets in Ecuador are the same as in the US (110v).\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nWater supply and sanitation\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nDrinking water supply and sanitation in Ecuador is characterized by a number of achievements and challenges. One key achievement is a significant increase in both access to an improved water source (82% in 1990 to 96% in 2010 in urban areas) http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ and improved sanitation (77% in 1990 to 96% in 2010 in urban areas). Significant increases in coverage in urban areas were achieved both by the public utility EMAAP-Q, serving the capital Quito, and the private concessionaire Interagua in the country's largest city Guayaquil. However, municipalities rely overwhelmingly upon central government investment, rather than recouping the costs at a local level. Another problem is intermittent water supply, which affects half of the urban areas. Also, only 8% of all collected wastewater is being treated. The level of non-revenue water is estimated at 65%, one of the highest in Latin America.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nMobile (cellular) phone frequencies\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nMobile (cellular) phone frequencies in Ecuador are 850 MHz, 1900 MHz, and 1700/2100 MHz (LTE).\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador's population is ethnically diverse and the 2011 estimates put Ecuador's population at 15,007,343. The largest ethnic group () is the Mestizos, who are the descendants of Spanish colonists that interbred with Amerindian peoples, and constitute about 71% of the population. The White Ecuadorians (White Latin American) account for 6.1% of the population of Ecuador and can be found throughout all of Ecuador primarily around the urban areas. Even though Ecuador's white population during its colonial era were mainly descendants from Spain, today Ecuador's white population is a result of a mixture of European immigrants, predominantly from Spain with people from Italy, France, Germany, and Switzerland who have settled in the early 20th century. Ecuador also has people of middle eastern extraction that have also joined the ranks of the white minority. These include economically well off immigrants of Lebanese and Palestinian descent, who are either Christian or Muslim (Islam in Ecuador). In addition, there is a small European Jewish (Ecuadorian Jews) population, which is based mainly in Quito and to a lesser extent in Guayaquil. Amerindians account for 7% of the current population.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe mostly rural Montubio population of the coastal provinces of Ecuador, who might be classified as Pardo account for 7.4% of the population. The Afro-Ecuadorians is a minority population (7%) in Ecuador, that includes the Mulattos and zambos, and are largely based in the Esmeraldas province and to a lesser degree in the predominantly Mestizo provinces of Coastal Ecuador - Guayas and Manabi. In the Highland Andes where a predominantly Mestizo, white and Amerindian population exist, the African presence is almost non-existent except for a small community in the province of Imbabura called Chota Valley.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAccording to the Ecuadorian National Institute of Statistics and Census, 91.95% of the country's population have a religion, 7.94% are atheists and 0.11% are agnostics. Among the people that have a religion, 80.44% are Roman Catholic Latin Rite (see List of Roman Catholic dioceses in Ecuador), 11.30% are Evangelical Protestants, 1.29% are Jehovah's Witnesses and 6.97% other (mainly Jewish, Buddhists and Latter-day Saints).\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn the rural parts of Ecuador, Amerindian beliefs and Catholicism are sometimes syncretized. Most festivals and annual parades are based on religious celebrations, many incorporating a mixture of rites and icons.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThere is a small number of Eastern Orthodox Christians, Amerindian religions, Muslims (see Islam in Ecuador), Buddhists and Bahá'í. According to their own estimates, the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints accounts for about 1.4% of the population, or 211,165 members at the end of 2012. According to their own sources, in 2012 there were 77,323 Jehovah's Witnesses in the country.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe first Jews arrived in Ecuador in the 16th and 17th centuries. Most of them are Sephardic Anusim (Crypto-Jews) and many still speak Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) language. Today the Jewish Community of Ecuador (Comunidad Judía del Ecuador) has its seat in Quito and has approximately 200 members. Nevertheless, this number is declining because young people leave the country for the United States or Israel. The Community has a Jewish Center with a synagogue, a country club, and a cemetery. It supports the \\\"Albert Einstein School\\\", where Jewish history, religion, and Hebrew classes are offered.\\nThere are very small communities in Cuenca. The \\\"Comunidad de Culto Israelita\\\" reunites the Jews of Guayaquil. This community works independently from the \\\"Jewish Community of Ecuador\\\" and is composed of only 30 people.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nNations\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe Ecuadorian constitution recognizes the \\\"pluri-nationality\\\" of those who want to exercise their affiliation with their native ethnic groups. Thus, in addition to criollos, mestizos, and Afro-Ecuadorians, some people belong to the Amerindian nations scattered in a few places in the coast, Quechua Andean villages, and the Amazonian jungle.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nPopulation genetics\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAccording to a 2015 genealogical DNA testing, the average Ecuadorian is estimated to be 52.96% Native American, 41.77% European, and 5.26% Sub-Saharan African overall.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nPopulation density\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe majority of Ecuadorians live in the central provinces, the Andes mountains, or along the Pacific coast. The tropical forest region to the east of the mountains (El Oriente) remains sparsely populated and contains only about 3% of the population. Birth rate is 2-1 for each death. Marriages are usually from 14 and above using parental consent. About 12.4% of the population is married in the ages 15–19. Divorce rates are moderate.Population cities (2010)\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nStatus According to the 2010 Census\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nImmigration and emigration\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nA small east Asian Latino community, estimated at 2,500, mainly consists of those of Japanese and Chinese descent, whose ancestors arrived as miners, farmhands and fishermen in the late 19th century.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn the early years of World War II, Ecuador still admitted a certain number of immigrants, and in 1939, when several South American countries refused to accept 165 Jewish refugees from Germany aboard the ship Koenigstein, Ecuador granted them entry permits.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn recent years, Ecuador has grown in popularity among North American expatriates. They're drawn there by the authentic cultural experience and beautiful natural surroundings. Also, Ecuador's favorable residency options make for an easy transition for those who decide to settle there indefinitely.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAnother perk that draws many expats to Ecuador is its low cost of living. Since everything from gas to groceries costs far less than in North America, it's a popular choice for those who are looking to make the most of their retirement budget.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEven real estate in Ecuador is much less than its tropical counterparts. However, as more and more North Americans are discovering Ecuador's potential, property prices are beginning to rise from where they were a decade ago, particularly in the areas that are popular among expats and tourists.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador's mainstream culture is defined by its Hispanic mestizo majority, and, like their ancestry, it is traditionally of Spanish heritage, influenced in different degrees by Amerindian traditions and in some cases by African elements. The first and most substantial wave of modern immigration to Ecuador consisted of Spanish colonists, following the arrival of Europeans in 1499. A lower number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early twentieth centuries and, in smaller numbers, Poles, Lithuanians, English, Irish, and Croats during and after the Second World War.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nSince African slavery was not the workforce of the Spanish colonies in the Andes Mountains, given the subjugation of the Amerindian people through proselytization and encomiendas, the minority population of African descent is mostly found in the coastal northern province of Esmeraldas. This is largely owing to the 17th-century shipwreck of a slave-trading galleon off the northern coast of Ecuador. The few black African survivors swam to the shore and penetrated the then-thick jungle under the leadership of Anton, the chief of the group, where they remained as free men maintaining their original culture, not influenced by the typical elements found in other provinces of the coast or in the Andean region. A little later, runaway slaves from Colombia known as cimarrones joined them. In the small Chota Valley of the province of Imbabura exists a small community of Africans among the province's predominantly mestizo population. These blacks are descendants of Africans, who were brought over from Colombia by Jesuits to work their colonial sugar plantations as slaves.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAs a general rule, small elements of zambos and mulattoes coexisted among the overwhelming mestizo population of coastal Ecuador throughout its history as gold miners in Loja, Zaruma, and Zamora and as shipbuilders and plantation workers around the city of Guayaquil. Today you can find a small community of Africans in the Catamayo valley of the predominantly mestizo population of Loja.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador's Amerindian communities are integrated into the mainstream culture to varying degrees, but some may also practice their own native cultures, particularly the more remote Amerindian communities of the Amazon basin. Spanish is spoken as the first language by more than 90% of the population and as a first or second language by more than 98%. Part of Ecuador's population can speak Amerindian languages, in some cases as a second language. Two percent of the population speak only Amerindian languages.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nLanguage\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nMost Ecuadorians speak Spanish, though many speak Amerindian language, such as Kichwa (also spelt Quichua), which is one of the Quechuan languages and is spoken by approximately 2.5 million people in Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru. Other Amerindian languages spoken in Ecuador include Awapit (spoken by the Awá), A'ingae (spoken by the Cofan), Shuar Chicham (spoken by the Shuar), Achuar-Shiwiar (spoken by the Achuar and the Shiwiar), Cha'palaachi (spoken by the Chachi), Tsa'fiki (spoken by the Tsáchila), Paicoca (spoken by the Siona and Secoya), and Wao Tededeo (spoken by the Waorani). Though most features of Ecuadorian Spanish are those universal to the Spanish-speaking world, there are several idiosyncrasies.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe music of Ecuador has a long history. Pasillo is a genre of indigenous Latin music. In Ecuador it is the \\\"national genre of music\\\". Through the years, many cultures have brought their influences together to create new types of music. There are also different kinds of traditional music like albazo, pasacalle, fox incaico, tonada, capishca, Bomba (highly established in Afro-Ecuadorian societies), and so on.\\nTecnocumbia and Rockola are clear examples of the influence of foreign cultures. One of the most traditional forms of dancing in Ecuador is Sanjuanito. It's originally from northern Ecuador (Otavalo-Imbabura). Sanjuanito is a type of dance music played during festivities by the mestizo and Amerindian communities. According to the Ecuadorian musicologist Segundo Luis Moreno, Sanjuanito was danced by Amerindian people during San Juan Bautista's birthday. This important date was established by the Spaniards on June 24, coincidentally the same date when Amerindian people celebrated their rituals of Inti Raymi.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuadorian cuisine is diverse, varying with the altitude and associated agricultural conditions. Most regions in Ecuador follow the traditional three course meal of soup, a course that includes rice and a protein, and then dessert and coffee to finish. Supper is usually lighter and sometimes consists only of coffee or herbal tea with bread.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn the highland region, pork, chicken, beef, and cuy (guinea pig) are popular and are served with a variety of grains (especially rice and corn) or potatoes.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn the coastal region, seafood is very popular, with fish, shrimp, and ceviche being key parts of the diet. Generally, ceviches are served with fried plantain (chifles y patacones), popcorn, or tostado. Plantain- and peanut-based dishes are the basis of most coastal meals. Encocados (dishes that contain a coconut sauce) are also very popular. Churrasco is a staple food of the coastal region, especially Guayaquil. Arroz con menestra y carne asada (rice with beans and grilled beef) is one of the traditional dishes of Guayaquil, as is fried plantain, which is often served with it. This region is a leading producer of bananas, Cocoa beans (to make chocolate), shrimp, tilapia, mango, and passion fruit, among other products.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn the Amazon region, a dietary staple is the yuca, elsewhere called cassava. Many fruits are available in this region, including bananas, tree grapes, and peach palms.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nLiterature\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEarly literature in colonial Ecuador, as in the rest of Spanish America, was influenced by the Spanish Golden Age. One of the earliest examples is Jacinto Collahuazo,Borja, Piedad. [http://revistas.ucm.es/fll/02104547/articulos/ALHI7272110053A.PDF Boceto de Poesía Ecuatoriana,'Journal de la Academia de Literatura Hispanoamericana', 1972] an Amerindian chief of a northern village in today's Ibarra, born in the late 1600s. Despite the early repression and discrimination of the native people by the Spanish, Collahuazo learned to read and write in Castilian, but his work was written in Quechua. The use of Quipu was banned by the Spanish, and in order to preserve their work, many Inca poets had to resort to the use of the Latin alphabet to write in their native Quechua language. The history behind the Inca drama \\\"Ollantay\\\", the oldest literary piece in existence for any Amerindian language in America, shares some similarities with the work of Collahuazo. Collahuazo was imprisoned and all of his work burned. The existence of his literary work came to light many centuries later, when a crew of masons was restoring the walls of a colonial church in Quito and found a hidden manuscript.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe salvaged fragment is a Spanish translation from Quechua of the \\\"Elegy to the Dead of Atahualpa\\\", a poem written by Collahuazo, which describes the sadness and impotence of the Inca people of having lost their king Atahualpa.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nOther early Ecuadorian writers include the Jesuits Juan Bautista Aguirre, born in Daule in 1725, and Father Juan de Velasco, born in Riobamba in 1727. De Velasco wrote about the nations and chiefdoms that had existed in the Kingdom of Quito (today Ecuador) before the arrival of the Spanish. His historical accounts are nationalistic, featuring a romantic perspective of precolonial history.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nFamous authors from the late colonial and early republic period include Eugenio Espejo, a printer and main author of the first newspaper in Ecuadorian colonial times; Jose Joaquin de Olmedo (born in Guayaquil), famous for his ode to Simón Bolívar titled Victoria de Junin; Juan Montalvo, a prominent essayist and novelist; Juan Leon Mera, famous for his work \\\"Cumanda\\\" or \\\"Tragedy among Savages\\\" and the Ecuadorian National Anthem; Juan A. Martinez with A la Costa';, Dolores Veintimilla; and others.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nContemporary Ecuadorian writers include the novelist Jorge Enrique Adoum; the poet Jorge Carrera Andrade; the essayist Benjamín Carrión; the poets Medardo Angel Silva, Jorge Carrera Andrade, and Luis Alberto Costales; the novelist Enrique Gil Gilbert; the novelist Jorge Icaza (author of the novel Huasipungo, translated to many languages); the short story author Pablo Palacio; and the novelist Alicia Yanez Cossio.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn spite of Ecuador's considerable mystique, it is rarely featured as a setting in contemporary western literature. One exception is \\\"The Ecuadorian Deception,\\\" a murder mystery/thriller authored by American Bear Mills. In it, George d'Hout, a website designer from the United States is lured under false pretenses to Guayaquil. A corrupt American archaeologist is behind the plot, believing d'Hout holds the keys to locating a treasure hidden by a buccaneer ancestor. The story is based on a real pirate by the name of George d'Hout who terrorized Guayaquil in the 16th Century.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nArt\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe best known art styles from Ecuador belonged to the Escuela Quiteña, which developed from the 16th to 18th centuries, examples of which are on display in various old churches in Quito. Ecuadorian painters include Eduardo Kingman, Oswaldo Guayasamín, and Camilo Egas from the Indiginist Movement; Manuel Rendon, Jaime Zapata, Enrique Tábara, Aníbal Villacís, Theo Constanté, Luis Molinari, Araceli Gilbert, Judith Gutierrez, Felix Arauz, and Estuardo Maldonado from the Informalist Movement; and Luis Burgos Flor with his abstract, futuristic style. The Amerindian people of Tigua, Ecuador, are also world-renowned for their traditional paintings.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nSports\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe most popular sport in Ecuador, as in most South American countries, is football (soccer). Its best known professional teams include Liga De Quito from Quito; is the most important in the Ecuadorian football. Also Emelec from Guayaquil; Deportivo Quito, and El Nacional from Quito; Olmedo from Riobamba; and Deportivo Cuenca from Cuenca. Currently the most successful soccer team in Ecuador is LDU Quito, and it is the only Ecuadorian team that has won the Copa Libertadores, the Copa Sudamericana, and the Recopa Sudamericana; they were also runners-up in the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup. The matches of the Ecuadorian national team are the most-watched sporting events in the country. Ecuador has qualified for the final rounds of the 2002, the 2006, & the 2014 FIFA World Cups. The 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign was considered a huge success for the country and its inhabitants. The unusually high elevation of the home stadium in Quito often affects the performance of visiting teams. Ecuador finished in 2nd place in the CONMEBOL qualifiers behind Argentina and above the team that would become World Champions, Brazil.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nIn the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Ecuador finished ahead of Poland and Costa Rica finishing second behind Germany in Group A in the 2006 World Cup. They were defeated by England in the second round.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador has won only two medals in the Olympic Games, both gained by 20-km (12 mi) racewalker Jefferson Pérez, who took gold in the 1996 games and silver 12 years later. Pérez also set a world best in the 2003 World Championships of 1:17:21 for the 20-km (12 mi) distance.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nHealth\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe current structure of the Ecuadorian public health care system dates back to 1967. The Ministry of the Public Health (Ministerio de Salud Pública del Ecuador) is the responsible entity of the regulation and creation of the public health policies and health care plans. The Minister of Public Health is appointed directly by the President of the Republic. The current minister, or Ecuadorian general surgeon, is Margarita Guevara.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe philosophy of the Ministry of Public Health is the social support and service to the most vulnerable population, and its main plan of action lies around communitarian health and preventive medicine.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe public healthcare system allows patients to be treated without an appointment in public general hospitals by general practitioners and specialists in the outpatient clinic (Consulta Externa) at no cost. This is done in the four basic specialties of pediatric, gynecology, clinic medicine, and surgery. There are also public hospitals specialized to treat chronic diseases, target a particular group of the population, or provide better treatment in some medical specialties. Some examples in this group are the Gynecologic Hospitals, or Maternities, Children Hospitals, Geriatric Hospitals, and Oncology Institutes.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAlthough well-equipped general hospitals are found in the major cities or capitals of provinces, there are basic hospitals in the smaller towns and canton cities for family care consultation and treatments in pediatrics, gynecology, clinical medicine, and surgery.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nCommunity health care centers (Centros de Salud) are found inside metropolitan areas of cities and in rural areas. These are day hospitals that provide treatment to patients whose hospitalization is under 24 hours.\\nThe doctors assigned to rural communities, where the Amerindian population can be substantial, have small clinics under their responsibility for the treatment of patients in the same fashion as the day hospitals in the major cities. The treatment in this case respects the culture of the community.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe public healthcare system should not be confused with the Ecuadorian Social Security healthcare service, which is dedicated to individuals with formal employment and who are affiliated obligatorily through their employers. Citizens with no formal employment may still contribute to the social security system voluntarily and have access to the medical services rendered by the social security system. The Ecuadorian Institute of Social Security (IESS) has several major hospitals and medical sub-centers under its administration across the nation.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador currently ranks 20, in most efficient health care countries, compared to 111 back in the year 2000. \\nEcuadorians have a life expectancy of 75.6 years. The infant mortality rate is 13 per 1,000 live births, a major improvement from approximately 76 in the early 1980s and 140 in 1950. 23% of children under five are chronically malnourished. Population in some rural areas have no access to potable water, and its supply is provided by mean of water tankers. There are 686 malaria cases per 100,000 people. Basic health care, including doctor's visits, basic surgeries, and basic medications, has been provided free since 2008. However, some public hospitals are in poor condition and often lack necessary supplies to attend the high demand of patients. Private hospitals and clinics are well equipped but still expensive for the majority of the population.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe Ecuadorian Constitution requires that all children attend school until they achieve a \\\"basic level of education\\\", which is estimated at nine school years. In 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 96.9%, and 71.8% of children stayed in school until the fifth grade. The cost of primary and secondary education is borne by the government, but families often face significant additional expenses such as fees and transportation costs.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nProvision of public schools falls far below the levels needed, and class sizes are often very large, and families of limited means often find it necessary to pay for education. In rural areas, only 10% of the children go on to high school. The Ministry of Education states that the mean number of years completed is 6.7.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador has 61 universities, many of which still confer terminal degrees according to the traditional Spanish education system, honoring a long tradition of having some of the oldest universities in the Americas: University of San Fulgencio, founded in 1586 by the Augustines; San Gregorio Magno University, founded in 1651 by the Jesuits; and University of Santo Tomás of Aquino, founded in 1681 by the Dominican order.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAmong the traditional conferred terminal degrees can be noted the doctorate for medicine and law schools or engineering, physics, chemistry, or mathematics for polytechnic or technology institutes. These terminal degrees, as in the case of the PhD in other countries, were the main requirement for an individual to be accepted in academia as a professor or researcher. In the professional realm, a terminal degree granted by an accredited institution automatically provides a professional license to the individual.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nHowever, in 2004, the National Council of Higher Education (CONESUP), started the reorganization of all the degree-granting schemes of the accredited universities in order to pair them with foreign counterparts. The new structure of some careers caused the dropping of subjects, credits, or even the name of the previously conferred diplomas. The terminal degree in law, previously known as JD Juris Doctor (Doctor en Jurisprudencia) was replaced by the one of abogado (attorney) with the exception of the modification of the number of credits to equate it to an undergraduate degree. In the same fashion for medical school, the required time of education was considerably reduced from nine years (the minimum needed to obtain the title of MD in Medicine and Surgery) to almost five, with the provision that the diploma is not terminal anymore, and it is given with the title of médico (medic). Therefore, an MD or PhD in medicine is only to be obtained overseas until the universities adjust themselves to granting schemes and curriculum as in foreign counterparts. Nonetheless, a \\\"médico\\\" can start a career as family practitioner or general medicine physician.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThis new reorganization, although very ambitious, lacked the proper path to the homologation of diplomas for highly educated professionals graduated in the country or even for the ones graduated in foreign institutions. One of the points of conflict was the imposition of obtaining foreign degrees to current academicians. As today, a master's degree is a requirement to keep an academic position and at least a foreign PhD to attain or retain the status of rector (president of a university) or décano (dean). For Ecuadorian researchers and many academicians trained in the country, these regulations sounded illogical, disappointing, and unlawful since it appeared a question of a title name conflict rather than specialization or science advancement.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nA debate to modify this and other reforms, especially the one which granted control of the Higher Education System by the government, was practically passed with consensus by the multi-partisan National Assembly on August 4, 2010, but vetoed by President Rafael Correa, who wanted to keep the law strictly as it was originally redacted by his political party and SENPLADES (National Secretary of Planning and Development). Due to this change, there are many highly educated professionals and academicians under the old structure but estimated that only 87% of the faculty in public universities have already obtained a master's degree, and fewer than 5% have a PhD (although many of them already have Ecuadorian-granted doctorate degrees).\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nAbout 300 institutes of higher education offer two to three years of post-secondary vocational or technical training.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nSciences and research\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEcuador is currently placed in 96th position, of innovation in technology. \\nThe most notable icons in Ecuadorian sciences are the mathematician and cartographer Pedro Vicente Maldonado, born in Riobamba in 1707, and the printer, independence precursor, and medical pioneer Eugenio Espejo, born in 1747 in Quito.\\nAmong other notable Ecuadorian scientists and engineers are Lieutenant Jose Rodriguez Lavandera, a pioneer who built the first submarine in Latin America in 1837; Reinaldo Espinosa Aguilar (1898–1950), a botanist and biologist of Andean flora; and José Aurelio Dueñas (1880–1961), a chemist and inventor of a method of textile serigraphy.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe major areas of scientific research in Ecuador have been in the medical fields, tropical and infectious diseases treatments, agricultural engineering, pharmaceutical research, and bioengineering. Being a small country and a consumer of foreign technology, Ecuador has favored research supported by entrepreneurship in information technology. The antivirus program Checkprogram, banking protection system MdLock, and Core Banking Software Cobis are products of Ecuadorian development.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe scientific production in hard sciences has been limited due to lack of funding but focused around physics, statistics, and partial differential equations in mathematics. In the case of engineering fields, the majority of scientific production comes from the top three polytechnic institutions: Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral - ESPOL, Universidad de Las Fuerzas Armadas - ESPE, and Escuela Politécnica Nacional EPN.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nEPN is known for research and education in the applied science, astronomy, atmospheric physics, engineering and physical sciences. The Geophysics Institute monitors over the country's volcanoes in the Andes Mountains of Ecuador and in the Galápagos Islands, all of which is part of the Ring of Fire. EPN adopted the polytechnic university model that stresses laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nThe Oldest Observatory in South America is the Quito Astronomical Observatory and is located in Quito, Ecuador. The Quito Astronomical Observatory, which gives the global community of a Virtual Telescope System that is connected via the Internet and allows the world to watch by streaming, is managed by EPN.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nContemporary Ecuadorian scientists who have been recognized by international institutions are Eugenia del Pino (born 1945), the first Ecuadorian to be elected to the United States National Academy of Science, and Arturo Villavicencio, who was part of the working group of the IPCC, which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore for their dissemination of the effects of climate change.\",\n \"Ecuador\\n\\nCurrently, the politics of research and investigation are managed by the National Secretary of Higher Education, Science, and Technology (Senescyt).\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137085,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2311"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What is ursus arctos horribilis commonly known as?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Grizzly bear"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["hunting status on grizzly bears in british columbia canada","peninsular grizzly","grizzly bear","montana state mammal","ursus arctos horribilis","grizzlie bear","grizzly bears and their habitat","ursus arctos gyas","grizzly bears","silvertip bear","grizzlar bear","mainland grizzly","american grizzly","american grizzly bear","grizzley bears","grizzly","grizzly bears and their effects on ecosystems","grizzley bear"],"string":"[\n \"hunting status on grizzly bears in british columbia canada\",\n \"peninsular grizzly\",\n \"grizzly bear\",\n \"montana state mammal\",\n \"ursus arctos horribilis\",\n \"grizzlie bear\",\n \"grizzly bears and their habitat\",\n \"ursus arctos gyas\",\n \"grizzly bears\",\n \"silvertip bear\",\n \"grizzlar bear\",\n \"mainland grizzly\",\n \"american grizzly\",\n \"american grizzly bear\",\n \"grizzley bears\",\n \"grizzly\",\n \"grizzly bears and their effects on ecosystems\",\n \"grizzley bear\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Grizzly bear\n\nThe grizzly bear (Ursus arctos ssp.) less commonly called the silvertip bear, is any North American morphological form or subspecies of brown bear, including the mainland grizzly (Ursus arctos horribilis), Kodiak bear (U. a. middendorffi), peninsular grizzly (U. a. gyas), and the recently extinct California grizzly (U. a. californicus†)Schwartz, C. C., Miller, S. D. and Haroldson, M. A. (2003). [http://www.gsseser.com/RMAteachers/Grizzly_Chapter.pdf \"Grizzly bear\"]. pp. 556–586 in G. A. Feldhamer, B. C. Thompson and J. A. Chapman, eds. Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Conservation. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. and Mexican grizzly bear (U. a. nelsoni†). Scientists do not use the name grizzly bear but call it the North American brown bear. (See brown bear for a discussion of brown bears outside of North America). It should not be confused with the black grizzly or Ussuri brown bear (U. a. lasiotus) which is another giant brown bear inhabiting Russia, Northern China, and Korea.","Grizzly bear\n\nClassification","Grizzly bear\n\nMeaning of \"grizzly\"","Grizzly bear\n\nLewis and Clark named it to be grisley or \"grizzly\", which could have meant \"grizzled\"; that is, golden and grey tips of the hair or \"fear-inspiring\". Nonetheless, after careful study, naturalist George Ord formally classified it in 1815 – not for its hair, but for its character – as Ursus horribilis (\"terrifying bear\").","Grizzly bear\n\nEvolution and genetics","Grizzly bear\n\nGrizzly phylogenetics","Grizzly bear\n\nClassification has been revised along genetic lines. There are two morphological forms of Ursus arctos, the grizzly and the coastal brown bears, but these morphological forms do not have distinct mtDNA lineages.","Grizzly bear\n\nUrsus arctos - the brown bear","Grizzly bear\n\nBrown bears originated in Eurasia and traveled to North America approximately 50,000 years ago, spreading into the contiguous United States about 13,000 years ago.\nIn the 19th century, the grizzly was classified as 86 distinct species. However, by 1928 only seven grizzlies remained and by 1953 only one species remained globally. However, modern genetic testing reveals the grizzly to be a subspecies of the brown bear (Ursus arctos). Rausch found that North America has but one species of grizzly. Therefore, everywhere it is the \"brown bear\"; in North America, it is the \"grizzly\", but these are all the same species, Ursus arctos.","Grizzly bear\n\nUrsus arctos subspecies in North America","Grizzly bear\n\nIn 1963 Rausch reduced the number of North American subspecies to one, Ursus arctos middendorffi","Grizzly bear\n\nFurther testing of Y-chromosomes is required to yield an accurate new taxonomy with different subspecies.","Grizzly bear\n\nCoastal grizzlies, often referred to by the popular but geographically redundant synonym of \"brown bear\" or \"Alaskan brown bear\" are larger and darker than inland grizzlies, which is why they, too, were considered a different species from grizzlies. Kodiak grizzly bears were also at one time considered distinct. Therefore, at one time there were five different \"species\" of brown bear, including three in North America.","Grizzly bear\n\nAppearance","Grizzly bear\n\nMost adult female grizzlies weigh 130 -, while adult males weigh on average 180 -. Average total length in this subspecies is 198 cm, with an average shoulder height of 102 cm and hindfoot length of 28 cm. Newborn bears may weigh less than 500 g. In the Yukon River area, mature female grizzlies can weigh as little as 100 kg. One study found that the average weight for an inland male grizzly was around 272 kilograms (600 lb) and the average weight for a coastal male was around 408 kilograms (900 lb). For a female, these average weights would be 136 kilograms (300 lb) inland and 227 kilograms (500 lb) coastal, respectively. On the other hand, an occasional huge male grizzly has been recorded which greatly exceeds ordinary size, with weights reported up to 680 kg. A large coastal male of this size may stand up to 3 m tall on its hind legs and be up to at the shoulder.","Grizzly bear\n\nAlthough variable in color from blond to nearly black, grizzly bear fur is typically brown with darker legs and commonly white or blond tipped fur on the flank and back. A pronounced hump appears on their shoulders; the hump is a good way to distinguish a grizzly bear from a black bear, as black bears do not have this hump. Aside from the distinguishing hump a grizzly bear can be identified by a \"dished in\" profile of their face with short, rounded ears, whereas a black bear has a straight face profile and longer ears. A grizzly bear can also be identified by its rump, which is lower than its shoulders, while a black bear's rump is higher. A grizzly bear's front claws measure about 2-4 inches in length and a black bear's measure about 1-2 inches in length.","Grizzly bear\n\nRange and population","Grizzly bear\n\nBrown bears are found in Asia, Europe, and North America, giving them the widest ranges of bear species. They also inhabited North Africa and the Middle East. In North America, grizzly bears previously ranged from Alaska down to Mexico and as far east as the western shores of Hudson Bay; the species is now found in Alaska, south through much of western Canada, and into portions of the northwestern United States (including Idaho, Montana, Washington, and Wyoming), extending as far south as Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks. It is most commonly found in Canada. In Canada, there are approximately 25,000 grizzly bears occupying British Columbia, Alberta, the tundra areas of the Ungava Peninsula and the northern tip of Labrador-Quebec, the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and the northern part of Manitoba. In British Columbia, grizzly bears inhabit approximately 90% of their original territory. There were approximately 25,000 grizzly bears in British Columbia when the European settlers arrived. However, population size has since significantly decreased due to hunting and habitat loss. In 2003, researchers from the University of Alberta spotted a grizzly on Melville Island in the high Arctic, which is the most northerly sighting ever documented.","Grizzly bear\n\nIn 2008, it was estimated there were 16,014 grizzly bears. Population estimates for British Columbia are based on hair-snagging, DNA-based inventories, mark-and-recapture, and a refined multiple regression model. A revised Grizzly bear count in 2012 for British Columbia was 15,075.","Grizzly bear\n\nThe Alaskan population of 30,000 individuals is the highest population of any province/state in North America. Populations in Alaska are densest along the coast, where food supplies such as salmon are more abundant. The Admiralty Island National Monument protects the densest population — 1,600 bears on a 1,600-square mile island.","Grizzly bear\n\nContinental United States","Grizzly bear\n\nOnly about 1,500 grizzlies are left in the lower 48 states of the US. Of these, about 800 live in Montana. About 600 more live in Wyoming, in the Yellowstone-Teton area. There are an estimated 70–100 grizzly bears living in northern and eastern Idaho. Its original range included much of the Great Plains and the southwestern states, but it has been extirpated in most of those areas. Combining Canada and the United States, grizzly bears inhabit approximately half the area of their historical range.","Grizzly bear\n\nIn September 2007, a hunter produced evidence of one bear in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness ecosystem, by killing a male grizzly bear there. In the North Cascades ecosystem of northern Washington, grizzly bear populations are estimated to be less than 20 bears and only one sighting of a grizzly bear in the last 10 years has been recorded. There has been no confirmed sighting of a grizzly in Colorado since 1979.","Grizzly bear\n\nOther provinces and the United States may use a combination of methods for population estimates. Therefore, it is difficult to say precisely what methods were used to produce total population estimates for Canada and North America, as they were likely developed from a variety of studies. The grizzly bear currently has legal protection in Mexico, European countries, some areas of Canada and in the United States. However, it is expected that repopulating its former range will be a slow process, due to a variety of reasons including the bear's slow reproductive habits and the effects of reintroducing such a large animal to areas prized for agriculture and livestock. Competition with other predators and predation on cubs are other possible limiting factors for grizzly bear recovery, though grizzly bears also benefit from scavenged carcasses from predators as an easy food source when other food sources decline. There are currently about 55,000 wild grizzly bears total located throughout North America, most of which reside in Alaska.","Grizzly bear\n\nLongevity","Grizzly bear\n\nThe grizzly bear is, by nature, a long-living animal. Females live longer than males due to their less dangerous life, avoiding the seasonal breeding fights males engage in. The average lifespan for a male is estimated at 22 years, with that of a female being slightly longer at 26. The oldest wild inland grizzly was 34 years old in Alaska; the oldest coastal bear was 39. Captive grizzlies have lived as long as 44 years, but most grizzlies die in their first few years of life from predation or hunting.","Grizzly bear\n\nHibernation","Grizzly bear\n\nGrizzly bears hibernate for 5–7 months each year except where the climate is warm, as the California grizzly did not hibernate. During this time, female grizzly bears give birth to their offspring, who then consume milk from their mother and gain strength for the remainder of the hibernation period. To prepare for hibernation, grizzlies must prepare a den, and consume an immense amount of food as they do not eat during hibernation. Grizzly bears do not defecate or urinate throughout the entire hibernation period. The male grizzly bear's hibernation ends in early to mid-March, while females emerge in April or early May.","Grizzly bear\n\nIn preparation for winter, bears can gain approximately 180 kg, during a period of hyperphagia, before going into hibernation. The bear often waits for a substantial snowstorm before it enters its den: such behavior lessens the chances predators will find the den. The dens are typically at elevations above 1800 m on north-facing slopes. There is some debate amongst professionals as to whether grizzly bears technically hibernate: much of this debate revolves around body temperature and the ability of the bears to move around during hibernation on occasion. Grizzly bears can \"partially\" recycle their body wastes during this period. Although inland or Rocky Mountain grizzlies spend nearly half of their life in dens, coastal grizzlies with better access to food sources spend less time in dens. In some areas where food is very plentiful year round, grizzly bears skip hibernation altogether.","Grizzly bear\n\nReproduction","Grizzly bear\n\nExcept for females with cubs, grizzlies are normally solitary, active animals, but in coastal areas, grizzlies gather around streams, lakes, rivers, and ponds during the salmon spawn. Every other year, females (sows) produce one to four young (usually two) which are small and weigh only about 500 g at birth. A sow is protective of her offspring and will attack if she thinks she or her cubs are threatened.","Grizzly bear\n\nGrizzly bears have one of the lowest reproductive rates of all terrestrial mammals in North America. This is due to numerous ecological factors. Grizzly bears do not reach sexual maturity until they are at least five years old. Once mated with a male in the summer, the female delays embryo implantation until hibernation, during which miscarriage can occur if the female does not receive the proper nutrients and caloric intake. On average, females produce two cubs in a litter and the mother cares for the cubs for up to two years, during which the mother will not mate. Once the young leave or are killed, females may not produce another litter for three or more years, depending on environmental conditions. Male grizzly bears have large territories, up to 4000 km2, making finding a female scent difficult in such low population densities.\nPopulation fragmentation of grizzlies may destabilize the population from inbreeding depression. The gestation period for grizzly bears is approximately 180–250 days.","Grizzly bear\n\nLitter size is between one and four cubs, averaging twins or triplets. Cubs are always born in the mother's winter den while she is in hibernation. Female grizzlies are fiercely protective of their cubs, being able to fend off predators as large as male bears bigger than they are in defense of the cubs. Cubs feed entirely on their mother's milk until summer comes, after which they still drink milk but begin to eat solid foods. Cubs gain weight rapidly during their time with the mother — their weight will have ballooned from in the two years spent with the mother. Mothers may see their cubs in later years but both avoid each other.","Grizzly bear\n\nDiet","Grizzly bear\n\nAlthough grizzlies are of the order Carnivora and have the digestive system of carnivores, they are normally omnivores: their diets consist of both plants and animals. They have been known to prey on large mammals, when available, such as moose, elk, caribou, white-tailed deer, mule deer, bighorn sheep, bison, and even black bears; though they are more likely to take calves and injured individuals rather than healthy adults. Grizzly bears feed on fish such as salmon, trout, and bass, and those with access to a more protein-enriched diet in coastal areas potentially grow larger than inland individuals. Grizzly bears also readily scavenge food or carrion left behind by other animals. Grizzly bears will also eat birds and their eggs, and gather in large numbers at fishing sites to feed on spawning salmon. They frequently prey on baby deer left in the grass, and occasionally they raid the nests of raptors such as bald eagles.","Grizzly bear\n\nCanadian or Alaskan grizzlies are larger than those that reside in the American Rocky Mountains. This is due, in part, to the richness of their diets. In Yellowstone National Park in the United States, the grizzly bear's diet consists mostly of whitebark pine nuts, tubers, grasses, various rodents, army cutworm moths, and scavenged carcasses. None of these, however, match the fat content of the salmon available in Alaska and British Columbia. With the high fat content of salmon, it is not uncommon to encounter grizzlies in Alaska weighing 1200 lb. Grizzlies in Alaska supplement their diet of salmon and clams with sedge grass and berries. In areas where salmon are forced to leap waterfalls, grizzlies gather at the base of the falls to feed on and catch the fish. Salmon are at a disadvantage when they leap waterfalls because they cluster together at their bases and are therefore easier targets for the grizzlies. Grizzly bears are well-documented catching leaping salmon in their mouths at Brooks Falls in Katmai National Park and Preserve in Alaska. They are also very experienced in chasing the fish around and pinning them with their claws.","Grizzly bear\n\nAt such sites such as Brooks Falls and McNeil Falls in Alaska, big male grizzlies fight regularly for the best fishing spots. Grizzly bears along the coast also forage for razor clams, and frequently dig into the sand to seek them. During the spring and fall, directly before and after the salmon runs, berries and grass make up the mainstay of the diets of coastal grizzlies.","Grizzly bear\n\nInland grizzlies may eat fish too, most notably in Yellowstone grizzlies eating Yellowstone cutthroat trout. The relationship with cutthroat trout and grizzlies is unique because it is the only example where Rocky Mountain grizzlies feed on spawning salmonid fish. However, grizzly bears themselves and invasive lake trout threaten the survival of the trout population and there is a slight chance that the trout will be eliminated.","Grizzly bear\n\nMeat, as already described, is an important part of a grizzly's diet. Grizzly bears occasionally prey on small mammals, such as marmots, ground squirrels, lemmings, and voles. The most famous example of such predation is in Denali National Park and Preserve, where grizzlies chase, pounce on, and dig up Arctic ground squirrels to eat. In some areas, grizzly bears prey on hoary marmots, overturning rocks to reach them, and in some cases preying on them when they are in hibernation. Larger prey includes bison and moose, which are sometimes taken by bears in Yellowstone National Park. Because bison and moose are dangerous prey, grizzlies usually use cover to stalk them and/or pick off weak individuals or calves. Grizzlies in Alaska also regularly prey on moose calves, which in Denali National Park may be their main source of meat. In fact, grizzly bears are such important predators of moose and elk calves in Alaska and in Yellowstone, that they may kill as many as 51 percent of elk or moose calves born that year. Grizzly bears have also been blamed in the decline of elk in Yellowstone National Park when the actual predators were thought to be gray wolves.","Grizzly bear\n\nIn northern Alaska, grizzlies are a significant predator of caribou, mostly taking sick or old individuals or calves. Several studies show that grizzly bears may follow the caribou herds year-round in order to maintain their food supply. In northern Alaska, grizzly bears often encounter muskox. Despite the fact that muskox do not usually occur in grizzly habitat and that they are bigger and more powerful than caribou, predation on muskox by grizzlies has been recorded.","Grizzly bear\n\nGrizzly bears along the Alaskan coast also scavenge on dead or washed up whales. Usually such incidents involve only one or two grizzlies at a carcass, but up to ten large males have been seen at a time eating a dead humpback whale. Dead seals and sea lions are also consumed.","Grizzly bear\n\nAlthough the diets of grizzly bears vary extensively based on seasonal and regional changes, plants make up a large portion of them, with some estimates as high as 80–90%. Various berries constitute an important food source when they are available. These can include blueberries, blackberries (Rubus fruticosus), salmon berries (Rubus spectabilis), cranberries (Vaccinium oxycoccos), buffalo berries (Shepherdia argentea), soapberries (Shepherdia canadensis), and huckleberries (Vaccinium parvifolium), depending on the environment. Insects such as ladybugs, ants, and bees are eaten if they are available in large quantities. In Yellowstone National Park, grizzly bears may obtain half of their yearly caloric needs by feeding on miller moths that congregate on mountain slopes. When food is abundant, grizzly bears will feed in groups. For example, many grizzly bears will visit meadows right after an avalanche or glacier slide. This is due to an influx of legumes, such as Hedysarum, which the grizzlies consume in massive amounts. When food sources become scarcer, however, they separate once again.","Grizzly bear\n\nInterspecific competition","Grizzly bear\n\nThe removal of wolves and the grizzly bear in California may have greatly reduced the abundance of the endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox. With the reintroduction of gray wolves to Yellowstone, many visitors have witnessed a once common struggle between a keystone species, the grizzly bear, and its historic rival, the gray wolf. The interactions of grizzly bears with the wolves of Yellowstone have been under considerable study. Typically, the conflict will be in the defense of young or over a carcass, which is commonly an elk killed by wolves. The grizzly bear uses its keen sense of smell to locate the kill. As the wolves and grizzly compete for the kill, one wolf may try to distract the bear while the others feed. The bear then may retaliate by chasing the wolves. If the wolves become aggressive with the bear, it is normally in the form of quick nips at its hind legs. Thus, the bear will sit down and use its ability to protect itself in a full circle. Rarely do interactions such as these end in death or serious injury to either animal.","Grizzly bear\n\nOne carcass simply is not usually worth the risk to the wolves (if the bear has the upper hand due to strength and size) or to the bear (if the wolves are too numerous or persistent). While wolves usually dominate grizzly bears during interactions at wolf dens, both grizzly and black bears have been reported killing wolves and their cubs at wolf dens even when the latter was in defense mode.","Grizzly bear\n\nBlack bears generally stay out of grizzly territory, but grizzlies may occasionally enter black bear terrain to obtain food sources both bears enjoy, such as pine nuts, acorns, mushrooms, and berries. When a black bear sees a grizzly coming, it either turns tail and runs or climbs a tree. Black bears are not strong competition for prey because they have a more herbivorous diet. Confrontations are rare because of the differences in size, habitats, and diets of the bear species. When this happens, it is usually with the grizzly being the aggressor. The black bear will only fight when it is a smaller grizzly such as a yearling or when the black bear has no other choice but to defend itself. There is at least one confirmed observation of a grizzly bear digging out, killing and eating a black bear when the latter was in hibernation.","Grizzly bear\n\nThe segregation of black bear and grizzly bear populations is possibly due to competitive exclusion. In certain areas, grizzly bears outcompete black bears for the same resources. For example, many Pacific coastal islands off British Columbia and Alaska support either the black bear or the grizzly, but rarely both. In regions where both species coexist, they are divided by landscape gradients such as age of forest, elevation and openness of land. Grizzly bears tend to favor old forests with high productivity, higher elevations and more open habitats compared with black bears.","Grizzly bear\n\nThe relationship between grizzly bears and other predators is mostly one-sided; grizzly bears will approach feeding predators to steal their kill. In general, the other species will leave the carcasses for the bear to avoid competition or predation. Any parts of the carcass left uneaten are scavenged by smaller animals. \nCougars generally give the bears a wide berth. Grizzlies have less competition with cougars than with other predators, such as coyotes, wolves, and other bears. When a grizzly descends on a cougar feeding on its kill, the cougar usually gives way to the bear. When a cougar does stand its ground, it will use its superior agility and its claws to harass the bear, yet stay out of its reach until one of them gives up. Grizzly bears occasionally kill cougars in disputes over kills. There have been several accounts, primarily from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, of cougars and grizzly bears killing each other in fights to the death.","Grizzly bear\n\nCoyotes, foxes, and wolverines are generally regarded as pests to the grizzlies rather than competition, though they may compete for smaller prey, such as ground squirrels and rabbits. All three will try to scavenge whatever they can from the bears. Wolverines are aggressive enough to occasionally persist until the bear finishes eating, leaving more than normal scraps for the smaller animal. Packs of coyotes have also displaced grizzly bears in disputes over kills.","Grizzly bear\n\nEcological role","Grizzly bear\n\nThe grizzly bear has several relationships with its ecosystem. One such relationship is a mutualistic relationship with fleshy-fruit bearing plants. After the grizzly consumes the fruit, the seeds are excreted and thereby dispersed in a germinable condition. Some studies have shown germination success is indeed increased as a result of seeds being deposited along with nutrients in feces. This makes grizzly bears important seed distributors in their habitats.","Grizzly bear\n\nWhile foraging for tree roots, plant bulbs, or ground squirrels, bears stir up the soil. This process not only helps grizzlies access their food, but also increases species richness in alpine ecosystems. An area that contains both bear digs and undisturbed land has greater plant diversity than an area that contains just undisturbed land. Along with increasing species richness, soil disturbance causes nitrogen to be dug up from lower soil layers, and makes nitrogen more readily available in the environment. An area that has been dug by the grizzly bear has significantly more nitrogen than an undisturbed area.","Grizzly bear\n\nNitrogen cycling is not only facilitated by grizzlies digging for food, it is also accomplished via their habit of carrying salmon carcasses into surrounding forests. It has been found that spruce tree (Picea glauca) foliage within 500 m of the stream where the salmon have been obtained contains nitrogen originating from salmon on which the bears preyed. These nitrogen influxes to the forest are directly related to the presence of grizzly bears and salmon.","Grizzly bear\n\nGrizzlies directly regulate prey populations and also help prevent overgrazing in forests by controlling the populations of other species in the food chain. An experiment in Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming in the United States showed removal of wolves and grizzly bears caused populations of their herbivorous prey to increase. This, in turn, changed the structure and density of plants in the area, which decreased the population sizes of migratory birds. This provides evidence grizzly bears represent a keystone predator, having a major influence on the entire ecosystem they inhabit.","Grizzly bear\n\nWhen grizzly bears fish for salmon along the coasts of Alaska and British Columbia, they often only eat the skin, brain and roe of the fish. In doing so, they provide a food source for gulls, ravens, and foxes, all or which eat salmon as well; this benefits both the bear and the smaller predators.","Grizzly bear\n\nConflicts with humans","Grizzly bear\n\nGrizzlies are considered more aggressive compared to black bears when defending themselves and their offspring. Unlike the smaller black bears, adult grizzlies do not climb trees well and respond to danger by standing their ground and warding off their attackers. Mothers defending cubs are the most prone to attacking, and are responsible for 70% of humans killed by grizzlies.","Grizzly bear\n\nGrizzly bears normally avoid contact with people. In spite of their obvious physical advantage they rarely actively hunt humans. Most grizzly bear attacks result from a bear that has been surprised at very close range, especially if it has a supply of food to protect, or female grizzlies protecting their offspring. A bear killing a human in a national park may be killed to prevent its attacking again.","Grizzly bear\n\nExacerbating this is the fact that intensive human use of grizzly habitat coincides with the seasonal movement of grizzly bears e.g. in the fall, when grizzly bears congregate near streams to feed on salmon when anglers are also intensively using the river.","Grizzly bear\n\nIncreased human–bear interaction has created \"problem bears\": bears adapted to human activities or habitat. Aversive conditioning using rubber bullets, foul-tasting chemicals, or acoustic deterrent devices attempt to condition bears to associate humans with unpleasantness, but is ineffectual when bears have already learned to positively associate humans with food. Such bears are translocated or killed because they pose a threat to humans. The B.C. government kills approximately 50 problem bears each year and overall spends more than one million dollars annually to address bear complaints, relocate bears and kill them.","Grizzly bear\n\nBear awareness programs have been developed by numerous towns in British Columbia, Canada, to help prevent conflicts with both black and grizzly bears. The main premise of these programs is to teach humans to manage foods that attract bears. Keeping garbage securely stored, harvesting fruit when ripe, securing livestock behind electric fences, and storing pet food indoors are all measures promoted by bear aware programs. The fact that grizzly bears are less numerous and even protected in some areas, means that preventing conflict with grizzlies is especially important. Revelstoke, British Columbia is a community that demonstrates the success of this approach. In the ten years preceding the development of a community education program in Revelstoke, 16 grizzlies were destroyed and a further 107 were relocated away from the town. An education program run by Revelstoke Bear Aware was put in place in 1996. Since the program began just 4 grizzlies have been destroyed and 5 have been relocated.","Grizzly bear\n\nFor back-country campers, hanging food between trees at a height unreachable to bears is a common procedure, although some grizzlies can climb and reach hanging food in other ways. An alternative to hanging food is to use a bear canister.","Grizzly bear\n\nTraveling in groups of six or more can significantly reduce the chance of bear-related injuries while hiking in bear country.","Grizzly bear\n\nGrizzly bears are especially dangerous because of the force of their bite, which has been measured at over 8 megapascals (1160 psi). It has been estimated that a bite from a grizzly could even crush a bowling ball.","Grizzly bear\n\nProtection","Grizzly bear\n\nThe grizzly bear is listed as threatened in the contiguous United States and endangered in parts of Canada. In May 2002, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed the Prairie population (Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba range) of grizzly bears as extirpated in Canada. As of 2002, grizzly bears were listed as special concern under the COSEWIC registry and considered threatened under the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.","Grizzly bear\n\nWithin the United States, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service concentrates its effort to restore grizzly bears in six recovery areas. These are Northern Continental Divide (Montana), Yellowstone (Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho), Cabinet-Yaak (Montana and Idaho), Selway-Bitterroot (Montana and Idaho), Selkirk (Idaho and Washington), and North Cascades (Washington). The grizzly population in these areas is estimated at 750 in the Northern Continental Divide, 550 in Yellowstone, 40 in the Yaak portion of the Cabinet-Yaak, and 15 in the Cabinet portion (in northwestern Montana), 105 in Selkirk region of Idaho, 10–20 in the North Cascades, and none currently in Selway-Bitterroots, although there have been sightings. These are estimates because bears move in and out of these areas, and it is therefore impossible to conduct a precise count. In the recovery areas that adjoin Canada, bears also move back and forth across the international boundary.","Grizzly bear\n\nThe U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service claims the Cabinet-Yaak and Selkirk areas are linked through British Columbia, a claim that is disputed. U.S. and Canadian national parks, such as Banff National Park, Yellowstone and Grand Teton, and Theodore Roosevelt National Park are subject to laws and regulations designed to protect the bears.","Grizzly bear\n\nOn 9 January 2006, the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to remove Yellowstone grizzlies from the list of threatened and protected species. In March 2007, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service \"de-listed\" the population, effectively removing Endangered Species Act protections for grizzlies in the Yellowstone National Park area. Several environmental organizations, including the NRDC, brought a lawsuit against the federal government to relist the grizzly bear. On 22 September 2009, U.S. District Judge Donald W. Molloy reinstated protection due to the decline of whitebark pine tree, whose nuts are an important source of food for the bears. In 1996 the International Union for Conservation of Nature moved the grizzly bear to the lower risk \"Least Concern\" status on the IUCN Red List.","Grizzly bear\n\nFarther north, in Alberta, Canada, intense DNA hair-snagging studies in 2000 showed the grizzly population to be increasing faster than what it was formerly believed to be, and Alberta Sustainable Resource Development calculated a population of 841 bears. In 2002, the Endangered Species Conservation Committee recommended that the Alberta grizzly bear population be designated as threatened due to recent estimates of grizzly bear mortality rates that indicated the population was in decline. A recovery plan released by the provincial government in March 2008 indicated the grizzly population is lower than previously believed. In 2010, the provincial government formally listed its population of about 700 grizzlies as \"Threatened\".","Grizzly bear\n\nEnvironment Canada consider the grizzly bear to a \"special concern\" species, as it is particularly sensitive to human activities and natural threats. In Alberta and British Columbia, the species is considered to be at risk. In 2008, it was estimated there were 16,014 grizzly bears in the British Columbia population, which was lower than previously estimated due to refinements in the population model.","Grizzly bear\n\nThe Mexican grizzly bear (Ursus arctos nelsoni) is extinct.","Grizzly bear\n\nConservation efforts","Grizzly bear\n\nConservation efforts have become an increasingly vital investment over recent decades, as population numbers have dramatically declined. Establishment of parks and protected areas are one of the main focuses currently being tackled to help reestablish the low grizzly bear population in British Columbia. One example of these efforts is the Khutzeymateen Grizzly Bear Sanctuary located along the north coast of British Columbia; at in size, it is composed of key habitat for this threatened species. Regulations such as limited public access, as well as a strict no hunting policy, have enabled this location to be a safe haven for local grizzlies in the area. When choosing the location of a park focused on grizzly bear conservation, factors such as habitat quality and connectivity to other habitat patches are considered.","Grizzly bear\n\nThe Refuge for Endangered Wildlife located on Grouse Mountain in Vancouver is an example of a different type of conservation effort for the diminishing grizzly bear population. The refuge is a five-acre terrain which has functioned as a home for two orphaned grizzly bears since 2001. The purpose of this refuge is to provide awareness and education to the public about grizzly bears, as well as providing an area for research and observation of this secluded species.","Grizzly bear\n\nAnother factor currently being taken into consideration when designing conservation plans for future generations are anthropogenic barriers in the form of urban development and roads. These elements are acting as obstacles, causing fragmentation of the remaining grizzly bear population habitat and prevention of gene flow between subpopulations (for example, Banff National Park). This, in turn, is creating a decline in genetic diversity, and therefore the overall fitness of the general population is lowered. In light of these issues, conservation plans often include migration corridors by way of long strips of \"park forest\" to connect less developed areas, or by way of tunnels and overpasses over busy roads. Using GPS collar tracking, scientists can study whether or not these efforts are actually making a positive contribution towards resolving the problem. To date, most corridors are found to be infrequently used, and thus genetic isolation is currently occurring, which can result in inbreeding and therefore an increased frequency of deleterious genes through genetic drift. Current data suggest female grizzly bears are disproportionately less likely than males to use these corridors, which can prevent mate access and decrease the number of offspring.","Grizzly bear\n\nIn the United States, national efforts have been made since 1982 for the recovery plan of grizzly bears. A lot of the efforts made have been through different organizations efforts to educate the public on grizzly bear safety, habits of grizzly bears and different ways to reduce human-bear conflict. The Interagency Grizzly Bear Recovery Committee is one of many organizations committed to the recovery of grizzly bears in the lower 48 states. There are five recovery zones for grizzly bears in the lower 48 states including the North Cascades ecosystem in Washington state. The National Park Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife initiated the process of an environmental impact statement that started in the fall of 2014 to begin the recovery process of grizzly bears to the North Cascades region. A final plan and environmental impact statement is expected to be released in the spring of 2017 and a record of decision in the summer of 2017.","Grizzly bear\n\nIn early March 2016 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to withdraw Endangered Species Act protections from grizzly bears in and around Yellowstone National Park, as the current estimated population of 700 now exceeds the stated recovery plan goal of 500 individuals in the region.","Grizzly bear\n\nBear-watching","Grizzly bear\n\nIn the past 20 years in Alaska, ecotourism has boomed. While many people come to Alaska to bear-hunt, the majority come to watch the bears and observe their habits. Some of the best bear viewing in the world occurs on coastal areas of the Alaska Peninsula, including in [http://www.nps.gov/lacl/planyourvisit/wildlife-viewing.htm Lake Clark National Park and Preserve], Katmai National Park and Preserve, and the McNeil River State Game Sanctuary and Refuge. Here bears gather in large numbers to feast on concentrated food sources, including sedges in the salt marshes, clams in the nearby tidal flats, salmon in the estuary streams, and berries on the neighboring hillsides.","Grizzly bear\n\nKatmai National Park and Preserve is one of the best spots to view brown bears. The bear population in Katmai is estimated at a healthy 2100. The park is located on the Alaskan Peninsula about 300 mi southwest of the city of Anchorage. At Brooks Camp, a famous site exists where grizzlies can be seen catching salmon from atop a platform—you can even view this online from a cam. In coastal areas of the park, such as Hallo Bay, Geographic Harbor, Swikshak Lagoon, American Creek, Big River, Kamishak River, Savonoski River, Moraine Creek, Funnel Creek, Battle Creek, Nantuk Creek, Kukak Bay, and Kaflia Bay you can often watch bears fishing alongside wolves, eagles, and river otters. Coastal areas host the highest population densities year round because there is a larger variety of food sources available, but Brooks Camp hosts the highest population (100 bears).","Grizzly bear\n\nThe McNeil River State Game Sanctuary and Refuge, on the McNeil River, is home to the greatest concentration of brown bears in the world. An estimated 144 individual bears have been identified at the falls in a single summer with as many as 74 at one time; 60 or more bears at the falls is a frequent sight, and it is not uncommon to see 100 bears at the falls throughout a single day. The McNeil River State Game Refuge, containing Chenik Lake and a smaller number of grizzly bears, has been closed to grizzly hunting since 1995. All of the Katmai-McNeil area is closed to hunting except for Katmai National Preserve, where regulated legal hunting takes place. In all, the Katmai-McNeil area has an estimated 2500 grizzly bears.","Grizzly bear\n\nAdmiralty Island, in southeast Alaska, was known to early natives as Xootsnoowú, meaning \"fortress of bears,\" and is home to the densest grizzly population in North America. An estimated 1600 grizzlies live on the island, which itself is only 90 mi long. The best place to view grizzly bears in the island is probably Pack Creek, in the Stan Price State Wildlife Sanctuary. 20 to 30 grizzlies can be observed at the creek at one time and like Brooks Camp, visitors can watch bears from an above platform. Kodiak Island, hence its name, is another good place to view bears. An estimated 3500 Kodiak grizzly bears inhabit the island, 2300 of these in the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge. The O'Malley River is considered the best place on Kodiak Island to view grizzly bears."],"string":"[\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nThe grizzly bear (Ursus arctos ssp.) less commonly called the silvertip bear, is any North American morphological form or subspecies of brown bear, including the mainland grizzly (Ursus arctos horribilis), Kodiak bear (U. a. middendorffi), peninsular grizzly (U. a. gyas), and the recently extinct California grizzly (U. a. californicus†)Schwartz, C. C., Miller, S. D. and Haroldson, M. A. (2003). [http://www.gsseser.com/RMAteachers/Grizzly_Chapter.pdf \\\"Grizzly bear\\\"]. pp. 556–586 in G. A. Feldhamer, B. C. Thompson and J. A. Chapman, eds. Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Conservation. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. and Mexican grizzly bear (U. a. nelsoni†). Scientists do not use the name grizzly bear but call it the North American brown bear. (See brown bear for a discussion of brown bears outside of North America). It should not be confused with the black grizzly or Ussuri brown bear (U. a. lasiotus) which is another giant brown bear inhabiting Russia, Northern China, and Korea.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nClassification\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nMeaning of \\\"grizzly\\\"\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nLewis and Clark named it to be grisley or \\\"grizzly\\\", which could have meant \\\"grizzled\\\"; that is, golden and grey tips of the hair or \\\"fear-inspiring\\\". Nonetheless, after careful study, naturalist George Ord formally classified it in 1815 – not for its hair, but for its character – as Ursus horribilis (\\\"terrifying bear\\\").\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nEvolution and genetics\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nGrizzly phylogenetics\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nClassification has been revised along genetic lines. There are two morphological forms of Ursus arctos, the grizzly and the coastal brown bears, but these morphological forms do not have distinct mtDNA lineages.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nUrsus arctos - the brown bear\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nBrown bears originated in Eurasia and traveled to North America approximately 50,000 years ago, spreading into the contiguous United States about 13,000 years ago.\\nIn the 19th century, the grizzly was classified as 86 distinct species. However, by 1928 only seven grizzlies remained and by 1953 only one species remained globally. However, modern genetic testing reveals the grizzly to be a subspecies of the brown bear (Ursus arctos). Rausch found that North America has but one species of grizzly. Therefore, everywhere it is the \\\"brown bear\\\"; in North America, it is the \\\"grizzly\\\", but these are all the same species, Ursus arctos.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nUrsus arctos subspecies in North America\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nIn 1963 Rausch reduced the number of North American subspecies to one, Ursus arctos middendorffi\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nFurther testing of Y-chromosomes is required to yield an accurate new taxonomy with different subspecies.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nCoastal grizzlies, often referred to by the popular but geographically redundant synonym of \\\"brown bear\\\" or \\\"Alaskan brown bear\\\" are larger and darker than inland grizzlies, which is why they, too, were considered a different species from grizzlies. Kodiak grizzly bears were also at one time considered distinct. Therefore, at one time there were five different \\\"species\\\" of brown bear, including three in North America.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nAppearance\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nMost adult female grizzlies weigh 130 -, while adult males weigh on average 180 -. Average total length in this subspecies is 198 cm, with an average shoulder height of 102 cm and hindfoot length of 28 cm. Newborn bears may weigh less than 500 g. In the Yukon River area, mature female grizzlies can weigh as little as 100 kg. One study found that the average weight for an inland male grizzly was around 272 kilograms (600 lb) and the average weight for a coastal male was around 408 kilograms (900 lb). For a female, these average weights would be 136 kilograms (300 lb) inland and 227 kilograms (500 lb) coastal, respectively. On the other hand, an occasional huge male grizzly has been recorded which greatly exceeds ordinary size, with weights reported up to 680 kg. A large coastal male of this size may stand up to 3 m tall on its hind legs and be up to at the shoulder.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nAlthough variable in color from blond to nearly black, grizzly bear fur is typically brown with darker legs and commonly white or blond tipped fur on the flank and back. A pronounced hump appears on their shoulders; the hump is a good way to distinguish a grizzly bear from a black bear, as black bears do not have this hump. Aside from the distinguishing hump a grizzly bear can be identified by a \\\"dished in\\\" profile of their face with short, rounded ears, whereas a black bear has a straight face profile and longer ears. A grizzly bear can also be identified by its rump, which is lower than its shoulders, while a black bear's rump is higher. A grizzly bear's front claws measure about 2-4 inches in length and a black bear's measure about 1-2 inches in length.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nRange and population\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nBrown bears are found in Asia, Europe, and North America, giving them the widest ranges of bear species. They also inhabited North Africa and the Middle East. In North America, grizzly bears previously ranged from Alaska down to Mexico and as far east as the western shores of Hudson Bay; the species is now found in Alaska, south through much of western Canada, and into portions of the northwestern United States (including Idaho, Montana, Washington, and Wyoming), extending as far south as Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks. It is most commonly found in Canada. In Canada, there are approximately 25,000 grizzly bears occupying British Columbia, Alberta, the tundra areas of the Ungava Peninsula and the northern tip of Labrador-Quebec, the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and the northern part of Manitoba. In British Columbia, grizzly bears inhabit approximately 90% of their original territory. There were approximately 25,000 grizzly bears in British Columbia when the European settlers arrived. However, population size has since significantly decreased due to hunting and habitat loss. In 2003, researchers from the University of Alberta spotted a grizzly on Melville Island in the high Arctic, which is the most northerly sighting ever documented.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nIn 2008, it was estimated there were 16,014 grizzly bears. Population estimates for British Columbia are based on hair-snagging, DNA-based inventories, mark-and-recapture, and a refined multiple regression model. A revised Grizzly bear count in 2012 for British Columbia was 15,075.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nThe Alaskan population of 30,000 individuals is the highest population of any province/state in North America. Populations in Alaska are densest along the coast, where food supplies such as salmon are more abundant. The Admiralty Island National Monument protects the densest population — 1,600 bears on a 1,600-square mile island.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nContinental United States\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nOnly about 1,500 grizzlies are left in the lower 48 states of the US. Of these, about 800 live in Montana. About 600 more live in Wyoming, in the Yellowstone-Teton area. There are an estimated 70–100 grizzly bears living in northern and eastern Idaho. Its original range included much of the Great Plains and the southwestern states, but it has been extirpated in most of those areas. Combining Canada and the United States, grizzly bears inhabit approximately half the area of their historical range.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nIn September 2007, a hunter produced evidence of one bear in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness ecosystem, by killing a male grizzly bear there. In the North Cascades ecosystem of northern Washington, grizzly bear populations are estimated to be less than 20 bears and only one sighting of a grizzly bear in the last 10 years has been recorded. There has been no confirmed sighting of a grizzly in Colorado since 1979.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nOther provinces and the United States may use a combination of methods for population estimates. Therefore, it is difficult to say precisely what methods were used to produce total population estimates for Canada and North America, as they were likely developed from a variety of studies. The grizzly bear currently has legal protection in Mexico, European countries, some areas of Canada and in the United States. However, it is expected that repopulating its former range will be a slow process, due to a variety of reasons including the bear's slow reproductive habits and the effects of reintroducing such a large animal to areas prized for agriculture and livestock. Competition with other predators and predation on cubs are other possible limiting factors for grizzly bear recovery, though grizzly bears also benefit from scavenged carcasses from predators as an easy food source when other food sources decline. There are currently about 55,000 wild grizzly bears total located throughout North America, most of which reside in Alaska.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nLongevity\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nThe grizzly bear is, by nature, a long-living animal. Females live longer than males due to their less dangerous life, avoiding the seasonal breeding fights males engage in. The average lifespan for a male is estimated at 22 years, with that of a female being slightly longer at 26. The oldest wild inland grizzly was 34 years old in Alaska; the oldest coastal bear was 39. Captive grizzlies have lived as long as 44 years, but most grizzlies die in their first few years of life from predation or hunting.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nHibernation\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nGrizzly bears hibernate for 5–7 months each year except where the climate is warm, as the California grizzly did not hibernate. During this time, female grizzly bears give birth to their offspring, who then consume milk from their mother and gain strength for the remainder of the hibernation period. To prepare for hibernation, grizzlies must prepare a den, and consume an immense amount of food as they do not eat during hibernation. Grizzly bears do not defecate or urinate throughout the entire hibernation period. The male grizzly bear's hibernation ends in early to mid-March, while females emerge in April or early May.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nIn preparation for winter, bears can gain approximately 180 kg, during a period of hyperphagia, before going into hibernation. The bear often waits for a substantial snowstorm before it enters its den: such behavior lessens the chances predators will find the den. The dens are typically at elevations above 1800 m on north-facing slopes. There is some debate amongst professionals as to whether grizzly bears technically hibernate: much of this debate revolves around body temperature and the ability of the bears to move around during hibernation on occasion. Grizzly bears can \\\"partially\\\" recycle their body wastes during this period. Although inland or Rocky Mountain grizzlies spend nearly half of their life in dens, coastal grizzlies with better access to food sources spend less time in dens. In some areas where food is very plentiful year round, grizzly bears skip hibernation altogether.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nReproduction\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nExcept for females with cubs, grizzlies are normally solitary, active animals, but in coastal areas, grizzlies gather around streams, lakes, rivers, and ponds during the salmon spawn. Every other year, females (sows) produce one to four young (usually two) which are small and weigh only about 500 g at birth. A sow is protective of her offspring and will attack if she thinks she or her cubs are threatened.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nGrizzly bears have one of the lowest reproductive rates of all terrestrial mammals in North America. This is due to numerous ecological factors. Grizzly bears do not reach sexual maturity until they are at least five years old. Once mated with a male in the summer, the female delays embryo implantation until hibernation, during which miscarriage can occur if the female does not receive the proper nutrients and caloric intake. On average, females produce two cubs in a litter and the mother cares for the cubs for up to two years, during which the mother will not mate. Once the young leave or are killed, females may not produce another litter for three or more years, depending on environmental conditions. Male grizzly bears have large territories, up to 4000 km2, making finding a female scent difficult in such low population densities.\\nPopulation fragmentation of grizzlies may destabilize the population from inbreeding depression. The gestation period for grizzly bears is approximately 180–250 days.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nLitter size is between one and four cubs, averaging twins or triplets. Cubs are always born in the mother's winter den while she is in hibernation. Female grizzlies are fiercely protective of their cubs, being able to fend off predators as large as male bears bigger than they are in defense of the cubs. Cubs feed entirely on their mother's milk until summer comes, after which they still drink milk but begin to eat solid foods. Cubs gain weight rapidly during their time with the mother — their weight will have ballooned from in the two years spent with the mother. Mothers may see their cubs in later years but both avoid each other.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nDiet\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nAlthough grizzlies are of the order Carnivora and have the digestive system of carnivores, they are normally omnivores: their diets consist of both plants and animals. They have been known to prey on large mammals, when available, such as moose, elk, caribou, white-tailed deer, mule deer, bighorn sheep, bison, and even black bears; though they are more likely to take calves and injured individuals rather than healthy adults. Grizzly bears feed on fish such as salmon, trout, and bass, and those with access to a more protein-enriched diet in coastal areas potentially grow larger than inland individuals. Grizzly bears also readily scavenge food or carrion left behind by other animals. Grizzly bears will also eat birds and their eggs, and gather in large numbers at fishing sites to feed on spawning salmon. They frequently prey on baby deer left in the grass, and occasionally they raid the nests of raptors such as bald eagles.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nCanadian or Alaskan grizzlies are larger than those that reside in the American Rocky Mountains. This is due, in part, to the richness of their diets. In Yellowstone National Park in the United States, the grizzly bear's diet consists mostly of whitebark pine nuts, tubers, grasses, various rodents, army cutworm moths, and scavenged carcasses. None of these, however, match the fat content of the salmon available in Alaska and British Columbia. With the high fat content of salmon, it is not uncommon to encounter grizzlies in Alaska weighing 1200 lb. Grizzlies in Alaska supplement their diet of salmon and clams with sedge grass and berries. In areas where salmon are forced to leap waterfalls, grizzlies gather at the base of the falls to feed on and catch the fish. Salmon are at a disadvantage when they leap waterfalls because they cluster together at their bases and are therefore easier targets for the grizzlies. Grizzly bears are well-documented catching leaping salmon in their mouths at Brooks Falls in Katmai National Park and Preserve in Alaska. They are also very experienced in chasing the fish around and pinning them with their claws.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nAt such sites such as Brooks Falls and McNeil Falls in Alaska, big male grizzlies fight regularly for the best fishing spots. Grizzly bears along the coast also forage for razor clams, and frequently dig into the sand to seek them. During the spring and fall, directly before and after the salmon runs, berries and grass make up the mainstay of the diets of coastal grizzlies.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nInland grizzlies may eat fish too, most notably in Yellowstone grizzlies eating Yellowstone cutthroat trout. The relationship with cutthroat trout and grizzlies is unique because it is the only example where Rocky Mountain grizzlies feed on spawning salmonid fish. However, grizzly bears themselves and invasive lake trout threaten the survival of the trout population and there is a slight chance that the trout will be eliminated.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nMeat, as already described, is an important part of a grizzly's diet. Grizzly bears occasionally prey on small mammals, such as marmots, ground squirrels, lemmings, and voles. The most famous example of such predation is in Denali National Park and Preserve, where grizzlies chase, pounce on, and dig up Arctic ground squirrels to eat. In some areas, grizzly bears prey on hoary marmots, overturning rocks to reach them, and in some cases preying on them when they are in hibernation. Larger prey includes bison and moose, which are sometimes taken by bears in Yellowstone National Park. Because bison and moose are dangerous prey, grizzlies usually use cover to stalk them and/or pick off weak individuals or calves. Grizzlies in Alaska also regularly prey on moose calves, which in Denali National Park may be their main source of meat. In fact, grizzly bears are such important predators of moose and elk calves in Alaska and in Yellowstone, that they may kill as many as 51 percent of elk or moose calves born that year. Grizzly bears have also been blamed in the decline of elk in Yellowstone National Park when the actual predators were thought to be gray wolves.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nIn northern Alaska, grizzlies are a significant predator of caribou, mostly taking sick or old individuals or calves. Several studies show that grizzly bears may follow the caribou herds year-round in order to maintain their food supply. In northern Alaska, grizzly bears often encounter muskox. Despite the fact that muskox do not usually occur in grizzly habitat and that they are bigger and more powerful than caribou, predation on muskox by grizzlies has been recorded.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nGrizzly bears along the Alaskan coast also scavenge on dead or washed up whales. Usually such incidents involve only one or two grizzlies at a carcass, but up to ten large males have been seen at a time eating a dead humpback whale. Dead seals and sea lions are also consumed.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nAlthough the diets of grizzly bears vary extensively based on seasonal and regional changes, plants make up a large portion of them, with some estimates as high as 80–90%. Various berries constitute an important food source when they are available. These can include blueberries, blackberries (Rubus fruticosus), salmon berries (Rubus spectabilis), cranberries (Vaccinium oxycoccos), buffalo berries (Shepherdia argentea), soapberries (Shepherdia canadensis), and huckleberries (Vaccinium parvifolium), depending on the environment. Insects such as ladybugs, ants, and bees are eaten if they are available in large quantities. In Yellowstone National Park, grizzly bears may obtain half of their yearly caloric needs by feeding on miller moths that congregate on mountain slopes. When food is abundant, grizzly bears will feed in groups. For example, many grizzly bears will visit meadows right after an avalanche or glacier slide. This is due to an influx of legumes, such as Hedysarum, which the grizzlies consume in massive amounts. When food sources become scarcer, however, they separate once again.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nInterspecific competition\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nThe removal of wolves and the grizzly bear in California may have greatly reduced the abundance of the endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox. With the reintroduction of gray wolves to Yellowstone, many visitors have witnessed a once common struggle between a keystone species, the grizzly bear, and its historic rival, the gray wolf. The interactions of grizzly bears with the wolves of Yellowstone have been under considerable study. Typically, the conflict will be in the defense of young or over a carcass, which is commonly an elk killed by wolves. The grizzly bear uses its keen sense of smell to locate the kill. As the wolves and grizzly compete for the kill, one wolf may try to distract the bear while the others feed. The bear then may retaliate by chasing the wolves. If the wolves become aggressive with the bear, it is normally in the form of quick nips at its hind legs. Thus, the bear will sit down and use its ability to protect itself in a full circle. Rarely do interactions such as these end in death or serious injury to either animal.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nOne carcass simply is not usually worth the risk to the wolves (if the bear has the upper hand due to strength and size) or to the bear (if the wolves are too numerous or persistent). While wolves usually dominate grizzly bears during interactions at wolf dens, both grizzly and black bears have been reported killing wolves and their cubs at wolf dens even when the latter was in defense mode.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nBlack bears generally stay out of grizzly territory, but grizzlies may occasionally enter black bear terrain to obtain food sources both bears enjoy, such as pine nuts, acorns, mushrooms, and berries. When a black bear sees a grizzly coming, it either turns tail and runs or climbs a tree. Black bears are not strong competition for prey because they have a more herbivorous diet. Confrontations are rare because of the differences in size, habitats, and diets of the bear species. When this happens, it is usually with the grizzly being the aggressor. The black bear will only fight when it is a smaller grizzly such as a yearling or when the black bear has no other choice but to defend itself. There is at least one confirmed observation of a grizzly bear digging out, killing and eating a black bear when the latter was in hibernation.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nThe segregation of black bear and grizzly bear populations is possibly due to competitive exclusion. In certain areas, grizzly bears outcompete black bears for the same resources. For example, many Pacific coastal islands off British Columbia and Alaska support either the black bear or the grizzly, but rarely both. In regions where both species coexist, they are divided by landscape gradients such as age of forest, elevation and openness of land. Grizzly bears tend to favor old forests with high productivity, higher elevations and more open habitats compared with black bears.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nThe relationship between grizzly bears and other predators is mostly one-sided; grizzly bears will approach feeding predators to steal their kill. In general, the other species will leave the carcasses for the bear to avoid competition or predation. Any parts of the carcass left uneaten are scavenged by smaller animals. \\nCougars generally give the bears a wide berth. Grizzlies have less competition with cougars than with other predators, such as coyotes, wolves, and other bears. When a grizzly descends on a cougar feeding on its kill, the cougar usually gives way to the bear. When a cougar does stand its ground, it will use its superior agility and its claws to harass the bear, yet stay out of its reach until one of them gives up. Grizzly bears occasionally kill cougars in disputes over kills. There have been several accounts, primarily from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, of cougars and grizzly bears killing each other in fights to the death.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nCoyotes, foxes, and wolverines are generally regarded as pests to the grizzlies rather than competition, though they may compete for smaller prey, such as ground squirrels and rabbits. All three will try to scavenge whatever they can from the bears. Wolverines are aggressive enough to occasionally persist until the bear finishes eating, leaving more than normal scraps for the smaller animal. Packs of coyotes have also displaced grizzly bears in disputes over kills.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nEcological role\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nThe grizzly bear has several relationships with its ecosystem. One such relationship is a mutualistic relationship with fleshy-fruit bearing plants. After the grizzly consumes the fruit, the seeds are excreted and thereby dispersed in a germinable condition. Some studies have shown germination success is indeed increased as a result of seeds being deposited along with nutrients in feces. This makes grizzly bears important seed distributors in their habitats.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nWhile foraging for tree roots, plant bulbs, or ground squirrels, bears stir up the soil. This process not only helps grizzlies access their food, but also increases species richness in alpine ecosystems. An area that contains both bear digs and undisturbed land has greater plant diversity than an area that contains just undisturbed land. Along with increasing species richness, soil disturbance causes nitrogen to be dug up from lower soil layers, and makes nitrogen more readily available in the environment. An area that has been dug by the grizzly bear has significantly more nitrogen than an undisturbed area.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nNitrogen cycling is not only facilitated by grizzlies digging for food, it is also accomplished via their habit of carrying salmon carcasses into surrounding forests. It has been found that spruce tree (Picea glauca) foliage within 500 m of the stream where the salmon have been obtained contains nitrogen originating from salmon on which the bears preyed. These nitrogen influxes to the forest are directly related to the presence of grizzly bears and salmon.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nGrizzlies directly regulate prey populations and also help prevent overgrazing in forests by controlling the populations of other species in the food chain. An experiment in Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming in the United States showed removal of wolves and grizzly bears caused populations of their herbivorous prey to increase. This, in turn, changed the structure and density of plants in the area, which decreased the population sizes of migratory birds. This provides evidence grizzly bears represent a keystone predator, having a major influence on the entire ecosystem they inhabit.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nWhen grizzly bears fish for salmon along the coasts of Alaska and British Columbia, they often only eat the skin, brain and roe of the fish. In doing so, they provide a food source for gulls, ravens, and foxes, all or which eat salmon as well; this benefits both the bear and the smaller predators.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nConflicts with humans\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nGrizzlies are considered more aggressive compared to black bears when defending themselves and their offspring. Unlike the smaller black bears, adult grizzlies do not climb trees well and respond to danger by standing their ground and warding off their attackers. Mothers defending cubs are the most prone to attacking, and are responsible for 70% of humans killed by grizzlies.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nGrizzly bears normally avoid contact with people. In spite of their obvious physical advantage they rarely actively hunt humans. Most grizzly bear attacks result from a bear that has been surprised at very close range, especially if it has a supply of food to protect, or female grizzlies protecting their offspring. A bear killing a human in a national park may be killed to prevent its attacking again.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nExacerbating this is the fact that intensive human use of grizzly habitat coincides with the seasonal movement of grizzly bears e.g. in the fall, when grizzly bears congregate near streams to feed on salmon when anglers are also intensively using the river.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nIncreased human–bear interaction has created \\\"problem bears\\\": bears adapted to human activities or habitat. Aversive conditioning using rubber bullets, foul-tasting chemicals, or acoustic deterrent devices attempt to condition bears to associate humans with unpleasantness, but is ineffectual when bears have already learned to positively associate humans with food. Such bears are translocated or killed because they pose a threat to humans. The B.C. government kills approximately 50 problem bears each year and overall spends more than one million dollars annually to address bear complaints, relocate bears and kill them.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nBear awareness programs have been developed by numerous towns in British Columbia, Canada, to help prevent conflicts with both black and grizzly bears. The main premise of these programs is to teach humans to manage foods that attract bears. Keeping garbage securely stored, harvesting fruit when ripe, securing livestock behind electric fences, and storing pet food indoors are all measures promoted by bear aware programs. The fact that grizzly bears are less numerous and even protected in some areas, means that preventing conflict with grizzlies is especially important. Revelstoke, British Columbia is a community that demonstrates the success of this approach. In the ten years preceding the development of a community education program in Revelstoke, 16 grizzlies were destroyed and a further 107 were relocated away from the town. An education program run by Revelstoke Bear Aware was put in place in 1996. Since the program began just 4 grizzlies have been destroyed and 5 have been relocated.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nFor back-country campers, hanging food between trees at a height unreachable to bears is a common procedure, although some grizzlies can climb and reach hanging food in other ways. An alternative to hanging food is to use a bear canister.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nTraveling in groups of six or more can significantly reduce the chance of bear-related injuries while hiking in bear country.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nGrizzly bears are especially dangerous because of the force of their bite, which has been measured at over 8 megapascals (1160 psi). It has been estimated that a bite from a grizzly could even crush a bowling ball.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nProtection\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nThe grizzly bear is listed as threatened in the contiguous United States and endangered in parts of Canada. In May 2002, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed the Prairie population (Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba range) of grizzly bears as extirpated in Canada. As of 2002, grizzly bears were listed as special concern under the COSEWIC registry and considered threatened under the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nWithin the United States, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service concentrates its effort to restore grizzly bears in six recovery areas. These are Northern Continental Divide (Montana), Yellowstone (Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho), Cabinet-Yaak (Montana and Idaho), Selway-Bitterroot (Montana and Idaho), Selkirk (Idaho and Washington), and North Cascades (Washington). The grizzly population in these areas is estimated at 750 in the Northern Continental Divide, 550 in Yellowstone, 40 in the Yaak portion of the Cabinet-Yaak, and 15 in the Cabinet portion (in northwestern Montana), 105 in Selkirk region of Idaho, 10–20 in the North Cascades, and none currently in Selway-Bitterroots, although there have been sightings. These are estimates because bears move in and out of these areas, and it is therefore impossible to conduct a precise count. In the recovery areas that adjoin Canada, bears also move back and forth across the international boundary.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nThe U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service claims the Cabinet-Yaak and Selkirk areas are linked through British Columbia, a claim that is disputed. U.S. and Canadian national parks, such as Banff National Park, Yellowstone and Grand Teton, and Theodore Roosevelt National Park are subject to laws and regulations designed to protect the bears.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nOn 9 January 2006, the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to remove Yellowstone grizzlies from the list of threatened and protected species. In March 2007, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service \\\"de-listed\\\" the population, effectively removing Endangered Species Act protections for grizzlies in the Yellowstone National Park area. Several environmental organizations, including the NRDC, brought a lawsuit against the federal government to relist the grizzly bear. On 22 September 2009, U.S. District Judge Donald W. Molloy reinstated protection due to the decline of whitebark pine tree, whose nuts are an important source of food for the bears. In 1996 the International Union for Conservation of Nature moved the grizzly bear to the lower risk \\\"Least Concern\\\" status on the IUCN Red List.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nFarther north, in Alberta, Canada, intense DNA hair-snagging studies in 2000 showed the grizzly population to be increasing faster than what it was formerly believed to be, and Alberta Sustainable Resource Development calculated a population of 841 bears. In 2002, the Endangered Species Conservation Committee recommended that the Alberta grizzly bear population be designated as threatened due to recent estimates of grizzly bear mortality rates that indicated the population was in decline. A recovery plan released by the provincial government in March 2008 indicated the grizzly population is lower than previously believed. In 2010, the provincial government formally listed its population of about 700 grizzlies as \\\"Threatened\\\".\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nEnvironment Canada consider the grizzly bear to a \\\"special concern\\\" species, as it is particularly sensitive to human activities and natural threats. In Alberta and British Columbia, the species is considered to be at risk. In 2008, it was estimated there were 16,014 grizzly bears in the British Columbia population, which was lower than previously estimated due to refinements in the population model.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nThe Mexican grizzly bear (Ursus arctos nelsoni) is extinct.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nConservation efforts\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nConservation efforts have become an increasingly vital investment over recent decades, as population numbers have dramatically declined. Establishment of parks and protected areas are one of the main focuses currently being tackled to help reestablish the low grizzly bear population in British Columbia. One example of these efforts is the Khutzeymateen Grizzly Bear Sanctuary located along the north coast of British Columbia; at in size, it is composed of key habitat for this threatened species. Regulations such as limited public access, as well as a strict no hunting policy, have enabled this location to be a safe haven for local grizzlies in the area. When choosing the location of a park focused on grizzly bear conservation, factors such as habitat quality and connectivity to other habitat patches are considered.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nThe Refuge for Endangered Wildlife located on Grouse Mountain in Vancouver is an example of a different type of conservation effort for the diminishing grizzly bear population. The refuge is a five-acre terrain which has functioned as a home for two orphaned grizzly bears since 2001. The purpose of this refuge is to provide awareness and education to the public about grizzly bears, as well as providing an area for research and observation of this secluded species.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nAnother factor currently being taken into consideration when designing conservation plans for future generations are anthropogenic barriers in the form of urban development and roads. These elements are acting as obstacles, causing fragmentation of the remaining grizzly bear population habitat and prevention of gene flow between subpopulations (for example, Banff National Park). This, in turn, is creating a decline in genetic diversity, and therefore the overall fitness of the general population is lowered. In light of these issues, conservation plans often include migration corridors by way of long strips of \\\"park forest\\\" to connect less developed areas, or by way of tunnels and overpasses over busy roads. Using GPS collar tracking, scientists can study whether or not these efforts are actually making a positive contribution towards resolving the problem. To date, most corridors are found to be infrequently used, and thus genetic isolation is currently occurring, which can result in inbreeding and therefore an increased frequency of deleterious genes through genetic drift. Current data suggest female grizzly bears are disproportionately less likely than males to use these corridors, which can prevent mate access and decrease the number of offspring.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nIn the United States, national efforts have been made since 1982 for the recovery plan of grizzly bears. A lot of the efforts made have been through different organizations efforts to educate the public on grizzly bear safety, habits of grizzly bears and different ways to reduce human-bear conflict. The Interagency Grizzly Bear Recovery Committee is one of many organizations committed to the recovery of grizzly bears in the lower 48 states. There are five recovery zones for grizzly bears in the lower 48 states including the North Cascades ecosystem in Washington state. The National Park Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife initiated the process of an environmental impact statement that started in the fall of 2014 to begin the recovery process of grizzly bears to the North Cascades region. A final plan and environmental impact statement is expected to be released in the spring of 2017 and a record of decision in the summer of 2017.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nIn early March 2016 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to withdraw Endangered Species Act protections from grizzly bears in and around Yellowstone National Park, as the current estimated population of 700 now exceeds the stated recovery plan goal of 500 individuals in the region.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nBear-watching\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nIn the past 20 years in Alaska, ecotourism has boomed. While many people come to Alaska to bear-hunt, the majority come to watch the bears and observe their habits. Some of the best bear viewing in the world occurs on coastal areas of the Alaska Peninsula, including in [http://www.nps.gov/lacl/planyourvisit/wildlife-viewing.htm Lake Clark National Park and Preserve], Katmai National Park and Preserve, and the McNeil River State Game Sanctuary and Refuge. Here bears gather in large numbers to feast on concentrated food sources, including sedges in the salt marshes, clams in the nearby tidal flats, salmon in the estuary streams, and berries on the neighboring hillsides.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nKatmai National Park and Preserve is one of the best spots to view brown bears. The bear population in Katmai is estimated at a healthy 2100. The park is located on the Alaskan Peninsula about 300 mi southwest of the city of Anchorage. At Brooks Camp, a famous site exists where grizzlies can be seen catching salmon from atop a platform—you can even view this online from a cam. In coastal areas of the park, such as Hallo Bay, Geographic Harbor, Swikshak Lagoon, American Creek, Big River, Kamishak River, Savonoski River, Moraine Creek, Funnel Creek, Battle Creek, Nantuk Creek, Kukak Bay, and Kaflia Bay you can often watch bears fishing alongside wolves, eagles, and river otters. Coastal areas host the highest population densities year round because there is a larger variety of food sources available, but Brooks Camp hosts the highest population (100 bears).\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nThe McNeil River State Game Sanctuary and Refuge, on the McNeil River, is home to the greatest concentration of brown bears in the world. An estimated 144 individual bears have been identified at the falls in a single summer with as many as 74 at one time; 60 or more bears at the falls is a frequent sight, and it is not uncommon to see 100 bears at the falls throughout a single day. The McNeil River State Game Refuge, containing Chenik Lake and a smaller number of grizzly bears, has been closed to grizzly hunting since 1995. All of the Katmai-McNeil area is closed to hunting except for Katmai National Preserve, where regulated legal hunting takes place. In all, the Katmai-McNeil area has an estimated 2500 grizzly bears.\",\n \"Grizzly bear\\n\\nAdmiralty Island, in southeast Alaska, was known to early natives as Xootsnoowú, meaning \\\"fortress of bears,\\\" and is home to the densest grizzly population in North America. An estimated 1600 grizzlies live on the island, which itself is only 90 mi long. The best place to view grizzly bears in the island is probably Pack Creek, in the Stan Price State Wildlife Sanctuary. 20 to 30 grizzlies can be observed at the creek at one time and like Brooks Camp, visitors can watch bears from an above platform. Kodiak Island, hence its name, is another good place to view bears. An estimated 3500 Kodiak grizzly bears inhabit the island, 2300 of these in the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge. The O'Malley River is considered the best place on Kodiak Island to view grizzly bears.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137086,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2313"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Gonzo journalism, a style in which reporters involve themselves in the action to such a degree that they become the central figures of their stories, was created by whom?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Hunter S. Thompson"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["hunter thompson s","sandra dawn conklin","hunter thompson","hunter s thompson","hunter stockton thompson","dr hunter s thompson","anita bejmuk","hunter s thomson"],"string":"[\n \"hunter thompson s\",\n \"sandra dawn conklin\",\n \"hunter thompson\",\n \"hunter s thompson\",\n \"hunter stockton thompson\",\n \"dr hunter s thompson\",\n \"anita bejmuk\",\n \"hunter s thomson\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Gonzo journalism\n\nGonzo journalism is a style of journalism that is written without claims of objectivity, often including the reporter as part of the story via a first-person narrative. The word \"gonzo\" is believed to have been first used in 1970 to describe an article by Hunter S. Thompson, who later popularized the style. It is an energetic first-person participatory writing style in which the author is a protagonist, and it draws its power from a combination of social critique and self-satire. It has since been applied to other subjective artistic endeavors.","Gonzo journalism\n\nGonzo journalism involves an approach to accuracy that concerns the reporting of personal experiences and emotions, in contrast to traditional journalism, which favors a detached style and relies on facts or quotations that can be verified by third parties. Gonzo journalism disregards the strictly-edited product favored by newspaper media and strives for a more personal approach; the personality of a piece is as important as the event the piece is on. Use of sarcasm, humor, exaggeration, and profanity is common.","Gonzo journalism\n\nThompson, who was among the forefathers of the new journalism movement, said in the February 15, 1973 issue of Rolling Stone, \"If I'd written the truth I knew for the past ten years, about 600 people—including me—would be rotting in prison cells from Rio to Seattle today. Absolute truth is a very rare and dangerous commodity in the context of professional journalism.\"","Gonzo journalism\n\nOrigin of the term","Gonzo journalism\n\nThe term \"gonzo\" was first used in connection with Hunter S. Thompson by The Boston Globe magazine editor Bill Cardoso in 1970. He described Thompson's article \"The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved\", which was written for the June 1970 edition of Scanlan's Monthly, as \"pure Gonzo journalism\". Cardoso claimed that \"gonzo\" was South Boston Irish slang describing the last man standing after an all-night drinking marathon. He also claimed that it was a corruption of the French Canadian word \"gonzeaux\", which means \"shining path\", although this is disputed.","Gonzo journalism\n\nAnother speculation is that the word may have been inspired by the 1960 hit song Gonzo by New Orleans rhythm and blues pianist James Booker. This possibility is supported by a 2007 oral biography of Thompson, which states that the term is taken from a song by Booker but does not explain why Thompson or Cardoso would have chosen the term to describe Thompson's journalism. The 2013 documentary Bayou Maharaja: The Tragic Genius of James Booker quotes Thompson's literary executor as saying that the song was the origin of the term. According to a Greg Johnson biographical note on Booker, the song title \"Gonzo\" comes from a character in a movie called The Pusher, which in turn may have been inspired by a 1956 Evan Hunter novel of the same title.","Gonzo journalism\n\nThompson himself first used the term referring to his own work on page 12 of the counterculture classic Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. He wrote, \"But what was the story? Nobody had bothered to say. So we would have to drum it up on our own. Free Enterprise. The American Dream. \nHoratio Alger gone mad on drugs in Las Vegas. Do it now: pure Gonzo journalism.\"","Gonzo journalism\n\nHunter S. Thompson","Gonzo journalism\n\nThompson based his style on William Faulkner's notion that \"fiction is often the best fact\". While the things that Thompson wrote about are basically true, he used satirical devices to drive his points home. He often wrote about recreational drugs and alcohol use which added subjective flair to his reporting. The term \"gonzo\" has also come into (sometimes pejorative) use to describe journalism in Thompson's style, characterized by a drug-fueled stream of consciousness writing technique.","Gonzo journalism\n\nFear and Loathing in Las Vegas followed the Mint 400 piece in 1971 and included a main character by the name of Raoul Duke, accompanied by his attorney, Dr. Gonzo, with defining art by Ralph Steadman. Although this book is considered a prime example of gonzo journalism, Thompson regarded it as a failed experiment. He had intended it to be an unedited record of everything he did as it happened, but he edited the book five times before publication.","Gonzo journalism\n\nThompson would instigate events himself, often in a prankish or belligerent manner, and then document both his actions and those of others. Notoriously neglectful of deadlines, Thompson often annoyed his editors because he faxed articles late, \"too late to be edited, yet still in time for the printer.\" Thompson wanted his work to be read as he wrote it, in its \"true Gonzo\" form. Historian Douglas Brinkley said gonzo journalism requires virtually no rewriting and frequently uses transcribed interviews and verbatim telephone conversations.","Gonzo journalism\n\n\"I don't get any satisfaction out of the old traditional journalist's view: 'I just covered the story. I just gave it a balanced view,'\" Thompson said in an interview for the online edition of The Atlantic. \"Objective journalism is one of the main reasons American politics has been allowed to be so corrupt for so long. You can't be objective about Nixon.\"","Gonzo journalism\n\nInfluence","Gonzo journalism\n\nThompson felt that objectivity in journalism was a myth. Gonzo journalism has now become a bona fide style of writing that concerns itself with \"telling it like it is\", similar to the New Journalism of the 1960s, led primarily by Tom Wolfe and also championed by Lester Bangs, George Plimpton, Terry Southern, and John Birmingham, and is considered a subgenre of New Journalism. When asked whether there was a difference between the two, Thompson answered, \"Yeah, I think so. Unlike Tom Wolfe or Gay Talese, for instance, I almost never try to reconstruct a story. They're both much better reporters than I am, but then I don't really think of myself as a reporter.\"","Gonzo journalism\n\nIn 1998, Christopher Locke asserted that the web zine genre is descended from gonzo journalism, a claim that has since been extended to social media.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nHunter Stockton Thompson (July 18, 1937 – February 20, 2005) was an American journalist and author, and the founder of the gonzo journalism movement. Born in Louisville, Kentucky, to a middle-class family, Thompson had a turbulent youth after the death of his father left the family in poverty. He was unable to formally finish high school as he was incarcerated for 60 days after abetting a robbery. He subsequently joined the United States Air Force before moving into journalism. He traveled frequently, including stints in California, Puerto Rico, and Brazil, before settling in Aspen, Colorado, in the early 1960s.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson became internationally known with the publication of Hell's Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (1967). For his research on the book he had spent a year living and riding with the Angels, experiencing their lives and hearing their stories first-hand. Previously a relatively conventional journalist, with the publication in 1970 of The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved he became a counter cultural figure, with his own brand of New Journalism which he termed \"Gonzo\", an experimental style of journalism where reporters involve themselves in the action to such a degree that they become central figures of their stories. The work he remains best known for, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: A Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream (1971), constitutes a rumination on the failure of the 1960s counterculture movement. It was first serialized in Rolling Stone, a magazine with which Thompson would be long associated, and was released as a film starring Johnny Depp and directed by Terry Gilliam in 1998.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nPolitically minded, Thompson ran unsuccessfully for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado, in 1970, on the Freak Power ticket. He became well known for his inveterate hatred of Richard Nixon, who he claimed represented \"that dark, venal, and incurably violent side of the American character\" and whom he characterized in Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72. Thompson's output notably declined from the mid-1970s, as he struggled with the consequences of fame, and he complained that he could no longer merely report on events as he was too easily recognized. He was also known for his lifelong use of alcohol and illegal drugs, his love of firearms, and his iconoclastic contempt for authoritarianism. He remarked: \"I hate to advocate drugs, alcohol, violence, or insanity to anyone, but they've always worked for me.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAfter a bout of health problems, Thompson committed suicide at the age of 67. In accordance with his wishes, his ashes were fired out of a cannon in a ceremony funded by his friend Depp and attended by friends including then-Senator John Kerry and Jack Nicholson. Hari Kunzru wrote that \"the true voice of Thompson is revealed to be that of American moralist ... one who often makes himself ugly to expose the ugliness he sees around him.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nEarly life","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson was born into a middle-class family in Louisville, Kentucky, the first of three sons of Jack Robert Thompson (September 4, 1893, Horse Cave, Kentucky – July 3, 1952, Louisville), a public insurance adjuster and World War I veteran, and of Virginia Ray Davison (1908, Springfield, Kentucky – March 20, 1998, Louisville), who worked as head librarian at the Louisville Public Library. His parents were introduced to each other by a friend from Jack's fraternity at the University of Kentucky in September 1934, and married on November 2, 1935. Thompson's first name came from a purported ancestor on his mother's side, the Scottish surgeon John Hunter.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nOn December 2, 1943, when Thompson was six years old, the family settled at 2437 Ransdell Avenue in the affluent Cherokee Triangle neighborhood of The Highlands. On July 3, 1952, when Thompson was 14 years old, his father, aged 58, died of myasthenia gravis. Hunter and his brothers, Davison Wheeler (born June 18, 1940) and James Garnet (February 2, 1949 – March 25, 1993), were raised by their mother. Hunter also had a much older half-brother, James Thompson, Jr., from his father's first marriage, who was not part of the Thompson household. Virginia worked as a librarian to support her children, and is described as having become a \"heavy drinker\" following her husband's death.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nEducation","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nInterested in sports and athletically inclined from a young age, Thompson co-founded the Hawks Athletic Club while attending I. N. Bloom Elementary School, which led to an invitation to join Louisville's Castlewood Athletic Club, a club for adolescents that prepared them for high-school sports, where he excelled in baseball. Ultimately he never joined any sports teams in high school.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson attended I. N. Bloom Elementary School, Highland Middle School, and Atherton High School, before transferring to Louisville Male High School in September 1952. Also in 1952, he was accepted as a member of the Athenaeum Literary Association, a school-sponsored literary and social club that dated to 1862. Its members at the time, generally drawn from Louisville's wealthy upper-class families, included Porter Bibb, who became the first publisher of Rolling Stone. During this time Thompson read and admired J. P. Donleavy's The Ginger Man.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAs an Athenaeum member, Thompson contributed articles to and helped produce the club's yearbook The Spectator. The group ejected Thompson in 1955, citing his legal problems. Charged as an accessory to robbery after being in a car with the perpetrator, Thompson was sentenced to 60 days in Kentucky's Jefferson County Jail. He served 31 days and, a week after his release, enlisted in the United States Air Force. While he was in jail, the school superintendent refused him permission to take his high-school final examinations, and as a result he did not graduate.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nMilitary service","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson completed basic training at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas, and transferred to Scott Air Force Base in Belleville, Illinois, to study electronics. He applied to become an aviator, but the Air Force's aviation-cadet program rejected his application. In 1956 he transferred to Eglin Air Force Base near Fort Walton Beach, Florida. While serving at Eglin, he took evening classes at Florida State University. At Eglin, he landed his first professional writing job as sports editor of the The Command Courier by lying about his job experience. In this capacity, he covered the Eglin Eagles football team. Thompson traveled with the team around the US, covering its games. In early 1957 he wrote a sports column for The Playground News, a local newspaper in Fort Walton Beach, Florida. He could not use his name on the column because the Air Force did not allow airmen to hold other jobs.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson was discharged from the Air Force in November 1957 as an Airman First Class, having been recommended for an early honorable discharge by his commanding officer. \"In summary, this airman, although talented, will not be guided by policy\", Col. William S. Evans, chief of information services wrote to the Eglin personnel office. \"Sometimes his rebel and superior attitude seems to rub off on other airmen staff members.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nEarly journalism career","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAfter the Air Force, Thompson worked as sports editor for a newspaper in Jersey Shore, Pennsylvania, before relocating to New York City. There he audited several courses at the Columbia University School of General Studies. During this time he worked briefly for Time as a copy boy for $51 a week. While working, he used a typewriter to copy F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby and Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms in order to learn about the writing styles of the authors. In 1959 Time fired him for insubordination. Later that year he worked as a reporter for The Middletown Daily Record in Middletown, New York. He was fired from this job after damaging an office candy machine and arguing with the owner of a local restaurant who happened to be an advertiser with the paper.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIn 1960, Thompson moved to San Juan, Puerto Rico, to take a job with the sporting magazine El Sportivo, which folded soon after his arrival. Thompson applied for a job with the Puerto Rican English-language daily The San Juan Star, but its managing editor, future novelist William J. Kennedy, turned him down. Nonetheless, the two became friends, and after the demise of El Sportivo, Thompson worked as a stringer for the New York Herald Tribune and for a few stateside papers on Caribbean issues, with Kennedy working as his editor. After returning to the States, Hunter hitchhiked across the United States along U.S. Highway 40, eventually ending up in Big Sur, California working as a security guard and caretaker at the Big Sur hot springs for an eight-month period in 1961, just before it became the Esalen Institute. While there, he published his first magazine feature in the nationally distributed Rogue magazine, on the artisan and bohemian culture of Big Sur. Thompson had had a rocky tenure as caretaker of the hot springs, and the unexpected publicity from the article finally got him fired.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nDuring this period, Thompson wrote two novels, Prince Jellyfish and The Rum Diary, and submitted many short stories to publishers - with little success. The Rum Diary, a novel based on Thompson's experiences in Puerto Rico, was eventually published in .","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nFrom May 1962 to May 1963, Thompson traveled to South America as a correspondent for a Dow Jones-owned weekly newspaper, the National Observer. In Brazil he spent several months as a reporter for the Brazil Herald, the country's only English-language daily, published in Rio de Janeiro. His longtime girlfriend Sandra Dawn Conklin (a.k.a. Sandy Conklin Thompson, now Sondi Wright) later joined him in Rio. They married on May 19, 1963, shortly after returning to the United States, and lived briefly in Aspen, Colorado, where they had a son, Juan Fitzgerald Thompson (born March 23, 1964). The couple conceived five more times, but three pregnancies were miscarried, and the other two produced infants who died shortly after birth. Hunter and Sandy divorced in 1980 but always remained close friends.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIn 1964 the family relocated to Glen Ellen, California, where Thompson continued to write for the National Observer on an array of domestic subjects. One story told of his 1964 visit to Ketchum, Idaho, to investigate the reasons for Ernest Hemingway's suicide. While there, he stole a pair of elk antlers hanging above the front door of Hemingway's cabin. Thompson severed his ties with the Observer after his editor refused to print his review of Tom Wolfe's 1965 essay collection The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby, and moved to San Francisco. He immersed himself in the drug and hippie culture that was taking root in the area, and soon began writing for the Berkeley underground paper The Spyder.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nHell's Angels","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIn 1965 Carey McWilliams, editor of The Nation, hired Thompson to write a story about the California-based Hells Angels motorcycle club. The article appeared on May 17, 1965, and after that Thompson received several book offers and spent the next year living and riding with the gang. The relationship broke down when the bikers perceived that Thompson was exploiting them for personal gain and demanded a share of the profits from his writings. An argument at a party resulted in a savage beating for Thompson (or \"stomping\", as the Angels referred to it). Random House published the hard-cover Hell's Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs in 1966, and the fight between Thompson and the Angels was well-marketed. CBC Television even broadcast an encounter between Thompson and Hells Angel Skip Workman before a live studio audience.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nA reviewer for The New York Times praised the work as an \"angry, knowledgeable, fascinating and excitedly written book\", that shows the Hells Angels \"not so much as dropouts from society but as total misfits, or unfits — emotionally, intellectually and educationally unfit to achieve the rewards, such as they are, that the contemporary social order offers\". The reviewer also praised Thompson as a \"spirited, witty, observant and original writer; his prose crackles like motorcycle exhaust\".","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nNote: The name of the Hells Angels motorcycle club has no apostrophe, but in the title and in the text of Thompson's book a possessive apostrophe was added to the name, rendering it as Hell's Angels.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nLate 1960s","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nFollowing the success of Hell's Angels, Thompson was able to publish articles in a number of well-known magazines during the late 1960s, including The New York Times Magazine, Esquire, Pageant, and Harper's. In the Times Magazine article, published in 1967, shortly before the \"Summer of Love\", and titled \"The Hashbury is the Capital of the Hippies\", Thompson wrote in-depth about the Hippies of San Francisco, deriding a culture that began to lack the political convictions of the New Left and the artistic core of the Beats, instead becoming overrun with newcomers lacking any purpose other than obtaining drugs. It was an observation on the 1960s' counterculture that Thompson would further examine in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas and other articles.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nBy late 1967, Thompson and his family moved back to Colorado and rented a house in Woody Creek, a small mountain hamlet outside Aspen. In early 1969, Thompson finally received a $15,000 royalty check for the paperback sales of Hell's Angels and used two-thirds of the money for a down payment on a modest home and property where he would live for the rest of his life. He named the house Owl Farm and often described it as his \"fortified compound.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIn early 1968, Thompson signed the \"Writers and Editors War Tax Protest\" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War. According to Thompson's letters and his later writings, at this time he planned to write a book called The Joint Chiefs about \"the death of the American Dream.\" He used a $6,000 advance from Random House to travel on the 1968 Presidential campaign trail and attend the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago for research purposes. From his hotel room in Chicago, Thompson watched the clashes between police and protesters, which he wrote had a great effect on his political views. The book was never finished, and the theme of the death of the American dream would be carried over into his later work. The contract with Random House was eventually fulfilled with the 1972 book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. He also signed a deal with Ballantine Books in 1968 to write a satirical book called The Johnson File about Lyndon B. Johnson. A few weeks after the contract was signed, however, Johnson announced that he would not run for re-election, and the deal was cancelled.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nMiddle years","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIn 1970, Thompson ran for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado, as part of a group of citizens running for local offices on the \"Freak Power\" ticket. The platform included promoting the decriminalization of drugs (for personal use only, not trafficking, as he disapproved of profiteering), tearing up the streets and turning them into grassy pedestrian malls, banning any building so tall as to obscure the view of the mountains, and renaming Aspen \"Fat City\" to deter investors. Thompson, having shaved his head, referred to the crew cut-wearing Republican candidate as \"my long-haired opponent.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nWith polls showing him with a slight lead in a three-way race, Thompson appeared at Rolling Stone magazine headquarters in San Francisco with a six-pack of beer in hand, and declared to editor Jann Wenner that he was about to be elected Sheriff of Aspen, Colorado, and wished to write about the \"Freak Power\" movement. Thus, Thompson's first article in Rolling Stone was published as The Battle of Aspen with the byline \"By: Dr. Hunter S. Thompson (Candidate for Sheriff).\" Despite the publicity, Thompson narrowly lost the election. While carrying the city of Aspen, he garnered only 44% of the county-wide vote in what had become a two-way race. The Republican candidate agreed to withdraw a few days before the election in order to consolidate the anti-Thompson votes, in return for the Democrats withdrawing their candidate for county commissioner. Thompson later remarked that the Rolling Stone article mobilized his opposition far more than his supporters.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nBirth of Gonzo","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAlso in 1970, Thompson wrote an article entitled The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved for the short-lived new journalism magazine Scanlan's Monthly. Although it was not widely read, the article was the first to use the techniques of Gonzo journalism, a style Thompson would later employ in almost every literary endeavor. The manic first-person subjectivity of the story was reportedly the result of sheer desperation; he was facing a looming deadline and started sending the magazine pages ripped out of his notebook. Ralph Steadman, who would collaborate with Thompson on several more projects, contributed expressionist pen-and-ink illustrations.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThe first use of the word \"Gonzo\" to describe Thompson's work is credited to the journalist Bill Cardoso. Cardoso first met Thompson on a bus full of journalists covering the 1968 New Hampshire primary. In 1970, Cardoso (who was then the editor of The Boston Globe Sunday Magazine) wrote to Thompson praising the Kentucky Derby piece as a breakthrough: \"This is it, this is pure Gonzo. If this is a start, keep rolling.\" According to Steadman, Thompson took to the word right away and said, \"Okay, that's what I do. Gonzo.\" Thompson's first published use of the word appears in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: \"Free Enterprise. The American Dream. Horatio Alger gone mad on drugs in Las Vegas. Do it now: pure Gonzo journalism.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nFear and Loathing in Las Vegas","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThe book for which Thompson gained most of his fame had its genesis during the research for Strange Rumblings in Aztlan, an exposé for Rolling Stone on the 1970 killing of the Mexican-American television journalist Rubén Salazar. Salazar had been shot in the head at close range with a tear gas canister fired by officers of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department during the National Chicano Moratorium March against the Vietnam War. One of Thompson's sources for the story was Oscar Zeta Acosta, a prominent Mexican-American activist and attorney. Finding it difficult to talk in the racially tense atmosphere of Los Angeles, Thompson and Acosta decided to travel to Las Vegas, and take advantage of an assignment by Sports Illustrated to write a 250-word photograph caption on the Mint 400 motorcycle race held there.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nWhat was to be a short caption quickly grew into something else entirely. Thompson first submitted to Sports Illustrated a manuscript of 2,500 words, which was, as he later wrote, \"aggressively rejected.\" Rolling Stone publisher Jann Wenner was said to have liked \"the first 20 or so jangled pages enough to take it seriously on its own terms and tentatively scheduled it for publication — which gave me the push I needed to keep working on it\", Thompson later wrote.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThe result of the trip to Las Vegas became the 1972 book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, which first appeared in the November 1971 issues of Rolling Stone as a two-part series. It is written as a first-person account by a journalist named Raoul Duke on a trip to Las Vegas with Dr. Gonzo, his \"300-pound Samoan attorney\", to cover a narcotics officers' convention and the \"fabulous Mint 400\". During the trip, Duke and his companion (always referred to as \"my attorney\") become sidetracked by a search for the American Dream, with \"two bags of grass, seventy-five pellets of mescaline, five sheets of high-powered blotter acid, a salt shaker half full of cocaine, and a whole galaxy of multi-colored uppers, downers, screamers, laughers ... and also a quart of tequila, a quart of rum, a case of Budweiser, a pint of raw ether, and two dozen amyls.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nComing to terms with the failure of the 1960s countercultural movement is a major theme of the novel, and the book was greeted with considerable critical acclaim, including being heralded by The New York Times as \"by far the best book yet written on the decade of dope\". \"The Vegas Book\", as Thompson referred to it, was a mainstream success and introduced his Gonzo journalism techniques to a wide public.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nFear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nBeginning in late 1971 Thompson wrote extensively for Rolling Stone on election campaigns of President Richard Nixon and his unsuccessful opponent, Senator George McGovern. The articles were soon combined and published as Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72. As the title suggests, Thompson spent nearly all of his time traveling the \"campaign trail\", focusing largely on the Democratic Party's primaries - Nixon, as the Republican incumbent, performed little campaign work - in which McGovern competed with rival candidates Edmund Muskie and Hubert Humphrey. Thompson was an early supporter of McGovern and wrote unflattering coverage of the rival campaigns in the increasingly widely read Rolling Stone.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson went on to become a fierce critic of Nixon, both during and after his presidency. After Nixon's death in 1994, Thompson described him in Rolling Stone as a man who \"could shake your hand and stab you in the back at the same time\" and said \"his casket [should] have been launched into one of those open-sewage canals that empty into the ocean just south of Los Angeles. He was a swine of a man and a jabbering dupe of a president. [He] was an evil man—evil in a way that only those who believe in the physical reality of the Devil can understand it.\" Following Nixon's pardon by Gerald Ford in 1974, Hunter ruminated on the approximately $400,000 pension Nixon maneuvered his way into, by resigning before being formally indicted.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nWhile the Washington Post was lamenting Nixon's \"lonely and depressed\" state after being forced from the White House, Hunter wrote that '[i]f there were any such thing as true justice in this world, his [Nixon's] rancid carcass would be somewhere down around Easter Island right now, in the belly of a hammerhead shark.' There was however one passion shared by Thompson and Nixon: a love of football, discussed in Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nLater years","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAccording to Jann Wenner, co-founder and publisher of Rolling Stone, Thompson's journalistic work began to seriously suffer after his trip to Africa to cover \"The Rumble in the Jungle\"—the world heavyweight boxing match between George Foreman and Muhammad Ali—in 1974. He missed the match while intoxicated at his hotel, and did not submit a story to the magazine. Wenner is quoted by the film critic Roger Ebert as saying in the 2008 documentary of Thompson's life, Gonzo: The Life and Work of Dr. Hunter S. Thompson, \"After Africa he just couldn't write. He couldn't piece it together\".","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson was to provide Rolling Stone with coverage for the 1976 presidential campaign that would appear in a book published by the magazine. Reportedly, as Thompson was waiting for a $75,000 advance check to arrive, he learned that Rolling Stone publisher Jann Wenner had cancelled the assignment without informing him. Wenner then asked Thompson to travel to Vietnam to report on what appeared to be the closing of the Vietnam War. Thompson accepted, and left for Saigon immediately. He arrived with the country in chaos, just as South Vietnam was collapsing and other journalists were scrambling to find transportation out of the region. While there, Thompson learned that Wenner had pulled the plug on this excursion as well, and Thompson found himself in Vietnam without health insurance or additional financial support. Thompson's story about the fall of Saigon would not be published in Rolling Stone until ten years later. These two incidents severely strained the relationship between the author and the magazine, and Thompson contributed far less to the publication in later years.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThe year 1980 marked both his divorce from Sandra Conklin and the release of Where the Buffalo Roam, a loose film adaptation of situations from Thompson's early 1970s work, with Bill Murray starring as the author. Murray would go on to become one of Thompson's trusted friends. After the lukewarm reception of the film, Thompson temporarily relocated to Hawaii to work on a book, The Curse of Lono, a Gonzo-style account of a marathon held in that state. Extensively illustrated by Ralph Steadman, the piece first appeared in Running magazine in 1981 as The Charge of the Weird Brigade and was excerpted in Playboy in 1983.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nOn July 21, 1981, in Aspen, Colorado, Thompson was pulled over at 2am for running a stop sign, and began to \"rave\" at a state trooper. Consequently, he was arrested, but the drunk-driving charges against him were later dropped.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIn 1983, he covered the U.S. invasion of Grenada but would not discuss these experiences until the publication of Kingdom of Fear 20 years later. Later that year he authored a piece for Rolling Stone called A Dog Took My Place, an exposé of the scandalous Roxanne Pulitzer divorce and what he termed the \"Palm Beach lifestyle.\" The article contained dubious insinuations of bestiality (among other things) but was considered to be a return to proper form by many. Shortly thereafter, Thompson accepted an advance to write about \"couples pornography\" for Playboy. As part of his research, in the spring of 1985 he spent evenings at the Mitchell Brothers O'Farrell Theater striptease club in San Francisco and his experience there eventually evolved into a full-length novel tentatively titled The Night Manager. Neither the novel nor the article has been published.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAt the behest of old friend and editor Warren Hinckle, Thompson became a media critic for the San Francisco Examiner, writing a weekly column for the newspaper in the mid-to-late 1980s. Thompson's editor at the Examiner, David McCumber (who wrote a Mitchell brothers biography not long after Jim Mitchell fatally shot his brother Art in 1991), would later ruminate on the erratic quality of Thompson's writing by this juncture, opining that \"one week it would be acid-soaked gibberish with a charm of its own. The next week it would be incisive political analysis of the highest order...\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIn 1990, former porn director Gail Palmer visited Thompson's home in Woody Creek. She later accused him of sexual assault, claiming that he twisted her breast when she refused to join him in the hot tub. She also described cocaine use to authorities. A six-person, 11-hour search of Thompson's home turned up various kinds of drugs and a few sticks of dynamite. All charges were dismissed after a pre-trial hearing. Thompson would later describe this experience at length in Kingdom of Fear.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nBy the early 1990s, Thompson was said to be working on a novel called Polo Is My Life, which was briefly excerpted in Rolling Stone in 1994, and which Thompson himself described in 1996 as \"... a sex book — you know, sex, drugs and rock and roll. It's about the manager of a sex theater who's forced to leave and flee to the mountains. He falls in love and gets in even more trouble than he was in the sex theater in San Francisco\". The novel was slated to be released by Random House in 1999, and was even assigned ISBN 0-679-40694-8, but was not published.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson continued to contribute irregularly to Rolling Stone. Fear and Loathing in Elko, published in 1992, was a well-received fictional rallying cry against Clarence Thomas, while Mr. Bill's Neighborhood was a largely non-fictional account of an interview with Bill Clinton at a Little Rock, Arkansas steakhouse. Rather than embarking on the campaign trail as he had done in previous presidential elections, Thompson monitored the proceedings from cable television; Better Than Sex: Confessions of a Political Junkie, his account of the 1992 presidential election campaign, is composed of reactionary faxes sent to Rolling Stone. A decade later, he contributed Fear and Loathing, Campaign 2004—an account of a road jaunt with John Kerry during his presidential campaign that would be Thompson's final magazine feature.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson was named a Kentucky Colonel by the Governor of Kentucky in a December 1996 tribute ceremony where he also received keys to the city of Louisville.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThe Gonzo Papers","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nDespite publishing a novel and numerous newspaper and magazine articles, the majority of Thompson's literary output after the late 1970s took the form of a four-volume series of books called The Gonzo Papers. Beginning with The Great Shark Hunt in 1979 and ending with Better Than Sex in 1994, the series is largely a collection of rare newspaper and magazine pieces from the pre-gonzo period, along with almost all of his Rolling Stone short pieces, excerpts from the Fear and Loathing books, and so on.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nBy the late 1970s, Thompson had received complaints from critics, fans and friends that he was regurgitating his past glories without much new on his part; these concerns are alluded to in the introduction of The Great Shark Hunt, where Thompson suggested that his \"old self\" committed suicide.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nPerhaps in response to this, as well as the strained relationship with Rolling Stone, and the failure of his marriage, Thompson became more reclusive after 1980. He would often retreat to his compound in Woody Creek and reject assignments or refuse to complete them. Despite the dearth of new material, Wenner kept Thompson on the Rolling Stone masthead as chief of the \"National Affairs Desk\", a position he would hold until his death.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nFear and Loathing redux","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson's work was popularized again with the 1998 release of the film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, which opened to considerable fanfare. The book was reprinted to coincide with the film, and Thompson's work was introduced to a new generation of readers. Soon thereafter, his \"long lost\" novel The Rum Diary was published, as were the first two volumes of his collected letters, which were greeted with critical acclaim.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIn July 2000, Thompson accidentally shot his assistant, Deborah Fuller, while attempting to scare a bear away from her lodging on The Owl Farm. He fired a shotgun at the ground near the bear, and the pellets ricocheted upward, hitting her in the right arm and leg. She was quoted as saying \"I screamed 'You son of a bitch, you shot me.' And poor Hunter. I don't think I had ever seen him run so fast. He felt horrible.\" No charges were filed for the incident.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson's next, and penultimate, collection, Kingdom of Fear, combined new material, selected newspaper clippings, and some older works. Released in 2003, it was perceived by critics to be an angry, vitriolic commentary on the passing of the American Century, and the state of affairs after the September 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson completed his journalism career in the same way it had begun: writing about sports. Thompson penned a weekly column called \"Hey, Rube\" for ESPN.com's \"Page 2\". The column ran from 2000 until his death in 2005. Simon & Schuster bundled many of the columns from the first few years and released it in mid-2004 as Hey Rube: Blood Sport, the Bush Doctrine, and the Downward Spiral of Dumbness.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson married Anita Bejmuk on April 23, 2003.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nDeath","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson died from a gunshot wound to the head—allegedly self-inflicted—at Owl Farm, his \"fortified compound\" in Woody Creek, Colorado, at 5:42 p.m. on February 20, 2005. His son Juan, daughter-in-law Jennifer, and grandson Will were visiting for the weekend. His wife Anita, who was at the Aspen Club, was on the phone with him as he cocked the gun. According to the Aspen Daily News, Thompson asked her to come home to help him write his ESPN column, then set the receiver on the counter. Anita said she mistook the cocking of the gun for the sound of his typewriter keys and hung up as he fired. Will and Jennifer were in the next room when they heard the gunshot, but mistook the sound for a book falling and did not check on Thompson immediately. Juan Thompson found his father's body. According to the police report and Anita's cell phone records, he called the sheriff's department half an hour later, then walked outside and fired three shotgun blasts into the air to \"mark the passing of his father\". The police report stated that in Thompson's typewriter was a piece of paper with the date and a single word, \"counselor\".","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson's inner circle told the press that he had been depressed and always found February a \"gloomy\" month, with football season over and the harsh Colorado winter weather. He was also upset over his advancing age and chronic medical problems, including a hip replacement; he would frequently mutter \"This kid is getting old.\" Rolling Stone published what Doug Brinkley described as a suicide note written by Thompson to his wife, titled \"Football Season Is Over\". It read:","Hunter S. Thompson\n\n\"No More Games. No More Bombs. No More Walking. No More Fun. No More Swimming. 67. That is 17 years past 50. 17 more than I needed or wanted. Boring. I am always bitchy. No Fun — for anybody. 67. You are getting Greedy. Act your (old) age. Relax — This won't hurt.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson's collaborator and friend Ralph Steadman wrote:","Hunter S. Thompson\n\n\"... He told me 25 years ago that he would feel real trapped if he didn't know that he could commit suicide at any moment. I don't know if that is brave or stupid or what, but it was inevitable. I think that the truth of what rings through all his writing is that he meant what he said. If that is entertainment to you, well, that's OK. If you think that it enlightened you, well, that's even better. If you wonder if he's gone to Heaven or Hell, rest assured he will check out them both, find out which one Richard Milhous Nixon went to — and go there. He could never stand being bored. But there must be Football too — and Peacocks ...\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nFuneral","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nOn August 20, 2005, in a private funeral, Thompson's ashes were fired from a cannon. This was accompanied by red, white, blue and green fireworks—all to the tune of Norman Greenbaum's \"Spirit in the Sky\" and Bob Dylan's \"Mr. Tambourine Man\". The cannon was placed atop a 153 ft tower which had the shape of a double-thumbed fist clutching a peyote button, a symbol originally used in his 1970 campaign for Sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado. The plans for the monument were initially drawn by Thompson and Steadman, and were shown as part of an Omnibus program on the BBC titled Fear and Loathing in Gonzovision (1978). It is included as a special feature on the second disc of the 2003 Criterion Collection DVD release of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, and labeled as Fear and Loathing on the Road to Hollywood.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAccording to his widow, Anita, the funeral was funded by actor Johnny Depp, who was a close friend of Thompson. Depp told the Associated Press, \"All I'm doing is trying to make sure his last wish comes true. I just want to send my pal out the way he wants to go out.\" An estimated 280 people attended, including U.S. Senators John Kerry and George McGovern; 60 Minutes correspondents Ed Bradley and Charlie Rose; actors Jack Nicholson, John Cusack, Bill Murray, Benicio del Toro, Sean Penn, and Josh Hartnett; singers Lyle Lovett, John Oates and David Amram, and artist and long-time friend Ralph Steadman.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nLegacy","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nWriting style","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson is often credited as the creator of Gonzo journalism, a style of writing that blurs distinctions between fiction and nonfiction. His work and style are considered to be a major part of the New Journalism literary movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which attempted to break free from the purely objective style of mainstream reportage of the time. Thompson almost always wrote in the first person, while extensively using his own experiences and emotions to color \"the story\" he was trying to follow. His writing aimed to be humorous, colorful and bizarre, and he often exaggerated events to be more entertaining. The term Gonzo has since been applied in kind to numerous other forms of highly subjective artistic expression.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nDespite his having personally described his work as \"Gonzo\", it fell to later observers to articulate what the term actually meant. While Thompson's approach clearly involved injecting himself as a participant in the events of the narrative, it also involved adding invented, metaphoric elements, thus creating, for the uninitiated reader, a seemingly confusing amalgam of facts and fiction notable for the deliberately blurred lines between one and the other. Thompson, in a 1974 interview in Playboy addressed the issue himself, saying \"Unlike Tom Wolfe or Gay Talese, I almost never try to reconstruct a story. They're both much better reporters than I am, but then, I don't think of myself as a reporter.\" Tom Wolfe would later describe Thompson's style as \"... part journalism and part personal memoir admixed with powers of wild invention and wilder rhetoric.\" Or as one description of the differences between Thompson and Wolfe's styles would elaborate, \"While Tom Wolfe mastered the technique of being a fly on the wall, Thompson mastered the art of being a fly in the ointment.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThe majority of Thompson's most popular and acclaimed work appeared within the pages of Rolling Stone magazine. Along with Joe Eszterhas and David Felton, Thompson was instrumental in expanding the focus of the magazine past music criticism; indeed, Thompson was the only staff writer of the epoch never to contribute a music feature to the magazine. Nevertheless, his articles were always peppered with a wide array of pop music references ranging from Howlin' Wolf to Lou Reed. Armed with early fax machines wherever he went, he became notorious for haphazardly sending sometimes illegible material to the magazine's San Francisco offices as an issue was about to go to press.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nRobert Love, Thompson's editor of 23 years at Rolling Stone, wrote that \"the dividing line between fact and fancy rarely blurred, and we didn't always use italics or some other typographical device to indicate the lurch into the fabulous. But if there were living, identifiable humans in a scene, we took certain steps ... Hunter was a close friend of many prominent Democrats, veterans of the ten or more presidential campaigns he covered, so when in doubt, we'd call the press secretary. 'People will believe almost any twisted kind of story about politicians or Washington,' he once said, and he was right.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nDiscerning the line between the fact and the fiction of Thompson's work presented a practical problem for editors and fact-checkers of his work. Love called fact-checking Thompson's work \"one of the sketchiest occupations ever created in the publishing world\", and \"for the first-timer ... a trip through a journalistic fun house, where you didn't know what was real and what wasn't. You knew you had better learn enough about the subject at hand to know when the riff began and reality ended. Hunter was a stickler for numbers, for details like gross weight and model numbers, for lyrics and caliber, and there was no faking it.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nPersona","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson often used a blend of fiction and fact when portraying himself in his writing as well, sometimes using the name Raoul Duke as an author surrogate whom he generally described as a callous, erratic, self-destructive journalist who constantly drank alcohol and took hallucinogenic drugs. Fantasizing about causing bodily harm to others was also a characteristic in his work used to comedic effect and an example of his brand of humor.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIn the late sixties, Thompson acquired his famous title of \"Doctor\" from the Universal Life Church. He later preferred to be called Dr. Thompson, and his \"alter-ego\" Raoul Duke called himself a \"doctor of journalism\". Thompson was as fond of personae as W.C. Fields: besides \"Raoul Duke\", Thompson also toyed with the idea of taking the names \"Jefferson Rank\", \"Gene Skinner\", and \"Sebastian Owl\" for various purposes literary and non-literary, naming his \"compound\" in Woody Creek, Colorado, \"Owl Farm\" after the last of these.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nA number of critics have commented that as he grew older the line that distinguished Thompson from his literary self became increasingly blurred. Thompson himself admitted during a 1978 BBC interview that he sometimes felt pressured to live up to the fictional self that he had created, adding \"I'm never sure which one people expect me to be. Very often, they conflict — most often, as a matter of fact. ... I'm leading a normal life and right along side me there is this myth, and it is growing and mushrooming and getting more and more warped. When I get invited to, say, speak at universities, I'm not sure if they are inviting Duke or Thompson. I'm not sure who to be.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson's writing style and eccentric persona gave him a cult following in both literary and drug circles, and his cult status expanded into broader areas after being portrayed three times in major motion pictures. Hence, both his writing style and persona have been widely imitated, and his likeness has even become a popular costume choice for Halloween.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nPolitical beliefs","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson was a firearms and explosives enthusiast (in his writing and in life) and owned a vast collection of handguns, rifles, shotguns, and various automatic and semi-automatic weapons, along with numerous forms of gaseous crowd control and many homemade devices. He was a proponent of the right to bear arms and privacy rights. A member of the National Rifle Association, Thompson was also co-creator of \"The Fourth Amendment Foundation\", an organization to assist victims in defending themselves against unwarranted search and seizure.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nPart of his work with The Fourth Amendment Foundation centered around support of Lisl Auman, a Colorado woman who was sentenced for life in 1997 under felony murder charges for the death of police officer Bruce VanderJagt, despite contradictory statements and dubious evidence. Thompson organized rallies, provided legal support, and co-wrote an article in the June 2004 issue of Vanity Fair outlining the case. The Colorado Supreme Court eventually overturned Auman's sentence in March 2005, shortly after Thompson's death, and Auman is now free. Auman's supporters claim Thompson's support and publicity resulted in the successful appeal.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson was also an ardent supporter of drug legalization and became known for his detailed accounts of his own drug use. He was an early supporter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws and served on the group's advisory board for over 30 years, until his death. He told an interviewer in 1997 that drugs should be legalized \"[a]cross the board. It might be a little rough on some people for a while, but I think it's the only way to deal with drugs. Look at Prohibition: all it did was make a lot of criminals rich.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAlthough Thompson rarely personally endorsed political labels or programs in his writings, he sometimes expressed affinity with the left and at other times the right (gun rights, private property rights). In a 1965 letter to his friend Paul Semonin, Thompson explained an affection for the Industrial Workers of the World, \"I have in recent months come to have a certain feeling for Joe Hill and the Wobbly crowd who, if nothing else, had the right idea. But not the right mechanics. I believe the IWW was probably the last human concept in American politics.\" In another letter to Semonin, Thompson wrote that he agreed with Karl Marx, and compared him to Thomas Jefferson. In a letter to William Kennedy, Thompson confided that he was \"coming to view the free enterprise system as the single greatest evil in the history of human savagery.\" In the documentary Breakfast with Hunter, Hunter S. Thompson is seen in several scenes wearing different Che Guevara T-shirts. Additionally, actor and friend Benicio del Toro has stated that Thompson kept a \"big\" picture of Che in his kitchen. Thompson wrote on behalf of African American rights and the African American Civil Rights Movement.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nHe strongly criticized the dominance in American society of, what he called, \"white power structures\".","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAfter the September 11 attacks, Thompson voiced skepticism regarding the official story on who was responsible for the attacks. He speculated to several interviewers that it may have been conducted by the U.S. Government or with the government's assistance, though readily admitting he had no way to prove his theory.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIn 2004, Thompson wrote: \"Nixon was a professional politician, and I despised everything he stood for—but if he were running for president this year against the evil Bush–Cheney gang, I would happily vote for him.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nWorks","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nBooks","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson wrote a number of books, publishing from 1966 to the end of his life. His best-known works include Hell's Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, and The Rum Diary.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nArticles","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAs a journalist over the course of decades, Thompson published numerous articles in various periodicals. He wrote for many publications, including Rolling Stone, Esquire, The Boston Globe, Chicago Tribune, The New York Times, Time, Vanity Fair, The San Juan Star, and Playboy. He was also guest editor for a single edition of The Aspen Daily News. A collection of his articles for Rolling Stone was released in 2011 as Fear and Loathing at Rolling Stone: The Essential Writings of Hunter S. Thompson. The book was edited by the magazine's co-founder and publisher, Jann S. Wenner, who also provided an introduction to the collection.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nLetters","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson wrote many letters, which were his primary means of personal communication. He made carbon copies of all his letters, usually typed, a habit begun in his teenage years.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThe Fear and Loathing Letters is a three-volume collection of selections from Thompson's correspondence, edited by the historian Douglas Brinkley. The first volume, The Proud Highway was published in 1997, and contains letters from 1955 to 1967. Fear and Loathing in America was published in 2000 and contains letters dating from 1968 to 1976. A third volume, titled The Mutineer: Rants, Ravings, and Missives from the Mountaintop 1977–2005 was edited by Douglas Brinkley and published by Simon & Schuster in 2005. As of July 2015, it has yet to be sold to the public. It contains a special introduction by Johnny Depp.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIllustrations","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAccompanying the eccentric and colorful writing of Hunter Thompson, illustrations by British artist Ralph Steadman offer visual representations of the Gonzo style. Steadman and Thompson developed a close friendship, and often traveled together. Though his illustrations occur in most of Thompson's books, they are conspicuously featured in full page color in Thompson's The Curse of Lono, set in Hawaii.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nPhotography","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThompson was an avid amateur photographer throughout his life and his photos have been exhibited since his death at art galleries in the United States and United Kingdom. In late 2006, AMMO Books published a limited-edition 224-page collection of Thompson photos called Gonzo, with an introduction by Johnny Depp. Thompson's snapshots were a combination of the subjects he was covering, stylized self-portraits, and artistic still life photos. The London Observer called the photos \"astonishingly good\" and noted that \"Thompson's pictures remind us, brilliantly in every sense, of very real people, real colours.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nFeature films","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThe film Where the Buffalo Roam (1980) depicts heavily fictionalized attempts by Thompson to cover the Super Bowl and the 1972 U.S. presidential election. It stars Bill Murray as Thompson and Peter Boyle as Thompson's attorney Oscar Zeta Acosta, referred to in the movie as Carl Lazlo, Esq.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThe 1998 film adaptation of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas was directed by Monty Python veteran Terry Gilliam, and starred Johnny Depp (who moved into Thompson's basement to \"study\" Thompson's persona before assuming his role in the film) as Raoul Duke and Benicio del Toro as Dr. Gonzo. The film has achieved something of a cult following.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThe film adaptation of Thompson's novel The Rum Diary was released in October 2011, also starring Johnny Depp as the main character, Paul Kemp. The novel's premise was inspired by Thompson's own experiences in Puerto Rico. The film was written and directed by Bruce Robinson.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAt a press junket for The Rum Diary shortly before the film's release, Depp said that he would like to adapt The Curse of Lono, \"The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved\", and Hell's Angels for the big screen: \"I'd just keep playing Hunter. There's a great comfort in it for me, because I get a great visit with my old friend who I miss dearly.\"","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nDocumentaries","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nFear and Loathing in Gonzovision (1978) is an extended television profile by the BBC. It can be found on disc 2 of The Criterion Collection edition of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nThe Mitchell brothers, owners of the O'Farrell Theatre in San Francisco, made a documentary about Thompson in 1988 called Hunter S. Thompson: The Crazy Never Die.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nWayne Ewing created three documentaries about Thompson. The film Breakfast with Hunter (2003) was directed and edited by Ewing. It documents Thompson's work on the movie Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, his arrest for drunk driving, and his subsequent fight with the court system. When I Die (2005) is a video chronicle of making Thompson's final farewell wishes a reality, and documents the send-off itself. Free Lisl: Fear and Loathing in Denver (2006) chronicles Thompson's efforts in helping to free Lisl Auman, who was sentenced to life in prison without parole for the shooting of a police officer, a crime she didn't commit. All three films are only available online.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIn Come on Down: Searching for the American Dream (2004) Thompson gives director Adamm Liley insight into the nature of the American Dream over drinks at the Woody Creek Tavern.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nBuy the Ticket, Take the Ride: Hunter S. Thompson on Film (2006) was directed by Tom Thurman, written by Tom Marksbury, and produced by the Starz Entertainment Group. The original documentary features interviews with Thompson's inner circle of family and friends, but the thrust of the film focuses on the manner in which his life often overlapped with numerous Hollywood celebrities who became his close friends, such as Johnny Depp, Benicio del Toro, Bill Murray, Sean Penn, John Cusack, Thompson's wife Anita, son Juan, former Senators George McGovern and Gary Hart, writers Tom Wolfe and William F. Buckley, actors Gary Busey and Harry Dean Stanton, and the illustrator Ralph Steadman among others.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nBlasted!!! The Gonzo Patriots of Hunter S. Thompson (2006), produced, directed, photographed and edited by Blue Kraning, is a documentary about the scores of fans who volunteered their privately owned artillery to fire the ashes of the late author, Hunter S. Thompson. Blasted!!! premiered at the 2006 Starz Denver International Film Festival, part of a tribute series to Hunter S. Thompson held at the Denver Press Club.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nIn 2008, Academy Award-winning documentarian Alex Gibney (Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room, Taxi to the Dark Side) wrote and directed a documentary on Thompson, titled Gonzo: The Life and Work of Dr. Hunter S. Thompson. The film premiered on January 20, 2008, at the Sundance Film Festival. Gibney uses intimate, never-before-seen home videos, interviews with friends, enemies and lovers, and clips from films adapted from Thompson's material to document his turbulent life.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nTheater","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nLou Stein's adaptation of \"Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas\" was performed at the Battersea theatre. Stein persuades London's 'Time Out' Magazine to put Thompson up for a fortnight, in exchange for him writing a cover story to publicize the play. Thompson doesn't write the story, but does rampage around London on Time Out's expense account. The play was revived for the Vault Fringe Festival in 2014.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nGONZO: A Brutal Chrysalis is a one-man show about Thompson written by Paul Addis, who also played the author. Set in the writing den of Thompson's Woody Creek home, the show portrays his life between 1968 and 1971. James Cartee began playing the role soon after Addis's arrest in 2009, and again after Addis's death in 2012.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nAccolades and tributes","Hunter S. Thompson\n\n* Author Tom Wolfe has called Thompson the greatest American comic writer of the 20th century. * Asked in an interview with Jody Denberg on KGSR Studio, in 2000, whether he would ever consider writing a book \"like [his] buddy Hunter S. Thompson\", the musician Warren Zevon responded: \"Let's remember that Hunter S. Thompson is the finest writer of our generation; he didn't just toss off a book the other day...\" \n* Thompson appeared on the cover of the 1,000th issue of Rolling Stone, May 18 – June 1, 2006, as a devil playing the guitar next to the two \"L\"'s in the word \"Rolling\". Johnny Depp also appeared on the cover. * The Thompson-inspired character Uncle Duke appears on a recurring basis in Doonesbury, the daily newspaper comic strip by Garry Trudeau. When the character was first introduced, Thompson protested, quoted in an interview as saying that he would set Trudeau on fire if the two ever met, although it was reported that he liked the character in later years.","Hunter S. Thompson\n\nBetween March 7, 2005 (roughly two weeks after Thompson's suicide) and March 12, 2005, Doonesbury ran a tribute to Hunter, with Uncle Duke lamenting the death of the man he called his \"inspiration\". The first of these strips featured a panel with artwork similar to that of Ralph Steadman, and later strips featured various non-sequiturs (with Duke variously transforming into a monster, melting, shrinking to the size of an empty drinking glass, or people around him turning into animals) which seemed to mirror some of the effects of hallucinogenic drugs described in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas."],"string":"[\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nGonzo journalism is a style of journalism that is written without claims of objectivity, often including the reporter as part of the story via a first-person narrative. The word \\\"gonzo\\\" is believed to have been first used in 1970 to describe an article by Hunter S. Thompson, who later popularized the style. It is an energetic first-person participatory writing style in which the author is a protagonist, and it draws its power from a combination of social critique and self-satire. It has since been applied to other subjective artistic endeavors.\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nGonzo journalism involves an approach to accuracy that concerns the reporting of personal experiences and emotions, in contrast to traditional journalism, which favors a detached style and relies on facts or quotations that can be verified by third parties. Gonzo journalism disregards the strictly-edited product favored by newspaper media and strives for a more personal approach; the personality of a piece is as important as the event the piece is on. Use of sarcasm, humor, exaggeration, and profanity is common.\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nThompson, who was among the forefathers of the new journalism movement, said in the February 15, 1973 issue of Rolling Stone, \\\"If I'd written the truth I knew for the past ten years, about 600 people—including me—would be rotting in prison cells from Rio to Seattle today. Absolute truth is a very rare and dangerous commodity in the context of professional journalism.\\\"\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nOrigin of the term\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nThe term \\\"gonzo\\\" was first used in connection with Hunter S. Thompson by The Boston Globe magazine editor Bill Cardoso in 1970. He described Thompson's article \\\"The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved\\\", which was written for the June 1970 edition of Scanlan's Monthly, as \\\"pure Gonzo journalism\\\". Cardoso claimed that \\\"gonzo\\\" was South Boston Irish slang describing the last man standing after an all-night drinking marathon. He also claimed that it was a corruption of the French Canadian word \\\"gonzeaux\\\", which means \\\"shining path\\\", although this is disputed.\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nAnother speculation is that the word may have been inspired by the 1960 hit song Gonzo by New Orleans rhythm and blues pianist James Booker. This possibility is supported by a 2007 oral biography of Thompson, which states that the term is taken from a song by Booker but does not explain why Thompson or Cardoso would have chosen the term to describe Thompson's journalism. The 2013 documentary Bayou Maharaja: The Tragic Genius of James Booker quotes Thompson's literary executor as saying that the song was the origin of the term. According to a Greg Johnson biographical note on Booker, the song title \\\"Gonzo\\\" comes from a character in a movie called The Pusher, which in turn may have been inspired by a 1956 Evan Hunter novel of the same title.\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nThompson himself first used the term referring to his own work on page 12 of the counterculture classic Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. He wrote, \\\"But what was the story? Nobody had bothered to say. So we would have to drum it up on our own. Free Enterprise. The American Dream. \\nHoratio Alger gone mad on drugs in Las Vegas. Do it now: pure Gonzo journalism.\\\"\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nHunter S. Thompson\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nThompson based his style on William Faulkner's notion that \\\"fiction is often the best fact\\\". While the things that Thompson wrote about are basically true, he used satirical devices to drive his points home. He often wrote about recreational drugs and alcohol use which added subjective flair to his reporting. The term \\\"gonzo\\\" has also come into (sometimes pejorative) use to describe journalism in Thompson's style, characterized by a drug-fueled stream of consciousness writing technique.\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nFear and Loathing in Las Vegas followed the Mint 400 piece in 1971 and included a main character by the name of Raoul Duke, accompanied by his attorney, Dr. Gonzo, with defining art by Ralph Steadman. Although this book is considered a prime example of gonzo journalism, Thompson regarded it as a failed experiment. He had intended it to be an unedited record of everything he did as it happened, but he edited the book five times before publication.\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nThompson would instigate events himself, often in a prankish or belligerent manner, and then document both his actions and those of others. Notoriously neglectful of deadlines, Thompson often annoyed his editors because he faxed articles late, \\\"too late to be edited, yet still in time for the printer.\\\" Thompson wanted his work to be read as he wrote it, in its \\\"true Gonzo\\\" form. Historian Douglas Brinkley said gonzo journalism requires virtually no rewriting and frequently uses transcribed interviews and verbatim telephone conversations.\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\n\\\"I don't get any satisfaction out of the old traditional journalist's view: 'I just covered the story. I just gave it a balanced view,'\\\" Thompson said in an interview for the online edition of The Atlantic. \\\"Objective journalism is one of the main reasons American politics has been allowed to be so corrupt for so long. You can't be objective about Nixon.\\\"\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nInfluence\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nThompson felt that objectivity in journalism was a myth. Gonzo journalism has now become a bona fide style of writing that concerns itself with \\\"telling it like it is\\\", similar to the New Journalism of the 1960s, led primarily by Tom Wolfe and also championed by Lester Bangs, George Plimpton, Terry Southern, and John Birmingham, and is considered a subgenre of New Journalism. When asked whether there was a difference between the two, Thompson answered, \\\"Yeah, I think so. Unlike Tom Wolfe or Gay Talese, for instance, I almost never try to reconstruct a story. They're both much better reporters than I am, but then I don't really think of myself as a reporter.\\\"\",\n \"Gonzo journalism\\n\\nIn 1998, Christopher Locke asserted that the web zine genre is descended from gonzo journalism, a claim that has since been extended to social media.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nHunter Stockton Thompson (July 18, 1937 – February 20, 2005) was an American journalist and author, and the founder of the gonzo journalism movement. Born in Louisville, Kentucky, to a middle-class family, Thompson had a turbulent youth after the death of his father left the family in poverty. He was unable to formally finish high school as he was incarcerated for 60 days after abetting a robbery. He subsequently joined the United States Air Force before moving into journalism. He traveled frequently, including stints in California, Puerto Rico, and Brazil, before settling in Aspen, Colorado, in the early 1960s.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson became internationally known with the publication of Hell's Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (1967). For his research on the book he had spent a year living and riding with the Angels, experiencing their lives and hearing their stories first-hand. Previously a relatively conventional journalist, with the publication in 1970 of The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved he became a counter cultural figure, with his own brand of New Journalism which he termed \\\"Gonzo\\\", an experimental style of journalism where reporters involve themselves in the action to such a degree that they become central figures of their stories. The work he remains best known for, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: A Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream (1971), constitutes a rumination on the failure of the 1960s counterculture movement. It was first serialized in Rolling Stone, a magazine with which Thompson would be long associated, and was released as a film starring Johnny Depp and directed by Terry Gilliam in 1998.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nPolitically minded, Thompson ran unsuccessfully for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado, in 1970, on the Freak Power ticket. He became well known for his inveterate hatred of Richard Nixon, who he claimed represented \\\"that dark, venal, and incurably violent side of the American character\\\" and whom he characterized in Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72. Thompson's output notably declined from the mid-1970s, as he struggled with the consequences of fame, and he complained that he could no longer merely report on events as he was too easily recognized. He was also known for his lifelong use of alcohol and illegal drugs, his love of firearms, and his iconoclastic contempt for authoritarianism. He remarked: \\\"I hate to advocate drugs, alcohol, violence, or insanity to anyone, but they've always worked for me.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAfter a bout of health problems, Thompson committed suicide at the age of 67. In accordance with his wishes, his ashes were fired out of a cannon in a ceremony funded by his friend Depp and attended by friends including then-Senator John Kerry and Jack Nicholson. Hari Kunzru wrote that \\\"the true voice of Thompson is revealed to be that of American moralist ... one who often makes himself ugly to expose the ugliness he sees around him.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson was born into a middle-class family in Louisville, Kentucky, the first of three sons of Jack Robert Thompson (September 4, 1893, Horse Cave, Kentucky – July 3, 1952, Louisville), a public insurance adjuster and World War I veteran, and of Virginia Ray Davison (1908, Springfield, Kentucky – March 20, 1998, Louisville), who worked as head librarian at the Louisville Public Library. His parents were introduced to each other by a friend from Jack's fraternity at the University of Kentucky in September 1934, and married on November 2, 1935. Thompson's first name came from a purported ancestor on his mother's side, the Scottish surgeon John Hunter.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nOn December 2, 1943, when Thompson was six years old, the family settled at 2437 Ransdell Avenue in the affluent Cherokee Triangle neighborhood of The Highlands. On July 3, 1952, when Thompson was 14 years old, his father, aged 58, died of myasthenia gravis. Hunter and his brothers, Davison Wheeler (born June 18, 1940) and James Garnet (February 2, 1949 – March 25, 1993), were raised by their mother. Hunter also had a much older half-brother, James Thompson, Jr., from his father's first marriage, who was not part of the Thompson household. Virginia worked as a librarian to support her children, and is described as having become a \\\"heavy drinker\\\" following her husband's death.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nInterested in sports and athletically inclined from a young age, Thompson co-founded the Hawks Athletic Club while attending I. N. Bloom Elementary School, which led to an invitation to join Louisville's Castlewood Athletic Club, a club for adolescents that prepared them for high-school sports, where he excelled in baseball. Ultimately he never joined any sports teams in high school.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson attended I. N. Bloom Elementary School, Highland Middle School, and Atherton High School, before transferring to Louisville Male High School in September 1952. Also in 1952, he was accepted as a member of the Athenaeum Literary Association, a school-sponsored literary and social club that dated to 1862. Its members at the time, generally drawn from Louisville's wealthy upper-class families, included Porter Bibb, who became the first publisher of Rolling Stone. During this time Thompson read and admired J. P. Donleavy's The Ginger Man.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAs an Athenaeum member, Thompson contributed articles to and helped produce the club's yearbook The Spectator. The group ejected Thompson in 1955, citing his legal problems. Charged as an accessory to robbery after being in a car with the perpetrator, Thompson was sentenced to 60 days in Kentucky's Jefferson County Jail. He served 31 days and, a week after his release, enlisted in the United States Air Force. While he was in jail, the school superintendent refused him permission to take his high-school final examinations, and as a result he did not graduate.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nMilitary service\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson completed basic training at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas, and transferred to Scott Air Force Base in Belleville, Illinois, to study electronics. He applied to become an aviator, but the Air Force's aviation-cadet program rejected his application. In 1956 he transferred to Eglin Air Force Base near Fort Walton Beach, Florida. While serving at Eglin, he took evening classes at Florida State University. At Eglin, he landed his first professional writing job as sports editor of the The Command Courier by lying about his job experience. In this capacity, he covered the Eglin Eagles football team. Thompson traveled with the team around the US, covering its games. In early 1957 he wrote a sports column for The Playground News, a local newspaper in Fort Walton Beach, Florida. He could not use his name on the column because the Air Force did not allow airmen to hold other jobs.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson was discharged from the Air Force in November 1957 as an Airman First Class, having been recommended for an early honorable discharge by his commanding officer. \\\"In summary, this airman, although talented, will not be guided by policy\\\", Col. William S. Evans, chief of information services wrote to the Eglin personnel office. \\\"Sometimes his rebel and superior attitude seems to rub off on other airmen staff members.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nEarly journalism career\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAfter the Air Force, Thompson worked as sports editor for a newspaper in Jersey Shore, Pennsylvania, before relocating to New York City. There he audited several courses at the Columbia University School of General Studies. During this time he worked briefly for Time as a copy boy for $51 a week. While working, he used a typewriter to copy F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby and Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms in order to learn about the writing styles of the authors. In 1959 Time fired him for insubordination. Later that year he worked as a reporter for The Middletown Daily Record in Middletown, New York. He was fired from this job after damaging an office candy machine and arguing with the owner of a local restaurant who happened to be an advertiser with the paper.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIn 1960, Thompson moved to San Juan, Puerto Rico, to take a job with the sporting magazine El Sportivo, which folded soon after his arrival. Thompson applied for a job with the Puerto Rican English-language daily The San Juan Star, but its managing editor, future novelist William J. Kennedy, turned him down. Nonetheless, the two became friends, and after the demise of El Sportivo, Thompson worked as a stringer for the New York Herald Tribune and for a few stateside papers on Caribbean issues, with Kennedy working as his editor. After returning to the States, Hunter hitchhiked across the United States along U.S. Highway 40, eventually ending up in Big Sur, California working as a security guard and caretaker at the Big Sur hot springs for an eight-month period in 1961, just before it became the Esalen Institute. While there, he published his first magazine feature in the nationally distributed Rogue magazine, on the artisan and bohemian culture of Big Sur. Thompson had had a rocky tenure as caretaker of the hot springs, and the unexpected publicity from the article finally got him fired.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nDuring this period, Thompson wrote two novels, Prince Jellyfish and The Rum Diary, and submitted many short stories to publishers - with little success. The Rum Diary, a novel based on Thompson's experiences in Puerto Rico, was eventually published in .\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nFrom May 1962 to May 1963, Thompson traveled to South America as a correspondent for a Dow Jones-owned weekly newspaper, the National Observer. In Brazil he spent several months as a reporter for the Brazil Herald, the country's only English-language daily, published in Rio de Janeiro. His longtime girlfriend Sandra Dawn Conklin (a.k.a. Sandy Conklin Thompson, now Sondi Wright) later joined him in Rio. They married on May 19, 1963, shortly after returning to the United States, and lived briefly in Aspen, Colorado, where they had a son, Juan Fitzgerald Thompson (born March 23, 1964). The couple conceived five more times, but three pregnancies were miscarried, and the other two produced infants who died shortly after birth. Hunter and Sandy divorced in 1980 but always remained close friends.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIn 1964 the family relocated to Glen Ellen, California, where Thompson continued to write for the National Observer on an array of domestic subjects. One story told of his 1964 visit to Ketchum, Idaho, to investigate the reasons for Ernest Hemingway's suicide. While there, he stole a pair of elk antlers hanging above the front door of Hemingway's cabin. Thompson severed his ties with the Observer after his editor refused to print his review of Tom Wolfe's 1965 essay collection The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby, and moved to San Francisco. He immersed himself in the drug and hippie culture that was taking root in the area, and soon began writing for the Berkeley underground paper The Spyder.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nHell's Angels\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIn 1965 Carey McWilliams, editor of The Nation, hired Thompson to write a story about the California-based Hells Angels motorcycle club. The article appeared on May 17, 1965, and after that Thompson received several book offers and spent the next year living and riding with the gang. The relationship broke down when the bikers perceived that Thompson was exploiting them for personal gain and demanded a share of the profits from his writings. An argument at a party resulted in a savage beating for Thompson (or \\\"stomping\\\", as the Angels referred to it). Random House published the hard-cover Hell's Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs in 1966, and the fight between Thompson and the Angels was well-marketed. CBC Television even broadcast an encounter between Thompson and Hells Angel Skip Workman before a live studio audience.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nA reviewer for The New York Times praised the work as an \\\"angry, knowledgeable, fascinating and excitedly written book\\\", that shows the Hells Angels \\\"not so much as dropouts from society but as total misfits, or unfits — emotionally, intellectually and educationally unfit to achieve the rewards, such as they are, that the contemporary social order offers\\\". The reviewer also praised Thompson as a \\\"spirited, witty, observant and original writer; his prose crackles like motorcycle exhaust\\\".\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nNote: The name of the Hells Angels motorcycle club has no apostrophe, but in the title and in the text of Thompson's book a possessive apostrophe was added to the name, rendering it as Hell's Angels.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nLate 1960s\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nFollowing the success of Hell's Angels, Thompson was able to publish articles in a number of well-known magazines during the late 1960s, including The New York Times Magazine, Esquire, Pageant, and Harper's. In the Times Magazine article, published in 1967, shortly before the \\\"Summer of Love\\\", and titled \\\"The Hashbury is the Capital of the Hippies\\\", Thompson wrote in-depth about the Hippies of San Francisco, deriding a culture that began to lack the political convictions of the New Left and the artistic core of the Beats, instead becoming overrun with newcomers lacking any purpose other than obtaining drugs. It was an observation on the 1960s' counterculture that Thompson would further examine in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas and other articles.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nBy late 1967, Thompson and his family moved back to Colorado and rented a house in Woody Creek, a small mountain hamlet outside Aspen. In early 1969, Thompson finally received a $15,000 royalty check for the paperback sales of Hell's Angels and used two-thirds of the money for a down payment on a modest home and property where he would live for the rest of his life. He named the house Owl Farm and often described it as his \\\"fortified compound.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIn early 1968, Thompson signed the \\\"Writers and Editors War Tax Protest\\\" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War. According to Thompson's letters and his later writings, at this time he planned to write a book called The Joint Chiefs about \\\"the death of the American Dream.\\\" He used a $6,000 advance from Random House to travel on the 1968 Presidential campaign trail and attend the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago for research purposes. From his hotel room in Chicago, Thompson watched the clashes between police and protesters, which he wrote had a great effect on his political views. The book was never finished, and the theme of the death of the American dream would be carried over into his later work. The contract with Random House was eventually fulfilled with the 1972 book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. He also signed a deal with Ballantine Books in 1968 to write a satirical book called The Johnson File about Lyndon B. Johnson. A few weeks after the contract was signed, however, Johnson announced that he would not run for re-election, and the deal was cancelled.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nMiddle years\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIn 1970, Thompson ran for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado, as part of a group of citizens running for local offices on the \\\"Freak Power\\\" ticket. The platform included promoting the decriminalization of drugs (for personal use only, not trafficking, as he disapproved of profiteering), tearing up the streets and turning them into grassy pedestrian malls, banning any building so tall as to obscure the view of the mountains, and renaming Aspen \\\"Fat City\\\" to deter investors. Thompson, having shaved his head, referred to the crew cut-wearing Republican candidate as \\\"my long-haired opponent.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nWith polls showing him with a slight lead in a three-way race, Thompson appeared at Rolling Stone magazine headquarters in San Francisco with a six-pack of beer in hand, and declared to editor Jann Wenner that he was about to be elected Sheriff of Aspen, Colorado, and wished to write about the \\\"Freak Power\\\" movement. Thus, Thompson's first article in Rolling Stone was published as The Battle of Aspen with the byline \\\"By: Dr. Hunter S. Thompson (Candidate for Sheriff).\\\" Despite the publicity, Thompson narrowly lost the election. While carrying the city of Aspen, he garnered only 44% of the county-wide vote in what had become a two-way race. The Republican candidate agreed to withdraw a few days before the election in order to consolidate the anti-Thompson votes, in return for the Democrats withdrawing their candidate for county commissioner. Thompson later remarked that the Rolling Stone article mobilized his opposition far more than his supporters.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nBirth of Gonzo\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAlso in 1970, Thompson wrote an article entitled The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved for the short-lived new journalism magazine Scanlan's Monthly. Although it was not widely read, the article was the first to use the techniques of Gonzo journalism, a style Thompson would later employ in almost every literary endeavor. The manic first-person subjectivity of the story was reportedly the result of sheer desperation; he was facing a looming deadline and started sending the magazine pages ripped out of his notebook. Ralph Steadman, who would collaborate with Thompson on several more projects, contributed expressionist pen-and-ink illustrations.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThe first use of the word \\\"Gonzo\\\" to describe Thompson's work is credited to the journalist Bill Cardoso. Cardoso first met Thompson on a bus full of journalists covering the 1968 New Hampshire primary. In 1970, Cardoso (who was then the editor of The Boston Globe Sunday Magazine) wrote to Thompson praising the Kentucky Derby piece as a breakthrough: \\\"This is it, this is pure Gonzo. If this is a start, keep rolling.\\\" According to Steadman, Thompson took to the word right away and said, \\\"Okay, that's what I do. Gonzo.\\\" Thompson's first published use of the word appears in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: \\\"Free Enterprise. The American Dream. Horatio Alger gone mad on drugs in Las Vegas. Do it now: pure Gonzo journalism.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nFear and Loathing in Las Vegas\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThe book for which Thompson gained most of his fame had its genesis during the research for Strange Rumblings in Aztlan, an exposé for Rolling Stone on the 1970 killing of the Mexican-American television journalist Rubén Salazar. Salazar had been shot in the head at close range with a tear gas canister fired by officers of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department during the National Chicano Moratorium March against the Vietnam War. One of Thompson's sources for the story was Oscar Zeta Acosta, a prominent Mexican-American activist and attorney. Finding it difficult to talk in the racially tense atmosphere of Los Angeles, Thompson and Acosta decided to travel to Las Vegas, and take advantage of an assignment by Sports Illustrated to write a 250-word photograph caption on the Mint 400 motorcycle race held there.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nWhat was to be a short caption quickly grew into something else entirely. Thompson first submitted to Sports Illustrated a manuscript of 2,500 words, which was, as he later wrote, \\\"aggressively rejected.\\\" Rolling Stone publisher Jann Wenner was said to have liked \\\"the first 20 or so jangled pages enough to take it seriously on its own terms and tentatively scheduled it for publication — which gave me the push I needed to keep working on it\\\", Thompson later wrote.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThe result of the trip to Las Vegas became the 1972 book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, which first appeared in the November 1971 issues of Rolling Stone as a two-part series. It is written as a first-person account by a journalist named Raoul Duke on a trip to Las Vegas with Dr. Gonzo, his \\\"300-pound Samoan attorney\\\", to cover a narcotics officers' convention and the \\\"fabulous Mint 400\\\". During the trip, Duke and his companion (always referred to as \\\"my attorney\\\") become sidetracked by a search for the American Dream, with \\\"two bags of grass, seventy-five pellets of mescaline, five sheets of high-powered blotter acid, a salt shaker half full of cocaine, and a whole galaxy of multi-colored uppers, downers, screamers, laughers ... and also a quart of tequila, a quart of rum, a case of Budweiser, a pint of raw ether, and two dozen amyls.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nComing to terms with the failure of the 1960s countercultural movement is a major theme of the novel, and the book was greeted with considerable critical acclaim, including being heralded by The New York Times as \\\"by far the best book yet written on the decade of dope\\\". \\\"The Vegas Book\\\", as Thompson referred to it, was a mainstream success and introduced his Gonzo journalism techniques to a wide public.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nFear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nBeginning in late 1971 Thompson wrote extensively for Rolling Stone on election campaigns of President Richard Nixon and his unsuccessful opponent, Senator George McGovern. The articles were soon combined and published as Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72. As the title suggests, Thompson spent nearly all of his time traveling the \\\"campaign trail\\\", focusing largely on the Democratic Party's primaries - Nixon, as the Republican incumbent, performed little campaign work - in which McGovern competed with rival candidates Edmund Muskie and Hubert Humphrey. Thompson was an early supporter of McGovern and wrote unflattering coverage of the rival campaigns in the increasingly widely read Rolling Stone.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson went on to become a fierce critic of Nixon, both during and after his presidency. After Nixon's death in 1994, Thompson described him in Rolling Stone as a man who \\\"could shake your hand and stab you in the back at the same time\\\" and said \\\"his casket [should] have been launched into one of those open-sewage canals that empty into the ocean just south of Los Angeles. He was a swine of a man and a jabbering dupe of a president. [He] was an evil man—evil in a way that only those who believe in the physical reality of the Devil can understand it.\\\" Following Nixon's pardon by Gerald Ford in 1974, Hunter ruminated on the approximately $400,000 pension Nixon maneuvered his way into, by resigning before being formally indicted.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nWhile the Washington Post was lamenting Nixon's \\\"lonely and depressed\\\" state after being forced from the White House, Hunter wrote that '[i]f there were any such thing as true justice in this world, his [Nixon's] rancid carcass would be somewhere down around Easter Island right now, in the belly of a hammerhead shark.' There was however one passion shared by Thompson and Nixon: a love of football, discussed in Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nLater years\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAccording to Jann Wenner, co-founder and publisher of Rolling Stone, Thompson's journalistic work began to seriously suffer after his trip to Africa to cover \\\"The Rumble in the Jungle\\\"—the world heavyweight boxing match between George Foreman and Muhammad Ali—in 1974. He missed the match while intoxicated at his hotel, and did not submit a story to the magazine. Wenner is quoted by the film critic Roger Ebert as saying in the 2008 documentary of Thompson's life, Gonzo: The Life and Work of Dr. Hunter S. Thompson, \\\"After Africa he just couldn't write. He couldn't piece it together\\\".\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson was to provide Rolling Stone with coverage for the 1976 presidential campaign that would appear in a book published by the magazine. Reportedly, as Thompson was waiting for a $75,000 advance check to arrive, he learned that Rolling Stone publisher Jann Wenner had cancelled the assignment without informing him. Wenner then asked Thompson to travel to Vietnam to report on what appeared to be the closing of the Vietnam War. Thompson accepted, and left for Saigon immediately. He arrived with the country in chaos, just as South Vietnam was collapsing and other journalists were scrambling to find transportation out of the region. While there, Thompson learned that Wenner had pulled the plug on this excursion as well, and Thompson found himself in Vietnam without health insurance or additional financial support. Thompson's story about the fall of Saigon would not be published in Rolling Stone until ten years later. These two incidents severely strained the relationship between the author and the magazine, and Thompson contributed far less to the publication in later years.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThe year 1980 marked both his divorce from Sandra Conklin and the release of Where the Buffalo Roam, a loose film adaptation of situations from Thompson's early 1970s work, with Bill Murray starring as the author. Murray would go on to become one of Thompson's trusted friends. After the lukewarm reception of the film, Thompson temporarily relocated to Hawaii to work on a book, The Curse of Lono, a Gonzo-style account of a marathon held in that state. Extensively illustrated by Ralph Steadman, the piece first appeared in Running magazine in 1981 as The Charge of the Weird Brigade and was excerpted in Playboy in 1983.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nOn July 21, 1981, in Aspen, Colorado, Thompson was pulled over at 2am for running a stop sign, and began to \\\"rave\\\" at a state trooper. Consequently, he was arrested, but the drunk-driving charges against him were later dropped.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIn 1983, he covered the U.S. invasion of Grenada but would not discuss these experiences until the publication of Kingdom of Fear 20 years later. Later that year he authored a piece for Rolling Stone called A Dog Took My Place, an exposé of the scandalous Roxanne Pulitzer divorce and what he termed the \\\"Palm Beach lifestyle.\\\" The article contained dubious insinuations of bestiality (among other things) but was considered to be a return to proper form by many. Shortly thereafter, Thompson accepted an advance to write about \\\"couples pornography\\\" for Playboy. As part of his research, in the spring of 1985 he spent evenings at the Mitchell Brothers O'Farrell Theater striptease club in San Francisco and his experience there eventually evolved into a full-length novel tentatively titled The Night Manager. Neither the novel nor the article has been published.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAt the behest of old friend and editor Warren Hinckle, Thompson became a media critic for the San Francisco Examiner, writing a weekly column for the newspaper in the mid-to-late 1980s. Thompson's editor at the Examiner, David McCumber (who wrote a Mitchell brothers biography not long after Jim Mitchell fatally shot his brother Art in 1991), would later ruminate on the erratic quality of Thompson's writing by this juncture, opining that \\\"one week it would be acid-soaked gibberish with a charm of its own. The next week it would be incisive political analysis of the highest order...\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIn 1990, former porn director Gail Palmer visited Thompson's home in Woody Creek. She later accused him of sexual assault, claiming that he twisted her breast when she refused to join him in the hot tub. She also described cocaine use to authorities. A six-person, 11-hour search of Thompson's home turned up various kinds of drugs and a few sticks of dynamite. All charges were dismissed after a pre-trial hearing. Thompson would later describe this experience at length in Kingdom of Fear.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nBy the early 1990s, Thompson was said to be working on a novel called Polo Is My Life, which was briefly excerpted in Rolling Stone in 1994, and which Thompson himself described in 1996 as \\\"... a sex book — you know, sex, drugs and rock and roll. It's about the manager of a sex theater who's forced to leave and flee to the mountains. He falls in love and gets in even more trouble than he was in the sex theater in San Francisco\\\". The novel was slated to be released by Random House in 1999, and was even assigned ISBN 0-679-40694-8, but was not published.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson continued to contribute irregularly to Rolling Stone. Fear and Loathing in Elko, published in 1992, was a well-received fictional rallying cry against Clarence Thomas, while Mr. Bill's Neighborhood was a largely non-fictional account of an interview with Bill Clinton at a Little Rock, Arkansas steakhouse. Rather than embarking on the campaign trail as he had done in previous presidential elections, Thompson monitored the proceedings from cable television; Better Than Sex: Confessions of a Political Junkie, his account of the 1992 presidential election campaign, is composed of reactionary faxes sent to Rolling Stone. A decade later, he contributed Fear and Loathing, Campaign 2004—an account of a road jaunt with John Kerry during his presidential campaign that would be Thompson's final magazine feature.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson was named a Kentucky Colonel by the Governor of Kentucky in a December 1996 tribute ceremony where he also received keys to the city of Louisville.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThe Gonzo Papers\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nDespite publishing a novel and numerous newspaper and magazine articles, the majority of Thompson's literary output after the late 1970s took the form of a four-volume series of books called The Gonzo Papers. Beginning with The Great Shark Hunt in 1979 and ending with Better Than Sex in 1994, the series is largely a collection of rare newspaper and magazine pieces from the pre-gonzo period, along with almost all of his Rolling Stone short pieces, excerpts from the Fear and Loathing books, and so on.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nBy the late 1970s, Thompson had received complaints from critics, fans and friends that he was regurgitating his past glories without much new on his part; these concerns are alluded to in the introduction of The Great Shark Hunt, where Thompson suggested that his \\\"old self\\\" committed suicide.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nPerhaps in response to this, as well as the strained relationship with Rolling Stone, and the failure of his marriage, Thompson became more reclusive after 1980. He would often retreat to his compound in Woody Creek and reject assignments or refuse to complete them. Despite the dearth of new material, Wenner kept Thompson on the Rolling Stone masthead as chief of the \\\"National Affairs Desk\\\", a position he would hold until his death.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nFear and Loathing redux\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson's work was popularized again with the 1998 release of the film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, which opened to considerable fanfare. The book was reprinted to coincide with the film, and Thompson's work was introduced to a new generation of readers. Soon thereafter, his \\\"long lost\\\" novel The Rum Diary was published, as were the first two volumes of his collected letters, which were greeted with critical acclaim.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIn July 2000, Thompson accidentally shot his assistant, Deborah Fuller, while attempting to scare a bear away from her lodging on The Owl Farm. He fired a shotgun at the ground near the bear, and the pellets ricocheted upward, hitting her in the right arm and leg. She was quoted as saying \\\"I screamed 'You son of a bitch, you shot me.' And poor Hunter. I don't think I had ever seen him run so fast. He felt horrible.\\\" No charges were filed for the incident.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson's next, and penultimate, collection, Kingdom of Fear, combined new material, selected newspaper clippings, and some older works. Released in 2003, it was perceived by critics to be an angry, vitriolic commentary on the passing of the American Century, and the state of affairs after the September 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson completed his journalism career in the same way it had begun: writing about sports. Thompson penned a weekly column called \\\"Hey, Rube\\\" for ESPN.com's \\\"Page 2\\\". The column ran from 2000 until his death in 2005. Simon & Schuster bundled many of the columns from the first few years and released it in mid-2004 as Hey Rube: Blood Sport, the Bush Doctrine, and the Downward Spiral of Dumbness.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson married Anita Bejmuk on April 23, 2003.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nDeath\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson died from a gunshot wound to the head—allegedly self-inflicted—at Owl Farm, his \\\"fortified compound\\\" in Woody Creek, Colorado, at 5:42 p.m. on February 20, 2005. His son Juan, daughter-in-law Jennifer, and grandson Will were visiting for the weekend. His wife Anita, who was at the Aspen Club, was on the phone with him as he cocked the gun. According to the Aspen Daily News, Thompson asked her to come home to help him write his ESPN column, then set the receiver on the counter. Anita said she mistook the cocking of the gun for the sound of his typewriter keys and hung up as he fired. Will and Jennifer were in the next room when they heard the gunshot, but mistook the sound for a book falling and did not check on Thompson immediately. Juan Thompson found his father's body. According to the police report and Anita's cell phone records, he called the sheriff's department half an hour later, then walked outside and fired three shotgun blasts into the air to \\\"mark the passing of his father\\\". The police report stated that in Thompson's typewriter was a piece of paper with the date and a single word, \\\"counselor\\\".\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson's inner circle told the press that he had been depressed and always found February a \\\"gloomy\\\" month, with football season over and the harsh Colorado winter weather. He was also upset over his advancing age and chronic medical problems, including a hip replacement; he would frequently mutter \\\"This kid is getting old.\\\" Rolling Stone published what Doug Brinkley described as a suicide note written by Thompson to his wife, titled \\\"Football Season Is Over\\\". It read:\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\n\\\"No More Games. No More Bombs. No More Walking. No More Fun. No More Swimming. 67. That is 17 years past 50. 17 more than I needed or wanted. Boring. I am always bitchy. No Fun — for anybody. 67. You are getting Greedy. Act your (old) age. Relax — This won't hurt.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson's collaborator and friend Ralph Steadman wrote:\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\n\\\"... He told me 25 years ago that he would feel real trapped if he didn't know that he could commit suicide at any moment. I don't know if that is brave or stupid or what, but it was inevitable. I think that the truth of what rings through all his writing is that he meant what he said. If that is entertainment to you, well, that's OK. If you think that it enlightened you, well, that's even better. If you wonder if he's gone to Heaven or Hell, rest assured he will check out them both, find out which one Richard Milhous Nixon went to — and go there. He could never stand being bored. But there must be Football too — and Peacocks ...\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nFuneral\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nOn August 20, 2005, in a private funeral, Thompson's ashes were fired from a cannon. This was accompanied by red, white, blue and green fireworks—all to the tune of Norman Greenbaum's \\\"Spirit in the Sky\\\" and Bob Dylan's \\\"Mr. Tambourine Man\\\". The cannon was placed atop a 153 ft tower which had the shape of a double-thumbed fist clutching a peyote button, a symbol originally used in his 1970 campaign for Sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado. The plans for the monument were initially drawn by Thompson and Steadman, and were shown as part of an Omnibus program on the BBC titled Fear and Loathing in Gonzovision (1978). It is included as a special feature on the second disc of the 2003 Criterion Collection DVD release of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, and labeled as Fear and Loathing on the Road to Hollywood.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAccording to his widow, Anita, the funeral was funded by actor Johnny Depp, who was a close friend of Thompson. Depp told the Associated Press, \\\"All I'm doing is trying to make sure his last wish comes true. I just want to send my pal out the way he wants to go out.\\\" An estimated 280 people attended, including U.S. Senators John Kerry and George McGovern; 60 Minutes correspondents Ed Bradley and Charlie Rose; actors Jack Nicholson, John Cusack, Bill Murray, Benicio del Toro, Sean Penn, and Josh Hartnett; singers Lyle Lovett, John Oates and David Amram, and artist and long-time friend Ralph Steadman.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nWriting style\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson is often credited as the creator of Gonzo journalism, a style of writing that blurs distinctions between fiction and nonfiction. His work and style are considered to be a major part of the New Journalism literary movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which attempted to break free from the purely objective style of mainstream reportage of the time. Thompson almost always wrote in the first person, while extensively using his own experiences and emotions to color \\\"the story\\\" he was trying to follow. His writing aimed to be humorous, colorful and bizarre, and he often exaggerated events to be more entertaining. The term Gonzo has since been applied in kind to numerous other forms of highly subjective artistic expression.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nDespite his having personally described his work as \\\"Gonzo\\\", it fell to later observers to articulate what the term actually meant. While Thompson's approach clearly involved injecting himself as a participant in the events of the narrative, it also involved adding invented, metaphoric elements, thus creating, for the uninitiated reader, a seemingly confusing amalgam of facts and fiction notable for the deliberately blurred lines between one and the other. Thompson, in a 1974 interview in Playboy addressed the issue himself, saying \\\"Unlike Tom Wolfe or Gay Talese, I almost never try to reconstruct a story. They're both much better reporters than I am, but then, I don't think of myself as a reporter.\\\" Tom Wolfe would later describe Thompson's style as \\\"... part journalism and part personal memoir admixed with powers of wild invention and wilder rhetoric.\\\" Or as one description of the differences between Thompson and Wolfe's styles would elaborate, \\\"While Tom Wolfe mastered the technique of being a fly on the wall, Thompson mastered the art of being a fly in the ointment.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThe majority of Thompson's most popular and acclaimed work appeared within the pages of Rolling Stone magazine. Along with Joe Eszterhas and David Felton, Thompson was instrumental in expanding the focus of the magazine past music criticism; indeed, Thompson was the only staff writer of the epoch never to contribute a music feature to the magazine. Nevertheless, his articles were always peppered with a wide array of pop music references ranging from Howlin' Wolf to Lou Reed. Armed with early fax machines wherever he went, he became notorious for haphazardly sending sometimes illegible material to the magazine's San Francisco offices as an issue was about to go to press.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nRobert Love, Thompson's editor of 23 years at Rolling Stone, wrote that \\\"the dividing line between fact and fancy rarely blurred, and we didn't always use italics or some other typographical device to indicate the lurch into the fabulous. But if there were living, identifiable humans in a scene, we took certain steps ... Hunter was a close friend of many prominent Democrats, veterans of the ten or more presidential campaigns he covered, so when in doubt, we'd call the press secretary. 'People will believe almost any twisted kind of story about politicians or Washington,' he once said, and he was right.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nDiscerning the line between the fact and the fiction of Thompson's work presented a practical problem for editors and fact-checkers of his work. Love called fact-checking Thompson's work \\\"one of the sketchiest occupations ever created in the publishing world\\\", and \\\"for the first-timer ... a trip through a journalistic fun house, where you didn't know what was real and what wasn't. You knew you had better learn enough about the subject at hand to know when the riff began and reality ended. Hunter was a stickler for numbers, for details like gross weight and model numbers, for lyrics and caliber, and there was no faking it.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nPersona\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson often used a blend of fiction and fact when portraying himself in his writing as well, sometimes using the name Raoul Duke as an author surrogate whom he generally described as a callous, erratic, self-destructive journalist who constantly drank alcohol and took hallucinogenic drugs. Fantasizing about causing bodily harm to others was also a characteristic in his work used to comedic effect and an example of his brand of humor.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIn the late sixties, Thompson acquired his famous title of \\\"Doctor\\\" from the Universal Life Church. He later preferred to be called Dr. Thompson, and his \\\"alter-ego\\\" Raoul Duke called himself a \\\"doctor of journalism\\\". Thompson was as fond of personae as W.C. Fields: besides \\\"Raoul Duke\\\", Thompson also toyed with the idea of taking the names \\\"Jefferson Rank\\\", \\\"Gene Skinner\\\", and \\\"Sebastian Owl\\\" for various purposes literary and non-literary, naming his \\\"compound\\\" in Woody Creek, Colorado, \\\"Owl Farm\\\" after the last of these.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nA number of critics have commented that as he grew older the line that distinguished Thompson from his literary self became increasingly blurred. Thompson himself admitted during a 1978 BBC interview that he sometimes felt pressured to live up to the fictional self that he had created, adding \\\"I'm never sure which one people expect me to be. Very often, they conflict — most often, as a matter of fact. ... I'm leading a normal life and right along side me there is this myth, and it is growing and mushrooming and getting more and more warped. When I get invited to, say, speak at universities, I'm not sure if they are inviting Duke or Thompson. I'm not sure who to be.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson's writing style and eccentric persona gave him a cult following in both literary and drug circles, and his cult status expanded into broader areas after being portrayed three times in major motion pictures. Hence, both his writing style and persona have been widely imitated, and his likeness has even become a popular costume choice for Halloween.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nPolitical beliefs\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson was a firearms and explosives enthusiast (in his writing and in life) and owned a vast collection of handguns, rifles, shotguns, and various automatic and semi-automatic weapons, along with numerous forms of gaseous crowd control and many homemade devices. He was a proponent of the right to bear arms and privacy rights. A member of the National Rifle Association, Thompson was also co-creator of \\\"The Fourth Amendment Foundation\\\", an organization to assist victims in defending themselves against unwarranted search and seizure.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nPart of his work with The Fourth Amendment Foundation centered around support of Lisl Auman, a Colorado woman who was sentenced for life in 1997 under felony murder charges for the death of police officer Bruce VanderJagt, despite contradictory statements and dubious evidence. Thompson organized rallies, provided legal support, and co-wrote an article in the June 2004 issue of Vanity Fair outlining the case. The Colorado Supreme Court eventually overturned Auman's sentence in March 2005, shortly after Thompson's death, and Auman is now free. Auman's supporters claim Thompson's support and publicity resulted in the successful appeal.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson was also an ardent supporter of drug legalization and became known for his detailed accounts of his own drug use. He was an early supporter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws and served on the group's advisory board for over 30 years, until his death. He told an interviewer in 1997 that drugs should be legalized \\\"[a]cross the board. It might be a little rough on some people for a while, but I think it's the only way to deal with drugs. Look at Prohibition: all it did was make a lot of criminals rich.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAlthough Thompson rarely personally endorsed political labels or programs in his writings, he sometimes expressed affinity with the left and at other times the right (gun rights, private property rights). In a 1965 letter to his friend Paul Semonin, Thompson explained an affection for the Industrial Workers of the World, \\\"I have in recent months come to have a certain feeling for Joe Hill and the Wobbly crowd who, if nothing else, had the right idea. But not the right mechanics. I believe the IWW was probably the last human concept in American politics.\\\" In another letter to Semonin, Thompson wrote that he agreed with Karl Marx, and compared him to Thomas Jefferson. In a letter to William Kennedy, Thompson confided that he was \\\"coming to view the free enterprise system as the single greatest evil in the history of human savagery.\\\" In the documentary Breakfast with Hunter, Hunter S. Thompson is seen in several scenes wearing different Che Guevara T-shirts. Additionally, actor and friend Benicio del Toro has stated that Thompson kept a \\\"big\\\" picture of Che in his kitchen. Thompson wrote on behalf of African American rights and the African American Civil Rights Movement.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nHe strongly criticized the dominance in American society of, what he called, \\\"white power structures\\\".\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAfter the September 11 attacks, Thompson voiced skepticism regarding the official story on who was responsible for the attacks. He speculated to several interviewers that it may have been conducted by the U.S. Government or with the government's assistance, though readily admitting he had no way to prove his theory.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIn 2004, Thompson wrote: \\\"Nixon was a professional politician, and I despised everything he stood for—but if he were running for president this year against the evil Bush–Cheney gang, I would happily vote for him.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nWorks\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nBooks\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson wrote a number of books, publishing from 1966 to the end of his life. His best-known works include Hell's Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, and The Rum Diary.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nArticles\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAs a journalist over the course of decades, Thompson published numerous articles in various periodicals. He wrote for many publications, including Rolling Stone, Esquire, The Boston Globe, Chicago Tribune, The New York Times, Time, Vanity Fair, The San Juan Star, and Playboy. He was also guest editor for a single edition of The Aspen Daily News. A collection of his articles for Rolling Stone was released in 2011 as Fear and Loathing at Rolling Stone: The Essential Writings of Hunter S. Thompson. The book was edited by the magazine's co-founder and publisher, Jann S. Wenner, who also provided an introduction to the collection.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nLetters\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson wrote many letters, which were his primary means of personal communication. He made carbon copies of all his letters, usually typed, a habit begun in his teenage years.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThe Fear and Loathing Letters is a three-volume collection of selections from Thompson's correspondence, edited by the historian Douglas Brinkley. The first volume, The Proud Highway was published in 1997, and contains letters from 1955 to 1967. Fear and Loathing in America was published in 2000 and contains letters dating from 1968 to 1976. A third volume, titled The Mutineer: Rants, Ravings, and Missives from the Mountaintop 1977–2005 was edited by Douglas Brinkley and published by Simon & Schuster in 2005. As of July 2015, it has yet to be sold to the public. It contains a special introduction by Johnny Depp.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIllustrations\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAccompanying the eccentric and colorful writing of Hunter Thompson, illustrations by British artist Ralph Steadman offer visual representations of the Gonzo style. Steadman and Thompson developed a close friendship, and often traveled together. Though his illustrations occur in most of Thompson's books, they are conspicuously featured in full page color in Thompson's The Curse of Lono, set in Hawaii.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nPhotography\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThompson was an avid amateur photographer throughout his life and his photos have been exhibited since his death at art galleries in the United States and United Kingdom. In late 2006, AMMO Books published a limited-edition 224-page collection of Thompson photos called Gonzo, with an introduction by Johnny Depp. Thompson's snapshots were a combination of the subjects he was covering, stylized self-portraits, and artistic still life photos. The London Observer called the photos \\\"astonishingly good\\\" and noted that \\\"Thompson's pictures remind us, brilliantly in every sense, of very real people, real colours.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nFeature films\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThe film Where the Buffalo Roam (1980) depicts heavily fictionalized attempts by Thompson to cover the Super Bowl and the 1972 U.S. presidential election. It stars Bill Murray as Thompson and Peter Boyle as Thompson's attorney Oscar Zeta Acosta, referred to in the movie as Carl Lazlo, Esq.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThe 1998 film adaptation of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas was directed by Monty Python veteran Terry Gilliam, and starred Johnny Depp (who moved into Thompson's basement to \\\"study\\\" Thompson's persona before assuming his role in the film) as Raoul Duke and Benicio del Toro as Dr. Gonzo. The film has achieved something of a cult following.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThe film adaptation of Thompson's novel The Rum Diary was released in October 2011, also starring Johnny Depp as the main character, Paul Kemp. The novel's premise was inspired by Thompson's own experiences in Puerto Rico. The film was written and directed by Bruce Robinson.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAt a press junket for The Rum Diary shortly before the film's release, Depp said that he would like to adapt The Curse of Lono, \\\"The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved\\\", and Hell's Angels for the big screen: \\\"I'd just keep playing Hunter. There's a great comfort in it for me, because I get a great visit with my old friend who I miss dearly.\\\"\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nDocumentaries\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nFear and Loathing in Gonzovision (1978) is an extended television profile by the BBC. It can be found on disc 2 of The Criterion Collection edition of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nThe Mitchell brothers, owners of the O'Farrell Theatre in San Francisco, made a documentary about Thompson in 1988 called Hunter S. Thompson: The Crazy Never Die.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nWayne Ewing created three documentaries about Thompson. The film Breakfast with Hunter (2003) was directed and edited by Ewing. It documents Thompson's work on the movie Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, his arrest for drunk driving, and his subsequent fight with the court system. When I Die (2005) is a video chronicle of making Thompson's final farewell wishes a reality, and documents the send-off itself. Free Lisl: Fear and Loathing in Denver (2006) chronicles Thompson's efforts in helping to free Lisl Auman, who was sentenced to life in prison without parole for the shooting of a police officer, a crime she didn't commit. All three films are only available online.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIn Come on Down: Searching for the American Dream (2004) Thompson gives director Adamm Liley insight into the nature of the American Dream over drinks at the Woody Creek Tavern.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nBuy the Ticket, Take the Ride: Hunter S. Thompson on Film (2006) was directed by Tom Thurman, written by Tom Marksbury, and produced by the Starz Entertainment Group. The original documentary features interviews with Thompson's inner circle of family and friends, but the thrust of the film focuses on the manner in which his life often overlapped with numerous Hollywood celebrities who became his close friends, such as Johnny Depp, Benicio del Toro, Bill Murray, Sean Penn, John Cusack, Thompson's wife Anita, son Juan, former Senators George McGovern and Gary Hart, writers Tom Wolfe and William F. Buckley, actors Gary Busey and Harry Dean Stanton, and the illustrator Ralph Steadman among others.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nBlasted!!! The Gonzo Patriots of Hunter S. Thompson (2006), produced, directed, photographed and edited by Blue Kraning, is a documentary about the scores of fans who volunteered their privately owned artillery to fire the ashes of the late author, Hunter S. Thompson. Blasted!!! premiered at the 2006 Starz Denver International Film Festival, part of a tribute series to Hunter S. Thompson held at the Denver Press Club.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nIn 2008, Academy Award-winning documentarian Alex Gibney (Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room, Taxi to the Dark Side) wrote and directed a documentary on Thompson, titled Gonzo: The Life and Work of Dr. Hunter S. Thompson. The film premiered on January 20, 2008, at the Sundance Film Festival. Gibney uses intimate, never-before-seen home videos, interviews with friends, enemies and lovers, and clips from films adapted from Thompson's material to document his turbulent life.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nTheater\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nLou Stein's adaptation of \\\"Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas\\\" was performed at the Battersea theatre. Stein persuades London's 'Time Out' Magazine to put Thompson up for a fortnight, in exchange for him writing a cover story to publicize the play. Thompson doesn't write the story, but does rampage around London on Time Out's expense account. The play was revived for the Vault Fringe Festival in 2014.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nGONZO: A Brutal Chrysalis is a one-man show about Thompson written by Paul Addis, who also played the author. Set in the writing den of Thompson's Woody Creek home, the show portrays his life between 1968 and 1971. James Cartee began playing the role soon after Addis's arrest in 2009, and again after Addis's death in 2012.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nAccolades and tributes\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\n* Author Tom Wolfe has called Thompson the greatest American comic writer of the 20th century. * Asked in an interview with Jody Denberg on KGSR Studio, in 2000, whether he would ever consider writing a book \\\"like [his] buddy Hunter S. Thompson\\\", the musician Warren Zevon responded: \\\"Let's remember that Hunter S. Thompson is the finest writer of our generation; he didn't just toss off a book the other day...\\\" \\n* Thompson appeared on the cover of the 1,000th issue of Rolling Stone, May 18 – June 1, 2006, as a devil playing the guitar next to the two \\\"L\\\"'s in the word \\\"Rolling\\\". Johnny Depp also appeared on the cover. * The Thompson-inspired character Uncle Duke appears on a recurring basis in Doonesbury, the daily newspaper comic strip by Garry Trudeau. When the character was first introduced, Thompson protested, quoted in an interview as saying that he would set Trudeau on fire if the two ever met, although it was reported that he liked the character in later years.\",\n \"Hunter S. Thompson\\n\\nBetween March 7, 2005 (roughly two weeks after Thompson's suicide) and March 12, 2005, Doonesbury ran a tribute to Hunter, with Uncle Duke lamenting the death of the man he called his \\\"inspiration\\\". The first of these strips featured a panel with artwork similar to that of Ralph Steadman, and later strips featured various non-sequiturs (with Duke variously transforming into a monster, melting, shrinking to the size of an empty drinking glass, or people around him turning into animals) which seemed to mirror some of the effects of hallucinogenic drugs described in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137087,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2315"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Born Lee Jun-fan in San Francisco, what famed martial artist, who died on Jul 20, 1973, founded the martial art known as Jeet Kune Do?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Bruce Lee"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["sai fon","bruce j lee","ley siw long","unstoppable punch","li jhen fan","li zhen fan","bruce lee foundation","sai feng","bruce lee","léih síulùhng","physical fitness and nutrition of bruce lee","lee jun fan","李小龙","lǐ xiǎolóng","lee bruce","bruce junfan lee","fight history of bruce lee","ley jan fahn","李小龍","bruce lee fitness","李振藩","li xiaolong","li zhèn fán","li jhenfan","li zhenfan","li chen fan","li zhènfán"],"string":"[\n \"sai fon\",\n \"bruce j lee\",\n \"ley siw long\",\n \"unstoppable punch\",\n \"li jhen fan\",\n \"li zhen fan\",\n \"bruce lee foundation\",\n \"sai feng\",\n \"bruce lee\",\n \"léih síulùhng\",\n \"physical fitness and nutrition of bruce lee\",\n \"lee jun fan\",\n \"李小龙\",\n \"lǐ xiǎolóng\",\n \"lee bruce\",\n \"bruce junfan lee\",\n \"fight history of bruce lee\",\n \"ley jan fahn\",\n \"李小龍\",\n \"bruce lee fitness\",\n \"李振藩\",\n \"li xiaolong\",\n \"li zhèn fán\",\n \"li jhenfan\",\n \"li zhenfan\",\n \"li chen fan\",\n \"li zhènfán\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Bruce Lee\n\nLee Jun-fan (; November 27, 1940 – July 20, 1973), known professionally as Bruce Lee, was a Hong Kong American martial artist, actor, philosopher, filmmaker, and founder of the martial art Jeet Kune Do. Lee was the son of Cantonese opera star Lee Hoi-Chuen. He is widely considered by commentators, critics, media, and other martial artists to be one of the most influential martial artists of all time, and a pop culture icon of the 20th century. He is often credited with helping to change the way Asians were presented in American films.","Bruce Lee\n\nLee was born in Chinatown, San Francisco on November 27, 1940 to parents from Hong Kong and was raised in Kowloon with his family until his late teens. He was introduced to the film industry by his father and appeared in several films as a child actor. Lee moved to the United States at the age of 18 to receive his higher education, at the University of Washington, at Seattle and it was during this time that he began teaching martial arts. His Hong Kong and Hollywood-produced films elevated the traditional Hong Kong martial arts film to a new level of popularity and acclaim, sparking a surge of interest in Chinese martial arts in the West in the 1970s. The direction and tone of his films changed and influenced martial arts and martial arts films in the United States, Hong Kong and the rest of the world.","Bruce Lee\n\nHe is noted for his roles in five feature-length films: Lo Wei's The Big Boss (1971) and Fist of Fury (1972); Golden Harvest's Way of the Dragon (1972), directed and written by Lee; Golden Harvest and Warner Brothers' Enter the Dragon (1973) and The Game of Death (1978), both directed by Robert Clouse. Lee became an iconic figure known throughout the world, particularly among the Chinese, as he portrayed Chinese nationalism in his films. He trained in the art of Wing Chun and later combined his other influences from various sources, in the spirit of his personal martial arts philosophy, which he dubbed Jeet Kune Do (The Way of the Intercepting Fist). \nLee held dual nationality of Hong Kong and the United States. He died in Kowloon Tong on July 20, 1973 at the age of 32.","Bruce Lee\n\nEarly life","Bruce Lee\n\nBruce Lee was born on November 27, 1940, at the Chinese Hospital, in San Francisco's Chinatown. According to the Chinese zodiac, Lee was born in both the hour and the year of the Dragon, which according to tradition is a strong and fortuitous omen.","Bruce Lee\n\nBruce's father, Lee Hoi-chuen, (李海泉) was Han Chinese, and his mother, Grace Ho (何愛瑜), was of half-Chinese and half-Caucasian descent. Grace Ho was the adopted daughter of Ho Kom-tong (Ho Gumtong, 何甘棠) and the half-niece of Sir Robert Ho-tung, both notable Hong Kong businessmen and philanthropists, and was a reportedly a half-German Catholic. Bruce was the fourth child of five children: Phoebe Lee (李秋源), Agnes Lee (李秋鳳), Peter Lee (李忠琛), and Robert Lee (李振輝). Lee and his parents returned to Hong Kong when he was three months old.","Bruce Lee\n\nNames","Bruce Lee\n\nLee's Cantonese birth name was Lee Jun-fan (李振藩).振藩; Mandarin Pinyin: Zhènfán) The name homophonically means \"return again\", and was given to Lee by his mother, who felt he would return to the United States once he came of age. Because of his mother's superstitious nature, she had originally named him Sai-fon (細鳳), which is a feminine name meaning \"small phoenix\". The English name \"Bruce\" is thought to have been given by the hospital attending physician, Dr. Mary Glover.","Bruce Lee\n\nLee had three other Chinese names: Li Yuanxin (李源鑫), a family/clan name; Li Yuanjian (李元鑒), which he used as a student name while he was attending La Salle College, and his Chinese screen name Li Xiaolong (李小龍; Xiaolong means \"little dragon\"). Lee's given name Jun-fan was originally written in Chinese as 震藩, however, the Jun (震) Chinese character was identical to part of his grandfather's name, Lee Jun-biu (李震彪). Hence, the Chinese character for Jun in Lee's name was changed to the homonym 振 instead, to avoid naming taboo in Chinese tradition.","Bruce Lee\n\nFamily","Bruce Lee\n\nLee's father, Lee Hoi-chuen, was one of the leading Cantonese opera and film actors at the time, and was embarking on a year-long opera tour with his family on the eve of the Japanese invasion of Hong Kong. Lee Hoi-chuen had been touring the United States for many years and performing at numerous Chinese communities there.","Bruce Lee\n\nAlthough many of his peers decided to stay in the United States, Lee Hoi-chuen returned to Hong Kong after Bruce's birth. Within months, Hong Kong was invaded and the Lees lived for three years and eight months under Japanese occupation. After the war ended, Lee Hoi-chuen resumed his acting career and became a more popular actor during Hong Kong's rebuilding years.","Bruce Lee\n\nLee's mother, Grace Ho, was from one of the wealthiest and most powerful clans in Hong Kong, the Ho-tungs. She was the half-niece of Sir Robert Ho-tung, the Eurasian patriarch of the clan. As such, the young Bruce Lee grew up in an affluent and privileged environment. Despite the advantage of his family's status, the neighborhood in which Lee grew up became overcrowded, dangerous, and full of gang rivalries due to an influx of refugees fleeing communist China for Hong Kong, at that time a British Crown colony.","Bruce Lee\n\nAfter Lee was involved in several street fights, his parents decided that he needed to be trained in the martial arts. Lee's first introduction to martial arts was through his father, from whom he learned the fundamentals of Wu-style t'ai chi ch'uan.","Bruce Lee\n\nWing Chun","Bruce Lee\n\nThe largest influence on Lee's martial arts development was his study of Wing Chun. Lee began training in Wing Chun when he was 16 years old under the Wing Chun teacher Yip Man in 1957, after losing several fights with rival gang members. Yip's regular classes generally consisted of the forms practice, chi sao (sticking hands) drills, wooden dummy techniques, and free-sparring. There was no set pattern to the classes. Yip tried to keep his students from fighting in the street gangs of Hong Kong by encouraging them to fight in organized competitions.","Bruce Lee\n\nAfter a year into his Wing Chun training, most of Yip Man's other students refused to train with Lee after they learned of his mixed ancestry, as the Chinese were generally against teaching their martial arts techniques to non-Asians. Lee's sparring partner, Hawkins Cheung states, \"Probably fewer than six people in the whole Wing Chun clan were personally taught, or even partly taught, by Yip Man\". However, Lee showed a keen interest in Wing Chun, and continued to train privately with Yip Man and Wong Shun Leung in 1955. Wan Kam Leung, a student of Wong's, witnessed a sparring bout between Wong and Lee, and noted the speed and precision with which Lee was able to deliver his kicks. Lee continued to train with Wong Shun Leung after later returning to Hong Kong from America.","Bruce Lee\n\nLeaving Hong Kong","Bruce Lee\n\nAfter attending Tak Sun School (德信學校) (several blocks from his home at 218 Nathan Road, Kowloon), Lee entered the primary school division of La Salle College at the age of 12. In around 1956, due to poor academic performance (or possibly poor conduct as well), he was transferred to St. Francis Xavier's College (high school) where he would be mentored by Brother Edward, a teacher and coach of the school boxing team.","Bruce Lee\n\nIn the spring of 1959, Lee got into yet another street fight and the police were called. \nUntil his late teens, Lee's street fights became more frequent and included beating the son of a feared triad family. Eventually, Lee's father decided his son should leave Hong Kong to pursue a safer and healthier life in the United States. His parents confirmed the police's fear that this time Lee's opponent had an organised crime background, and there was the possibility that a contract was out for his life.","Bruce Lee\n\nIn April 1959, Lee's parents decided to send him to the United States to stay with his older sister, Agnes Lee (李秋鳳), who was already living with family friends in San Francisco.","Bruce Lee\n\nNew life in America","Bruce Lee\n\nAt the age of 18, Lee returned to the United States. After living in San Francisco for several months, he moved to Seattle in 1959, to continue his high school education, where he also worked for Ruby Chow as a live-in waiter at her restaurant.","Bruce Lee\n\nChow's husband was a co-worker and friend of Lee's father. Lee's elder brother Peter Lee (李忠琛) would also join him in Seattle for a short stay before moving on to Minnesota to attend college. In December 1960, Lee completed his high school education and received his diploma from Edison Technical School (now Seattle Central Community College, located on Capitol Hill in Seattle).","Bruce Lee\n\nIn March 1961, Lee enrolled at the University of Washington, majoring in drama according to a 1999 article in the university's alumni magazine, not in philosophy as stated by Lee himself and many others. Lee also studied philosophy, psychology, and various other subjects. It was at the University of Washington that he met his future wife Linda Emery, a fellow student studying to become a teacher, whom he married in August 1964.","Bruce Lee\n\nLee had two children with Linda Emery, Brandon Lee (1965–93) and Shannon Lee (born 1969).","Bruce Lee\n\nMartial arts career","Bruce Lee\n\nJun Fan Gung Fu","Bruce Lee\n\nLee began teaching martial arts in the United States in 1959. He called what he taught Jun Fan Gung Fu (literally Bruce Lee's Kung Fu). It was basically his approach to Wing Chun. Lee taught friends he met in Seattle, starting with Judo practitioner Jesse Glover, who continued to teach some of Lee's early techniques. Taky Kimura became Lee's first Assistant Instructor and continued to teach his art and philosophy after Lee's death. Lee opened his first martial arts school, named the Lee Jun Fan Gung Fu Institute, in Seattle.","Bruce Lee\n\nLee dropped out of college in the spring of 1964 and moved to Oakland to live with James Yimm Lee (嚴鏡海). James Lee was twenty years senior to Bruce Lee and a well known Chinese martial artist in the area. Together, they founded the second Jun Fan martial art studio in Oakland. James Lee was also responsible for introducing Bruce Lee to Ed Parker, American martial artist, and organizer of the Long Beach International Karate Championships at which Bruce Lee was later \"discovered\" by Hollywood.","Bruce Lee\n\nLong Beach International Karate Championships","Bruce Lee\n\nAt the invitation of Ed Parker, Lee appeared in the 1964 Long Beach International Karate Championships and performed repetitions of two-finger push-ups (using the thumb and the index finger of one hand) with feet at approximately a shoulder-width apart. In the same Long Beach event he also performed the \"One inch punch.\" Lee stood upright, his right foot forward with knees bent slightly, in front of a standing, stationary partner. Lee's right arm was partly extended and his right fist approximately 1 in away from the partner's chest. Without retracting his right arm, Lee then forcibly delivered the punch to his partner while largely maintaining his posture, sending the partner backwards and falling into a chair said to be placed behind the partner to prevent injury, though his partner's momentum soon caused him to fall to the floor. His volunteer was Bob Baker of Stockton, California. \"I told Bruce not to do this type of demonstration again\", Baker recalled. \"When he punched me that last time, I had to stay home from work because the pain in my chest was unbearable\".","Bruce Lee\n\nIt was at the 1964 championships where Lee first met Taekwondo master Jhoon Goo Rhee. The two developed a friendship – a relationship from which they benefited as martial artists. Rhee taught Lee the side kick in detail, and Lee taught Rhee the \"non-telegraphic\" punch.","Bruce Lee\n\nLee appeared at the 1967 Long Beach International Karate Championships and performed various demonstrations, including the famous \"unstoppable punch\" against USKA world Karate champion Vic Moore. Lee allegedly told Moore that he was going to throw a straight punch to the face, and all he had to do was to try to block it. Lee took several steps back and asked if Moore was ready. When Moore nodded in affirmation, Lee glided towards him until he was within striking range. He then threw a straight punch directly at Moore's face, and stopped before impact. In eight attempts, Moore failed to block any of the punches. However, Moore and grandmaster Steve Mohammed claim that Lee had first told Moore that he was going to throw a straight punch to the body, which Moore blocked. Lee attempted another punch, and Moore blocked it as well. The third punch, which Lee threw to Moore's face, did not come nearly within striking distance. Moore, as well as many in the room that day, says Lee never successfully struck Moore but Moore was able to strike Lee after trying on his own.","Bruce Lee\n\nMoore claims that Bruce Lee said he was the fastest American he's ever seen and that Lee's media crew repeatedly played the one punch towards Moore's face that did not come within striking range, allegedly in an attempt to preserve Lee's superstar image.","Bruce Lee\n\nFight with Wong Jack Man","Bruce Lee\n\nIn Oakland, California in 1964 at Chinatown, Lee had a controversial private match with Wong Jack Man, a direct student of Ma Kin Fung known for his mastery of Xingyiquan, Northern Shaolin, and T'ai chi ch'uan. According to Lee, the Chinese community issued an ultimatum to him to stop teaching non-Chinese. When he refused to comply, he was challenged to a combat match with Wong. The arrangement was that if Lee lost, he would have to shut down his school; while if he won, then Lee would be free to teach Caucasians or anyone else. Wong denied this, stating that he requested to fight Lee after Lee boasted during one of his demonstrations at a Chinatown theatre that he could beat anyone in San Francisco, and that Wong himself did not discriminate against Caucasians or other non-Chinese. Lee commented, \"That paper had all the names of the sifu from Chinatown, but they don't scare me\".","Bruce Lee\n\nIndividuals known to have witnessed the match include Cadwell, James Lee (Bruce Lee's associate, no relation), and William Chen, a teacher of T'ai chi ch'uan. Wong and William Chen stated that the fight lasted an unusually long 20–25 minutes. Wong claims that he had originally expected a serious but polite bout; however Lee had attacked him very aggressively with intent to kill, straight from the beginning of the bout when he had replied to Wong's traditional handshake offer by pretending to accept the handshake, but instead turning that hand into a spear aimed at Wong's eyes. Forced to defend his life, he had nonetheless refrained from striking Lee with killing force when the opportunity presented itself because it could earn him a prison sentence. The fight ended due to Lee's \"unusually winded\" condition, as opposed to a decisive blow by either fighter. According to Bruce Lee, Linda Lee Cadwell, and James Yimm Lee however, the fight lasted a mere 3 minutes with a decisive victory for Lee. In Cadwell's account, \"The fight ensued, it was a no-holds-barred fight, it took three minutes.","Bruce Lee\n\nBruce got this guy down to the ground and said 'Do you give up?' and the man said he gave up\".","Bruce Lee\n\nMental Floss magazine's Jack Rossen said author Rick Wing, a dedicated student of Wong's, presented a somewhat different account after Wing interviewed Wong and several eyewitnesses to the fight for Showdown in Oakland: The Story Behind the Wong Jack Man - Bruce Lee Fight, Wing's book on the bout:","Bruce Lee\n\nA couple of weeks after the bout, Lee gave an interview claiming that he had defeated an unnamed challenger, which Wong says was an obvious reference to him. In response, Wong published his own account of the fight in the Chinese Pacific Weekly, a Chinese-language newspaper in San Francisco, with an invitation to a public rematch if Lee was not satisfied with the account. Lee did not respond to the invitation despite his reputation for violently responding to every provocation, and there were no further public announcements by either, though Lee continued to teach Caucasians.","Bruce Lee\n\nJeet Kune Do","Bruce Lee\n\nJeet Kune Do originated in 1967. After filming one season of The Green Hornet, Lee found himself out of work and opened The Jun Fan Institute of Gung Fu. The controversial match with Wong Jack Man influenced Lee's philosophy about martial arts. Lee concluded that the fight had lasted too long and that he had failed to live up to his potential using his Wing Chun techniques. He took the view that traditional martial arts techniques were too rigid and formalistic to be practical in scenarios of chaotic street fighting. Lee decided to develop a system with an emphasis on \"practicality, flexibility, speed, and efficiency\". He started to use different methods of training such as weight training for strength, running for endurance, stretching for flexibility, and many others which he constantly adapted, including fencing and basic boxing techniques.","Bruce Lee\n\nLee emphasised what he called \"the style of no style\". This consisted of getting rid of the formalised approach which Lee claimed was indicative of traditional styles. Lee felt the system he now called Jun Fan Gung Fu was even too restrictive, and eventually evolved into a philosophy and martial art he would come to call Jeet Kune Do or the Way of the Intercepting Fist. It is a term he would later regret, because Jeet Kune Do implied specific parameters that styles connote; whereas the idea of his martial art was to exist outside of parameters and limitations.","Bruce Lee\n\nFitness and nutrition","Bruce Lee\n\nAt 173 cm and 64 kg, Lee was renowned for his physical fitness and vigor, achieved by using a dedicated fitness regimen to become as strong as possible. After his match with Wong Jack Man in 1965, Lee changed his approach toward martial arts training. Lee felt that many martial artists of his time did not spend enough time on physical conditioning. Lee included all elements of total fitness—muscular strength, muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance, and flexibility. He used traditional bodybuilding techniques to build some muscle mass, not overdone as that could decrease speed or flexibility. At the same time in balance, Lee was careful to admonish that mental and spiritual preparation are fundamental to the success of physical training in martial arts skills. In Tao of Jeet Kune Do he wrote,","Bruce Lee\n\nAccording to Linda Lee Cadwell, soon after he moved to the United States, Lee started to take nutrition seriously and developed an interest in health foods, high-protein drinks and vitamin and mineral supplements. He later concluded that in order to achieve a high-performance body, one could not fuel it with a diet of junk food, and with \"the wrong fuel\" one's body would perform sluggishly or sloppily. Lee also avoided baked goods and refined flour, describing them as providing calories which did nothing for his body.","Bruce Lee\n\nActing career","Bruce Lee\n\nLee's father Lee Hoi-chuen was a famous Cantonese opera star. Because of this, Lee was introduced into films at a very young age and appeared in several films as a child. Lee had his first role as a baby who was carried onto the stage in the film Golden Gate Girl. By the time he was 18, he had appeared in twenty films.","Bruce Lee\n\nWhile in the United States from 1959 to 1964, Lee abandoned thoughts of a film career in favour of pursuing martial arts. However, a martial arts exhibition on Long Beach in 1964 eventually led to the invitation by William Dozier for an audition for a part in the pilot for \"Number One Son\". The show never aired, but Lee was invited for the role of Kato alongside Van Williams in the TV series The Green Hornet. The show lasted just one season, from 1966 to 1967. Lee also played Kato in three crossover episodes of Batman. This was followed by guest appearances in three television series: Ironside (1967), Here Come the Brides (1969), and Blondie (1969).","Bruce Lee\n\nAt the time, two of Lee's martial arts students were Hollywood script writer Stirling Silliphant and actor James Coburn. In 1969 the three worked on a script for a film called The Silent Flute, and went together on a location hunt to India. The project was not realised at the time; but the 1978 film Circle of Iron, starring David Carradine, was based on the same plot. In 2010, producer Paul Maslansky was reported to plan and receive fundings for a film based on the original script for The Silent Flute. In 1969, Lee made a brief appearance in the Silliphant-penned film Marlowe where he played a henchman hired to intimidate private detective Philip Marlowe, (played by James Garner), by smashing up his office with leaping kicks and flashing punches, only to later accidentally jump off a tall building while trying to kick Marlowe off. The same year he also choreographed fight scenes for The Wrecking Crew starring Dean Martin, Sharon Tate, and featuring Chuck Norris in his first role. In 1970, he was responsible for fight choreography for A Walk in the Spring Rain starring Ingrid Bergman and Anthony Quinn, again written by Silliphant.","Bruce Lee\n\nIn 1971, Lee appeared in four episodes of the television series Longstreet, written by Silliphant. Lee played the martial arts instructor of the title character Mike Longstreet (played by James Franciscus), and important aspects of his martial arts philosophy were written into the script.","Bruce Lee\n\nAccording to statements made by Lee, and also by Linda Lee Cadwell after Lee's death, in 1971 Lee pitched a television series of his own tentatively titled The Warrior, discussions which were also confirmed by Warner Bros. In a December 9, 1971 television interview on The Pierre Berton Show, Lee stated that both Paramount and Warner Brothers wanted him \"to be in a modernized type of a thing, and that they think the Western idea is out, whereas I want to do the Western\". According to Cadwell, however, Lee's concept was retooled and renamed Kung Fu, but Warner Bros. gave Lee no credit. Warner Brothers states that they had for some time been developing an identical concept, created by two writers and producers, Ed Spielman and Howard Friedlander. According to these sources, the reason Lee was not cast was in part because of his ethnicity, but more so because he had a thick accent. The role of the Shaolin monk in the Wild West, was eventually awarded to then-non-martial-artist David Carradine. In The Pierre Berton Show interview, Lee stated he understood Warner Brothers' attitudes towards casting in the series: \"They think that business wise it is a risk.","Bruce Lee\n\nI don't blame them. If the situation were reversed, and an American star were to come to Hong Kong, and I was the man with the money, I would have my own concerns as to whether the acceptance would be there\".","Bruce Lee\n\nProducer Fred Weintraub had advised Lee to return to Hong Kong and make a feature film which he could showcase to executives in Hollywood. Not happy with his supporting roles in the United States, Lee returned to Hong Kong. Unaware that The Green Hornet had been played to success in Hong Kong and was unofficially referred to as \"The Kato Show\", he was surprised to be recognised on the street as the star of the show. After negotiating with both Shaw Brothers Studio and Golden Harvest, Lee signed a film contract to star in two films produced by Golden Harvest. Lee played his first leading role in The Big Boss (1971) which proved to be an enormous box office success across Asia and catapulted him to stardom. He soon followed up with Fist of Fury (1972) which broke the box office records set previously by The Big Boss. Having finished his initial two-year contract, Lee negotiated a new deal with Golden Harvest. Lee later formed his own company, Concord Production Inc. (協和電影公司), with Chow.","Bruce Lee\n\nFor his third film, Way of the Dragon (1972), he was given complete control of the film's production as the writer, director, star, and choreographer of the fight scenes.","Bruce Lee\n\nIn 1964, at a demonstration in Long Beach, California, Lee had met Karate champion Chuck Norris. In Way of the Dragon Lee introduced Norris to movie-goers as his opponent in the final death fight at the Colosseum in Rome, today considered one of Lee's most legendary fight scenes and one of the most memorable fight scenes in martial arts film history. The role was originally offered to American Karate champion Joe Lewis.","Bruce Lee\n\nFrom August to October 1972, Lee began work on his fourth Golden Harvest Film, Game of Death. He began filming some scenes including his fight sequence with 7 ft American Basketball star Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, a former student. Production was stopped in November 1972 when Warner Brothers offered Lee the opportunity to star in Enter the Dragon, the first film to be produced jointly by Golden Harvest and Warner Bros. Filming began in Hong Kong in January 1973. One month into the filming, another production company, Starseas Motion Pictures, promoted Bruce Lee as a leading actor in Fist of Unicorn, although he had merely agreed to choreograph the fight sequences in the film as a favour to his long-time friend Unicorn Chan. Lee planned to sue the production company, but retained his friendship with Chan. However, only a few months after the completion of Enter the Dragon, and six days before its July 26, 1973 release, Lee died. Enter the Dragon would go on to become one of the year's highest grossing films and cement Lee as a martial arts legend. It was made for US$850,000 in 1973 (equivalent to $4 million adjusted for inflation as of 2007).","Bruce Lee\n\nTo date, Enter the Dragon has grossed over $200 million worldwide. The film sparked a brief fad in martial arts, epitomised in songs such as \"Kung Fu Fighting\" and TV shows like Kung Fu.","Bruce Lee\n\nRobert Clouse, the director of Enter the Dragon and Golden Harvest revived Lee's unfinished film Game of Death. Lee had shot over 100 minutes of footage, including out-takes, for Game of Death before shooting was stopped to allow him to work on Enter the Dragon. In addition to Abdul-Jabbar, George Lazenby, Hapkido master Ji Han-Jae and another of Lee's students, Dan Inosanto, were also to appear in the film, which was to culminate in Lee's character, Hai Tien (clad in the now-famous yellow track suit ) taking on a series of different challengers on each floor as they make their way through a five-level pagoda. In a controversial move, Robert Clouse finished the film using a look-alike and archive footage of Lee from his other films with a new storyline and cast, which was released in 1978. However, the cobbled-together film contained only fifteen minutes of actual footage of Lee (he had printed many unsuccessful takes) while the rest had a Lee look-alike, Kim Tai Chung, and Yuen Biao as stunt double. The unused footage Lee had filmed was recovered 22 years later and included in the documentary Bruce Lee: A Warrior's Journey.","Bruce Lee\n\nApart from Game of Death, other future film projects were planned to feature Lee at the time. In 1972, after the success of The Big Boss and Fist of Fury, a third film was planned by Raymond Chow at Golden Harvest to be directed by Lo Wei, titled Yellow-Faced Tiger. However, at the time, Lee decided to direct and produce his own script for Way of the Dragon instead. Although Lee had formed a production company with Raymond Chow, a period film was also planned from September–November 1973 with the competing Shaw Brothers Studio, to be directed by either Chor Yuen or Cheng Kang, and written by Yi Kang and Chang Cheh, titled The Seven Sons of the Jade Dragon. Lee had also worked on several scripts himself. A tape containing a recording of Lee narrating the basic storyline to a film tentatively titled Southern Fist/Northern Leg exists, showing some similarities with the canned script for The Silent Flute (Circle of Iron). Another script had the title Green Bamboo Warrior, set in San Francisco, planned to co-star Bolo Yeung and to be produced by Andrew Vajna who later went on to produce First Blood.","Bruce Lee\n\nPhoto shoot costume tests were also organized for some of these planned film projects.","Bruce Lee\n\nArtistry","Bruce Lee\n\nPhilosophy","Bruce Lee\n\nLee is best known as a martial artist, but he also studied drama and philosophy while a student at the University of Washington. He was well-read and had an extensive library. His own books on martial arts and fighting philosophy are known for their philosophical assertions, both inside and outside of martial arts circles. His eclectic philosophy often mirrored his fighting beliefs, though he was quick to claim that his martial arts were solely a metaphor for such teachings. He believed that any knowledge ultimately led to self-knowledge, and said that his chosen method of self-expression was martial arts. His influences include Taoism, Jiddu Krishnamurti, and Buddhism. On the other hand, Lee's philosophy was very much in opposition to the conservative worldview advocated by Confucianism. John Little states that Lee was an atheist. When asked in 1972 about his religious affiliation, he replied, \"none whatsoever\". In 1972, he was asked if he believed in God, and responded, \"To be perfectly frank, I really do not\".","Bruce Lee\n\nPoetry","Bruce Lee\n\nAside from martial arts and philosophy which focus on the physical aspect and self-consciousness for truths and principles, Lee also wrote poetry that reflected his emotion and a stage in his life collectively. Many forms of art remain concordant with the artist creating them. Lee's principal of self-expression was applied to his poetry as well. His daughter Shannon Lee said \"He did write poetry, he was really the consummate artist\". His poetic works originally handwritten on paper, later on edited and published. John Little being the major author (editor), for Bruce Lee's works. Linda Lee Cadwell (Bruce Lee's wife) shared her husbands notes, poems and experiences with followers. She mentioned \"Lee's poems are, by American standards, rather dark-reflecting the deeper, less exposed recesses of the human psyche\". Most of Bruce Lee's poems are categorized as anti-poetry or fall into a paradox. The mood in his poems show the side of the man that can be compared with other poets such as Robert Frost, one of many well-known poets expressing himself with dark poetic works. The paradox taken from the Yin and Yang symbol in martial arts, also integrated in his poetry.","Bruce Lee\n\nHis martial arts, and philosophy contribute a great part to his poetry. The free verse form of Lee's poetry reflect his famous quote \"Be formless ... shapeless, like water.\"","Bruce Lee\n\nDeath","Bruce Lee\n\nOn May 10, 1973, Lee collapsed during an ADR session for Enter the Dragon at Golden Harvest in Hong Kong. Suffering from seizures and headaches, he was immediately rushed to Hong Kong Baptist Hospital where doctors diagnosed cerebral edema. They were able to reduce the swelling through the administration of mannitol. The headache and cerebral edema that occurred in his first collapse were later repeated on the day of his death.","Bruce Lee\n\nOn July 20, 1973, Lee was in Hong Kong, to have dinner with James Bond star George Lazenby, with whom he intended to make a film. According to Lee's wife Linda, Lee met producer Raymond Chow at 2 p.m. at home to discuss the making of the film Game of Death. They worked until 4 p.m. and then drove together to the home of Lee's colleague Betty Ting Pei, a Taiwanese actress. The three went over the script at Ting's home, and then Chow left to attend a dinner meeting.","Bruce Lee\n\nLater Lee complained of a headache, and Ting gave him an analgesic (painkiller), Equagesic, which contained both aspirin and the tranquilizer meprobamate. Around 7:30 p.m., he went to lie down for a nap. When Lee did not turn up for dinner, producer Raymond Chow came to the apartment, but was unable to wake Lee up. A doctor was summoned, who spent ten minutes attempting to revive Lee before sending him by ambulance to Queen Elizabeth Hospital. By the time the ambulance reached the hospital he was dead. He was 32 years old.","Bruce Lee\n\nThere was no visible external injury; however, according to autopsy reports, Lee's brain had swollen considerably, from 1,400 to 1,575 grams (a 13% increase). The autopsy found Equagesic in his system. On October 15, 2005, Chow stated in an interview that Lee died from an allergic reaction to the tranquilizer meprobamate, the main ingredient in Equagesic, which Chow described as an ingredient commonly used in painkillers. When the doctors announced Lee's death officially, it was ruled a \"death by misadventure\".","Bruce Lee\n\nLee's wife Linda returned to her hometown of Seattle, and had him buried at lot 276 of Lakeview Cemetery.[http://www.lakeviewcemeteryassociation.com/burials.php Lakeview Cemetery website.] Search for Lee. Only use last name. Pallbearers at his funeral on July 25, 1973 included Taky Kimura, Steve McQueen, James Coburn, Chuck Norris, George Lazenby, Dan Inosanto, Peter Chin, and Lee's brother Robert.","Bruce Lee\n\nControversy surrounding Lee's death","Bruce Lee\n\nAround the time of Lee's death, numerous rumors appeared in the media. Lee's iconic status and untimely demise fed many wild rumors and theories. These included murder involving the Triads and a supposed curse on him and his family.","Bruce Lee\n\nDonald Teare, a forensic scientist recommended by Scotland Yard who had overseen over 1,000 autopsies, was assigned to the Lee case. His conclusion was \"death by misadventure\" caused by an acute cerebral edema due to a reaction to compounds present in the combination medication Equagesic.","Bruce Lee\n\nWhile there was initial speculation that cannabis found in Lee's stomach may have contributed to his death, Teare refuted this, stating that it would \"be both 'irresponsible and irrational' to say that [cannabis] might have triggered either the events of Bruce's collapse on May 10 or his death on July 20\". Dr. R. R. Lycette, the clinical pathologist at Queen Elizabeth Hospital, reported at the coroner hearing that the death could not have been caused by cannabis.","Bruce Lee\n\nAt the 1975 San Diego Comic-Con convention, Bruce Lee's friend Chuck Norris attributed his death to a reaction between the muscle-relaxant medication he had been taking since 1968 for a ruptured disc in his back, and an \"antibiotic\" he was given for his headache on the night of his death.","Bruce Lee\n\nThe book The Death of Bruce Lee: A Clinical Investigation presents the belief that Bruce Lee was already sensitized to the use of Equagesic by the time of his first \"acute hypersensitivity reaction\" on May 10, 1973. Lee refrained from using the drug again until that fateful evening of July 20, 1973, when he took Equagesic and later died of cerebral edema.","Bruce Lee\n\nLegacy","Bruce Lee\n\nCertified instructors","Bruce Lee\n\nBruce Lee personally certified only three instructors: Taky Kimura, James Yimm Lee, and Dan Inosanto. Inosanto holds the 3rd rank (Instructor) directly from Bruce Lee in Jeet Kune Do, Jun Fan Gung Fu, and Bruce Lee's Tao of Chinese Gung Fu. Taky Kimura holds a 5th rank in Jun Fan Gung Fu. James Yimm Lee held a 3rd rank in Jun Fan Gung Fu. Ted Wong holds 2nd rank in Jeet Kune Do certified directly by Bruce Lee and was later promoted to Instructor under Dan Inosanto, who felt that Bruce would have wanted to promote him. Other Jeet Kune Do instructors since Lee's death have been certified directly by Dan Inosanto, some with remaining Bruce Lee signed certificates.","Bruce Lee\n\nJames Yimm Lee, a close friend of Lee, certified a few students including Gary Dill who studied Jeet Kune Do under James and received permission via a personal letter from him in 1972 to pass on his learning of Jun Fan Gung Fu to others. Taky Kimura, to date, has certified only one person in Jun Fan Gung Fu: his son Andy Kimura. Dan Inosanto continued to teach and certify select students in Jeet Kune Do for over 30 years, making it possible for thousands of martial arts practitioners to trace their training lineage back to Bruce Lee. Prior to his death, Lee told his then only two living instructors Kimura and Inosanto (James Yimm Lee had died in 1972) to dismantle his schools.","Bruce Lee\n\nBoth Taky Kimura and Dan Inosanto were allowed to teach small classes thereafter, under the guideline \"keep the numbers low, but the quality high\". Bruce also instructed several World Karate Champions including Chuck Norris, Joe Lewis, and Mike Stone. Between the three of them, during their training with Bruce, they won every karate championship in the United States.","Bruce Lee\n\nIn Japan, Junichi Okada is a certified Japanese instructor in Jeet Kune Do.","Bruce Lee\n\nHong Kong legacy","Bruce Lee\n\nThere are a number of stories (perhaps apocryphal) surrounding Lee that are still repeated in Hong Kong culture. One is that his early 1970s interview on the TVB show Enjoy Yourself Tonight cleared the busy streets of Hong Kong as everyone was watching the interview at home.","Bruce Lee\n\nOn January 6, 2009, it was announced that Bruce's Hong Kong home (41 Cumberland Road, Kowloon, Hong Kong) will be preserved and transformed into a tourist site by philanthropist Yu Pang-lin.","Bruce Lee\n\nAwards and honours","Bruce Lee\n\nBruce Lee was named by Time Magazine as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.","Bruce Lee\n\nIn April 2013, he was posthumously awarded the prestigious Founders Award at The Asian Awards.","Bruce Lee\n\nA Bruce Lee statue was unveiled in Los Angeles' Chinatown on June 15, 2013. It stands at 7 foot tall and was made in Guangzhou, China.","Bruce Lee\n\nIn April 2014, it was announced that Lee would be a featured character in the video game EA Sports UFC, and will be playable in multiple weight classes.","Bruce Lee\n\nBruce Lee was voted as the Greatest Movie Fighter Ever in 2014 by the Houston Boxing Hall Of Fame. The HBHOF is a combat sports voting body composed exclusively of current and former fighters and Martial Artists.","Bruce Lee\n\nMartial arts lineage","Bruce Lee\n\nLee was trained in Wu Tai Chi Chuan (also known as Ng-ga) and Jing Mo Tam Tui for the twelve sets. Lee was trained in the martial arts Choy Li Fut, Western Boxing, Épée fencing, Judo, Praying Mantis kung fu, Hsing-I, and Jujitsu.","Bruce Lee\n\nFilmography","Bruce Lee\n\nFilm","Bruce Lee\n\nTelevision","Bruce Lee\n\nAdvertising","Bruce Lee\n\nThough Bruce Lee didn't appear in commercials during his lifetime Nokia launched an internet based campaign in 2008 with staged \"documentary looking\" footage of Bruce Lee playing ping-pong with his nunchaku and also igniting matches as they are thrown towards him. The videos went viral on YouTube creating a confusion as some people believed them to be authentic footage.","Bruce Lee\n\nBibliography","Bruce Lee\n\n*Chinese Gung-Fu: The Philosophical Art of Self Defense (Bruce Lee's first book) – 1963\n*Tao of Jeet Kune Do (Published posthumously) – 1973\n*Bruce Lee's Fighting Method (Published posthumously) – 1978","Martial arts\n\nMartial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practices, which are practiced for a variety of reasons: as self-defense, military and law enforcement applications; as competition, physical fitness, mental and spiritual development; as well as entertainment and the preservation of a nation's intangible cultural heritage.","Martial arts\n\nAlthough the term martial art has become associated with the fighting arts of eastern Asia, it originally referred to the combat systems of Europe as early as the 1550s. The term is derived from Latin, and means \"arts of Mars\", the Roman god of war. Some authors have argued that fighting arts or fighting systems would be more appropriate on the basis that many martial arts were never \"martial\" in the sense of being used or created by professional warriors.","Martial arts\n\nVariation and scope","Martial arts\n\nMartial arts may be categorized along a variety of criteria, including:\n*Traditional or historical arts vs. contemporary styles of folk wrestling and modern hybrid martial arts.\n*Techniques taught: Armed vs. unarmed, and within these groups by type of weapon (swordsmanship, stick fighting etc.) and by type of combat (grappling vs. striking; stand-up fighting vs. ground fighting)\n*By application or intent: self-defense, combat sport, choreography or demonstration of forms, physical fitness, meditation, etc.\n*Within Chinese tradition: \"external\" vs. \"internal\" styles","Martial arts\n\nBy technical focus","Martial arts\n\n;Unarmed\nUnarmed martial arts can be broadly grouped into focusing on strikes, those focusing on grappling and those that cover both fields, often described as hybrid martial arts.","Martial arts\n\nStrikes\n* Punching: Boxing, Wing Chun\n* Kicking: Capoeira, Savate, Taekwondo\n* Others using strikes: Karate, Muay Thai, Sanshou","Martial arts\n\nGrappling\n* Throwing: Hapkido, Judo, Sumo, Wrestling\n* Joint lock/Chokeholds/Submission holds: Hapkido, Jujutsu, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Sambo\n* Pinning Techniques: Judo, Wrestling","Martial arts\n\n;Weapon-based\nThose traditional martial arts which train armed combat often encompass a wide spectrum of melee weapons, including bladed weapons and polearms. Such traditions include eskrima, silat, kalaripayat, kobudo, and historical European martial arts, especially those of the German Renaissance. Many Chinese martial arts also feature weapons as part of their curriculum.","Martial arts\n\nSometimes, training with one specific weapon will be considered a style of martial arts in its own right, which is especially the case in Japanese martial arts with disciplines such as kenjutsu and kendo (sword), bojutsu (staff), and kyudo (archery). Similarly, modern Western martial arts and sports include modern fencing, stick-fighting systems like canne de combat or singlestick, and modern competitive archery.","Martial arts\n\nBy application or intent","Martial arts\n\n;Combat-oriented","Martial arts\n\n;Health-oriented\nMany martial arts, especially those from Asia, also teach side disciplines which pertain to medicinal practices. This is particularly prevalent in traditional Asian martial arts which may teach bone-setting, herbalism, and other aspects of traditional medicine.","Martial arts\n\n;Spirituality-oriented\nMartial arts can also be linked with religion and spirituality. Numerous systems are reputed to have been founded, disseminated, or practiced by monks or nuns.","Martial arts\n\nThroughout Asia, meditation may be incorporated as part of training. In those countries influenced by Hindu-Buddhist philosophy, the art itself may be used as an aid to attaining enlightenment.","Martial arts\n\nJapanese styles, when concerning non-physical qualities of the combat, are often strongly influenced by Mahayana Buddhist philosophy. Concepts like \"empty mind\" and \"beginner's mind\" are recurrent. Aikido, for instance, can have a strong philosophical belief of the flow of energy and peace fostering, as idealised by its founder Morihei Ueshiba.","Martial arts\n\nTraditional Korean martial arts place emphasis on the development of the practitioner's spiritual and philosophical development. A common theme in most Korean styles, such as taekkyeon and taekwondo, is the value of \"inner peace\" in a practitioner, which is stressed to be only achieved through individual meditation and training. The Koreans believe that the use of physical force is only justified through defense.","Martial arts\n\nSystema draws upon breathing and relaxation techniques, as well as elements of Russian Orthodox thought, to foster self-conscience and calmness, and to benefit the practitioner in different levels: the physical, the psychological and the spiritual.","Martial arts\n\nSome martial arts in various cultures can be performed in dance-like settings for various reasons, such as for evoking ferocity in preparation for battle or showing off skill in a more stylized manner. Many such martial arts incorporate music, especially strong percussive rhythms. (See also war dance.)","Martial arts\n\nHistory","Martial arts\n\nHistorical martial arts","Martial arts\n\nThe oldest work of art depicting scenes of battle, dating back 3400 BC, was the Ancient Egyptian paintings showing some form of struggle. Dating back to 3000 BC in Mesopotamia (Babylon), reliefs and the poems depicting struggle were found. In Vietnam, drawings and sketches from 2879 BC describe certain ways of combat using sword, stick, bow, and spears.","Martial arts\n\nChinese martial arts originated during the Xia Dynasty more than 4000 years ago. It is said the Yellow Emperor Huangdi (legendary date of ascension 2698 BC) introduced the earliest fighting systems to China. The Yellow Emperor is described as a famous general who, before becoming China's leader, wrote lengthy treatises on medicine, astrology and the martial arts. One of his main opponents was Chi You who was credited as the creator of jiao di, a forerunner to the modern art of Chinese wrestling.","Martial arts\n\nThe foundation of modern Asian martial arts is likely a blend of early Chinese and Indian martial arts. During the Warring States period of Chinese history (480-221 BC) extensive development in martial philosophy and strategy emerged, as described by Sun Tzu in The Art of War (c. 350 BC). Legendary accounts link the origin of Shaolinquan to the spread of Buddhism from India during the early 5th century AD, with the figure of Bodhidharma, to China. Written evidence of martial arts in Southern India dates back to the Sangam literature of about the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The combat techniques of the Sangam period were the earliest precursors to Kalaripayattu.","Martial arts\n\nIn Europe, the earliest sources of martial arts traditions date to Ancient Greece. Boxing (pygme, pyx), wrestling (pale) and pankration were represented in the Ancient Olympic Games. The Romans produced gladiatorial combat as a public spectacle.","Martial arts\n\nA number of historical combat manuals have survived from the European Middle Ages. This includes such styles as sword and shield, two-handed swordfighting and other types of melee weapons besides unarmed combat. Amongst these are transcriptions of the (possibly apocryphal) Johannes Lichtenauer's mnemonic poem on the longsword dating back to the late fourteenth century. Likewise, Asian martial arts become well-documented during the medieval period, Japanese martial arts beginning with the establishment of the samurai nobility in the 12th century, Chinese martial arts with Ming era treatises such as Ji Xiao Xin Shu, Indian martial arts in medieval texts such as the Agni Purana and the Malla Purana, and Korean martial arts from the Joseon era and texts such as Muyejebo (1598).","Martial arts\n\nEuropean swordsmanship always had a sportive component, but the duel was always a possibility until World War I. Modern sport fencing began developing during the 19th century as the French and Italian military academies began codifying instruction. The Olympic games led to standard international rules, with the Féderation Internationale d'Escrime founded in 1913. Modern boxing originates with Jack Broughton's rules in the 18th century, and reaches its present form with the Marquess of Queensberry Rules of 1867.","Martial arts\n\nFolk styles","Martial arts\n\nCertain traditional combat sports and fighting styles exist all over the world, rooted in local culture and folklore. The most common of these are styles of folk wrestling, some of which have been practiced since antiquity, and are found in the most remote areas. Other examples include forms of stick fighting and boxing. While these arts are based on historical traditions of folklore, they are not \"historical\" in the sense that they reconstruct or preserve a historical system from a specific era. They are rather contemporary regional sports that coexist with the modern forms of martial arts sports as they have developed since the 19th century, often including cross-fertilization between sports and folk styles; thus, the traditional Thai art of muay boran developed into the modern national sport of muay Thai, which in turn came to be practiced worldwide and contributed significantly to modern hybrid styles like kickboxing and mixed martial arts. Singlestick, an English martial art can be seen often utilised in morris dancing. Many European dances share elements of martial arts with examples including Ukrainian Hopak, Polish Zbójnicki (use of ciupaga), the Czech dance odzemek, and the Norwegian Halling.","Martial arts\n\nModern history","Martial arts\n\n;Late 19th to early 20th century\nThe mid to late 19th century marks the beginning of the history of martial arts as modern sports developed out of earlier traditional fighting systems. In Europe, this concerns the developments of boxing and fencing as sports. In Japan, the same period marks the formation of the modern forms of judo, jujutsu, karate, and kendo (among others) based on revivals of old schools of Edo period martial arts which had been suppressed during the Meiji Restoration. Modern muay Thai rules date to the 1920s. In China, the modern history of martial arts begins in the Nanjing decade (1930s) following the foundation of the Central Guoshu Institute in 1928 under the Kuomintang government.","Martial arts\n\nWestern interest in Asian martial arts arises towards the end of the 19th century, due to the increase in trade between the United States with China and Japan. Relatively few Westerners actually practiced the arts, considering it to be mere performance. Edward William Barton-Wright, a railway engineer who had studied jujutsu while working in Japan between 1894 and 1897, was the first man known to have taught Asian martial arts in Europe. He also founded an eclectic style named Bartitsu which combined jujutsu, judo, boxing, savate and stick fighting.","Martial arts\n\nFencing and Greco-Roman wrestling was included in the 1896 Summer Olympics.\nFILA Wrestling World Championships and Boxing at the Summer Olympics were introduced in 1904.\nThe tradition of awarding championship belts in wrestling and boxing can be traced to the Lonsdale Belt, introduced in 1909.","Martial arts\n\n;20th century (1914 to 1989)","Martial arts\n\nThe International Boxing Association was established in 1920. World Fencing Championships have been held since 1921.","Martial arts\n\nAs Western influence grew in Asia a greater number of military personnel spent time in China, Japan and South Korea during World War II and the Korean War and were exposed to local fighting styles. Jujutsu, judo and karate first became popular among the mainstream from the 1950s-60s. Due in part to Asian and Hollywood martial arts movies, most modern American martial arts are either Asian-derived or Asian influenced. \nThe term kickboxing (キックボクシング) was created by the Japanese boxing promoter Osamu Noguchi for a variant of muay Thai and karate that he created in the 1950s. American kickboxing was developed in the 1970s, as a combination of boxing and karate. Taekwondo was developed in the context of the Korean War in the 1950s.","Martial arts\n\nThe later 1960s and 1970s witnessed an increased media interest in Chinese martial arts, influenced by martial artist Bruce Lee. Jeet Kune Do, the system he founded, has its roots in Wing Chun, western boxing, savate and fencing. Bruce Lee is credited as one of the first instructors to openly teach Chinese martial arts to Westerners. World Judo Championships have been held since 1956, Judo at the Summer Olympics was introduced in 1964. Karate World Championships were introduced in 1970.","Martial arts\n\nFollowing the \"kung fu wave\" in Hong Kong action cinema in the 1970s, a number of mainstream films produced during the 1980s contributed significantly to the perception of martial arts in western popular culture. These include The Karate Kid (1984) and Bloodsport (1988). This era produced some Hollywood action stars with martial arts background, such as Jean-Claude Van Damme and Chuck Norris.","Martial arts\n\nAlso during the 20th century, a number of martial arts were adapted for self-defense purposes for military hand-to-hand combat. World War II combatives, KAPAP (1930s) and Krav Maga (1950s) in Israel, Systema in Soviet-era Russia, and Sanshou in the People's Republic of China are examples of such systems. The US military de-emphasized hand-to-hand combat training during the Cold War period, but revived it with the introduction of LINE in 1989.","Martial arts\n\n;1990 to present\nDuring the 1990s Brazilian jiu-jitsu became popular and proved to be effective in mixed martial arts competitions such as the UFC and PRIDE.","Martial arts\n\nIn 1993 the first Pancrase event was held. The K-1 rules of kickboxing were introduced based on 1980s Seidokaikan karate.","Martial arts\n\nJackie Chan and Jet Li are prominent movie figures who have been responsible for promoting Chinese martial arts in recent years.","Martial arts\n\nWith the continual discovery of more medieval and Renaissance fighting manuals, the practice of Historical European Martial Arts and other Western Martial Arts are growing in popularity across the United States and Europe.","Martial arts\n\nNovember 29, 2011, UNESCO inscribed taekkyeon onto its Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity List.","Martial arts\n\nReviving of lost martial arts","Martial arts\n\nMany martial arts which originated in Southern India were banned by the government of the British Raj, few of them which barely survived are Kalaripayattu and Silambam. These and other martial arts survived by telling the British government it was a form of dance. Varma kalai, a martial arts concentrating on vital points, was almost dead but is gradually being revived.","Martial arts\n\nTesting and competition","Martial arts\n\nTesting or evaluation is important to martial artists of many disciplines who wish to determine their progression or own level of skill in specific contexts. Students often undergo periodic testing and grading by their own teacher in order to advance to a higher level of recognized achievement, such as a different belt color or title. The type of testing used varies from system to system but may include forms or sparring.","Martial arts\n\nVarious forms and sparring are commonly used in martial art exhibitions and tournaments. Some competitions pit practitioners of different disciplines against each other using a common set of rules, these are referred to as mixed martial arts competitions. Rules for sparring vary between art and organization but can generally be divided into light-contact, medium-contact, and full-contact variants, reflecting the amount of force that should be used on an opponent.","Martial arts\n\nLight- and medium-contact","Martial arts\n\nThese types of sparring restrict the amount of force that may be used to hit an opponent, in the case of light sparring this is usual to 'touch' contact, e.g. a punch should be 'pulled' as soon as or before contact is made. In medium-contact (sometimes referred to as semi-contact) the punch would not be 'pulled' but not hit with full force. As the amount of force used is restricted, the aim of these types of sparring is not to knock out an opponent; a point system is used in competitions.","Martial arts\n\nA referee acts to monitor for fouls and to control the match, while judges mark down scores, as in boxing. Particular targets may be prohibited, certain techniques may be forbidden (such as headbutting or groin hits), and fighters may be required to wear protective equipment on their head, hands, chest, groin, shins or feet. Some grappling arts, such as aikido, use a similar method of compliant training that is equivalent to light or medium contact.","Martial arts\n\nIn some styles (such as fencing and some styles of taekwondo sparring), competitors score points based on the landing of a single technique or strike as judged by the referee, whereupon the referee will briefly stop the match, award a point, then restart the match. Alternatively, sparring may continue with the point noted by the judges. Some critics of point sparring feel that this method of training teaches habits that result in lower combat effectiveness. Lighter-contact sparring may be used exclusively, for children or in other situations when heavy contact would be inappropriate (such as beginners), medium-contact sparring is often used as training for full contact","Martial arts\n\nFull-contact","Martial arts\n\nFull-contact sparring or competition, where strikes are not pulled but thrown with full force as the name implies, has a number of tactical differences from light and medium-contact sparring. It is considered by some to be requisite in learning realistic unarmed combat. – An essay on contact levels in training","Martial arts\n\nIn full-contact sparring, the aim of a competitive match is either to knock out the opponent or to force the opponent to submit.\nWhere scoring takes place it may be a subsidiary measure, only used if no clear winner has been established by other means; in some competitions, such as the UFC 1, there was no scoring, though most now use some form of judging as a backup. Due to these factors, full-contact matches tend to be more aggressive in character, but rule sets may still mandate the use of protective equipment, or limit the techniques allowed.","Martial arts\n\nNearly all mixed martial arts organizations such as UFC, Pancrase, Shooto use a form of full-contact rules, as do professional boxing organizations and K-1. Kyokushin karate requires advanced practitioners to engage in bare-knuckled, full-contact sparring allowing kicks, knees and punching although punching to the head is disallowed while wearing only a karate gi and groin protector. Brazilian jiu-jitsu and judo matches do not allow striking, but are full-contact in the sense that full force is applied in the permitted grappling and submission techniques. Competitions held by the World Taekwondo Federation requires the use of Headgear and padded vest, but are full contact in the sense that full force is applied to strikes to the head and body, and win by knockout is possible.","Martial arts\n\nMartial sport","Martial arts\n\nMartial arts have crossed over into sports when forms of sparring become competitive, becoming a sport in its own right that is dissociated from the original combative origin, such as with western fencing. The Summer Olympic Games includes judo, taekwondo, western archery, boxing, javelin, wrestling and fencing as events, while Chinese wushu recently failed in its bid to be included, but is still actively performed in tournaments across the world. Practitioners in some arts such as kickboxing and Brazilian jiu-jitsu often train for sport matches, whereas those in other arts such as aikido generally spurn such competitions. Some schools believe that competition breeds better and more efficient practitioners, and gives a sense of good sportsmanship. Others believe that the rules under which competition takes place have diminished the combat effectiveness of martial arts or encourage a kind of practice which focuses on winning trophies rather than a focus such as cultivating a particular moral character.","Martial arts\n\nThe question of \"which is the best martial art\" has led to inter style competitions fought with very few rules allowing a variety of fighting styles to enter with few limitations. This was the origin of the first Ultimate Fighting Championship tournament (later renamed UFC 1: The Beginning) in the U.S. inspired by the Brazilian Vale tudo tradition and along with other minimal rule competitions, most notably those from Japan such as Shooto and Pancrase, have evolved into the combat sport of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA).","Martial arts\n\nSome martial artists compete in non-sparring competitions such as breaking or choreographed routines of techniques such as poomse, kata and aka, or modern variations of the martial arts which include dance-influenced competitions such as tricking. Martial traditions have been influenced by governments to become more sport-like for political purposes; the central impetus for the attempt by the People's Republic of China in transforming Chinese martial arts into the committee-regulated sport of wushu was suppressing what they saw as the potentially subversive aspects of martial training, especially under the traditional system of family lineages.","Martial arts\n\nHealth and fitness benefits","Martial arts\n\nMartial arts training aims to result in several benefits to trainees, such as their physical, mental, emotional and spiritual health.","Martial arts\n\nThrough systematic practice in the martial arts a person's physical fitness may be boosted (strength, stamina, flexibility, movement coordination, etc.) as the whole body is exercised and the entire muscular system is activated.\nBeyond contributing to physical fitness, martial arts training also has benefits for mental health, contributing to self-esteem, self-control, emotional and spiritual well-being. For this reason, a number of martial arts schools have focused purely on therapeutic aspects, de-emphasizing the historical aspect of self-defense or combat completely.","Martial arts\n\nAccording to Bruce Lee, martial arts also have the nature of an art, since there is emotional communication and complete emotional expression.","Martial arts\n\nSelf-defense, military and law enforcement applications","Martial arts\n\nSome traditional martial concepts have seen new use within modern military training. Perhaps the most recent example of this is point shooting which relies on muscle memory to more effectively utilize a firearm in a variety of awkward situations, much the way an iaidoka would master movements with their sword.","Martial arts\n\nDuring the World War II era William E. Fairbairn and Eric A. Sykes were recruited by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) to teach their martial art of defendu (itself drawing on Western boxing and jujutsu) and pistol shooting to UK, US, and Canadian special forces. The book Kill or Get Killed, written by Colonel Rex Applegate, was based on the defendu taught by Sykes and Fairbairn. Both Fairbairn's Get Tough and Appelgate's Kill or Get Killed became classic works on hand-to-hand combat.","Martial arts\n\nTraditional hand-to-hand, knife, and spear techniques continue to see use in the composite systems developed for today's wars. Examples of this include European Unifight, the US Army's Combatives system developed by Matt Larsen, the Israeli army's KAPAP and Krav Maga, and the US Marine Corps's Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP). Unarmed dagger defenses identical to those found in the manual of Fiore dei Liberi and the Codex Wallerstein were integrated into the U.S. Army's training manuals in 1942 \nand continue to influence today's systems along with other traditional systems such as eskrima and silat.","Martial arts\n\nThe rifle-mounted bayonet, which has its origin in the spear, has seen use by the United States Army, the United States Marine Corps, and the British Army as recently as the Iraq War.","Martial arts\n\nMany martial arts are also seen and used in Law Enforcement hand to hand training. For example, the Tokyo Riot Police's use of aikido.","Martial arts\n\nMartial arts industry","Martial arts\n\nMartial arts since the 1970s has become a significant industry, a subset of the wider sport industry (including cinema and sports television).","Martial arts\n\nHundreds of millions of people worldwide practice some form of martial art.\nWeb Japan (sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) claims there are 50 million karate practitioners worldwide. \nThe South Korean government in 2009 published an estimate that taekwondo is practiced by 70 million people in 190 countries.","Martial arts\n\nThe wholesale value of martial arts related sporting equipment shipped in the United States was estimated at 314 million USD in 2007; participation in the same year was estimated at 6.9 million (ages 6 or older, 2% of US population). \nR. A. Court, CEO of Martial Arts Channel, stated the total revenue of the US martial arts industry at USD 40 billion and the number of US practitioners at 30 million in 2003.","Martial arts\n\nEquipment","Martial arts\n\nMartial arts equipment can include that used for conditioning, protection and weapons. Specialized conditioning equipment can include breaking boards, dummy partners such as the wooden dummy, and targets such as punching bags and the makiwara. Protective equipment for sparring and competition includes boxing gloves and headgear.","Martial arts\n\nMartial arts fraud","Martial arts\n\nAsian martial arts experienced a surge of popularity in the west during the 1970s, and the rising demand resulted in numerous low quality or fraudulent schools. Fueled by fictional depictions in martial arts movies, this led to the ninja craze of the 1980s in the United States. There were also numerous fraudulent ads for martial arts training programs, inserted into comic books circa the 1960s and 1970s, which were read primarily by adolescent boys.","Martial arts\n\nWhen the martial arts came to the United States in the seventies, lower ranks (kyu) began to be given colorful belts to show progress. This proved to be commercially viable and colored-belt systems were adopted in many martial arts degree mills (also known as McDojos and Belt Factories) as a means to generate additional cash. This was covered in Penn & Teller: Bullshit! - episode \"Martial Arts\" (June 2010).","Jeet Kune Do\n\nJeet Kune Do, abbreviated JKD, is an eclectic and hybrid martial art heavily influenced by the philosophy of martial artist Bruce Lee, who founded the system on July 9, 1967, referred to it as \"non-classical\", suggesting that JKD is a form of Chinese Kung Fu, yet without form. Unlike more traditional martial arts, Jeet Kune Do is not fixed or patterned, and is a philosophy with guiding thoughts. It was named for the Wing Chun concept of interception or attacking while one's opponent is about to attack. Jeet Kune Do practitioners believe in minimal movements with maximum effects and extreme speed. The system works by using different \"tools\" for different situations, where the situations are divided into ranges, which are kicking, punching, trapping, and grappling, where martial artists use techniques to flow smoothly between them.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nIn the screenplay of the 1973 Warner Brothers film, Enter the Dragon, when Lee is asked, \"What's your style?\" Lee replied, \"My style?...You can call it the art of fighting without fighting.\"","Jeet Kune Do\n\nThe name Jeet Kune Do was often said by Lee to be just a name, and he often referred to it as \"the art of expressing the human body\" in his writings and in interviews. Through his studies Lee came to believe that styles had become too rigid and unrealistic. He called martial art competitions of the day \"dry land swimming\". He believed real combat was spontaneous, and a martial artist cannot predict it, but only react to it, and a good martial artist should \"be like water\"—move fluidly without hesitation.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nOn January 10-11, 1996, the Bruce Lee Foundation decided to use the name Jun Fan Jeet Kune Do () to refer to the martial arts system which Lee founded; \"Jun Fan\" being Lee's Chinese given name.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nSystem and philosophy","Jeet Kune Do\n\nLee's philosophy","Jeet Kune Do\n\nOriginally, when Lee began researching various fighting styles, he called it Jun Fan Gung Fu. Not wanting to create another style which would share the limitations that all styles had, he instead described the process which he used to create it:","Jeet Kune Do\n\nJKD as it survives since then—if one views it \"refined\" as a product, not a process—is what was left at the time of Lee's death. It is the result of the lifelong martial arts development process Lee went through. Lee stated his concept does not add more and more things on top of each other to form a system, but rather selects the best thereof. The metaphor Lee borrowed from Chan Buddhism was of constantly filling a cup with water, and then emptying it, used for describing Lee's philosophy of \"casting off what is useless\". He used the sculptor's mentality of beginning with a lump of clay and removing the material which constituted the \"unessentials\"; the end result was what he considered to be the bare combat essentials, or JKD. The dominant or strongest hand should be in the lead because it would perform a greater percentage of the work. Lee minimized the use of other stances except when circumstances warranted such actions.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nAlthough the On-Guard position is a formidable overall stance, it is by no means the only one. He acknowledged there were times when other positions should be used. Lee felt the dynamic property of JKD was what enabled its practitioners to adapt to the constant changes and fluctuations of live combat. He believed these decisions should be made within the context of \"real combat\" and/or \"all out sparring\" and that it was only in this environment that a practitioner could actually deem a technique worthy of adoption.\nLee believed that real combat was alive and dynamic. Circumstances in a fight change from millisecond to millisecond. Thus, pre-arranged patterns and techniques are not adequate in dealing with such a changing situation. As an antidote to this line of thought, Lee once wrote an epitaph which read: 'In memory of a once fluid man, crammed and distorted by the classical mess.' The \"classical mess\" in this instance was what Lee thought of the \"not too alive way of the classical kung fu styles\".","Jeet Kune Do\n\nPrinciples","Jeet Kune Do\n\nThe following are principles that Lee incorporated into Jeet Kune Do. Lee felt these were universal combat truths that were self-evident, and would lead to combat success if followed. Familiarity with each of the \"Four ranges of combat\", in particular, is thought to be instrumental in becoming a \"total\" martial artist. JKD teaches that the best defense is a strong offense, hence the principle of an \"intercepting fist\". For someone to attack another hand-to-hand, the attacker must approach the target. This provides an opportunity for the attacked person to \"intercept\" the attacking movement. The principle of interception may be applied to more than intercepting physical attacks; non-verbal cues (subtle movements that an opponent may be unaware of) may also be perceived or \"intercepted\", and thus be used to one's advantage. The \"Five ways of attack\", categories which help JKD practitioners organize their fighting repertoire, comprise the offensive teachings of JKD. The concepts of \"Stop hits & stop kicks\", and \"Simultaneous parrying & punching\", based on the concept of single fluid motions which attack while defending (in systems such as Épée fencing and Wing Chun), compose the defensive teachings of JKD.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nThese concepts were modified for unarmed combat and implemented into the JKD framework by Lee to complement the principle of interception.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nStraight lead","Jeet Kune Do\n\nLee felt that the straight lead was the most integral part of Jeet Kune Do punching, as he stated, \"The leading straight punch is the backbone of all punching in Jeet Kune Do.\" The straight lead is not a power strike but a strike formulated for speed. The straight lead should always be held loosely with a slight motion, as this adds to its speed and makes it more difficult to see and block. The strike is not only the fastest punch in JKD, but also the most accurate. The speed is attributed to the fact that the fist is held out slightly making it closer to the target and its accuracy is gained from the punch being thrown straight forward from one's centerline. The straight lead should be held and thrown loosely and easily, tightening only upon impact, adding to one's punch. The straight lead punch can be thrown from multiple angles and levels.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nNon-telegraphed punch","Jeet Kune Do\n\nLee felt that explosive attacks with no telegraphing signs of intention were best. He argued that the attacks should catch the opponent off-guard, throwing them off their balance and leaving them unable to defend against further attacks. \"The concept behind this is that when you initiate your punch without any forewarning, such as tensing your shoulders or moving your foot or body, the opponent will not have enough time to react,\" Lee wrote. The key is that one must keep one's body and arms loose, weaving one's arms slightly and only becoming tense upon impact. Lee wanted no wind-up movements or \"get ready poses\" to prelude any JKD attacks. Lee explained that any twitches or slight movements before striking should be avoided as they will give the opponent signs or hints as to what is being planned and then they will be able to strike first while one is preparing an attack. Consequently, non-telegraphed movement is an essential part of Jeet Kune Do philosophy.","Jeet Kune Do\n\n\"Be Like Water\"","Jeet Kune Do\n\nLee emphasized that every situation, in fighting or in everyday life, is varied. To obtain victory, therefore, it is essential not to be rigid, but to be fluid and able to adapt to any situation. He compared it to being like water: \"Empty your mind, be formless, shapeless, like water. If you put water into a cup, it becomes the cup. You put water into a bottle and it becomes the bottle. You put it in a teapot it becomes the teapot. Now water can flow, or it can crash. Be water, my friend.\" Lee's theory behind this was that one must be able to function in any scenario one is thrown into and should react accordingly. One should know when to speed up or slow down, when to expand and when to contract, and when to remain flowing and when to crash. It is the awareness that both life and fighting can be shapeless and ever changing that allows one to be able to adapt to those changes instantaneously and bring forth the appropriate solution.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nLee did not believe in \"styles\" and felt that every person and every situation is different and not everyone fits into a mold; one must remain flexible in order to obtain new knowledge and victory in both life and combat. One must never become stagnant in the mind or method, always evolving and moving towards improving oneself.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nEconomy of motion","Jeet Kune Do\n\nJeet Kune Do seeks to waste no time or movement, teaching that the simplest things work best, as in Wing Chun. Economy of motion is the principle by which JKD practitioners achieve:","Jeet Kune Do\n\n* Efficiency: An attack which reaches its target in the least amount of time, with maximum force.\n* Directness: Doing what comes naturally in a disciplined way.\n* Simplicity: Thinking in an uncomplicated manner; without ornamentation.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nThis is meant to help a practitioner conserve both energy and time, two crucial components in a physical confrontation. Maximized force seeks to end the battle quickly due to the amount of damage inflicted upon the opponent. Rapidity aims to reach the target before the opponent can react, which is half-beat faster timing, as taught in Wing Chun and Western boxing. Learned techniques are utilized in JKD to apply these principles to a variety of situations.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nStop hits","Jeet Kune Do\n\n\"When the distance is wide, the attacking opponent requires some sort of preparation. Therefore, attack him on his preparation of attack.\" \"To reach me, you must move to me. Your attack offers me an opportunity to intercept you.\" This means intercepting an opponent's attack with an attack of one's own instead of simply blocking it. It is for this concept Jeet Kune Do is named. JKD practitioners believe that this is the most difficult defensive skill to develop. This strategy is a feature of some traditional Chinese martial arts as Wing Chun, as well as an essential component of European Épée Fencing. Stop hits and kicks utilize the principle of economy of motion by combining attack and defense into one movement, thus minimizing the \"time\" element.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nSimultaneous parrying and punching","Jeet Kune Do\n\nWhen confronting an incoming attack, the attack is parried or deflected, and a counterattack is delivered at the same time. This is not as advanced as a stop hit but more effective than blocking and counterattacking in sequence. This is practiced by some Chinese martial arts such as Wing Chun, and it is also known in Krav Maga as \"bursting\". Simultaneous parrying & punching utilizes the principle of economy of motion by combining attack and defense into one movement, thus minimizing the \"time\" element and maximising the \"energy\" element. Efficiency is gained by utilizing a parry rather than a block. By definition a \"block\" stops an attack, whereas a parry merely re-directs it. Redirection has two advantages, first that it requires less energy to execute and second that it utilizes the opponent's energy against them by creating an imbalance. Efficiency is gained in that the opponent has less time to react to an incoming attack, since they are still nullifying the original attack.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nLow kicks","Jeet Kune Do\n\nJKD practitioners believe they should direct their kicks to their opponent's shins, knees, thighs, and midsection, as in Wing Chun. These targets are the closest to the foot, provide more stability and are more difficult to defend against. Maintaining low kicks utilizes the principle of economy of motion by reducing the distance a kick must travel, thus minimizing the \"time\" element. However, as with all other JKD principles nothing is \"written in stone\". If a target of opportunity presents itself, even a target above the waist, one could take advantage and not be hampered by this principle.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nFour ranges of combat","Jeet Kune Do\n\n* Punching\n* Kicking\n* Trapping\n* Grappling","Jeet Kune Do\n\nJeet Kune Do students train in each of the aforementioned ranges equally. According to Lee, this range of training serves to differentiate JKD from other martial arts. Lee stated that most but not all traditional martial arts systems specialize in training at one or two ranges. Lee's theories have been especially influential and substantiated in the field of mixed martial arts, as the MMA Phases of Combat are essentially the same concept as the JKD combat ranges. As a historic note, the ranges in JKD have evolved over time. Initially the ranges were categorized as short or close, medium, and long range. These terms proved ambiguous and eventually evolved into their more descriptive forms, although some may still prefer the original three categories.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nFive ways of attack","Jeet Kune Do\n\nThe original five ways of attack are:","Jeet Kune Do\n\n# Simple Direct Attack (SDA)\n# Attack By Combination (ABC)\n# Progressive Indirect Attack (PIA)\n# (Hand) Immobilization Attack (HIA)\n# Attack By Drawing (ABD)","Jeet Kune Do\n\nCenterline","Jeet Kune Do\n\nThe centerline is an imaginary line drawn vertically along the center of a standing human body, and refers to the space directly in front of that body. If one draws an isosceles triangle on the floor, for which one's body forms the base, and one's arms form the equal legs of the triangle, then h (the height of the triangle) is the centerline. The Wing Chun concept is to exploit, control and dominate an opponent's centerline. All attacks, defenses, and footwork are designed to guard one's own centerline while entering the opponent's centerline space. Lee incorporated this theory into JKD from his Sifu Yip Man's Wing Chun.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nThe three guidelines for centerline are:","Jeet Kune Do\n\n* The one who controls the centerline will control the fight.\n* Protect and maintain your own centerline while you control and exploit your opponent's.\n* Control the centerline by occupying it.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nThis notion is closely related to maintaining control of the center squares in the strategic game chess. The concept is naturally present in xiangqi (Chinese chess), where an \"X\" is drawn on the game board, in front of both players' general and advisors.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nCombat realism","Jeet Kune Do\n\nOne of the premises that Lee incorporated in Jeet Kune Do was \"combat realism\". He insisted that martial arts techniques should be incorporated based upon their effectiveness in real combat situations. This would differentiate JKD from other systems where there was an emphasis on \"flowery technique\", as Lee would put it. Lee claimed that flashy \"flowery techniques\" would arguably \"look good\" but were often not practical or would prove ineffective in street survival and self-defense situations. This premise would differentiate JKD from other \"sport\"-oriented martial arts systems that were geared towards \"tournament\" or \"point systems\". Lee felt that these systems were \"artificial\" and fooled their practitioners into a false sense of true martial skill. Lee felt that because these systems favored a \"sports\" approach they incorporated too many rule sets that would ultimately handicap a practitioner in self-defense situations. He felt that this approach to martial arts became a \"game of tag\" which would lead to bad habits such as pulling punches and other attacks; this would again lead to disastrous consequences in real world situations.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nAnother aspect of realistic martial arts training fundamental to JKD is what Lee referred to as \"aliveness\". This is the concept of training techniques with an unwilling assistant who offers resistance. Lee made a reference to this concept in his famous quote \"Boards don't hit back!\" Because of this perspective of realism and aliveness, Lee utilized safety gear from various other contact sports to allow him to spar with opponents \"full out\". This approach to training allowed practitioners to come as close as possible to real combat situations with a high degree of safety.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nCountry of Origin","Jeet Kune Do\n\nJeet Kune Do is and was founded in Seattle, Washington, U.S.A. in 1964 (Jun Fan Gung Fu), until July 9, 1967 the term Jeet Kune Do was formed by both Bruce Lee and Dan Inosanto","Jeet Kune Do\n\nJeet Kune Do practitioners and appearances in popular culture","Jeet Kune Do\n\n* Kareem Abdul-Jabbar from Game of Death. \n* Bruce's son Brandon Lee was a student of Jeet Kune Do and used it in his fight scenes in his films. \n* Danny Chan Kwok-kwan from The Legend of Bruce Lee.\n* Lady Gaga is a practitioner of Jeet Kune Do along with other styles of martial arts such as Krav Maga, Capoeira, Boxing & Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.\n* Kurt McKinney in No Retreat, No Surrender.\n* Taimak in The Last Dragon.\n* Spike Spiegel in Cowboy Bebop.","Jeet Kune Do\n\nVideo games","Jeet Kune Do\n\nMany video games characters that utilize Jeet Kune Do or a style based on it:","Jeet Kune Do\n\n* Maxi— Soulcalibur series\n* Fei Long—Street Fighter series\n* Kim Dragon—World Heroes series\n* Jann Lee—Dead or Alive series\n* Marshall and Forrest Law—Tekken series\n* Kenshiro—Fist of the North Star series\n* Rock Lee—Naruto series\n* Kamen Rider Meteor—Kamen Rider Series\n* Lee Sin—League of Legends\n* Jacky Bryant—Virtua Fighter series\n* Kim Wu—Killer Instinct series\n* Jon Talbain—Darkstalkers series\n* Johnny Cage—Mortal Kombat (2011 reboot only)\n* Blaze—Mortal Kombat Unchained"],"string":"[\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee Jun-fan (; November 27, 1940 – July 20, 1973), known professionally as Bruce Lee, was a Hong Kong American martial artist, actor, philosopher, filmmaker, and founder of the martial art Jeet Kune Do. Lee was the son of Cantonese opera star Lee Hoi-Chuen. He is widely considered by commentators, critics, media, and other martial artists to be one of the most influential martial artists of all time, and a pop culture icon of the 20th century. He is often credited with helping to change the way Asians were presented in American films.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee was born in Chinatown, San Francisco on November 27, 1940 to parents from Hong Kong and was raised in Kowloon with his family until his late teens. He was introduced to the film industry by his father and appeared in several films as a child actor. Lee moved to the United States at the age of 18 to receive his higher education, at the University of Washington, at Seattle and it was during this time that he began teaching martial arts. His Hong Kong and Hollywood-produced films elevated the traditional Hong Kong martial arts film to a new level of popularity and acclaim, sparking a surge of interest in Chinese martial arts in the West in the 1970s. The direction and tone of his films changed and influenced martial arts and martial arts films in the United States, Hong Kong and the rest of the world.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nHe is noted for his roles in five feature-length films: Lo Wei's The Big Boss (1971) and Fist of Fury (1972); Golden Harvest's Way of the Dragon (1972), directed and written by Lee; Golden Harvest and Warner Brothers' Enter the Dragon (1973) and The Game of Death (1978), both directed by Robert Clouse. Lee became an iconic figure known throughout the world, particularly among the Chinese, as he portrayed Chinese nationalism in his films. He trained in the art of Wing Chun and later combined his other influences from various sources, in the spirit of his personal martial arts philosophy, which he dubbed Jeet Kune Do (The Way of the Intercepting Fist). \\nLee held dual nationality of Hong Kong and the United States. He died in Kowloon Tong on July 20, 1973 at the age of 32.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nBruce Lee was born on November 27, 1940, at the Chinese Hospital, in San Francisco's Chinatown. According to the Chinese zodiac, Lee was born in both the hour and the year of the Dragon, which according to tradition is a strong and fortuitous omen.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nBruce's father, Lee Hoi-chuen, (李海泉) was Han Chinese, and his mother, Grace Ho (何愛瑜), was of half-Chinese and half-Caucasian descent. Grace Ho was the adopted daughter of Ho Kom-tong (Ho Gumtong, 何甘棠) and the half-niece of Sir Robert Ho-tung, both notable Hong Kong businessmen and philanthropists, and was a reportedly a half-German Catholic. Bruce was the fourth child of five children: Phoebe Lee (李秋源), Agnes Lee (李秋鳳), Peter Lee (李忠琛), and Robert Lee (李振輝). Lee and his parents returned to Hong Kong when he was three months old.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nNames\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee's Cantonese birth name was Lee Jun-fan (李振藩).振藩; Mandarin Pinyin: Zhènfán) The name homophonically means \\\"return again\\\", and was given to Lee by his mother, who felt he would return to the United States once he came of age. Because of his mother's superstitious nature, she had originally named him Sai-fon (細鳳), which is a feminine name meaning \\\"small phoenix\\\". The English name \\\"Bruce\\\" is thought to have been given by the hospital attending physician, Dr. Mary Glover.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee had three other Chinese names: Li Yuanxin (李源鑫), a family/clan name; Li Yuanjian (李元鑒), which he used as a student name while he was attending La Salle College, and his Chinese screen name Li Xiaolong (李小龍; Xiaolong means \\\"little dragon\\\"). Lee's given name Jun-fan was originally written in Chinese as 震藩, however, the Jun (震) Chinese character was identical to part of his grandfather's name, Lee Jun-biu (李震彪). Hence, the Chinese character for Jun in Lee's name was changed to the homonym 振 instead, to avoid naming taboo in Chinese tradition.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nFamily\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee's father, Lee Hoi-chuen, was one of the leading Cantonese opera and film actors at the time, and was embarking on a year-long opera tour with his family on the eve of the Japanese invasion of Hong Kong. Lee Hoi-chuen had been touring the United States for many years and performing at numerous Chinese communities there.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAlthough many of his peers decided to stay in the United States, Lee Hoi-chuen returned to Hong Kong after Bruce's birth. Within months, Hong Kong was invaded and the Lees lived for three years and eight months under Japanese occupation. After the war ended, Lee Hoi-chuen resumed his acting career and became a more popular actor during Hong Kong's rebuilding years.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee's mother, Grace Ho, was from one of the wealthiest and most powerful clans in Hong Kong, the Ho-tungs. She was the half-niece of Sir Robert Ho-tung, the Eurasian patriarch of the clan. As such, the young Bruce Lee grew up in an affluent and privileged environment. Despite the advantage of his family's status, the neighborhood in which Lee grew up became overcrowded, dangerous, and full of gang rivalries due to an influx of refugees fleeing communist China for Hong Kong, at that time a British Crown colony.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAfter Lee was involved in several street fights, his parents decided that he needed to be trained in the martial arts. Lee's first introduction to martial arts was through his father, from whom he learned the fundamentals of Wu-style t'ai chi ch'uan.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nWing Chun\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nThe largest influence on Lee's martial arts development was his study of Wing Chun. Lee began training in Wing Chun when he was 16 years old under the Wing Chun teacher Yip Man in 1957, after losing several fights with rival gang members. Yip's regular classes generally consisted of the forms practice, chi sao (sticking hands) drills, wooden dummy techniques, and free-sparring. There was no set pattern to the classes. Yip tried to keep his students from fighting in the street gangs of Hong Kong by encouraging them to fight in organized competitions.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAfter a year into his Wing Chun training, most of Yip Man's other students refused to train with Lee after they learned of his mixed ancestry, as the Chinese were generally against teaching their martial arts techniques to non-Asians. Lee's sparring partner, Hawkins Cheung states, \\\"Probably fewer than six people in the whole Wing Chun clan were personally taught, or even partly taught, by Yip Man\\\". However, Lee showed a keen interest in Wing Chun, and continued to train privately with Yip Man and Wong Shun Leung in 1955. Wan Kam Leung, a student of Wong's, witnessed a sparring bout between Wong and Lee, and noted the speed and precision with which Lee was able to deliver his kicks. Lee continued to train with Wong Shun Leung after later returning to Hong Kong from America.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLeaving Hong Kong\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAfter attending Tak Sun School (德信學校) (several blocks from his home at 218 Nathan Road, Kowloon), Lee entered the primary school division of La Salle College at the age of 12. In around 1956, due to poor academic performance (or possibly poor conduct as well), he was transferred to St. Francis Xavier's College (high school) where he would be mentored by Brother Edward, a teacher and coach of the school boxing team.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nIn the spring of 1959, Lee got into yet another street fight and the police were called. \\nUntil his late teens, Lee's street fights became more frequent and included beating the son of a feared triad family. Eventually, Lee's father decided his son should leave Hong Kong to pursue a safer and healthier life in the United States. His parents confirmed the police's fear that this time Lee's opponent had an organised crime background, and there was the possibility that a contract was out for his life.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nIn April 1959, Lee's parents decided to send him to the United States to stay with his older sister, Agnes Lee (李秋鳳), who was already living with family friends in San Francisco.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nNew life in America\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAt the age of 18, Lee returned to the United States. After living in San Francisco for several months, he moved to Seattle in 1959, to continue his high school education, where he also worked for Ruby Chow as a live-in waiter at her restaurant.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nChow's husband was a co-worker and friend of Lee's father. Lee's elder brother Peter Lee (李忠琛) would also join him in Seattle for a short stay before moving on to Minnesota to attend college. In December 1960, Lee completed his high school education and received his diploma from Edison Technical School (now Seattle Central Community College, located on Capitol Hill in Seattle).\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nIn March 1961, Lee enrolled at the University of Washington, majoring in drama according to a 1999 article in the university's alumni magazine, not in philosophy as stated by Lee himself and many others. Lee also studied philosophy, psychology, and various other subjects. It was at the University of Washington that he met his future wife Linda Emery, a fellow student studying to become a teacher, whom he married in August 1964.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee had two children with Linda Emery, Brandon Lee (1965–93) and Shannon Lee (born 1969).\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nMartial arts career\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nJun Fan Gung Fu\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee began teaching martial arts in the United States in 1959. He called what he taught Jun Fan Gung Fu (literally Bruce Lee's Kung Fu). It was basically his approach to Wing Chun. Lee taught friends he met in Seattle, starting with Judo practitioner Jesse Glover, who continued to teach some of Lee's early techniques. Taky Kimura became Lee's first Assistant Instructor and continued to teach his art and philosophy after Lee's death. Lee opened his first martial arts school, named the Lee Jun Fan Gung Fu Institute, in Seattle.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee dropped out of college in the spring of 1964 and moved to Oakland to live with James Yimm Lee (嚴鏡海). James Lee was twenty years senior to Bruce Lee and a well known Chinese martial artist in the area. Together, they founded the second Jun Fan martial art studio in Oakland. James Lee was also responsible for introducing Bruce Lee to Ed Parker, American martial artist, and organizer of the Long Beach International Karate Championships at which Bruce Lee was later \\\"discovered\\\" by Hollywood.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLong Beach International Karate Championships\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAt the invitation of Ed Parker, Lee appeared in the 1964 Long Beach International Karate Championships and performed repetitions of two-finger push-ups (using the thumb and the index finger of one hand) with feet at approximately a shoulder-width apart. In the same Long Beach event he also performed the \\\"One inch punch.\\\" Lee stood upright, his right foot forward with knees bent slightly, in front of a standing, stationary partner. Lee's right arm was partly extended and his right fist approximately 1 in away from the partner's chest. Without retracting his right arm, Lee then forcibly delivered the punch to his partner while largely maintaining his posture, sending the partner backwards and falling into a chair said to be placed behind the partner to prevent injury, though his partner's momentum soon caused him to fall to the floor. His volunteer was Bob Baker of Stockton, California. \\\"I told Bruce not to do this type of demonstration again\\\", Baker recalled. \\\"When he punched me that last time, I had to stay home from work because the pain in my chest was unbearable\\\".\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nIt was at the 1964 championships where Lee first met Taekwondo master Jhoon Goo Rhee. The two developed a friendship – a relationship from which they benefited as martial artists. Rhee taught Lee the side kick in detail, and Lee taught Rhee the \\\"non-telegraphic\\\" punch.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee appeared at the 1967 Long Beach International Karate Championships and performed various demonstrations, including the famous \\\"unstoppable punch\\\" against USKA world Karate champion Vic Moore. Lee allegedly told Moore that he was going to throw a straight punch to the face, and all he had to do was to try to block it. Lee took several steps back and asked if Moore was ready. When Moore nodded in affirmation, Lee glided towards him until he was within striking range. He then threw a straight punch directly at Moore's face, and stopped before impact. In eight attempts, Moore failed to block any of the punches. However, Moore and grandmaster Steve Mohammed claim that Lee had first told Moore that he was going to throw a straight punch to the body, which Moore blocked. Lee attempted another punch, and Moore blocked it as well. The third punch, which Lee threw to Moore's face, did not come nearly within striking distance. Moore, as well as many in the room that day, says Lee never successfully struck Moore but Moore was able to strike Lee after trying on his own.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nMoore claims that Bruce Lee said he was the fastest American he's ever seen and that Lee's media crew repeatedly played the one punch towards Moore's face that did not come within striking range, allegedly in an attempt to preserve Lee's superstar image.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nFight with Wong Jack Man\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nIn Oakland, California in 1964 at Chinatown, Lee had a controversial private match with Wong Jack Man, a direct student of Ma Kin Fung known for his mastery of Xingyiquan, Northern Shaolin, and T'ai chi ch'uan. According to Lee, the Chinese community issued an ultimatum to him to stop teaching non-Chinese. When he refused to comply, he was challenged to a combat match with Wong. The arrangement was that if Lee lost, he would have to shut down his school; while if he won, then Lee would be free to teach Caucasians or anyone else. Wong denied this, stating that he requested to fight Lee after Lee boasted during one of his demonstrations at a Chinatown theatre that he could beat anyone in San Francisco, and that Wong himself did not discriminate against Caucasians or other non-Chinese. Lee commented, \\\"That paper had all the names of the sifu from Chinatown, but they don't scare me\\\".\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nIndividuals known to have witnessed the match include Cadwell, James Lee (Bruce Lee's associate, no relation), and William Chen, a teacher of T'ai chi ch'uan. Wong and William Chen stated that the fight lasted an unusually long 20–25 minutes. Wong claims that he had originally expected a serious but polite bout; however Lee had attacked him very aggressively with intent to kill, straight from the beginning of the bout when he had replied to Wong's traditional handshake offer by pretending to accept the handshake, but instead turning that hand into a spear aimed at Wong's eyes. Forced to defend his life, he had nonetheless refrained from striking Lee with killing force when the opportunity presented itself because it could earn him a prison sentence. The fight ended due to Lee's \\\"unusually winded\\\" condition, as opposed to a decisive blow by either fighter. According to Bruce Lee, Linda Lee Cadwell, and James Yimm Lee however, the fight lasted a mere 3 minutes with a decisive victory for Lee. In Cadwell's account, \\\"The fight ensued, it was a no-holds-barred fight, it took three minutes.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nBruce got this guy down to the ground and said 'Do you give up?' and the man said he gave up\\\".\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nMental Floss magazine's Jack Rossen said author Rick Wing, a dedicated student of Wong's, presented a somewhat different account after Wing interviewed Wong and several eyewitnesses to the fight for Showdown in Oakland: The Story Behind the Wong Jack Man - Bruce Lee Fight, Wing's book on the bout:\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nA couple of weeks after the bout, Lee gave an interview claiming that he had defeated an unnamed challenger, which Wong says was an obvious reference to him. In response, Wong published his own account of the fight in the Chinese Pacific Weekly, a Chinese-language newspaper in San Francisco, with an invitation to a public rematch if Lee was not satisfied with the account. Lee did not respond to the invitation despite his reputation for violently responding to every provocation, and there were no further public announcements by either, though Lee continued to teach Caucasians.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nJeet Kune Do\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nJeet Kune Do originated in 1967. After filming one season of The Green Hornet, Lee found himself out of work and opened The Jun Fan Institute of Gung Fu. The controversial match with Wong Jack Man influenced Lee's philosophy about martial arts. Lee concluded that the fight had lasted too long and that he had failed to live up to his potential using his Wing Chun techniques. He took the view that traditional martial arts techniques were too rigid and formalistic to be practical in scenarios of chaotic street fighting. Lee decided to develop a system with an emphasis on \\\"practicality, flexibility, speed, and efficiency\\\". He started to use different methods of training such as weight training for strength, running for endurance, stretching for flexibility, and many others which he constantly adapted, including fencing and basic boxing techniques.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee emphasised what he called \\\"the style of no style\\\". This consisted of getting rid of the formalised approach which Lee claimed was indicative of traditional styles. Lee felt the system he now called Jun Fan Gung Fu was even too restrictive, and eventually evolved into a philosophy and martial art he would come to call Jeet Kune Do or the Way of the Intercepting Fist. It is a term he would later regret, because Jeet Kune Do implied specific parameters that styles connote; whereas the idea of his martial art was to exist outside of parameters and limitations.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nFitness and nutrition\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAt 173 cm and 64 kg, Lee was renowned for his physical fitness and vigor, achieved by using a dedicated fitness regimen to become as strong as possible. After his match with Wong Jack Man in 1965, Lee changed his approach toward martial arts training. Lee felt that many martial artists of his time did not spend enough time on physical conditioning. Lee included all elements of total fitness—muscular strength, muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance, and flexibility. He used traditional bodybuilding techniques to build some muscle mass, not overdone as that could decrease speed or flexibility. At the same time in balance, Lee was careful to admonish that mental and spiritual preparation are fundamental to the success of physical training in martial arts skills. In Tao of Jeet Kune Do he wrote,\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAccording to Linda Lee Cadwell, soon after he moved to the United States, Lee started to take nutrition seriously and developed an interest in health foods, high-protein drinks and vitamin and mineral supplements. He later concluded that in order to achieve a high-performance body, one could not fuel it with a diet of junk food, and with \\\"the wrong fuel\\\" one's body would perform sluggishly or sloppily. Lee also avoided baked goods and refined flour, describing them as providing calories which did nothing for his body.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nActing career\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee's father Lee Hoi-chuen was a famous Cantonese opera star. Because of this, Lee was introduced into films at a very young age and appeared in several films as a child. Lee had his first role as a baby who was carried onto the stage in the film Golden Gate Girl. By the time he was 18, he had appeared in twenty films.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nWhile in the United States from 1959 to 1964, Lee abandoned thoughts of a film career in favour of pursuing martial arts. However, a martial arts exhibition on Long Beach in 1964 eventually led to the invitation by William Dozier for an audition for a part in the pilot for \\\"Number One Son\\\". The show never aired, but Lee was invited for the role of Kato alongside Van Williams in the TV series The Green Hornet. The show lasted just one season, from 1966 to 1967. Lee also played Kato in three crossover episodes of Batman. This was followed by guest appearances in three television series: Ironside (1967), Here Come the Brides (1969), and Blondie (1969).\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAt the time, two of Lee's martial arts students were Hollywood script writer Stirling Silliphant and actor James Coburn. In 1969 the three worked on a script for a film called The Silent Flute, and went together on a location hunt to India. The project was not realised at the time; but the 1978 film Circle of Iron, starring David Carradine, was based on the same plot. In 2010, producer Paul Maslansky was reported to plan and receive fundings for a film based on the original script for The Silent Flute. In 1969, Lee made a brief appearance in the Silliphant-penned film Marlowe where he played a henchman hired to intimidate private detective Philip Marlowe, (played by James Garner), by smashing up his office with leaping kicks and flashing punches, only to later accidentally jump off a tall building while trying to kick Marlowe off. The same year he also choreographed fight scenes for The Wrecking Crew starring Dean Martin, Sharon Tate, and featuring Chuck Norris in his first role. In 1970, he was responsible for fight choreography for A Walk in the Spring Rain starring Ingrid Bergman and Anthony Quinn, again written by Silliphant.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nIn 1971, Lee appeared in four episodes of the television series Longstreet, written by Silliphant. Lee played the martial arts instructor of the title character Mike Longstreet (played by James Franciscus), and important aspects of his martial arts philosophy were written into the script.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAccording to statements made by Lee, and also by Linda Lee Cadwell after Lee's death, in 1971 Lee pitched a television series of his own tentatively titled The Warrior, discussions which were also confirmed by Warner Bros. In a December 9, 1971 television interview on The Pierre Berton Show, Lee stated that both Paramount and Warner Brothers wanted him \\\"to be in a modernized type of a thing, and that they think the Western idea is out, whereas I want to do the Western\\\". According to Cadwell, however, Lee's concept was retooled and renamed Kung Fu, but Warner Bros. gave Lee no credit. Warner Brothers states that they had for some time been developing an identical concept, created by two writers and producers, Ed Spielman and Howard Friedlander. According to these sources, the reason Lee was not cast was in part because of his ethnicity, but more so because he had a thick accent. The role of the Shaolin monk in the Wild West, was eventually awarded to then-non-martial-artist David Carradine. In The Pierre Berton Show interview, Lee stated he understood Warner Brothers' attitudes towards casting in the series: \\\"They think that business wise it is a risk.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nI don't blame them. If the situation were reversed, and an American star were to come to Hong Kong, and I was the man with the money, I would have my own concerns as to whether the acceptance would be there\\\".\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nProducer Fred Weintraub had advised Lee to return to Hong Kong and make a feature film which he could showcase to executives in Hollywood. Not happy with his supporting roles in the United States, Lee returned to Hong Kong. Unaware that The Green Hornet had been played to success in Hong Kong and was unofficially referred to as \\\"The Kato Show\\\", he was surprised to be recognised on the street as the star of the show. After negotiating with both Shaw Brothers Studio and Golden Harvest, Lee signed a film contract to star in two films produced by Golden Harvest. Lee played his first leading role in The Big Boss (1971) which proved to be an enormous box office success across Asia and catapulted him to stardom. He soon followed up with Fist of Fury (1972) which broke the box office records set previously by The Big Boss. Having finished his initial two-year contract, Lee negotiated a new deal with Golden Harvest. Lee later formed his own company, Concord Production Inc. (協和電影公司), with Chow.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nFor his third film, Way of the Dragon (1972), he was given complete control of the film's production as the writer, director, star, and choreographer of the fight scenes.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nIn 1964, at a demonstration in Long Beach, California, Lee had met Karate champion Chuck Norris. In Way of the Dragon Lee introduced Norris to movie-goers as his opponent in the final death fight at the Colosseum in Rome, today considered one of Lee's most legendary fight scenes and one of the most memorable fight scenes in martial arts film history. The role was originally offered to American Karate champion Joe Lewis.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nFrom August to October 1972, Lee began work on his fourth Golden Harvest Film, Game of Death. He began filming some scenes including his fight sequence with 7 ft American Basketball star Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, a former student. Production was stopped in November 1972 when Warner Brothers offered Lee the opportunity to star in Enter the Dragon, the first film to be produced jointly by Golden Harvest and Warner Bros. Filming began in Hong Kong in January 1973. One month into the filming, another production company, Starseas Motion Pictures, promoted Bruce Lee as a leading actor in Fist of Unicorn, although he had merely agreed to choreograph the fight sequences in the film as a favour to his long-time friend Unicorn Chan. Lee planned to sue the production company, but retained his friendship with Chan. However, only a few months after the completion of Enter the Dragon, and six days before its July 26, 1973 release, Lee died. Enter the Dragon would go on to become one of the year's highest grossing films and cement Lee as a martial arts legend. It was made for US$850,000 in 1973 (equivalent to $4 million adjusted for inflation as of 2007).\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nTo date, Enter the Dragon has grossed over $200 million worldwide. The film sparked a brief fad in martial arts, epitomised in songs such as \\\"Kung Fu Fighting\\\" and TV shows like Kung Fu.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nRobert Clouse, the director of Enter the Dragon and Golden Harvest revived Lee's unfinished film Game of Death. Lee had shot over 100 minutes of footage, including out-takes, for Game of Death before shooting was stopped to allow him to work on Enter the Dragon. In addition to Abdul-Jabbar, George Lazenby, Hapkido master Ji Han-Jae and another of Lee's students, Dan Inosanto, were also to appear in the film, which was to culminate in Lee's character, Hai Tien (clad in the now-famous yellow track suit ) taking on a series of different challengers on each floor as they make their way through a five-level pagoda. In a controversial move, Robert Clouse finished the film using a look-alike and archive footage of Lee from his other films with a new storyline and cast, which was released in 1978. However, the cobbled-together film contained only fifteen minutes of actual footage of Lee (he had printed many unsuccessful takes) while the rest had a Lee look-alike, Kim Tai Chung, and Yuen Biao as stunt double. The unused footage Lee had filmed was recovered 22 years later and included in the documentary Bruce Lee: A Warrior's Journey.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nApart from Game of Death, other future film projects were planned to feature Lee at the time. In 1972, after the success of The Big Boss and Fist of Fury, a third film was planned by Raymond Chow at Golden Harvest to be directed by Lo Wei, titled Yellow-Faced Tiger. However, at the time, Lee decided to direct and produce his own script for Way of the Dragon instead. Although Lee had formed a production company with Raymond Chow, a period film was also planned from September–November 1973 with the competing Shaw Brothers Studio, to be directed by either Chor Yuen or Cheng Kang, and written by Yi Kang and Chang Cheh, titled The Seven Sons of the Jade Dragon. Lee had also worked on several scripts himself. A tape containing a recording of Lee narrating the basic storyline to a film tentatively titled Southern Fist/Northern Leg exists, showing some similarities with the canned script for The Silent Flute (Circle of Iron). Another script had the title Green Bamboo Warrior, set in San Francisco, planned to co-star Bolo Yeung and to be produced by Andrew Vajna who later went on to produce First Blood.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nPhoto shoot costume tests were also organized for some of these planned film projects.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nArtistry\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nPhilosophy\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee is best known as a martial artist, but he also studied drama and philosophy while a student at the University of Washington. He was well-read and had an extensive library. His own books on martial arts and fighting philosophy are known for their philosophical assertions, both inside and outside of martial arts circles. His eclectic philosophy often mirrored his fighting beliefs, though he was quick to claim that his martial arts were solely a metaphor for such teachings. He believed that any knowledge ultimately led to self-knowledge, and said that his chosen method of self-expression was martial arts. His influences include Taoism, Jiddu Krishnamurti, and Buddhism. On the other hand, Lee's philosophy was very much in opposition to the conservative worldview advocated by Confucianism. John Little states that Lee was an atheist. When asked in 1972 about his religious affiliation, he replied, \\\"none whatsoever\\\". In 1972, he was asked if he believed in God, and responded, \\\"To be perfectly frank, I really do not\\\".\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nPoetry\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAside from martial arts and philosophy which focus on the physical aspect and self-consciousness for truths and principles, Lee also wrote poetry that reflected his emotion and a stage in his life collectively. Many forms of art remain concordant with the artist creating them. Lee's principal of self-expression was applied to his poetry as well. His daughter Shannon Lee said \\\"He did write poetry, he was really the consummate artist\\\". His poetic works originally handwritten on paper, later on edited and published. John Little being the major author (editor), for Bruce Lee's works. Linda Lee Cadwell (Bruce Lee's wife) shared her husbands notes, poems and experiences with followers. She mentioned \\\"Lee's poems are, by American standards, rather dark-reflecting the deeper, less exposed recesses of the human psyche\\\". Most of Bruce Lee's poems are categorized as anti-poetry or fall into a paradox. The mood in his poems show the side of the man that can be compared with other poets such as Robert Frost, one of many well-known poets expressing himself with dark poetic works. The paradox taken from the Yin and Yang symbol in martial arts, also integrated in his poetry.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nHis martial arts, and philosophy contribute a great part to his poetry. The free verse form of Lee's poetry reflect his famous quote \\\"Be formless ... shapeless, like water.\\\"\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nDeath\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nOn May 10, 1973, Lee collapsed during an ADR session for Enter the Dragon at Golden Harvest in Hong Kong. Suffering from seizures and headaches, he was immediately rushed to Hong Kong Baptist Hospital where doctors diagnosed cerebral edema. They were able to reduce the swelling through the administration of mannitol. The headache and cerebral edema that occurred in his first collapse were later repeated on the day of his death.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nOn July 20, 1973, Lee was in Hong Kong, to have dinner with James Bond star George Lazenby, with whom he intended to make a film. According to Lee's wife Linda, Lee met producer Raymond Chow at 2 p.m. at home to discuss the making of the film Game of Death. They worked until 4 p.m. and then drove together to the home of Lee's colleague Betty Ting Pei, a Taiwanese actress. The three went over the script at Ting's home, and then Chow left to attend a dinner meeting.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLater Lee complained of a headache, and Ting gave him an analgesic (painkiller), Equagesic, which contained both aspirin and the tranquilizer meprobamate. Around 7:30 p.m., he went to lie down for a nap. When Lee did not turn up for dinner, producer Raymond Chow came to the apartment, but was unable to wake Lee up. A doctor was summoned, who spent ten minutes attempting to revive Lee before sending him by ambulance to Queen Elizabeth Hospital. By the time the ambulance reached the hospital he was dead. He was 32 years old.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nThere was no visible external injury; however, according to autopsy reports, Lee's brain had swollen considerably, from 1,400 to 1,575 grams (a 13% increase). The autopsy found Equagesic in his system. On October 15, 2005, Chow stated in an interview that Lee died from an allergic reaction to the tranquilizer meprobamate, the main ingredient in Equagesic, which Chow described as an ingredient commonly used in painkillers. When the doctors announced Lee's death officially, it was ruled a \\\"death by misadventure\\\".\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee's wife Linda returned to her hometown of Seattle, and had him buried at lot 276 of Lakeview Cemetery.[http://www.lakeviewcemeteryassociation.com/burials.php Lakeview Cemetery website.] Search for Lee. Only use last name. Pallbearers at his funeral on July 25, 1973 included Taky Kimura, Steve McQueen, James Coburn, Chuck Norris, George Lazenby, Dan Inosanto, Peter Chin, and Lee's brother Robert.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nControversy surrounding Lee's death\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAround the time of Lee's death, numerous rumors appeared in the media. Lee's iconic status and untimely demise fed many wild rumors and theories. These included murder involving the Triads and a supposed curse on him and his family.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nDonald Teare, a forensic scientist recommended by Scotland Yard who had overseen over 1,000 autopsies, was assigned to the Lee case. His conclusion was \\\"death by misadventure\\\" caused by an acute cerebral edema due to a reaction to compounds present in the combination medication Equagesic.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nWhile there was initial speculation that cannabis found in Lee's stomach may have contributed to his death, Teare refuted this, stating that it would \\\"be both 'irresponsible and irrational' to say that [cannabis] might have triggered either the events of Bruce's collapse on May 10 or his death on July 20\\\". Dr. R. R. Lycette, the clinical pathologist at Queen Elizabeth Hospital, reported at the coroner hearing that the death could not have been caused by cannabis.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAt the 1975 San Diego Comic-Con convention, Bruce Lee's friend Chuck Norris attributed his death to a reaction between the muscle-relaxant medication he had been taking since 1968 for a ruptured disc in his back, and an \\\"antibiotic\\\" he was given for his headache on the night of his death.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nThe book The Death of Bruce Lee: A Clinical Investigation presents the belief that Bruce Lee was already sensitized to the use of Equagesic by the time of his first \\\"acute hypersensitivity reaction\\\" on May 10, 1973. Lee refrained from using the drug again until that fateful evening of July 20, 1973, when he took Equagesic and later died of cerebral edema.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nCertified instructors\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nBruce Lee personally certified only three instructors: Taky Kimura, James Yimm Lee, and Dan Inosanto. Inosanto holds the 3rd rank (Instructor) directly from Bruce Lee in Jeet Kune Do, Jun Fan Gung Fu, and Bruce Lee's Tao of Chinese Gung Fu. Taky Kimura holds a 5th rank in Jun Fan Gung Fu. James Yimm Lee held a 3rd rank in Jun Fan Gung Fu. Ted Wong holds 2nd rank in Jeet Kune Do certified directly by Bruce Lee and was later promoted to Instructor under Dan Inosanto, who felt that Bruce would have wanted to promote him. Other Jeet Kune Do instructors since Lee's death have been certified directly by Dan Inosanto, some with remaining Bruce Lee signed certificates.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nJames Yimm Lee, a close friend of Lee, certified a few students including Gary Dill who studied Jeet Kune Do under James and received permission via a personal letter from him in 1972 to pass on his learning of Jun Fan Gung Fu to others. Taky Kimura, to date, has certified only one person in Jun Fan Gung Fu: his son Andy Kimura. Dan Inosanto continued to teach and certify select students in Jeet Kune Do for over 30 years, making it possible for thousands of martial arts practitioners to trace their training lineage back to Bruce Lee. Prior to his death, Lee told his then only two living instructors Kimura and Inosanto (James Yimm Lee had died in 1972) to dismantle his schools.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nBoth Taky Kimura and Dan Inosanto were allowed to teach small classes thereafter, under the guideline \\\"keep the numbers low, but the quality high\\\". Bruce also instructed several World Karate Champions including Chuck Norris, Joe Lewis, and Mike Stone. Between the three of them, during their training with Bruce, they won every karate championship in the United States.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nIn Japan, Junichi Okada is a certified Japanese instructor in Jeet Kune Do.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nHong Kong legacy\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nThere are a number of stories (perhaps apocryphal) surrounding Lee that are still repeated in Hong Kong culture. One is that his early 1970s interview on the TVB show Enjoy Yourself Tonight cleared the busy streets of Hong Kong as everyone was watching the interview at home.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nOn January 6, 2009, it was announced that Bruce's Hong Kong home (41 Cumberland Road, Kowloon, Hong Kong) will be preserved and transformed into a tourist site by philanthropist Yu Pang-lin.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAwards and honours\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nBruce Lee was named by Time Magazine as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nIn April 2013, he was posthumously awarded the prestigious Founders Award at The Asian Awards.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nA Bruce Lee statue was unveiled in Los Angeles' Chinatown on June 15, 2013. It stands at 7 foot tall and was made in Guangzhou, China.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nIn April 2014, it was announced that Lee would be a featured character in the video game EA Sports UFC, and will be playable in multiple weight classes.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nBruce Lee was voted as the Greatest Movie Fighter Ever in 2014 by the Houston Boxing Hall Of Fame. The HBHOF is a combat sports voting body composed exclusively of current and former fighters and Martial Artists.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nMartial arts lineage\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nLee was trained in Wu Tai Chi Chuan (also known as Ng-ga) and Jing Mo Tam Tui for the twelve sets. Lee was trained in the martial arts Choy Li Fut, Western Boxing, Épée fencing, Judo, Praying Mantis kung fu, Hsing-I, and Jujitsu.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nFilmography\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nFilm\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nTelevision\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nAdvertising\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nThough Bruce Lee didn't appear in commercials during his lifetime Nokia launched an internet based campaign in 2008 with staged \\\"documentary looking\\\" footage of Bruce Lee playing ping-pong with his nunchaku and also igniting matches as they are thrown towards him. The videos went viral on YouTube creating a confusion as some people believed them to be authentic footage.\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\nBibliography\",\n \"Bruce Lee\\n\\n*Chinese Gung-Fu: The Philosophical Art of Self Defense (Bruce Lee's first book) – 1963\\n*Tao of Jeet Kune Do (Published posthumously) – 1973\\n*Bruce Lee's Fighting Method (Published posthumously) – 1978\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nMartial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practices, which are practiced for a variety of reasons: as self-defense, military and law enforcement applications; as competition, physical fitness, mental and spiritual development; as well as entertainment and the preservation of a nation's intangible cultural heritage.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nAlthough the term martial art has become associated with the fighting arts of eastern Asia, it originally referred to the combat systems of Europe as early as the 1550s. The term is derived from Latin, and means \\\"arts of Mars\\\", the Roman god of war. Some authors have argued that fighting arts or fighting systems would be more appropriate on the basis that many martial arts were never \\\"martial\\\" in the sense of being used or created by professional warriors.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nVariation and scope\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nMartial arts may be categorized along a variety of criteria, including:\\n*Traditional or historical arts vs. contemporary styles of folk wrestling and modern hybrid martial arts.\\n*Techniques taught: Armed vs. unarmed, and within these groups by type of weapon (swordsmanship, stick fighting etc.) and by type of combat (grappling vs. striking; stand-up fighting vs. ground fighting)\\n*By application or intent: self-defense, combat sport, choreography or demonstration of forms, physical fitness, meditation, etc.\\n*Within Chinese tradition: \\\"external\\\" vs. \\\"internal\\\" styles\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nBy technical focus\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\n;Unarmed\\nUnarmed martial arts can be broadly grouped into focusing on strikes, those focusing on grappling and those that cover both fields, often described as hybrid martial arts.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nStrikes\\n* Punching: Boxing, Wing Chun\\n* Kicking: Capoeira, Savate, Taekwondo\\n* Others using strikes: Karate, Muay Thai, Sanshou\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nGrappling\\n* Throwing: Hapkido, Judo, Sumo, Wrestling\\n* Joint lock/Chokeholds/Submission holds: Hapkido, Jujutsu, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Sambo\\n* Pinning Techniques: Judo, Wrestling\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\n;Weapon-based\\nThose traditional martial arts which train armed combat often encompass a wide spectrum of melee weapons, including bladed weapons and polearms. Such traditions include eskrima, silat, kalaripayat, kobudo, and historical European martial arts, especially those of the German Renaissance. Many Chinese martial arts also feature weapons as part of their curriculum.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nSometimes, training with one specific weapon will be considered a style of martial arts in its own right, which is especially the case in Japanese martial arts with disciplines such as kenjutsu and kendo (sword), bojutsu (staff), and kyudo (archery). Similarly, modern Western martial arts and sports include modern fencing, stick-fighting systems like canne de combat or singlestick, and modern competitive archery.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nBy application or intent\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\n;Combat-oriented\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\n;Health-oriented\\nMany martial arts, especially those from Asia, also teach side disciplines which pertain to medicinal practices. This is particularly prevalent in traditional Asian martial arts which may teach bone-setting, herbalism, and other aspects of traditional medicine.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\n;Spirituality-oriented\\nMartial arts can also be linked with religion and spirituality. Numerous systems are reputed to have been founded, disseminated, or practiced by monks or nuns.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nThroughout Asia, meditation may be incorporated as part of training. In those countries influenced by Hindu-Buddhist philosophy, the art itself may be used as an aid to attaining enlightenment.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nJapanese styles, when concerning non-physical qualities of the combat, are often strongly influenced by Mahayana Buddhist philosophy. Concepts like \\\"empty mind\\\" and \\\"beginner's mind\\\" are recurrent. Aikido, for instance, can have a strong philosophical belief of the flow of energy and peace fostering, as idealised by its founder Morihei Ueshiba.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nTraditional Korean martial arts place emphasis on the development of the practitioner's spiritual and philosophical development. A common theme in most Korean styles, such as taekkyeon and taekwondo, is the value of \\\"inner peace\\\" in a practitioner, which is stressed to be only achieved through individual meditation and training. The Koreans believe that the use of physical force is only justified through defense.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nSystema draws upon breathing and relaxation techniques, as well as elements of Russian Orthodox thought, to foster self-conscience and calmness, and to benefit the practitioner in different levels: the physical, the psychological and the spiritual.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nSome martial arts in various cultures can be performed in dance-like settings for various reasons, such as for evoking ferocity in preparation for battle or showing off skill in a more stylized manner. Many such martial arts incorporate music, especially strong percussive rhythms. (See also war dance.)\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nHistorical martial arts\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nThe oldest work of art depicting scenes of battle, dating back 3400 BC, was the Ancient Egyptian paintings showing some form of struggle. Dating back to 3000 BC in Mesopotamia (Babylon), reliefs and the poems depicting struggle were found. In Vietnam, drawings and sketches from 2879 BC describe certain ways of combat using sword, stick, bow, and spears.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nChinese martial arts originated during the Xia Dynasty more than 4000 years ago. It is said the Yellow Emperor Huangdi (legendary date of ascension 2698 BC) introduced the earliest fighting systems to China. The Yellow Emperor is described as a famous general who, before becoming China's leader, wrote lengthy treatises on medicine, astrology and the martial arts. One of his main opponents was Chi You who was credited as the creator of jiao di, a forerunner to the modern art of Chinese wrestling.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nThe foundation of modern Asian martial arts is likely a blend of early Chinese and Indian martial arts. During the Warring States period of Chinese history (480-221 BC) extensive development in martial philosophy and strategy emerged, as described by Sun Tzu in The Art of War (c. 350 BC). Legendary accounts link the origin of Shaolinquan to the spread of Buddhism from India during the early 5th century AD, with the figure of Bodhidharma, to China. Written evidence of martial arts in Southern India dates back to the Sangam literature of about the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The combat techniques of the Sangam period were the earliest precursors to Kalaripayattu.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nIn Europe, the earliest sources of martial arts traditions date to Ancient Greece. Boxing (pygme, pyx), wrestling (pale) and pankration were represented in the Ancient Olympic Games. The Romans produced gladiatorial combat as a public spectacle.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nA number of historical combat manuals have survived from the European Middle Ages. This includes such styles as sword and shield, two-handed swordfighting and other types of melee weapons besides unarmed combat. Amongst these are transcriptions of the (possibly apocryphal) Johannes Lichtenauer's mnemonic poem on the longsword dating back to the late fourteenth century. Likewise, Asian martial arts become well-documented during the medieval period, Japanese martial arts beginning with the establishment of the samurai nobility in the 12th century, Chinese martial arts with Ming era treatises such as Ji Xiao Xin Shu, Indian martial arts in medieval texts such as the Agni Purana and the Malla Purana, and Korean martial arts from the Joseon era and texts such as Muyejebo (1598).\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nEuropean swordsmanship always had a sportive component, but the duel was always a possibility until World War I. Modern sport fencing began developing during the 19th century as the French and Italian military academies began codifying instruction. The Olympic games led to standard international rules, with the Féderation Internationale d'Escrime founded in 1913. Modern boxing originates with Jack Broughton's rules in the 18th century, and reaches its present form with the Marquess of Queensberry Rules of 1867.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nFolk styles\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nCertain traditional combat sports and fighting styles exist all over the world, rooted in local culture and folklore. The most common of these are styles of folk wrestling, some of which have been practiced since antiquity, and are found in the most remote areas. Other examples include forms of stick fighting and boxing. While these arts are based on historical traditions of folklore, they are not \\\"historical\\\" in the sense that they reconstruct or preserve a historical system from a specific era. They are rather contemporary regional sports that coexist with the modern forms of martial arts sports as they have developed since the 19th century, often including cross-fertilization between sports and folk styles; thus, the traditional Thai art of muay boran developed into the modern national sport of muay Thai, which in turn came to be practiced worldwide and contributed significantly to modern hybrid styles like kickboxing and mixed martial arts. Singlestick, an English martial art can be seen often utilised in morris dancing. Many European dances share elements of martial arts with examples including Ukrainian Hopak, Polish Zbójnicki (use of ciupaga), the Czech dance odzemek, and the Norwegian Halling.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nModern history\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\n;Late 19th to early 20th century\\nThe mid to late 19th century marks the beginning of the history of martial arts as modern sports developed out of earlier traditional fighting systems. In Europe, this concerns the developments of boxing and fencing as sports. In Japan, the same period marks the formation of the modern forms of judo, jujutsu, karate, and kendo (among others) based on revivals of old schools of Edo period martial arts which had been suppressed during the Meiji Restoration. Modern muay Thai rules date to the 1920s. In China, the modern history of martial arts begins in the Nanjing decade (1930s) following the foundation of the Central Guoshu Institute in 1928 under the Kuomintang government.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nWestern interest in Asian martial arts arises towards the end of the 19th century, due to the increase in trade between the United States with China and Japan. Relatively few Westerners actually practiced the arts, considering it to be mere performance. Edward William Barton-Wright, a railway engineer who had studied jujutsu while working in Japan between 1894 and 1897, was the first man known to have taught Asian martial arts in Europe. He also founded an eclectic style named Bartitsu which combined jujutsu, judo, boxing, savate and stick fighting.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nFencing and Greco-Roman wrestling was included in the 1896 Summer Olympics.\\nFILA Wrestling World Championships and Boxing at the Summer Olympics were introduced in 1904.\\nThe tradition of awarding championship belts in wrestling and boxing can be traced to the Lonsdale Belt, introduced in 1909.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\n;20th century (1914 to 1989)\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nThe International Boxing Association was established in 1920. World Fencing Championships have been held since 1921.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nAs Western influence grew in Asia a greater number of military personnel spent time in China, Japan and South Korea during World War II and the Korean War and were exposed to local fighting styles. Jujutsu, judo and karate first became popular among the mainstream from the 1950s-60s. Due in part to Asian and Hollywood martial arts movies, most modern American martial arts are either Asian-derived or Asian influenced. \\nThe term kickboxing (キックボクシング) was created by the Japanese boxing promoter Osamu Noguchi for a variant of muay Thai and karate that he created in the 1950s. American kickboxing was developed in the 1970s, as a combination of boxing and karate. Taekwondo was developed in the context of the Korean War in the 1950s.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nThe later 1960s and 1970s witnessed an increased media interest in Chinese martial arts, influenced by martial artist Bruce Lee. Jeet Kune Do, the system he founded, has its roots in Wing Chun, western boxing, savate and fencing. Bruce Lee is credited as one of the first instructors to openly teach Chinese martial arts to Westerners. World Judo Championships have been held since 1956, Judo at the Summer Olympics was introduced in 1964. Karate World Championships were introduced in 1970.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nFollowing the \\\"kung fu wave\\\" in Hong Kong action cinema in the 1970s, a number of mainstream films produced during the 1980s contributed significantly to the perception of martial arts in western popular culture. These include The Karate Kid (1984) and Bloodsport (1988). This era produced some Hollywood action stars with martial arts background, such as Jean-Claude Van Damme and Chuck Norris.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nAlso during the 20th century, a number of martial arts were adapted for self-defense purposes for military hand-to-hand combat. World War II combatives, KAPAP (1930s) and Krav Maga (1950s) in Israel, Systema in Soviet-era Russia, and Sanshou in the People's Republic of China are examples of such systems. The US military de-emphasized hand-to-hand combat training during the Cold War period, but revived it with the introduction of LINE in 1989.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\n;1990 to present\\nDuring the 1990s Brazilian jiu-jitsu became popular and proved to be effective in mixed martial arts competitions such as the UFC and PRIDE.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nIn 1993 the first Pancrase event was held. The K-1 rules of kickboxing were introduced based on 1980s Seidokaikan karate.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nJackie Chan and Jet Li are prominent movie figures who have been responsible for promoting Chinese martial arts in recent years.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nWith the continual discovery of more medieval and Renaissance fighting manuals, the practice of Historical European Martial Arts and other Western Martial Arts are growing in popularity across the United States and Europe.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nNovember 29, 2011, UNESCO inscribed taekkyeon onto its Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity List.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nReviving of lost martial arts\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nMany martial arts which originated in Southern India were banned by the government of the British Raj, few of them which barely survived are Kalaripayattu and Silambam. These and other martial arts survived by telling the British government it was a form of dance. Varma kalai, a martial arts concentrating on vital points, was almost dead but is gradually being revived.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nTesting and competition\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nTesting or evaluation is important to martial artists of many disciplines who wish to determine their progression or own level of skill in specific contexts. Students often undergo periodic testing and grading by their own teacher in order to advance to a higher level of recognized achievement, such as a different belt color or title. The type of testing used varies from system to system but may include forms or sparring.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nVarious forms and sparring are commonly used in martial art exhibitions and tournaments. Some competitions pit practitioners of different disciplines against each other using a common set of rules, these are referred to as mixed martial arts competitions. Rules for sparring vary between art and organization but can generally be divided into light-contact, medium-contact, and full-contact variants, reflecting the amount of force that should be used on an opponent.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nLight- and medium-contact\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nThese types of sparring restrict the amount of force that may be used to hit an opponent, in the case of light sparring this is usual to 'touch' contact, e.g. a punch should be 'pulled' as soon as or before contact is made. In medium-contact (sometimes referred to as semi-contact) the punch would not be 'pulled' but not hit with full force. As the amount of force used is restricted, the aim of these types of sparring is not to knock out an opponent; a point system is used in competitions.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nA referee acts to monitor for fouls and to control the match, while judges mark down scores, as in boxing. Particular targets may be prohibited, certain techniques may be forbidden (such as headbutting or groin hits), and fighters may be required to wear protective equipment on their head, hands, chest, groin, shins or feet. Some grappling arts, such as aikido, use a similar method of compliant training that is equivalent to light or medium contact.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nIn some styles (such as fencing and some styles of taekwondo sparring), competitors score points based on the landing of a single technique or strike as judged by the referee, whereupon the referee will briefly stop the match, award a point, then restart the match. Alternatively, sparring may continue with the point noted by the judges. Some critics of point sparring feel that this method of training teaches habits that result in lower combat effectiveness. Lighter-contact sparring may be used exclusively, for children or in other situations when heavy contact would be inappropriate (such as beginners), medium-contact sparring is often used as training for full contact\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nFull-contact\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nFull-contact sparring or competition, where strikes are not pulled but thrown with full force as the name implies, has a number of tactical differences from light and medium-contact sparring. It is considered by some to be requisite in learning realistic unarmed combat. – An essay on contact levels in training\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nIn full-contact sparring, the aim of a competitive match is either to knock out the opponent or to force the opponent to submit.\\nWhere scoring takes place it may be a subsidiary measure, only used if no clear winner has been established by other means; in some competitions, such as the UFC 1, there was no scoring, though most now use some form of judging as a backup. Due to these factors, full-contact matches tend to be more aggressive in character, but rule sets may still mandate the use of protective equipment, or limit the techniques allowed.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nNearly all mixed martial arts organizations such as UFC, Pancrase, Shooto use a form of full-contact rules, as do professional boxing organizations and K-1. Kyokushin karate requires advanced practitioners to engage in bare-knuckled, full-contact sparring allowing kicks, knees and punching although punching to the head is disallowed while wearing only a karate gi and groin protector. Brazilian jiu-jitsu and judo matches do not allow striking, but are full-contact in the sense that full force is applied in the permitted grappling and submission techniques. Competitions held by the World Taekwondo Federation requires the use of Headgear and padded vest, but are full contact in the sense that full force is applied to strikes to the head and body, and win by knockout is possible.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nMartial sport\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nMartial arts have crossed over into sports when forms of sparring become competitive, becoming a sport in its own right that is dissociated from the original combative origin, such as with western fencing. The Summer Olympic Games includes judo, taekwondo, western archery, boxing, javelin, wrestling and fencing as events, while Chinese wushu recently failed in its bid to be included, but is still actively performed in tournaments across the world. Practitioners in some arts such as kickboxing and Brazilian jiu-jitsu often train for sport matches, whereas those in other arts such as aikido generally spurn such competitions. Some schools believe that competition breeds better and more efficient practitioners, and gives a sense of good sportsmanship. Others believe that the rules under which competition takes place have diminished the combat effectiveness of martial arts or encourage a kind of practice which focuses on winning trophies rather than a focus such as cultivating a particular moral character.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nThe question of \\\"which is the best martial art\\\" has led to inter style competitions fought with very few rules allowing a variety of fighting styles to enter with few limitations. This was the origin of the first Ultimate Fighting Championship tournament (later renamed UFC 1: The Beginning) in the U.S. inspired by the Brazilian Vale tudo tradition and along with other minimal rule competitions, most notably those from Japan such as Shooto and Pancrase, have evolved into the combat sport of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA).\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nSome martial artists compete in non-sparring competitions such as breaking or choreographed routines of techniques such as poomse, kata and aka, or modern variations of the martial arts which include dance-influenced competitions such as tricking. Martial traditions have been influenced by governments to become more sport-like for political purposes; the central impetus for the attempt by the People's Republic of China in transforming Chinese martial arts into the committee-regulated sport of wushu was suppressing what they saw as the potentially subversive aspects of martial training, especially under the traditional system of family lineages.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nHealth and fitness benefits\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nMartial arts training aims to result in several benefits to trainees, such as their physical, mental, emotional and spiritual health.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nThrough systematic practice in the martial arts a person's physical fitness may be boosted (strength, stamina, flexibility, movement coordination, etc.) as the whole body is exercised and the entire muscular system is activated.\\nBeyond contributing to physical fitness, martial arts training also has benefits for mental health, contributing to self-esteem, self-control, emotional and spiritual well-being. For this reason, a number of martial arts schools have focused purely on therapeutic aspects, de-emphasizing the historical aspect of self-defense or combat completely.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nAccording to Bruce Lee, martial arts also have the nature of an art, since there is emotional communication and complete emotional expression.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nSelf-defense, military and law enforcement applications\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nSome traditional martial concepts have seen new use within modern military training. Perhaps the most recent example of this is point shooting which relies on muscle memory to more effectively utilize a firearm in a variety of awkward situations, much the way an iaidoka would master movements with their sword.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nDuring the World War II era William E. Fairbairn and Eric A. Sykes were recruited by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) to teach their martial art of defendu (itself drawing on Western boxing and jujutsu) and pistol shooting to UK, US, and Canadian special forces. The book Kill or Get Killed, written by Colonel Rex Applegate, was based on the defendu taught by Sykes and Fairbairn. Both Fairbairn's Get Tough and Appelgate's Kill or Get Killed became classic works on hand-to-hand combat.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nTraditional hand-to-hand, knife, and spear techniques continue to see use in the composite systems developed for today's wars. Examples of this include European Unifight, the US Army's Combatives system developed by Matt Larsen, the Israeli army's KAPAP and Krav Maga, and the US Marine Corps's Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP). Unarmed dagger defenses identical to those found in the manual of Fiore dei Liberi and the Codex Wallerstein were integrated into the U.S. Army's training manuals in 1942 \\nand continue to influence today's systems along with other traditional systems such as eskrima and silat.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nThe rifle-mounted bayonet, which has its origin in the spear, has seen use by the United States Army, the United States Marine Corps, and the British Army as recently as the Iraq War.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nMany martial arts are also seen and used in Law Enforcement hand to hand training. For example, the Tokyo Riot Police's use of aikido.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nMartial arts industry\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nMartial arts since the 1970s has become a significant industry, a subset of the wider sport industry (including cinema and sports television).\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nHundreds of millions of people worldwide practice some form of martial art.\\nWeb Japan (sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) claims there are 50 million karate practitioners worldwide. \\nThe South Korean government in 2009 published an estimate that taekwondo is practiced by 70 million people in 190 countries.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nThe wholesale value of martial arts related sporting equipment shipped in the United States was estimated at 314 million USD in 2007; participation in the same year was estimated at 6.9 million (ages 6 or older, 2% of US population). \\nR. A. Court, CEO of Martial Arts Channel, stated the total revenue of the US martial arts industry at USD 40 billion and the number of US practitioners at 30 million in 2003.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nEquipment\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nMartial arts equipment can include that used for conditioning, protection and weapons. Specialized conditioning equipment can include breaking boards, dummy partners such as the wooden dummy, and targets such as punching bags and the makiwara. Protective equipment for sparring and competition includes boxing gloves and headgear.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nMartial arts fraud\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nAsian martial arts experienced a surge of popularity in the west during the 1970s, and the rising demand resulted in numerous low quality or fraudulent schools. Fueled by fictional depictions in martial arts movies, this led to the ninja craze of the 1980s in the United States. There were also numerous fraudulent ads for martial arts training programs, inserted into comic books circa the 1960s and 1970s, which were read primarily by adolescent boys.\",\n \"Martial arts\\n\\nWhen the martial arts came to the United States in the seventies, lower ranks (kyu) began to be given colorful belts to show progress. This proved to be commercially viable and colored-belt systems were adopted in many martial arts degree mills (also known as McDojos and Belt Factories) as a means to generate additional cash. This was covered in Penn & Teller: Bullshit! - episode \\\"Martial Arts\\\" (June 2010).\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nJeet Kune Do, abbreviated JKD, is an eclectic and hybrid martial art heavily influenced by the philosophy of martial artist Bruce Lee, who founded the system on July 9, 1967, referred to it as \\\"non-classical\\\", suggesting that JKD is a form of Chinese Kung Fu, yet without form. Unlike more traditional martial arts, Jeet Kune Do is not fixed or patterned, and is a philosophy with guiding thoughts. It was named for the Wing Chun concept of interception or attacking while one's opponent is about to attack. Jeet Kune Do practitioners believe in minimal movements with maximum effects and extreme speed. The system works by using different \\\"tools\\\" for different situations, where the situations are divided into ranges, which are kicking, punching, trapping, and grappling, where martial artists use techniques to flow smoothly between them.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nIn the screenplay of the 1973 Warner Brothers film, Enter the Dragon, when Lee is asked, \\\"What's your style?\\\" Lee replied, \\\"My style?...You can call it the art of fighting without fighting.\\\"\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nThe name Jeet Kune Do was often said by Lee to be just a name, and he often referred to it as \\\"the art of expressing the human body\\\" in his writings and in interviews. Through his studies Lee came to believe that styles had become too rigid and unrealistic. He called martial art competitions of the day \\\"dry land swimming\\\". He believed real combat was spontaneous, and a martial artist cannot predict it, but only react to it, and a good martial artist should \\\"be like water\\\"—move fluidly without hesitation.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nOn January 10-11, 1996, the Bruce Lee Foundation decided to use the name Jun Fan Jeet Kune Do () to refer to the martial arts system which Lee founded; \\\"Jun Fan\\\" being Lee's Chinese given name.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nSystem and philosophy\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nLee's philosophy\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nOriginally, when Lee began researching various fighting styles, he called it Jun Fan Gung Fu. Not wanting to create another style which would share the limitations that all styles had, he instead described the process which he used to create it:\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nJKD as it survives since then—if one views it \\\"refined\\\" as a product, not a process—is what was left at the time of Lee's death. It is the result of the lifelong martial arts development process Lee went through. Lee stated his concept does not add more and more things on top of each other to form a system, but rather selects the best thereof. The metaphor Lee borrowed from Chan Buddhism was of constantly filling a cup with water, and then emptying it, used for describing Lee's philosophy of \\\"casting off what is useless\\\". He used the sculptor's mentality of beginning with a lump of clay and removing the material which constituted the \\\"unessentials\\\"; the end result was what he considered to be the bare combat essentials, or JKD. The dominant or strongest hand should be in the lead because it would perform a greater percentage of the work. Lee minimized the use of other stances except when circumstances warranted such actions.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nAlthough the On-Guard position is a formidable overall stance, it is by no means the only one. He acknowledged there were times when other positions should be used. Lee felt the dynamic property of JKD was what enabled its practitioners to adapt to the constant changes and fluctuations of live combat. He believed these decisions should be made within the context of \\\"real combat\\\" and/or \\\"all out sparring\\\" and that it was only in this environment that a practitioner could actually deem a technique worthy of adoption.\\nLee believed that real combat was alive and dynamic. Circumstances in a fight change from millisecond to millisecond. Thus, pre-arranged patterns and techniques are not adequate in dealing with such a changing situation. As an antidote to this line of thought, Lee once wrote an epitaph which read: 'In memory of a once fluid man, crammed and distorted by the classical mess.' The \\\"classical mess\\\" in this instance was what Lee thought of the \\\"not too alive way of the classical kung fu styles\\\".\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nPrinciples\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nThe following are principles that Lee incorporated into Jeet Kune Do. Lee felt these were universal combat truths that were self-evident, and would lead to combat success if followed. Familiarity with each of the \\\"Four ranges of combat\\\", in particular, is thought to be instrumental in becoming a \\\"total\\\" martial artist. JKD teaches that the best defense is a strong offense, hence the principle of an \\\"intercepting fist\\\". For someone to attack another hand-to-hand, the attacker must approach the target. This provides an opportunity for the attacked person to \\\"intercept\\\" the attacking movement. The principle of interception may be applied to more than intercepting physical attacks; non-verbal cues (subtle movements that an opponent may be unaware of) may also be perceived or \\\"intercepted\\\", and thus be used to one's advantage. The \\\"Five ways of attack\\\", categories which help JKD practitioners organize their fighting repertoire, comprise the offensive teachings of JKD. The concepts of \\\"Stop hits & stop kicks\\\", and \\\"Simultaneous parrying & punching\\\", based on the concept of single fluid motions which attack while defending (in systems such as Épée fencing and Wing Chun), compose the defensive teachings of JKD.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nThese concepts were modified for unarmed combat and implemented into the JKD framework by Lee to complement the principle of interception.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nStraight lead\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nLee felt that the straight lead was the most integral part of Jeet Kune Do punching, as he stated, \\\"The leading straight punch is the backbone of all punching in Jeet Kune Do.\\\" The straight lead is not a power strike but a strike formulated for speed. The straight lead should always be held loosely with a slight motion, as this adds to its speed and makes it more difficult to see and block. The strike is not only the fastest punch in JKD, but also the most accurate. The speed is attributed to the fact that the fist is held out slightly making it closer to the target and its accuracy is gained from the punch being thrown straight forward from one's centerline. The straight lead should be held and thrown loosely and easily, tightening only upon impact, adding to one's punch. The straight lead punch can be thrown from multiple angles and levels.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nNon-telegraphed punch\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nLee felt that explosive attacks with no telegraphing signs of intention were best. He argued that the attacks should catch the opponent off-guard, throwing them off their balance and leaving them unable to defend against further attacks. \\\"The concept behind this is that when you initiate your punch without any forewarning, such as tensing your shoulders or moving your foot or body, the opponent will not have enough time to react,\\\" Lee wrote. The key is that one must keep one's body and arms loose, weaving one's arms slightly and only becoming tense upon impact. Lee wanted no wind-up movements or \\\"get ready poses\\\" to prelude any JKD attacks. Lee explained that any twitches or slight movements before striking should be avoided as they will give the opponent signs or hints as to what is being planned and then they will be able to strike first while one is preparing an attack. Consequently, non-telegraphed movement is an essential part of Jeet Kune Do philosophy.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\n\\\"Be Like Water\\\"\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nLee emphasized that every situation, in fighting or in everyday life, is varied. To obtain victory, therefore, it is essential not to be rigid, but to be fluid and able to adapt to any situation. He compared it to being like water: \\\"Empty your mind, be formless, shapeless, like water. If you put water into a cup, it becomes the cup. You put water into a bottle and it becomes the bottle. You put it in a teapot it becomes the teapot. Now water can flow, or it can crash. Be water, my friend.\\\" Lee's theory behind this was that one must be able to function in any scenario one is thrown into and should react accordingly. One should know when to speed up or slow down, when to expand and when to contract, and when to remain flowing and when to crash. It is the awareness that both life and fighting can be shapeless and ever changing that allows one to be able to adapt to those changes instantaneously and bring forth the appropriate solution.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nLee did not believe in \\\"styles\\\" and felt that every person and every situation is different and not everyone fits into a mold; one must remain flexible in order to obtain new knowledge and victory in both life and combat. One must never become stagnant in the mind or method, always evolving and moving towards improving oneself.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nEconomy of motion\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nJeet Kune Do seeks to waste no time or movement, teaching that the simplest things work best, as in Wing Chun. Economy of motion is the principle by which JKD practitioners achieve:\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\n* Efficiency: An attack which reaches its target in the least amount of time, with maximum force.\\n* Directness: Doing what comes naturally in a disciplined way.\\n* Simplicity: Thinking in an uncomplicated manner; without ornamentation.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nThis is meant to help a practitioner conserve both energy and time, two crucial components in a physical confrontation. Maximized force seeks to end the battle quickly due to the amount of damage inflicted upon the opponent. Rapidity aims to reach the target before the opponent can react, which is half-beat faster timing, as taught in Wing Chun and Western boxing. Learned techniques are utilized in JKD to apply these principles to a variety of situations.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nStop hits\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\n\\\"When the distance is wide, the attacking opponent requires some sort of preparation. Therefore, attack him on his preparation of attack.\\\" \\\"To reach me, you must move to me. Your attack offers me an opportunity to intercept you.\\\" This means intercepting an opponent's attack with an attack of one's own instead of simply blocking it. It is for this concept Jeet Kune Do is named. JKD practitioners believe that this is the most difficult defensive skill to develop. This strategy is a feature of some traditional Chinese martial arts as Wing Chun, as well as an essential component of European Épée Fencing. Stop hits and kicks utilize the principle of economy of motion by combining attack and defense into one movement, thus minimizing the \\\"time\\\" element.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nSimultaneous parrying and punching\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nWhen confronting an incoming attack, the attack is parried or deflected, and a counterattack is delivered at the same time. This is not as advanced as a stop hit but more effective than blocking and counterattacking in sequence. This is practiced by some Chinese martial arts such as Wing Chun, and it is also known in Krav Maga as \\\"bursting\\\". Simultaneous parrying & punching utilizes the principle of economy of motion by combining attack and defense into one movement, thus minimizing the \\\"time\\\" element and maximising the \\\"energy\\\" element. Efficiency is gained by utilizing a parry rather than a block. By definition a \\\"block\\\" stops an attack, whereas a parry merely re-directs it. Redirection has two advantages, first that it requires less energy to execute and second that it utilizes the opponent's energy against them by creating an imbalance. Efficiency is gained in that the opponent has less time to react to an incoming attack, since they are still nullifying the original attack.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nLow kicks\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nJKD practitioners believe they should direct their kicks to their opponent's shins, knees, thighs, and midsection, as in Wing Chun. These targets are the closest to the foot, provide more stability and are more difficult to defend against. Maintaining low kicks utilizes the principle of economy of motion by reducing the distance a kick must travel, thus minimizing the \\\"time\\\" element. However, as with all other JKD principles nothing is \\\"written in stone\\\". If a target of opportunity presents itself, even a target above the waist, one could take advantage and not be hampered by this principle.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nFour ranges of combat\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\n* Punching\\n* Kicking\\n* Trapping\\n* Grappling\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nJeet Kune Do students train in each of the aforementioned ranges equally. According to Lee, this range of training serves to differentiate JKD from other martial arts. Lee stated that most but not all traditional martial arts systems specialize in training at one or two ranges. Lee's theories have been especially influential and substantiated in the field of mixed martial arts, as the MMA Phases of Combat are essentially the same concept as the JKD combat ranges. As a historic note, the ranges in JKD have evolved over time. Initially the ranges were categorized as short or close, medium, and long range. These terms proved ambiguous and eventually evolved into their more descriptive forms, although some may still prefer the original three categories.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nFive ways of attack\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nThe original five ways of attack are:\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\n# Simple Direct Attack (SDA)\\n# Attack By Combination (ABC)\\n# Progressive Indirect Attack (PIA)\\n# (Hand) Immobilization Attack (HIA)\\n# Attack By Drawing (ABD)\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nCenterline\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nThe centerline is an imaginary line drawn vertically along the center of a standing human body, and refers to the space directly in front of that body. If one draws an isosceles triangle on the floor, for which one's body forms the base, and one's arms form the equal legs of the triangle, then h (the height of the triangle) is the centerline. The Wing Chun concept is to exploit, control and dominate an opponent's centerline. All attacks, defenses, and footwork are designed to guard one's own centerline while entering the opponent's centerline space. Lee incorporated this theory into JKD from his Sifu Yip Man's Wing Chun.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nThe three guidelines for centerline are:\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\n* The one who controls the centerline will control the fight.\\n* Protect and maintain your own centerline while you control and exploit your opponent's.\\n* Control the centerline by occupying it.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nThis notion is closely related to maintaining control of the center squares in the strategic game chess. The concept is naturally present in xiangqi (Chinese chess), where an \\\"X\\\" is drawn on the game board, in front of both players' general and advisors.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nCombat realism\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nOne of the premises that Lee incorporated in Jeet Kune Do was \\\"combat realism\\\". He insisted that martial arts techniques should be incorporated based upon their effectiveness in real combat situations. This would differentiate JKD from other systems where there was an emphasis on \\\"flowery technique\\\", as Lee would put it. Lee claimed that flashy \\\"flowery techniques\\\" would arguably \\\"look good\\\" but were often not practical or would prove ineffective in street survival and self-defense situations. This premise would differentiate JKD from other \\\"sport\\\"-oriented martial arts systems that were geared towards \\\"tournament\\\" or \\\"point systems\\\". Lee felt that these systems were \\\"artificial\\\" and fooled their practitioners into a false sense of true martial skill. Lee felt that because these systems favored a \\\"sports\\\" approach they incorporated too many rule sets that would ultimately handicap a practitioner in self-defense situations. He felt that this approach to martial arts became a \\\"game of tag\\\" which would lead to bad habits such as pulling punches and other attacks; this would again lead to disastrous consequences in real world situations.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nAnother aspect of realistic martial arts training fundamental to JKD is what Lee referred to as \\\"aliveness\\\". This is the concept of training techniques with an unwilling assistant who offers resistance. Lee made a reference to this concept in his famous quote \\\"Boards don't hit back!\\\" Because of this perspective of realism and aliveness, Lee utilized safety gear from various other contact sports to allow him to spar with opponents \\\"full out\\\". This approach to training allowed practitioners to come as close as possible to real combat situations with a high degree of safety.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nCountry of Origin\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nJeet Kune Do is and was founded in Seattle, Washington, U.S.A. in 1964 (Jun Fan Gung Fu), until July 9, 1967 the term Jeet Kune Do was formed by both Bruce Lee and Dan Inosanto\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nJeet Kune Do practitioners and appearances in popular culture\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\n* Kareem Abdul-Jabbar from Game of Death. \\n* Bruce's son Brandon Lee was a student of Jeet Kune Do and used it in his fight scenes in his films. \\n* Danny Chan Kwok-kwan from The Legend of Bruce Lee.\\n* Lady Gaga is a practitioner of Jeet Kune Do along with other styles of martial arts such as Krav Maga, Capoeira, Boxing & Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.\\n* Kurt McKinney in No Retreat, No Surrender.\\n* Taimak in The Last Dragon.\\n* Spike Spiegel in Cowboy Bebop.\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nVideo games\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\nMany video games characters that utilize Jeet Kune Do or a style based on it:\",\n \"Jeet Kune Do\\n\\n* Maxi— Soulcalibur series\\n* Fei Long—Street Fighter series\\n* Kim Dragon—World Heroes series\\n* Jann Lee—Dead or Alive series\\n* Marshall and Forrest Law—Tekken series\\n* Kenshiro—Fist of the North Star series\\n* Rock Lee—Naruto series\\n* Kamen Rider Meteor—Kamen Rider Series\\n* Lee Sin—League of Legends\\n* Jacky Bryant—Virtua Fighter series\\n* Kim Wu—Killer Instinct series\\n* Jon Talbain—Darkstalkers series\\n* Johnny Cage—Mortal Kombat (2011 reboot only)\\n* Blaze—Mortal Kombat Unchained\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137088,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2317"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Doing something that must surely have earned him an asswhuppin, for what did Jack of Jack and the Beanstalk fame, trade the cow he was supposed to sell at the market?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Magic Beans"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["magic beans","jack beanstalk","beanstalk","beanstalk film","jack and giant","jack and beanstalk 2010 film","jack and beanstalk"],"string":"[\n \"magic beans\",\n \"jack beanstalk\",\n \"beanstalk\",\n \"beanstalk film\",\n \"jack and giant\",\n \"jack and beanstalk 2010 film\",\n \"jack and beanstalk\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Jack and the Beanstalk\n\n\"Jack and the Beanstalk\" is an English fairy tale. It appeared as \"The Story of Jack Spriggins and the Enchanted Bean\" in 1734 4th edition On Commons and as Benjamin Tabart's moralised \"The History of Jack and the Bean-Stalk\" in 1807. \"Felix Summerly\" (Henry Cole) popularised the tale in The Home Treasury (1842), and Joseph Jacobs rewrote it in English Fairy Tales (1890). Jacobs' version is most commonly reprinted today and it is believed to be closer to the oral versions than Tabart's because it lacks the moralising.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\n\"Jack and the Beanstalk\" is the best known of the \"Jack tales\", a series of stories featuring the archetypal Cornish and English hero and stock character Jack.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nAccording to researchers at the universities in Durham and Lisbon, the story originated more than 5,000 years ago, based on a widespread archaic story form which is now classified by folkorists as ATU 328 The Boy Who Stole Ogre's Treasure.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nStory","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nJack is a young, poor boy living with his widowed mother and a Sheep as their only source of income. When the sheep stops giving wool, Jack's mother tells him to take it to the market to be sold. On the way, Jack meets an old man who offers \"magic beans\" in exchange for the sheep, and Jack makes the trade. When he arrives home without any money, his mother becomes angry, throws the beans on the ground, and sends Jack to bed without dinner.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nDuring the night, the magic beans cause a gigantic beanstalk to grow. The next morning, Jack climbs the beanstalk to a land high in the sky. He finds an enormous castle and sneaks in. Soon after, the castle's owner, a giant, returns home. He senses that Jack is nearby, and speaks a rhyme:","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nFee-fi-fo-fum!\nI smell the blood of an Englishman,\nBe he alive, or be he dead,\nI'll grind his bones to make my bread.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nIn the versions in which the giant's wife features, she persuades him that he is mistaken. When the giant falls asleep Jack steals a bag of gold coins and makes his escape down the beanstalk.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nJack climbs the beanstalk twice more. He learns of other treasures and steals them when the giant sleeps: first a goose that lays golden eggs (see the idiom \"to kill the goose that laid the golden eggs.\"), then a harp that plays by itself. The giant wakes when Jack leaves the house with the harp and chases Jack down the beanstalk. Jack calls to his mother for an axe and before the giant reaches the ground, cuts down the beanstalk, causing the giant to fall to his death.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nJack and his mother live happily ever after with the riches that Jack acquired.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nOrigins","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\n\"The Story of Jack Spriggins and the Enchanted Bean\" was published in the 1734 second edition of Round About Our Coal-Fire. In 1807, Benjamin Tabart published The History of Jack and the Bean Stalk, but the story is certainly older than these accounts. According to researchers at Durham University and the Universidade Nova de Lisboa, the story originated more than 5,000 years ago.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nIn some versions of the tale, the giant is unnamed, but many plays based on it name him Blunderbore. (One giant of that name appears in the 18th-century \"Jack the Giant Killer\".) In \"The Story of Jack Spriggins\" the giant is named Gogmagog.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nThe giant's cry \"Fee! Fie! Foe! Fum! I smell the blood of an Englishman\" appears in William Shakespeare's early-17th-century King Lear in the form \"Fie, foh, and fum,\nI smell the blood of a British man.\" (Act 3, Scene 4), and something similar also appears in \"Jack the Giant Killer\".","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nAnalogies","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\n\"Jack and the Beanstalk\" is an Aarne-Thompson tale-type 328, The Treasures of the Giant, which includes the Italian \"Thirteenth\" and the French \"How the Dragon was Tricked\" tales. Christine Goldberg argues that the Aarne–Thompson system is inadequate for the tale because the others do not include the beanstalk, which has analogies in other types (a possible reference to the genre anomaly.)D. L. Ashliman, ed. [http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/type0328jack.html \"Jack and the Beanstalk: eight versions of an English fairy tale (Aarne-Thompson-Uther type 328)\"]. 2002–2010. Folklore and Mythology: Electronic Texts. University of Pittsburgh. 1996–2013.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nThe Brothers Grimm drew an analogy between this tale and a German fairy tale, \"The Devil With the Three Golden Hairs\". The devil's mother or grandmother acts much like the giant's wife, a female figure protecting the child from the evil male figure.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\n\"Jack and the Beanstalk\" is unusual in that the hero, although grown, does not marry at the end but in some versions, returns to his mother. In other versions he is said to have married a princess. This is found in few other tales, such as some variants of \"Vasilisa the Beautiful\".","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nControversy","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nThe original story portrays a \"hero\" gaining the sympathy of a man's wife, hiding in his house, robbing, and finally killing him. In Tabart's moralised version, a fairy woman explains to Jack that the giant had robbed and killed his father justifying Jack's actions as retribution. (Andrew Lang follows this version in the Red Fairy Book of 1890.)","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nJacobs gave no justification because there was none in the version he had heard as a child and maintained that children know that robbery and murder are wrong without being told in a fairy tale, but did give a subtle retributive tone to it by making reference to the giant's previous meals of stolen oxen and young children.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nMany modern interpretations have followed Tabart and made the giant a villain, terrorising smaller folk and stealing from them, so that Jack becomes a legitimate protagonist. For example, the 1952 film starring Abbott and Costello the giant is blamed for poverty at the foot of the beanstalk, as he has been stealing food and wealth and the hen that lays golden eggs originally belonged to Jack's family. In other versions it is implied that the giant had stolen both the hen and the harp from Jack's father. Brian Henson's 2001 TV miniseries Jack and the Beanstalk: The Real Story not only abandons Tabart's additions but vilifies Jack, reflecting Jim Henson's disgust at Jack's unscrupulous actions.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nFilm adaptations","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\n* The first film adaptation was made in 1902 by Edwin S. Porter for the Edison Manufacturing Company. * Walt Disney made a short of the same name in 1922, and a separate adaptation entitled Mickey and the Beanstalk in 1947 as part of Fun and Fancy Free. This adaptation of the story put Mickey Mouse in the role of Jack, accompanied by Donald Duck, and Goofy. Mickey, Donald, and Goofy live on a farm in \"Happy Valley\", so called because it is always green and prosperous thanks to the magical singing from an enchanted golden harp in a castle, until one day it mysteriously disappears during a dank storm, resulting in the valley being plagued by a severe drought. Times become so hard for Mickey and his friends that soon they have nothing to eat except one loaf of bread. Mickey trades in the cow (which Donald was going to kill for food) for the magic beans. Donald throws the beans on the floor and down a knothole in a fit of rage, and the beanstalk sprouts that night, lifting the three of them into the sky while they sleep.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nIn the magical kingdom, Mickey, Donald, and Goofy help themselves to a sumptuous feast. This rouses the ire of the giant (named \"Willie\" in this version), who captures Donald and Goofy and locks them in a box, and it's up to Mickey to find the keys to unlock the box and rescue them as well as the harp which they also find in the giant's possession. The film villainizes the giant by blaming Happy Valley's hard times on Willy's theft of the magic harp, without which song the land withers; unlike the harp of the original tale, this magic harp wants to be rescued from the giant, and the hapless heroes return her to her rightful place and Happy Valley to its former glory. This version of the fairy tale was narrated (as a segment of Fun and Fancy Free) by Edgar Bergen, and later (by itself as a short) by Sterling Holloway. Additionally, Walt Disney Animation Studios will do another adaptation of the fairy tale called Gigantic. Tangled director Nathan Greno will direct and it is set to be released in late 2018. * Warner Bros. adapted the story into three Merrie Melodies cartoons.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nFriz Freleng directed Jack-Wabbit and the Beanstalk (1943), Chuck Jones directed Beanstalk Bunny (1955), and Freleng directed Tweety and the Beanstalk (1957). * The 1952 Abbott and Costello adaptation wasn't the only time a comedy team was involved with the story. The Three Stooges had their own five-minute animated retelling entitled Three Jacks and a Beanstalk (1965). * In 1967, Hanna-Barbera produced a live action version of Jack and the Beanstalk, with Gene Kelly as the Peddler and Ted Cassidy as the voice of the Giant. The film that won an Emmy Award. * Gisaburo Sugii directed a feature-length anime telling of the story released in 1974, titled Jack to Mame no Ki. The film, a musical, was produced by Group TAC and released by Nippon Herald. The writers introduced a few new characters, including Jack's comic-relief dog, Crosby, and Margaret, a beautiful princess engaged to be married to the giant (named \"Tulip\" in this version) due to a spell being cast over her by the giant's mother (an evil witch called Madame Hecuba). Jack, however, develops a crush on Margaret, and one of his aims in returning to the magic kingdom is to rescue her.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nThe film was dubbed into English, with legendary voice talent Billie Lou Watt voicing Jack, and received a very limited run in U.S. theaters in 1976. It was later released on VHS (now out of print) and aired several times on HBO in the 1980s. However, it is now available on DVD with both English and Japanese dialogue. * Michael Davis directed the 1994 adaptation entitled Beanstalk, starring J. D. Daniels as Jack and Stuart Pankin as the Giant. The film was released by Moonbeam Entertainment, the children's video division of Full Moon Entertainment. * Wolves, Witches and Giants Episode 9 of Season 1, Jack and the Beanstalk, broadcast on 19 October 1995, has Jack's mother chop down the beanstalk and the Giant plummet through the earth to Australia. The hen that Jack has stolen fails to lay any eggs and ends up \"in the pot by Sunday\", leaving Jack and his mother to live in reduced circumstances for the rest of their lives.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\n* The Jim Henson Company did a TV miniseries adaptation of the story as Jim Henson's Jack and the Beanstalk: The Real Story (directed by Brian Henson) which reveals that Jack's theft from the giant was completely unmotivated, with the giant Thunderdell (played by Bill Barretta) being a friendly, welcoming individual, and the giant's subsequent death was caused by Jack's mother cutting the beanstalk down rather than Jack himself. The film focuses on Jack's modern-day descendant Jack Robinson (played by Matthew Modine) who learns the truth after the discovery of the giant's bones and the last of the five magic beans, Jack subsequently returning the goose and harp to the giants' kingdom. * An episode of Mickey Mouse Clubhouse called Donald and the Beanstalk, Donald Duck accidentally swapped his pet chicken with giant Willie for a handful of magic beans. * Avalon Family Entertainment's film entitled Jack and the Beanstalk (released on home video April 20, 2010) is a low-budget live-action adaptation starring Christopher Lloyd, Chevy Chase, James Earl Jones, Gilbert Gottfried, Katey Sagal, Wallace Shawn and Chloë Grace Moretz. Jack is played by Colin Ford. * The Warner Bros.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nfilm directed by Bryan Singer and starring Nicholas Hoult as Jack is entitled Jack the Giant Slayer and was released in March 2013. In this tale Jack climbs the beanstalk to save a princess. * Warner Bros. Animation's Direct-to-DVD film Tom and Jerry's Giant Adventure is set to be based on the fairy tale. * In the 2014 film Into the Woods, and the musical of the same name, one of the main characters, Jack (Daniel Huttlestone) climbs a beanstalk, much like in the original version. He acquires a golden harp, a goose that lays golden eggs, and several gold pieces. The story goes on as it does in the original fairy tale, but continues afterwards showing what happens after you get your happy ending. In this adaptation, the giant's vengeful wife (Frances de la Tour) attacks the kingdom to find and kill Jack as revenge for him murdering her husband where some characters were killed during her rampage. The Giant's Wife is eventually killed by the surviving characters in the story.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nOther adaptations","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\n* The story is the basis of the similarly titled traditional British pantomime, wherein the Giant is certainly a villain, Jack's mother the Dame, and Jack the Principal Boy. * Jack of Jack and the Beanstalk is the protagonist of the comic book Jack of Fables, a spin-off of Fables, which also features other elements from the story, such as giant beanstalks and giants living in the clouds. * Gilligan's Island did a adaptation Dream sequence in which Gilligan tries to take oranges from a giant Skipper and fails; (the part of the little Gilligan chased by the giant was played by Bob Denver's 7 year old son Patrick Denver)\n* Roald Dahl rewrote the story in a more modern and gruesome way in his book Revolting Rhymes (1982), where Jack initially refuses to climb the beanstalk and his mother is thus eaten when she ascends to pick the golden leaves at the top, with Jack recovering the leaves himself after having a thorough wash so that the giant cannot smell him.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nThe story of Jack and the Beanstalk is also referenced in Dahl's The BFG, in which the evil giants are all afraid of the \"giant-killer\" Jack, who is said to kill giants with his fearsome beanstalk (although none of the giants appear to know how Jack uses it against them, the context of a nightmare one of the giants has about Jack suggesting that they think he wields the beanstalk as a weapon). * James Still published Jack and the Wonder Beans (1977, republished 1996) an Appalachian variation on the Jack and the Beanstalk tale. Jack trades his old cow to a gypsy for three beans that are guaranteed to feed him for his entire life. It has been adapted as a play for performance by children. * In 1973 the story was adapted, as The Goodies and the Beanstalk, by the BBC television series The Goodies. * An arcade video game, Jack the Giantkiller, was released by Cinematronics in 1982 and is based on the story.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nPlayers control Jack, and must retrieve a series of treasures – a harp, a sack of gold coins, a golden goose and a princess – and eventually defeat the giant by chopping down the beanstalk. * An episode of The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!, entitled \"Mario and the Beanstalk\", does a retelling with Bowser as the giant (there is no explanation as to how he becomes a giant). * In The Magic School Bus episode \"Gets Planted\", the class put on a school production of Jack and the Beanstalk, with Phoebe starring as the beanstalk after Ms. Frizzle turned her into a bean plant. * Jack and Beanstalk was featured in Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child where Jack is voiced by Wayne Collins and the Giant is voiced by Tone Loc. The story is in an African-American style. * Stephen Sondheim's musical Into the Woods (and the film of the same name), features Jack, originally portrayed by Ben Wright, along with several other fairy tale characters. In the second half of the musical, the Giant's Wife climbs down a second beanstalk to exact revenge for her husband's death, furious at Jack's betrayal of her hospitality.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\nShe is eventually killed as well. * Bart Simpson plays the role of the main character in a Simpsons video game \"The Simpsons: Bart & the Beanstalk\". * ABC's Once Upon a Time debuts their spin on the tale in the episode \"Tiny\" of season two, where Jack, now a female named Jacqueline (known as Jack) is played by Cassidy Freeman and the Giant named Anton is played by Jorge Garcia. In this adaptation, Jack is portrayed as a villainous character. * The story was adapted in 2012 by software maker Net Entertainment and made into a slot machine game. * Mark Knopfler sang a song, After the Beanstalk, in his 2012 album Privateering. * Snips, Snails, and Dragon Tails, an Order of the Stick print book, contains an adaptation in the Sticktales section. Elan is Jack, Roy is the giant, Belkar is the golden goose, and Vaarsuvius is the wizard who sells the beans. Haley also appears as an agent sent to steal the golden goose, and Durkin as a dwarf neighbor with the comic's stereotypical fear of tall plants.","Jack and the Beanstalk\n\n* In the Season 3 premiere episode of Barney and Friends titled \"Shawn and the Beanstalk\", Barney the Dinosaur and the gang tell there version of Jack and the Beanstalk which was all told in rhyme. * In the dreamworks animation movie Puss in Boots (2011 film) the classic theme appears again. The magic beans play a central role in that movie, culminating in the scene, in which Puss, Kitty and Humpty ride a magic beanstalk to find the giants castle."],"string":"[\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\n\\\"Jack and the Beanstalk\\\" is an English fairy tale. It appeared as \\\"The Story of Jack Spriggins and the Enchanted Bean\\\" in 1734 4th edition On Commons and as Benjamin Tabart's moralised \\\"The History of Jack and the Bean-Stalk\\\" in 1807. \\\"Felix Summerly\\\" (Henry Cole) popularised the tale in The Home Treasury (1842), and Joseph Jacobs rewrote it in English Fairy Tales (1890). Jacobs' version is most commonly reprinted today and it is believed to be closer to the oral versions than Tabart's because it lacks the moralising.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\n\\\"Jack and the Beanstalk\\\" is the best known of the \\\"Jack tales\\\", a series of stories featuring the archetypal Cornish and English hero and stock character Jack.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nAccording to researchers at the universities in Durham and Lisbon, the story originated more than 5,000 years ago, based on a widespread archaic story form which is now classified by folkorists as ATU 328 The Boy Who Stole Ogre's Treasure.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nStory\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nJack is a young, poor boy living with his widowed mother and a Sheep as their only source of income. When the sheep stops giving wool, Jack's mother tells him to take it to the market to be sold. On the way, Jack meets an old man who offers \\\"magic beans\\\" in exchange for the sheep, and Jack makes the trade. When he arrives home without any money, his mother becomes angry, throws the beans on the ground, and sends Jack to bed without dinner.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nDuring the night, the magic beans cause a gigantic beanstalk to grow. The next morning, Jack climbs the beanstalk to a land high in the sky. He finds an enormous castle and sneaks in. Soon after, the castle's owner, a giant, returns home. He senses that Jack is nearby, and speaks a rhyme:\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nFee-fi-fo-fum!\\nI smell the blood of an Englishman,\\nBe he alive, or be he dead,\\nI'll grind his bones to make my bread.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nIn the versions in which the giant's wife features, she persuades him that he is mistaken. When the giant falls asleep Jack steals a bag of gold coins and makes his escape down the beanstalk.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nJack climbs the beanstalk twice more. He learns of other treasures and steals them when the giant sleeps: first a goose that lays golden eggs (see the idiom \\\"to kill the goose that laid the golden eggs.\\\"), then a harp that plays by itself. The giant wakes when Jack leaves the house with the harp and chases Jack down the beanstalk. Jack calls to his mother for an axe and before the giant reaches the ground, cuts down the beanstalk, causing the giant to fall to his death.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nJack and his mother live happily ever after with the riches that Jack acquired.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nOrigins\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\n\\\"The Story of Jack Spriggins and the Enchanted Bean\\\" was published in the 1734 second edition of Round About Our Coal-Fire. In 1807, Benjamin Tabart published The History of Jack and the Bean Stalk, but the story is certainly older than these accounts. According to researchers at Durham University and the Universidade Nova de Lisboa, the story originated more than 5,000 years ago.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nIn some versions of the tale, the giant is unnamed, but many plays based on it name him Blunderbore. (One giant of that name appears in the 18th-century \\\"Jack the Giant Killer\\\".) In \\\"The Story of Jack Spriggins\\\" the giant is named Gogmagog.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nThe giant's cry \\\"Fee! Fie! Foe! Fum! I smell the blood of an Englishman\\\" appears in William Shakespeare's early-17th-century King Lear in the form \\\"Fie, foh, and fum,\\nI smell the blood of a British man.\\\" (Act 3, Scene 4), and something similar also appears in \\\"Jack the Giant Killer\\\".\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nAnalogies\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\n\\\"Jack and the Beanstalk\\\" is an Aarne-Thompson tale-type 328, The Treasures of the Giant, which includes the Italian \\\"Thirteenth\\\" and the French \\\"How the Dragon was Tricked\\\" tales. Christine Goldberg argues that the Aarne–Thompson system is inadequate for the tale because the others do not include the beanstalk, which has analogies in other types (a possible reference to the genre anomaly.)D. L. Ashliman, ed. [http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/type0328jack.html \\\"Jack and the Beanstalk: eight versions of an English fairy tale (Aarne-Thompson-Uther type 328)\\\"]. 2002–2010. Folklore and Mythology: Electronic Texts. University of Pittsburgh. 1996–2013.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nThe Brothers Grimm drew an analogy between this tale and a German fairy tale, \\\"The Devil With the Three Golden Hairs\\\". The devil's mother or grandmother acts much like the giant's wife, a female figure protecting the child from the evil male figure.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\n\\\"Jack and the Beanstalk\\\" is unusual in that the hero, although grown, does not marry at the end but in some versions, returns to his mother. In other versions he is said to have married a princess. This is found in few other tales, such as some variants of \\\"Vasilisa the Beautiful\\\".\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nControversy\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nThe original story portrays a \\\"hero\\\" gaining the sympathy of a man's wife, hiding in his house, robbing, and finally killing him. In Tabart's moralised version, a fairy woman explains to Jack that the giant had robbed and killed his father justifying Jack's actions as retribution. (Andrew Lang follows this version in the Red Fairy Book of 1890.)\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nJacobs gave no justification because there was none in the version he had heard as a child and maintained that children know that robbery and murder are wrong without being told in a fairy tale, but did give a subtle retributive tone to it by making reference to the giant's previous meals of stolen oxen and young children.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nMany modern interpretations have followed Tabart and made the giant a villain, terrorising smaller folk and stealing from them, so that Jack becomes a legitimate protagonist. For example, the 1952 film starring Abbott and Costello the giant is blamed for poverty at the foot of the beanstalk, as he has been stealing food and wealth and the hen that lays golden eggs originally belonged to Jack's family. In other versions it is implied that the giant had stolen both the hen and the harp from Jack's father. Brian Henson's 2001 TV miniseries Jack and the Beanstalk: The Real Story not only abandons Tabart's additions but vilifies Jack, reflecting Jim Henson's disgust at Jack's unscrupulous actions.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nFilm adaptations\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\n* The first film adaptation was made in 1902 by Edwin S. Porter for the Edison Manufacturing Company. * Walt Disney made a short of the same name in 1922, and a separate adaptation entitled Mickey and the Beanstalk in 1947 as part of Fun and Fancy Free. This adaptation of the story put Mickey Mouse in the role of Jack, accompanied by Donald Duck, and Goofy. Mickey, Donald, and Goofy live on a farm in \\\"Happy Valley\\\", so called because it is always green and prosperous thanks to the magical singing from an enchanted golden harp in a castle, until one day it mysteriously disappears during a dank storm, resulting in the valley being plagued by a severe drought. Times become so hard for Mickey and his friends that soon they have nothing to eat except one loaf of bread. Mickey trades in the cow (which Donald was going to kill for food) for the magic beans. Donald throws the beans on the floor and down a knothole in a fit of rage, and the beanstalk sprouts that night, lifting the three of them into the sky while they sleep.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nIn the magical kingdom, Mickey, Donald, and Goofy help themselves to a sumptuous feast. This rouses the ire of the giant (named \\\"Willie\\\" in this version), who captures Donald and Goofy and locks them in a box, and it's up to Mickey to find the keys to unlock the box and rescue them as well as the harp which they also find in the giant's possession. The film villainizes the giant by blaming Happy Valley's hard times on Willy's theft of the magic harp, without which song the land withers; unlike the harp of the original tale, this magic harp wants to be rescued from the giant, and the hapless heroes return her to her rightful place and Happy Valley to its former glory. This version of the fairy tale was narrated (as a segment of Fun and Fancy Free) by Edgar Bergen, and later (by itself as a short) by Sterling Holloway. Additionally, Walt Disney Animation Studios will do another adaptation of the fairy tale called Gigantic. Tangled director Nathan Greno will direct and it is set to be released in late 2018. * Warner Bros. adapted the story into three Merrie Melodies cartoons.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nFriz Freleng directed Jack-Wabbit and the Beanstalk (1943), Chuck Jones directed Beanstalk Bunny (1955), and Freleng directed Tweety and the Beanstalk (1957). * The 1952 Abbott and Costello adaptation wasn't the only time a comedy team was involved with the story. The Three Stooges had their own five-minute animated retelling entitled Three Jacks and a Beanstalk (1965). * In 1967, Hanna-Barbera produced a live action version of Jack and the Beanstalk, with Gene Kelly as the Peddler and Ted Cassidy as the voice of the Giant. The film that won an Emmy Award. * Gisaburo Sugii directed a feature-length anime telling of the story released in 1974, titled Jack to Mame no Ki. The film, a musical, was produced by Group TAC and released by Nippon Herald. The writers introduced a few new characters, including Jack's comic-relief dog, Crosby, and Margaret, a beautiful princess engaged to be married to the giant (named \\\"Tulip\\\" in this version) due to a spell being cast over her by the giant's mother (an evil witch called Madame Hecuba). Jack, however, develops a crush on Margaret, and one of his aims in returning to the magic kingdom is to rescue her.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nThe film was dubbed into English, with legendary voice talent Billie Lou Watt voicing Jack, and received a very limited run in U.S. theaters in 1976. It was later released on VHS (now out of print) and aired several times on HBO in the 1980s. However, it is now available on DVD with both English and Japanese dialogue. * Michael Davis directed the 1994 adaptation entitled Beanstalk, starring J. D. Daniels as Jack and Stuart Pankin as the Giant. The film was released by Moonbeam Entertainment, the children's video division of Full Moon Entertainment. * Wolves, Witches and Giants Episode 9 of Season 1, Jack and the Beanstalk, broadcast on 19 October 1995, has Jack's mother chop down the beanstalk and the Giant plummet through the earth to Australia. The hen that Jack has stolen fails to lay any eggs and ends up \\\"in the pot by Sunday\\\", leaving Jack and his mother to live in reduced circumstances for the rest of their lives.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\n* The Jim Henson Company did a TV miniseries adaptation of the story as Jim Henson's Jack and the Beanstalk: The Real Story (directed by Brian Henson) which reveals that Jack's theft from the giant was completely unmotivated, with the giant Thunderdell (played by Bill Barretta) being a friendly, welcoming individual, and the giant's subsequent death was caused by Jack's mother cutting the beanstalk down rather than Jack himself. The film focuses on Jack's modern-day descendant Jack Robinson (played by Matthew Modine) who learns the truth after the discovery of the giant's bones and the last of the five magic beans, Jack subsequently returning the goose and harp to the giants' kingdom. * An episode of Mickey Mouse Clubhouse called Donald and the Beanstalk, Donald Duck accidentally swapped his pet chicken with giant Willie for a handful of magic beans. * Avalon Family Entertainment's film entitled Jack and the Beanstalk (released on home video April 20, 2010) is a low-budget live-action adaptation starring Christopher Lloyd, Chevy Chase, James Earl Jones, Gilbert Gottfried, Katey Sagal, Wallace Shawn and Chloë Grace Moretz. Jack is played by Colin Ford. * The Warner Bros.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nfilm directed by Bryan Singer and starring Nicholas Hoult as Jack is entitled Jack the Giant Slayer and was released in March 2013. In this tale Jack climbs the beanstalk to save a princess. * Warner Bros. Animation's Direct-to-DVD film Tom and Jerry's Giant Adventure is set to be based on the fairy tale. * In the 2014 film Into the Woods, and the musical of the same name, one of the main characters, Jack (Daniel Huttlestone) climbs a beanstalk, much like in the original version. He acquires a golden harp, a goose that lays golden eggs, and several gold pieces. The story goes on as it does in the original fairy tale, but continues afterwards showing what happens after you get your happy ending. In this adaptation, the giant's vengeful wife (Frances de la Tour) attacks the kingdom to find and kill Jack as revenge for him murdering her husband where some characters were killed during her rampage. The Giant's Wife is eventually killed by the surviving characters in the story.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nOther adaptations\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\n* The story is the basis of the similarly titled traditional British pantomime, wherein the Giant is certainly a villain, Jack's mother the Dame, and Jack the Principal Boy. * Jack of Jack and the Beanstalk is the protagonist of the comic book Jack of Fables, a spin-off of Fables, which also features other elements from the story, such as giant beanstalks and giants living in the clouds. * Gilligan's Island did a adaptation Dream sequence in which Gilligan tries to take oranges from a giant Skipper and fails; (the part of the little Gilligan chased by the giant was played by Bob Denver's 7 year old son Patrick Denver)\\n* Roald Dahl rewrote the story in a more modern and gruesome way in his book Revolting Rhymes (1982), where Jack initially refuses to climb the beanstalk and his mother is thus eaten when she ascends to pick the golden leaves at the top, with Jack recovering the leaves himself after having a thorough wash so that the giant cannot smell him.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nThe story of Jack and the Beanstalk is also referenced in Dahl's The BFG, in which the evil giants are all afraid of the \\\"giant-killer\\\" Jack, who is said to kill giants with his fearsome beanstalk (although none of the giants appear to know how Jack uses it against them, the context of a nightmare one of the giants has about Jack suggesting that they think he wields the beanstalk as a weapon). * James Still published Jack and the Wonder Beans (1977, republished 1996) an Appalachian variation on the Jack and the Beanstalk tale. Jack trades his old cow to a gypsy for three beans that are guaranteed to feed him for his entire life. It has been adapted as a play for performance by children. * In 1973 the story was adapted, as The Goodies and the Beanstalk, by the BBC television series The Goodies. * An arcade video game, Jack the Giantkiller, was released by Cinematronics in 1982 and is based on the story.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nPlayers control Jack, and must retrieve a series of treasures – a harp, a sack of gold coins, a golden goose and a princess – and eventually defeat the giant by chopping down the beanstalk. * An episode of The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!, entitled \\\"Mario and the Beanstalk\\\", does a retelling with Bowser as the giant (there is no explanation as to how he becomes a giant). * In The Magic School Bus episode \\\"Gets Planted\\\", the class put on a school production of Jack and the Beanstalk, with Phoebe starring as the beanstalk after Ms. Frizzle turned her into a bean plant. * Jack and Beanstalk was featured in Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child where Jack is voiced by Wayne Collins and the Giant is voiced by Tone Loc. The story is in an African-American style. * Stephen Sondheim's musical Into the Woods (and the film of the same name), features Jack, originally portrayed by Ben Wright, along with several other fairy tale characters. In the second half of the musical, the Giant's Wife climbs down a second beanstalk to exact revenge for her husband's death, furious at Jack's betrayal of her hospitality.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\nShe is eventually killed as well. * Bart Simpson plays the role of the main character in a Simpsons video game \\\"The Simpsons: Bart & the Beanstalk\\\". * ABC's Once Upon a Time debuts their spin on the tale in the episode \\\"Tiny\\\" of season two, where Jack, now a female named Jacqueline (known as Jack) is played by Cassidy Freeman and the Giant named Anton is played by Jorge Garcia. In this adaptation, Jack is portrayed as a villainous character. * The story was adapted in 2012 by software maker Net Entertainment and made into a slot machine game. * Mark Knopfler sang a song, After the Beanstalk, in his 2012 album Privateering. * Snips, Snails, and Dragon Tails, an Order of the Stick print book, contains an adaptation in the Sticktales section. Elan is Jack, Roy is the giant, Belkar is the golden goose, and Vaarsuvius is the wizard who sells the beans. Haley also appears as an agent sent to steal the golden goose, and Durkin as a dwarf neighbor with the comic's stereotypical fear of tall plants.\",\n \"Jack and the Beanstalk\\n\\n* In the Season 3 premiere episode of Barney and Friends titled \\\"Shawn and the Beanstalk\\\", Barney the Dinosaur and the gang tell there version of Jack and the Beanstalk which was all told in rhyme. * In the dreamworks animation movie Puss in Boots (2011 film) the classic theme appears again. The magic beans play a central role in that movie, culminating in the scene, in which Puss, Kitty and Humpty ride a magic beanstalk to find the giants castle.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137089,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2318"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What sport features a scrum, in which three rows of opposing players lock together and compete for a ball placed on the ground?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Rugby"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["rugby disambiguation","rubgy","rugby"],"string":"[\n \"rugby disambiguation\",\n \"rubgy\",\n \"rugby\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Rugby union gameplay\n\nRugby union is a contact sport that consists of two teams of fifteen players. The objective is to obtain more points than the opposition through scoring tries or kicking goals over eighty minutes of playing time. Play is started with one team drop kicking the ball from the halfway line towards the opposition. The rugby ball can be moved up the field by either carrying it or kicking it. However, when passing the ball it can only be thrown laterally or backward. The opposition can stop players moving up the field by tackling them. Only players carrying the ball can be tackled and once a tackle is completed the opposition can compete for the ball. Play continues until a try is scored, the ball crosses the side line or dead-ball line, or an infringement occurs. After a team scores points, the non-scoring team restarts the game at the halfway with a drop kick towards the opposition. The team with the most points at the end wins the game.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nTypical gameplay","Rugby union gameplay\n\nA typical passage of rugby union takes the following form. Unlike rugby league and gridiron football, possession of the ball in rugby union is always contestable by both teams – there is no separate 'offense' and 'defense'. The team which has possession of the ball at any given time will normally try to keep it, while the other team will try to recapture it, or at least deny the team in possession the chance to attack and/or force it to kick the ball away or commit an error. One team will initially gain possession of the ball, either from the kick-off, a restart kick or a set piece (scrum and line-out, see below). The need to maintain possession means the team with the ball will usually seek to progress towards the opposition by running forward while carrying the ball; although if there are few opportunities to attack they may choose to kick the ball forward, from the hand, usually giving it back to the opposition but in a position from where it will be difficult to attack.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nThe ball may be thrown from one player to another (passing) but must not be thrown forward, that is towards the opposition dead-ball line. Any team-mate ahead of the ball-carrier is offside and must not interfere with play. So American football style-blocking is forbidden, although tackling or obstructing a player who does not have the ball is against the laws anyway, whether or not the tackling player is offside. The team not in possession attempts to stop the ball-carrier by grabbing and bringing them to ground (a tackle). A tackled player, once having been brought to ground, must immediately pass or release the ball, allowing the two teams to contest possession of the loose ball; if the attacking player is tackled but the tackler releases the ball carrier the ball carrier may get up and continue the play. Play does not stop unless there is an infringement of the Laws, the ball/ball-carrier leaves the field of play, the ball becomes unplayable after a tackle, or the attacking team scores points by either touching the ball over the goal-line (a try) or drop-kicking the ball over the crossbar.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nIf the ball or ball-carrier goes into touch (out of the field of play), the game restarts with a line-out. If the game stops due to an infringement, play restarts with either a scrum, free kick or penalty kick (depending on the nature of the infringement) to the non-infringing team.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nRunning","Rugby union gameplay\n\nPlayers can run with the ball in any direction they want. However they cannot use a teammate to obstruct the opposition. This occurs when they run around or into one of their own players and in the process prevent a defender from tackling them. Defending teams can also run anywhere they want as long as they do not start from an offside position. Offside lines are behind the last foot at a ruck, maul or tackle or five and ten metres back from scrums and lineouts respectively. If the ball is kicked, players from the kicking team cannot run forward until they have been passed by the kicker or someone behind the kicker.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nForwards tend to run straight and hard at the opposition, while the backs run at gaps between players or use speed and guile to run around them. In modern games of rugby some backs can be as big as forwards and attempt to break through the defensive line using brute force and many forwards possess the running skills of backs. Players run straight at the opposition with the aim of either breaking the tackle or getting forward momentum from which to set up another attack. If they are close to the try line they can drive in low to aid grounding the ball. Players can also try to break through tackles by spinning after making contact or by using the hand not carrying the ball to fend (push) off the defender.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nA player could also try to get around a defender by stepping, swerving, or goose-stepping past them. To sidestep a defender, the attacking player takes a wide step in one direction while running forward and then shifts their body weight in the opposite direction. If successful the defender will be off balance, allowing the attacker to accelerate past. When swerving, an attacker runs straight at the defender, but before making contact accelerates and sways to the outside. Although similar to a side step, the swerve involves less sideways movement, but results in less loss of speed. The goose-step is a move made famous by David Campese and involves slowing down while running on the outside of the opponent, causing them to also slow, before accelerating away.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nPassing","Rugby union gameplay\n\nThe ball can be passed laterally or backwards, but cannot be thrown forward. The opposing team is awarded a scrum if the ball is unintentionally thrown forward or if it is knocked forward from a player's hand or arm – although doing so deliberately results in a penalty. An exception is if a player knocks the ball forward in attempting to block an opponent's kick - a 'charge down'. Passing is an integral part of rugby union, as it allows the ball to be easily and quickly distributed to team mates. The backs are the major exponents of passes, and they are used to put running players into space. If a team has an overlap - more players attacking than the other team has defending at a particular moment - then the tactic is to draw a defending player to the tackle and pass to the person outside him. If every player executes the 'draw and pass', given space, the outside players may have no defenders in front of them.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nAnother tactic is pretending to pass the ball, called 'dummying'. It can be used during normal backline play or as part of a set move. The aim of the dummy is to confuse the opposition and create a gap for the player carrying the ball. When used as a set move a player will run as a decoy, usually at a different angle to the rest of the players. In complicated moves there will be multiple players acting as decoys. Care must be taken to ensure the decoys do not impede the tacklers, which would result in a penalty being awarded to the defenders.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nThe standard rugby pass is the spiral pass, where the player swings the ball across their body with the tip point upwards and the ball spinning about its axis. This technique propels the ball quickly and accurately. 'Quick hands' is the rapid movement of the ball between players, and at its best involves catching and passing the ball in one motion. A 'skip-pass' is a basic move where the ball is passed past the closest player to another further away. The 'double-around' is another simple move that involves the passer quickly running around the player they have just passed the ball and receiving the ball from them. If successful it can create an overlap. Another common passing move is the 'cut and switch', which is used to change the direction of the play. For a cut the ball carrier runs laterally across the field before passing the ball to a player running back on an angle; the switch is a simple change of direction: a player standing on one side of a scrum, ruck or maul receives the ball and then passes it to someone on the opposite side.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nThere are also some specialised passes that can be used during a rugby game. The 'dive-pass' is a pass which is sometimes used by the scrum-half if they are unable to get into the correct position for a long pass. The player dives as they release the ball, resulting in a quick pass. A 'flick-pass' is similar to a standard pass except the ball is passed with a flick of the wrists, making it a faster pass but with less distance. The 'pop-pass' is a short pass where the ball is simply popped up in a small loop to a player. The 'gut-pass' is a pass straight into the stomach area of a player and is mostly used by the forwards when moving the ball back through a maul.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nKicking","Rugby union gameplay\n\nThe ball can be kicked in any direction and is used as an attacking option or to gain territory. There are three types of kicks used; the punt, drop kick and place kick. To punt the ball the player must kick the ball before it touches the ground. A drop kick occurs if the ball first bounces on the ground before being kicked. With a place kick the ball must be placed on the ground (usually on a kicking tee or in sand) before being kicked. Slight variations that commonly occur are taps, when a player kicks the ball a very short distance and regathers it, and toe-throughs, when a player kicks the ball along the ground instead of diving on it or picking it up.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nPunts are the most common type of kick employed by players. They are used as clearing kicks, especially if a team is close to their own goal-line or is looking to gain territory. With these kicks the player tries to kick the ball as far as possible towards the opponents goal and they usually aim for one of the touch lines. If the ball crosses the touch line before being touched by anyone a lineout is awarded to the opposing team. If the ball is put inside the player's 22 metre line by a member of the opposition they can kick the ball out on the full and gain ground. Otherwise ground is only gained if the ball bounces in the field of play before crossing the touch line. Care has to be taken not to kick it too far, because if it travels through their opponents in-goal and becomes dead the opposition is awarded a scrum from where the kick occurred. The disadvantage of \"kicking for territory\" is that it almost always gives possession of the ball to the opposing team.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nIf a clearing kick is caught by the opposition, then they can counter-attack by running, passing, or kicking the ball back toward the clearing team.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nAttacking kicks are also employed, usually if the opposition is out of position or running at them is proving ineffective. Common attacking kicks include the \"up and under\", box kick, \"grubber\", crossfield kick and chip kick. The up and under, also known as a \"bomb\" or Garryowen, is a high punt. A well executed up and under will be high enough to give anyone chasing enough time to compete for the ball. Box kicks are similar, but are kicked by the scrum-half over their shoulder when a ruck, maul, scrum or line-out occurs near the touchline. The ball is kicked high and parallel to the touchline with the wingers chasing. If the ball is kicked along the ground it is called a grubber. It can catch the defenders unaware and because the ball is oval shaped it does not bounce consistently, making it hard for them to collect it. A cross field kick occurs when the ball is kicked from one touchline to a player waiting near the other one. Chip kicks are short kicks just behind the defensive line for attacking players to run onto.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nLike defensive kicks there is still a risk that the opposition will regain possession after an attacking kick.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nDrop kicks are used to start play at the beginning of each half or restart play after points have been scored or the ball is grounded in the in-goal by a defending team. The ball is either kicked long to gain as much territory as possible or short so that the chasers have a chance to regain possession. A shot at goal can also be attempted using a drop goal. This can happen anytime during general play, except after a free kick has been awarded. As a missed drop goal gives possession to the opposition they are generally only attempted in close games to either gain the lead or to push the score beyond a converted try.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nPlace kicks are only ever used for attempting shots at goal after a penalty has been awarded or when converting a try. Generally one player in the team is the designated goal kicker, although some teams use a stronger, but less accurate, kicker for long shots. In close games the difference between winning or losing can come down to the accuracy of the goal kicker, making them a vital part of any team. The difficulty of a kick at goal increases with distance and angle to the goal posts, with kicks from near the sideline especially difficult. A conversion is taken back in line from the spot where the try was scored, so if possible a scorer will aim to down the ball as close to the goal posts as possible.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nKicking the ball is generally considered the sole preserve of the backs. Exceptions include flanker John Taylor, lock John Eales and number eight Zinzan Brooke, who have all scored points from kicks.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nBreakdowns","Rugby union gameplay\n\nThe aim of the defending side is to stop the player with the ball, either by bringing them to ground (a tackle, which is frequently followed by a ruck), or by contesting for possession with the ball-carrier on their feet (a maul). Such a circumstance is called a breakdown and each is governed by a specific law.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nTackle","Rugby union gameplay\n\nA player may tackle an opposing player who has the ball by bringing them to ground. Once tackled, a player must immediately release the ball, either by passing to a team mate or placing it on the ground, and the tackler must release them and move away. After the ball has been released by a tackled player, players from either side may try to regain possession of the ball. Tacklers cannot tackle above the shoulder (the neck and head are out of bounds), and the tackler has to attempt to wrap their arms around the player being tackled to complete the tackle. It is illegal to push, shoulder-charge, or to trip a player using feet or legs, but hands may be used (this being referred to as a tap-tackle or ankle-tap). Tackles that involve lifting a player and then forcing or dropping them to the ground head first (called a tip tackle or spear tackle) have been deemed particularly dangerous. A player performing this sort of tackle would typically be sent-off.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nTackling is the only way to stop a player from running and is a major part of any team's defence. A good tackle stops the player from moving forward and prevents them from passing the ball. It can also put an opponent under pressure and force the ball loose. There are five styles of tackles commonly used by players: the side, rear, passive front, active front and smother. The aim of the active front tackle is to drive the opponent backwards, while the smother tackle prevents the opposing player passing the ball. Once the player has been brought to ground, the tackler typically tries to get to their feet quickly and compete for the ball. Other players arriving at the tackle will also compete for the ball.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nThe main objective of the player being tackled is to keep possession of the ball. They will try to keep on their feet until teammates arrive in support. If brought to ground, they can immediately pass the ball (offload) or place it on the ground in a position advantageous to their team. The supporting teammates can continue running the ball or form a ruck or maul.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nRuck","Rugby union gameplay\n\nA ruck is formed when at least one player from each side bind onto each other with the ball on the ground between them. A ruck often ensues following a tackle. This physical contact, or binding, is generally by locking shoulders while facing each other. Additional players may join the ruck, but must do so from behind the rearmost foot of the hindmost team mate in the ruck; this is often referred to as \"coming through the gate\". In a ruck, no player may use their hands to win the ball; instead each side attempts to push the other side off the ball or use their feet to hook it back towards their own side; an action known as rucking. Any player not taking part in the ruck and maul must retreat behind the offside line, a notional line that runs parallel to the goal-lines through the rearmost foot of their hindmost teammate in the ruck or maul.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nPlayers attempt to arrive at the ruck first, drive forward and bind onto the opposition. Once a ruck is formed the defenders cannot use their hands, making it easier for the attacking team to retain possession. The defenders try to slow the ball from coming out of the ruck, which allows their team more time to organise their defence. This may not be done by using their hands, or lying over the ball, or going to ground deliberately. Such infringements result in penalties if seen by the referee, although the number of bodies involved in the ruck can make this difficult. A legal method used to slow the ball down is counter-rucking, when the defenders drive players back over the ball. If this is done well, the defenders can gain possession of the ball. This is called a turnover.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nA drive around a ruck or a scrum is usually performed by the forwards and is intended to break the defensive line using weight and force. The ball-carrier runs directly at the opponents and will endeavour to protect the ball so as to retain possession when contact occurs. This play, often referred to as a \"pick-up-and-drive\", usually offers a slow but sure advance. Sometimes the tactical aim is to suck defenders into a ruck or maul, opening gaps in the defensive line for the backs to exploit. It is also often employed in the closing minutes of the game by the team that has the lead, because it is an effective way of retaining possession and running down the clock.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nThe ball emerges from a maul more slowly than from a ruck.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nMaul","Rugby union gameplay\n\nA maul occurs when a player carrying the ball is held by one or more opponents, and one or more of the ball carrier's team mates bind on the ball carrier. Once a maul has formed other players may join in but, as in a ruck, they must do so from their own side. If the maul stops moving forward, and the ball is not available to be played, then the referee awards a scrum to the side not in possession when the maul began (unless the maul was formed immediately after a player received a kick other than a kick-off). The tactic of the rolling maul occurs when mauls are set up, and the ball is passed backwards through the players' hands to one at the rear, who rolls off the side to change the direction of the drive. This tactic can be extremely effective in gaining ground and both doing it properly and preventing it takes great skill and technique. It is a tactic most commonly used when the attacking side is inside the defending side's 22 meter line.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nIt was once illegal on safety grounds to pull down a maul, causing the players to fall to the ground. With the introduction of the Experimental Law Variations it was permitted to pull down a maul if the forward momentum of the attacking side had been neutralised or reversed, subject to maintaining safety. This decision was reversed to make the pulling down of a maul illegal once more.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nOn the other hand, a maul is not properly formed if the ball carrier binds on to a team-mate from the rear, and both of them then drive into one or more opponents – or if the ball-carrier breaks off from the back of the maul, which continues to drive forward. The players in front are either accidentally or deliberately offside and the referee awards either a scrum or a penalty to the opposing side, depending on whether the infringement was viewed as accidental or deliberate.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nThe tactic is sometimes referred to by players, commentators, and referees by the colloquial term \"truck and trailer\".","Rugby union gameplay\n\nRestart kicks","Rugby union gameplay\n\nPlay is started at the beginning of each half by a kick-off. One side—determined following the toss of a coin—takes a drop kick from the middle of the halfway line to start the half. The ball must travel at least 10 m into the opposition half. None of the kicking team's players are allowed in front of the player taking the kick until after that player's foot has touched the ball. The kicking side frequently kicks the ball high and for it to go just over 10 m, which is marked by a dashed line across the pitch. This tactic gives their players time to chase the lobbed ball and hope to catch it before the opposition does. Alternatively the kick may be a long kick deep into opposition territory, sacrificing the chance to regain possession for territorial gain. A restart kick that does not cross the 10 m line can either be played by the receiving team, but not by the kicking team, or a midfield scrum is awarded to the receiving team.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nA restart kick that crosses the side lines without being touched awards the receiving team either a midfield scrum or a line out on the half way line, receiving team option.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nSimilarly, there is also a 22 m drop-out. This is awarded if the attacking side is responsible for sending the ball into the in-goal area, but instead of their player grounding the ball and scoring a try it is first grounded by a defender. If the ball is kicked into the in-goal area by the attackers and instead of being grounded there by either side it continues, under its own momentum, through the in-goal area and crosses the dead-ball line, then the defenders have the option of choosing either a 22 m drop out or a scrum at the place where the attackers kicked the ball. The 22 m drop out is taken at any point along (or behind) the 22 m line.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nPenalty kicks and free kicks","Rugby union gameplay\n\nPenalty kicks are awarded for dangerous play. A penalty kick may either be used to attempt a penalty goal, kick into touch (either directly or indirectly, in both cases the kicking team throws-in the ball at the ensuing line-out) or tapped with the foot (giving the kicking player possession of the ball). In each case, the opponents must retire to a distance 10 m from the point at which the penalty is awarded.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nA free kick is awarded for technical infringements that do not warrant a penalty. A free kick differs from a penalty in that it cannot be used for an attempt at goal. If the ball goes into touch, the kicking team does not receive the throw at the ensuing lineout. When kicked directly into touch (i.e. without bouncing) there is no gain in ground from the free kick unless it was taken from behind the kicking team's 22 metre line.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nA free kick is also awarded when a player catches an opponent's kick on or behind his own 22 m line and shouts the word \"mark\".","Rugby union gameplay\n\nScrum","Rugby union gameplay\n\nA scrum is a way of restarting the game safely and fairly after a minor infringement. It is awarded when the ball has been knocked or passed forward, when a player is accidentally offside, or when the ball is trapped in a ruck or maul with no realistic chance of being retrieved. A team may also opt for a scrum if awarded a penalty. It is also awarded to the passing or kicking team if the ball hits the referee.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nA scrum is formed by the eight forwards from each team binding together in three rows. The front row consists of the two props (loosehead and tighthead) either side of the hooker. The second row consists of two locks and the two flankers. Behind the second row is the number 8. This formation is known as the 3–4–1 formation. The two packs of forwards engage with each other so that the heads of the front-rowers are interlocked with those of their opponents. Front-rowers always aim for the gap to the left (as they see it) of their opponent. The two locks in the second row bind directly behind the front row with their heads between a prop and the hooker. The flankers bind either side of the locks, and the number 8 binds behind and between the two locks.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nOnce a scrum is formed the scrum-half from the team awarded the feed throws the ball into the gap between the two front-rows known as the tunnel. The two hookers then compete for possession by hooking the ball backwards with their feet, while each pack tries to push the opposing pack backwards to help gain possession. The side that wins possession transfers the ball to the back of the scrum, where it is picked up either by the number 8 or by the scrum-half. Either the scrum half or the number 8 can then pass, run, or kick the ball and normal play then resumes. A scrum has to be awarded between the 5 m lines along the goal-lines and touch-lines. A team may also score a pushover try from a scrum; once the ball has crossed the goal-line during a scrum an attacking player may legally ground it.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nScrums are one of the most dangerous phases in rugby, since a collapse or improper engage can lead to a front row player damaging or even breaking his neck. For this reason, only trained players may play in the front row to help avoid injuries. If a team is without sufficient specialist front row players, for example because of injury or sin-binning, all scrums may be \"uncontested scrums\". In this situation, the packs engage, but do not push, and the team that still puts the ball into the scrum must win it without effort.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nLine-out","Rugby union gameplay\n\nWhen the ball goes into touch (i.e. outside of the area of play) the referee calls a line-out at the point where the ball crossed the touchline. There are two exceptions for this rule:\n# No line-out is awarded closer than 5 m to opponent team goal line, if the ball crosses the touch closer the throw-in occurs on 5 m line.\n# If a kick goes directly into touch and the kicker is outside his own 22 m line the throw-in occurs where the ball was kicked.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nThe forwards of each team (though not necessarily all of them, their number is throwing-in team option) line up a metre apart, perpendicular to the touchline and between 5 m and 15 m from the touchline. The ball is thrown from the touchline down the centre of the lines of forwards by a player (usually the hooker) from the team that did not play the ball into touch. The exception to this is when the ball went out from a penalty, in which case the side who gained the penalty throws the ball in. There is an advantage to being the team throwing the ball as that team then knows where along the line the throw is aimed. If the ball passes over the 15 m line, it can be played by everyone and the line-out is over; if the ball is not thrown straight down the middle of the line-out, the non-infringing team may choose to have the put-in to either a new line-out or a scrum 15 m infield.","Rugby union gameplay\n\nBoth sides compete for the ball, and some players may lift their teammates. (While the laws say that jumping players may only be supported, lifting is uniformly tolerated under specified conditions). A jumping player cannot be tackled until they stand and only shoulder-to-shoulder contact is allowed; deliberate infringement of this Law is dangerous play, and results in a penalty kick, and frequently a trip to the sin bin. If a penalty kick is awarded during a line-out and the line out is not over, it is taken 15 m from the touch line."],"string":"[\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nRugby union is a contact sport that consists of two teams of fifteen players. The objective is to obtain more points than the opposition through scoring tries or kicking goals over eighty minutes of playing time. Play is started with one team drop kicking the ball from the halfway line towards the opposition. The rugby ball can be moved up the field by either carrying it or kicking it. However, when passing the ball it can only be thrown laterally or backward. The opposition can stop players moving up the field by tackling them. Only players carrying the ball can be tackled and once a tackle is completed the opposition can compete for the ball. Play continues until a try is scored, the ball crosses the side line or dead-ball line, or an infringement occurs. After a team scores points, the non-scoring team restarts the game at the halfway with a drop kick towards the opposition. The team with the most points at the end wins the game.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nTypical gameplay\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nA typical passage of rugby union takes the following form. Unlike rugby league and gridiron football, possession of the ball in rugby union is always contestable by both teams – there is no separate 'offense' and 'defense'. The team which has possession of the ball at any given time will normally try to keep it, while the other team will try to recapture it, or at least deny the team in possession the chance to attack and/or force it to kick the ball away or commit an error. One team will initially gain possession of the ball, either from the kick-off, a restart kick or a set piece (scrum and line-out, see below). The need to maintain possession means the team with the ball will usually seek to progress towards the opposition by running forward while carrying the ball; although if there are few opportunities to attack they may choose to kick the ball forward, from the hand, usually giving it back to the opposition but in a position from where it will be difficult to attack.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nThe ball may be thrown from one player to another (passing) but must not be thrown forward, that is towards the opposition dead-ball line. Any team-mate ahead of the ball-carrier is offside and must not interfere with play. So American football style-blocking is forbidden, although tackling or obstructing a player who does not have the ball is against the laws anyway, whether or not the tackling player is offside. The team not in possession attempts to stop the ball-carrier by grabbing and bringing them to ground (a tackle). A tackled player, once having been brought to ground, must immediately pass or release the ball, allowing the two teams to contest possession of the loose ball; if the attacking player is tackled but the tackler releases the ball carrier the ball carrier may get up and continue the play. Play does not stop unless there is an infringement of the Laws, the ball/ball-carrier leaves the field of play, the ball becomes unplayable after a tackle, or the attacking team scores points by either touching the ball over the goal-line (a try) or drop-kicking the ball over the crossbar.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nIf the ball or ball-carrier goes into touch (out of the field of play), the game restarts with a line-out. If the game stops due to an infringement, play restarts with either a scrum, free kick or penalty kick (depending on the nature of the infringement) to the non-infringing team.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nRunning\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nPlayers can run with the ball in any direction they want. However they cannot use a teammate to obstruct the opposition. This occurs when they run around or into one of their own players and in the process prevent a defender from tackling them. Defending teams can also run anywhere they want as long as they do not start from an offside position. Offside lines are behind the last foot at a ruck, maul or tackle or five and ten metres back from scrums and lineouts respectively. If the ball is kicked, players from the kicking team cannot run forward until they have been passed by the kicker or someone behind the kicker.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nForwards tend to run straight and hard at the opposition, while the backs run at gaps between players or use speed and guile to run around them. In modern games of rugby some backs can be as big as forwards and attempt to break through the defensive line using brute force and many forwards possess the running skills of backs. Players run straight at the opposition with the aim of either breaking the tackle or getting forward momentum from which to set up another attack. If they are close to the try line they can drive in low to aid grounding the ball. Players can also try to break through tackles by spinning after making contact or by using the hand not carrying the ball to fend (push) off the defender.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nA player could also try to get around a defender by stepping, swerving, or goose-stepping past them. To sidestep a defender, the attacking player takes a wide step in one direction while running forward and then shifts their body weight in the opposite direction. If successful the defender will be off balance, allowing the attacker to accelerate past. When swerving, an attacker runs straight at the defender, but before making contact accelerates and sways to the outside. Although similar to a side step, the swerve involves less sideways movement, but results in less loss of speed. The goose-step is a move made famous by David Campese and involves slowing down while running on the outside of the opponent, causing them to also slow, before accelerating away.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nPassing\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nThe ball can be passed laterally or backwards, but cannot be thrown forward. The opposing team is awarded a scrum if the ball is unintentionally thrown forward or if it is knocked forward from a player's hand or arm – although doing so deliberately results in a penalty. An exception is if a player knocks the ball forward in attempting to block an opponent's kick - a 'charge down'. Passing is an integral part of rugby union, as it allows the ball to be easily and quickly distributed to team mates. The backs are the major exponents of passes, and they are used to put running players into space. If a team has an overlap - more players attacking than the other team has defending at a particular moment - then the tactic is to draw a defending player to the tackle and pass to the person outside him. If every player executes the 'draw and pass', given space, the outside players may have no defenders in front of them.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nAnother tactic is pretending to pass the ball, called 'dummying'. It can be used during normal backline play or as part of a set move. The aim of the dummy is to confuse the opposition and create a gap for the player carrying the ball. When used as a set move a player will run as a decoy, usually at a different angle to the rest of the players. In complicated moves there will be multiple players acting as decoys. Care must be taken to ensure the decoys do not impede the tacklers, which would result in a penalty being awarded to the defenders.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nThe standard rugby pass is the spiral pass, where the player swings the ball across their body with the tip point upwards and the ball spinning about its axis. This technique propels the ball quickly and accurately. 'Quick hands' is the rapid movement of the ball between players, and at its best involves catching and passing the ball in one motion. A 'skip-pass' is a basic move where the ball is passed past the closest player to another further away. The 'double-around' is another simple move that involves the passer quickly running around the player they have just passed the ball and receiving the ball from them. If successful it can create an overlap. Another common passing move is the 'cut and switch', which is used to change the direction of the play. For a cut the ball carrier runs laterally across the field before passing the ball to a player running back on an angle; the switch is a simple change of direction: a player standing on one side of a scrum, ruck or maul receives the ball and then passes it to someone on the opposite side.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nThere are also some specialised passes that can be used during a rugby game. The 'dive-pass' is a pass which is sometimes used by the scrum-half if they are unable to get into the correct position for a long pass. The player dives as they release the ball, resulting in a quick pass. A 'flick-pass' is similar to a standard pass except the ball is passed with a flick of the wrists, making it a faster pass but with less distance. The 'pop-pass' is a short pass where the ball is simply popped up in a small loop to a player. The 'gut-pass' is a pass straight into the stomach area of a player and is mostly used by the forwards when moving the ball back through a maul.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nKicking\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nThe ball can be kicked in any direction and is used as an attacking option or to gain territory. There are three types of kicks used; the punt, drop kick and place kick. To punt the ball the player must kick the ball before it touches the ground. A drop kick occurs if the ball first bounces on the ground before being kicked. With a place kick the ball must be placed on the ground (usually on a kicking tee or in sand) before being kicked. Slight variations that commonly occur are taps, when a player kicks the ball a very short distance and regathers it, and toe-throughs, when a player kicks the ball along the ground instead of diving on it or picking it up.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nPunts are the most common type of kick employed by players. They are used as clearing kicks, especially if a team is close to their own goal-line or is looking to gain territory. With these kicks the player tries to kick the ball as far as possible towards the opponents goal and they usually aim for one of the touch lines. If the ball crosses the touch line before being touched by anyone a lineout is awarded to the opposing team. If the ball is put inside the player's 22 metre line by a member of the opposition they can kick the ball out on the full and gain ground. Otherwise ground is only gained if the ball bounces in the field of play before crossing the touch line. Care has to be taken not to kick it too far, because if it travels through their opponents in-goal and becomes dead the opposition is awarded a scrum from where the kick occurred. The disadvantage of \\\"kicking for territory\\\" is that it almost always gives possession of the ball to the opposing team.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nIf a clearing kick is caught by the opposition, then they can counter-attack by running, passing, or kicking the ball back toward the clearing team.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nAttacking kicks are also employed, usually if the opposition is out of position or running at them is proving ineffective. Common attacking kicks include the \\\"up and under\\\", box kick, \\\"grubber\\\", crossfield kick and chip kick. The up and under, also known as a \\\"bomb\\\" or Garryowen, is a high punt. A well executed up and under will be high enough to give anyone chasing enough time to compete for the ball. Box kicks are similar, but are kicked by the scrum-half over their shoulder when a ruck, maul, scrum or line-out occurs near the touchline. The ball is kicked high and parallel to the touchline with the wingers chasing. If the ball is kicked along the ground it is called a grubber. It can catch the defenders unaware and because the ball is oval shaped it does not bounce consistently, making it hard for them to collect it. A cross field kick occurs when the ball is kicked from one touchline to a player waiting near the other one. Chip kicks are short kicks just behind the defensive line for attacking players to run onto.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nLike defensive kicks there is still a risk that the opposition will regain possession after an attacking kick.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nDrop kicks are used to start play at the beginning of each half or restart play after points have been scored or the ball is grounded in the in-goal by a defending team. The ball is either kicked long to gain as much territory as possible or short so that the chasers have a chance to regain possession. A shot at goal can also be attempted using a drop goal. This can happen anytime during general play, except after a free kick has been awarded. As a missed drop goal gives possession to the opposition they are generally only attempted in close games to either gain the lead or to push the score beyond a converted try.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nPlace kicks are only ever used for attempting shots at goal after a penalty has been awarded or when converting a try. Generally one player in the team is the designated goal kicker, although some teams use a stronger, but less accurate, kicker for long shots. In close games the difference between winning or losing can come down to the accuracy of the goal kicker, making them a vital part of any team. The difficulty of a kick at goal increases with distance and angle to the goal posts, with kicks from near the sideline especially difficult. A conversion is taken back in line from the spot where the try was scored, so if possible a scorer will aim to down the ball as close to the goal posts as possible.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nKicking the ball is generally considered the sole preserve of the backs. Exceptions include flanker John Taylor, lock John Eales and number eight Zinzan Brooke, who have all scored points from kicks.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nBreakdowns\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nThe aim of the defending side is to stop the player with the ball, either by bringing them to ground (a tackle, which is frequently followed by a ruck), or by contesting for possession with the ball-carrier on their feet (a maul). Such a circumstance is called a breakdown and each is governed by a specific law.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nTackle\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nA player may tackle an opposing player who has the ball by bringing them to ground. Once tackled, a player must immediately release the ball, either by passing to a team mate or placing it on the ground, and the tackler must release them and move away. After the ball has been released by a tackled player, players from either side may try to regain possession of the ball. Tacklers cannot tackle above the shoulder (the neck and head are out of bounds), and the tackler has to attempt to wrap their arms around the player being tackled to complete the tackle. It is illegal to push, shoulder-charge, or to trip a player using feet or legs, but hands may be used (this being referred to as a tap-tackle or ankle-tap). Tackles that involve lifting a player and then forcing or dropping them to the ground head first (called a tip tackle or spear tackle) have been deemed particularly dangerous. A player performing this sort of tackle would typically be sent-off.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nTackling is the only way to stop a player from running and is a major part of any team's defence. A good tackle stops the player from moving forward and prevents them from passing the ball. It can also put an opponent under pressure and force the ball loose. There are five styles of tackles commonly used by players: the side, rear, passive front, active front and smother. The aim of the active front tackle is to drive the opponent backwards, while the smother tackle prevents the opposing player passing the ball. Once the player has been brought to ground, the tackler typically tries to get to their feet quickly and compete for the ball. Other players arriving at the tackle will also compete for the ball.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nThe main objective of the player being tackled is to keep possession of the ball. They will try to keep on their feet until teammates arrive in support. If brought to ground, they can immediately pass the ball (offload) or place it on the ground in a position advantageous to their team. The supporting teammates can continue running the ball or form a ruck or maul.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nRuck\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nA ruck is formed when at least one player from each side bind onto each other with the ball on the ground between them. A ruck often ensues following a tackle. This physical contact, or binding, is generally by locking shoulders while facing each other. Additional players may join the ruck, but must do so from behind the rearmost foot of the hindmost team mate in the ruck; this is often referred to as \\\"coming through the gate\\\". In a ruck, no player may use their hands to win the ball; instead each side attempts to push the other side off the ball or use their feet to hook it back towards their own side; an action known as rucking. Any player not taking part in the ruck and maul must retreat behind the offside line, a notional line that runs parallel to the goal-lines through the rearmost foot of their hindmost teammate in the ruck or maul.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nPlayers attempt to arrive at the ruck first, drive forward and bind onto the opposition. Once a ruck is formed the defenders cannot use their hands, making it easier for the attacking team to retain possession. The defenders try to slow the ball from coming out of the ruck, which allows their team more time to organise their defence. This may not be done by using their hands, or lying over the ball, or going to ground deliberately. Such infringements result in penalties if seen by the referee, although the number of bodies involved in the ruck can make this difficult. A legal method used to slow the ball down is counter-rucking, when the defenders drive players back over the ball. If this is done well, the defenders can gain possession of the ball. This is called a turnover.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nA drive around a ruck or a scrum is usually performed by the forwards and is intended to break the defensive line using weight and force. The ball-carrier runs directly at the opponents and will endeavour to protect the ball so as to retain possession when contact occurs. This play, often referred to as a \\\"pick-up-and-drive\\\", usually offers a slow but sure advance. Sometimes the tactical aim is to suck defenders into a ruck or maul, opening gaps in the defensive line for the backs to exploit. It is also often employed in the closing minutes of the game by the team that has the lead, because it is an effective way of retaining possession and running down the clock.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nThe ball emerges from a maul more slowly than from a ruck.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nMaul\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nA maul occurs when a player carrying the ball is held by one or more opponents, and one or more of the ball carrier's team mates bind on the ball carrier. Once a maul has formed other players may join in but, as in a ruck, they must do so from their own side. If the maul stops moving forward, and the ball is not available to be played, then the referee awards a scrum to the side not in possession when the maul began (unless the maul was formed immediately after a player received a kick other than a kick-off). The tactic of the rolling maul occurs when mauls are set up, and the ball is passed backwards through the players' hands to one at the rear, who rolls off the side to change the direction of the drive. This tactic can be extremely effective in gaining ground and both doing it properly and preventing it takes great skill and technique. It is a tactic most commonly used when the attacking side is inside the defending side's 22 meter line.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nIt was once illegal on safety grounds to pull down a maul, causing the players to fall to the ground. With the introduction of the Experimental Law Variations it was permitted to pull down a maul if the forward momentum of the attacking side had been neutralised or reversed, subject to maintaining safety. This decision was reversed to make the pulling down of a maul illegal once more.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nOn the other hand, a maul is not properly formed if the ball carrier binds on to a team-mate from the rear, and both of them then drive into one or more opponents – or if the ball-carrier breaks off from the back of the maul, which continues to drive forward. The players in front are either accidentally or deliberately offside and the referee awards either a scrum or a penalty to the opposing side, depending on whether the infringement was viewed as accidental or deliberate.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nThe tactic is sometimes referred to by players, commentators, and referees by the colloquial term \\\"truck and trailer\\\".\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nRestart kicks\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nPlay is started at the beginning of each half by a kick-off. One side—determined following the toss of a coin—takes a drop kick from the middle of the halfway line to start the half. The ball must travel at least 10 m into the opposition half. None of the kicking team's players are allowed in front of the player taking the kick until after that player's foot has touched the ball. The kicking side frequently kicks the ball high and for it to go just over 10 m, which is marked by a dashed line across the pitch. This tactic gives their players time to chase the lobbed ball and hope to catch it before the opposition does. Alternatively the kick may be a long kick deep into opposition territory, sacrificing the chance to regain possession for territorial gain. A restart kick that does not cross the 10 m line can either be played by the receiving team, but not by the kicking team, or a midfield scrum is awarded to the receiving team.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nA restart kick that crosses the side lines without being touched awards the receiving team either a midfield scrum or a line out on the half way line, receiving team option.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nSimilarly, there is also a 22 m drop-out. This is awarded if the attacking side is responsible for sending the ball into the in-goal area, but instead of their player grounding the ball and scoring a try it is first grounded by a defender. If the ball is kicked into the in-goal area by the attackers and instead of being grounded there by either side it continues, under its own momentum, through the in-goal area and crosses the dead-ball line, then the defenders have the option of choosing either a 22 m drop out or a scrum at the place where the attackers kicked the ball. The 22 m drop out is taken at any point along (or behind) the 22 m line.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nPenalty kicks and free kicks\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nPenalty kicks are awarded for dangerous play. A penalty kick may either be used to attempt a penalty goal, kick into touch (either directly or indirectly, in both cases the kicking team throws-in the ball at the ensuing line-out) or tapped with the foot (giving the kicking player possession of the ball). In each case, the opponents must retire to a distance 10 m from the point at which the penalty is awarded.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nA free kick is awarded for technical infringements that do not warrant a penalty. A free kick differs from a penalty in that it cannot be used for an attempt at goal. If the ball goes into touch, the kicking team does not receive the throw at the ensuing lineout. When kicked directly into touch (i.e. without bouncing) there is no gain in ground from the free kick unless it was taken from behind the kicking team's 22 metre line.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nA free kick is also awarded when a player catches an opponent's kick on or behind his own 22 m line and shouts the word \\\"mark\\\".\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nScrum\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nA scrum is a way of restarting the game safely and fairly after a minor infringement. It is awarded when the ball has been knocked or passed forward, when a player is accidentally offside, or when the ball is trapped in a ruck or maul with no realistic chance of being retrieved. A team may also opt for a scrum if awarded a penalty. It is also awarded to the passing or kicking team if the ball hits the referee.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nA scrum is formed by the eight forwards from each team binding together in three rows. The front row consists of the two props (loosehead and tighthead) either side of the hooker. The second row consists of two locks and the two flankers. Behind the second row is the number 8. This formation is known as the 3–4–1 formation. The two packs of forwards engage with each other so that the heads of the front-rowers are interlocked with those of their opponents. Front-rowers always aim for the gap to the left (as they see it) of their opponent. The two locks in the second row bind directly behind the front row with their heads between a prop and the hooker. The flankers bind either side of the locks, and the number 8 binds behind and between the two locks.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nOnce a scrum is formed the scrum-half from the team awarded the feed throws the ball into the gap between the two front-rows known as the tunnel. The two hookers then compete for possession by hooking the ball backwards with their feet, while each pack tries to push the opposing pack backwards to help gain possession. The side that wins possession transfers the ball to the back of the scrum, where it is picked up either by the number 8 or by the scrum-half. Either the scrum half or the number 8 can then pass, run, or kick the ball and normal play then resumes. A scrum has to be awarded between the 5 m lines along the goal-lines and touch-lines. A team may also score a pushover try from a scrum; once the ball has crossed the goal-line during a scrum an attacking player may legally ground it.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nScrums are one of the most dangerous phases in rugby, since a collapse or improper engage can lead to a front row player damaging or even breaking his neck. For this reason, only trained players may play in the front row to help avoid injuries. If a team is without sufficient specialist front row players, for example because of injury or sin-binning, all scrums may be \\\"uncontested scrums\\\". In this situation, the packs engage, but do not push, and the team that still puts the ball into the scrum must win it without effort.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nLine-out\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nWhen the ball goes into touch (i.e. outside of the area of play) the referee calls a line-out at the point where the ball crossed the touchline. There are two exceptions for this rule:\\n# No line-out is awarded closer than 5 m to opponent team goal line, if the ball crosses the touch closer the throw-in occurs on 5 m line.\\n# If a kick goes directly into touch and the kicker is outside his own 22 m line the throw-in occurs where the ball was kicked.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nThe forwards of each team (though not necessarily all of them, their number is throwing-in team option) line up a metre apart, perpendicular to the touchline and between 5 m and 15 m from the touchline. The ball is thrown from the touchline down the centre of the lines of forwards by a player (usually the hooker) from the team that did not play the ball into touch. The exception to this is when the ball went out from a penalty, in which case the side who gained the penalty throws the ball in. There is an advantage to being the team throwing the ball as that team then knows where along the line the throw is aimed. If the ball passes over the 15 m line, it can be played by everyone and the line-out is over; if the ball is not thrown straight down the middle of the line-out, the non-infringing team may choose to have the put-in to either a new line-out or a scrum 15 m infield.\",\n \"Rugby union gameplay\\n\\nBoth sides compete for the ball, and some players may lift their teammates. (While the laws say that jumping players may only be supported, lifting is uniformly tolerated under specified conditions). A jumping player cannot be tackled until they stand and only shoulder-to-shoulder contact is allowed; deliberate infringement of this Law is dangerous play, and results in a penalty kick, and frequently a trip to the sin bin. If a penalty kick is awarded during a line-out and the line out is not over, it is taken 15 m from the touch line.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137090,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2320"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which part of the human body does impetigo affect?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"The skin"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["s k i n","s k i n japanese band","skin japanese band","s k i n musical project","skin"],"string":"[\n \"s k i n\",\n \"s k i n japanese band\",\n \"skin japanese band\",\n \"s k i n musical project\",\n \"skin\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Human body\n\nThe human body is the entire structure of a human being and comprises a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet.\nEvery part of the body is composed of various types of cells, the fundamental unit of life.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd\nSearch&dbbooks&doptcmdl\nGenBookHL&termCell+Movements+and+the+Shaping+of+the+Vertebrate+Body+AND+mboc4%5Bbook%5D+AND+374635%5Buid%5D&rid\nmboc4.section.3919 Cell Movements and the Shaping of the Vertebrate Body] in Chapter 21 of [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmdSearch&db\nbooks&doptcmdlGenBookHL&term\ncell+biology+AND+mboc4%5Bbook%5D+AND+373693%5Buid%5D&ridmboc4 Molecular Biology of the Cell] fourth edition, edited by Bruce Alberts (2002) published by Garland Science. The Alberts text discusses how the \"cellular building blocks\" move to shape developing embryos. It is also common to describe small molecules such as amino acids as \"[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd\nSearch&dbbooks&doptcmdl\nGenBookHL&term%22all+cells%22+AND+mboc4%5Bbook%5D+AND+372023%5Buid%5D&rid\nmboc4.section.4#23 molecular building blocks]\".","Human body\n\nAt maturity, the estimated average number of cells in the body is given as 37.2 trillion. This number is stated to be of partial data and to be used as a starting point for further calculations. The number given is arrived at by totalling the cell numbers of all the organs of the body and cell types. The composition of the human body is made up of a number of certain elements including carbon, calcium and phosphorus.","Human body\n\nThe study of the human body involves anatomy and physiology. The human body can show anatomical non-pathological anomalies known as variations which need to be able to be recognised. Physiology focuses on the systems and their organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis.","Human body\n\nStructure","Human body\n\nSkeletal structure frames the overall shape of the body and does not alter much over a lifetime. General body shape (and female body shape) is influenced by the distribution of muscle and fat tissue and is also affected by various hormones. The average height of an adult male human (in developed countries) is about and the adult female is about . Height is largely determined by genes and diet. Body type and body composition are influenced by factors such as genetics, diet, and exercise.","Human body\n\nThe human body has several body cavities the largest of which is the abdominopelvic cavity. These cavities house the various body organs including the spinal cord which also accommodates the production and flow of cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricular system of the brain.","Human body\n\nMany other smaller cavities exist throughout the body called sinuses, which have varied functions. Sinuses in general usage refers to the paranasal sinuses which are involved in the condition sinusitis. The paranasal sinuses are four pairs of vital air-cavities in the cranial bones. These air-filled spaces are paired between the eyes, above the eyes, deeper behind the eyes and around the nasal cavity.","Human body\n\nComposition","Human body\n\nThe average adult body contains between 5 and 5.5 litres of blood and approximately 10 litres of interstitial fluid.","Human body\n\nThe composition of the human body can be referred to in terms of its water content, elements content, tissue types or material types. The adult human body contains approximately 60% water, and so makes up a significant proportion of the body, both in terms of weight and volume. Water content can vary from a high 75% in a newborn infant to a lower 45% in an obese person. (These figures are necessarily statistical averages).","Human body\n\nThe vast majority of cells in the human body are not human at all; rather they are of bacteria, archaea, and methanogens such as Methanobrevibacter smithii. The largest proportion of these form the gut flora. The whole population of microbiota include microorganisms of the skin and other body parts and this altogether is termed as the human microbiome.","Human body\n\nThe proportions of the elements of the body can be referred to in terms of the main elements, minor ones and trace elements. Material type may also be referred to as including water, protein, connective tissue, fats, carbohydrates and bone.","Human body\n\nHuman anatomy","Human body\n\nHuman anatomy (gr. ἀνατομία, \"dissection\", from ἀνά, \"up\", and τέμνειν, \"cut\") is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the human body. Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy (histology) Gross anatomy (also called topographical anatomy, regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by the naked eye. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of microscopes to study minute anatomical structures, and is the field of histology which studies the organization of tissues at all levels, from cell biology (previously called cytology), to organs. Anatomy, human physiology (the study of function), and biochemistry (the study of the chemistry of living structures) are complementary basic medical sciences, that are generally taught together (or in tandem) to students studying medicine.","Human body\n\nIn some of its facets human anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology, through common roots in evolution; for example, much of the human body maintains the ancient segmental pattern that is present in all vertebrates with basic units being repeated, which is particularly obvious in the vertebral column and in the ribcage, and which can be traced from the somitogenesis stage in very early embryos.","Human body\n\nGenerally, physicians, dentists, physiotherapists, nurses, paramedics, radiographers, other health professionals, and students of certain biological sciences, learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures, and tutorials. The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience in examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope; and in addition, medical and dental students generally also learn anatomy with practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers (corpses). A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required for all medical doctors, especially surgeons, and doctors working in some diagnostic specialities, such as histopathology and radiology.","Human body\n\nHuman anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry are basic medical sciences, generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has recently been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching.","Human body\n\nAnatomical variations","Human body\n\nIn human anatomy, the term anatomical variation refers to a non-pathologic anatomic structure that is different from normal. The possible anatomic variations in each organ and its arterial and venous supply must be known by physicians, such as surgeons or radiologists, in order to identify them. Unlike congenital anomalies, anatomic variations are typically inconsequential and do not constitute a disorder. Accessory muscles are rare anatomical duplicates of muscle that can occur and only require treatment where function is impaired. The accessory soleus muscle in the ankle is one such variation and one which does not need to be rectified. Another more common variation found in around ten per cent of the population is the accessory spleen.","Human body\n\nHuman physiology","Human body\n\nHuman physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. Physiology focuses principally at the level of organs and systems. Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology, and animal experimentation has provided much of the foundation of physiological knowledge. Anatomy and physiology are closely related fields of study: anatomy, the study of form, and physiology, the study of function, are intrinsically related and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.","Human body\n\nThe study of how physiology is altered in disease is pathophysiology.","Human body\n\nSystems","Human body\n\nThe human body consists of many interacting systems. Each system contributes to the maintenance of homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. A system consists of two or more organs, which are functional collections of tissue. Systems do not work in isolation, and the well-being of the person depends upon the well-being of all the interacting body systems. Some combining systems are referred to by their joint names such as the nervous system and the endocrine system known together as the neuroendocrine system.","Human body\n\nFile:Organ Systems I.jpg\nFile:Organ Systems II.jpg","Human body\n\nHomeostasis","Human body\n\nThe term homeostasis refers to a system that regulates its internal environment and maintains a stable, relatively constant condition; such as maintaining an equal temperature, or acid balance pH. This is required for the body to function properly. Without a relatively constant pH, temperature, blood flow, and position, survival would be impossible.","Human body\n\nMany interacting systems and mechanisms act to maintain the human's internal environment. The nervous system receives information from the body and transmits this to the brain via neurotransmitters. The endocrine system may release hormones to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Cell metabolism may help to maintain the blood's pH.","Human body\n\nSociety and culture","Human body\n\nDepiction","Human body\n\nAnatomy has become a key part of the visual arts. Basic concepts of how muscles and bones function and change with movement are vital in drawing, painting or animating a human figure. Many books (such as \"Human Anatomy for Artists: The Elements of Form\") have been written as guides to drawing the human body anatomically correctly. Leonardo da Vinci sought to improve his art through a better understanding of human anatomy. In the process he advanced both human anatomy and its representation in art.","Human body\n\nBecause the structure of living organisms is complex, anatomy is organized by levels, from the smallest components of cells to the largest organs and their relationship to others.","Human body\n\nAppearance","Human body\n\nHistory of anatomy","Human body\n\nThe history of anatomy has been characterized, over a long period of time, by an ongoing, developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the human body. Methods have advanced dramatically, from the simple examination by dissection of animals and cadavers (corpses), to the development and use of the microscope, to the far more technological advances of the electron microscope and other complex techniques developed since the beginning of the 20th century. During the 19th and early 20th centuries it was the most prominent biological field of scientific study.","Human body\n\nHistory of physiology","Human body\n\nThe study of human physiology dates back to at least 420 B.C. and the time of Hippocrates, the father of western medicine. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece, while Claudius Galenus (c. 126–199 A.D.), known as Galen, was the first to use experiments to probe the function of the body. Galen was the founder of experimental physiology. The medical world moved on from Galenism only with the appearance of Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey.","Human body\n\nFollowing from the Middle Ages, the Renaissance brought an increase of physiological research in the Western world that triggered the modern study of anatomy and physiology. Andreas Vesalius was an author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica. Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. Anatomist William Harvey described the circulatory system in the 17th century, demonstrating the fruitful combination of close observations and careful experiments to learn about the functions of the body, which was fundamental to the development of experimental physiology. Herman Boerhaave is sometimes referred to as a father of physiology due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and textbook Institutiones medicae (1708).","Human body\n\nIn the 18th century, important works in this field were done by Pierre Cabanis, a French doctor and physiologist.","Human body\n\nIn the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular with the 1838 appearance of the Cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. It radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. Claude Bernard's (1813–1878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of milieu interieur (internal environment), which would later be taken up and championed as \"homeostasis\" by American physiologist Walter Cannon (1871–1945).","Human body\n\nIn the 20th century, biologists also became interested in how organisms other than human beings function, eventually spawning the fields of comparative physiology and ecophysiology. Major figures in these fields include Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew. Most recently, evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.","Human body\n\nThe biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.","Human body\n\nIn terms of the human body, the endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals that integrate function. Homeostasis is a major aspect with regard to the interactions in the body.","Human body\n\nGallery","Human body\n\nHuman body external features:","Human body\n\nBlack human body features-en.svg\nHuman body features-en.svg\nHuman Body.jpg","Impetigo\n\nImpetigo is a contagious bacterial skin infection most common among preschool children. People who play close contact sports, such as wrestling are also susceptible, regardless of age. Antibiotic creams or pills are often used as a remedy.","Impetigo\n\nGlobally impetigo affected about 140 million people (2% of the population) in 2010. Impetigo is not as common in adults. The name derives from the Latin impetere (\"assail\"). It is also known as school sores.[http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Impetigo_or_school_sores?OpenDocument Impetigo — school sores — Better Health Channel]","Impetigo\n\nClassification","Impetigo\n\nContagious impetigo","Impetigo\n\nThis most common form of impetigo, also called nonbullous impetigo, most often begins as a red sore near the nose or mouth which soon breaks, leaking pus or fluid, and forms a honey-colored scab, followed by a red mark which heals without leaving a scar. Sores are not painful, but they may be itchy. Lymph nodes in the affected area may be swollen, but fever is rare. Touching or scratching the sores may easily spread the infection to other parts of the body.\nUlcerations with erythema and scarring also may result from scratching or abrading of the skin.","Impetigo\n\nBullous impetigo","Impetigo\n\nBullous impetigo, mainly seen in children younger than 2 years, involves painless, fluid-filled blisters, mostly on the arms, legs, and trunk, surrounded by red and itchy (but not sore) skin. The blisters may be large or small. After they break, they form yellow scabs.","Impetigo\n\nEcthyma","Impetigo\n\nIn this form of impetigo, painful fluid- or pus-filled sores with redness of skin, usually on the arms and legs, become ulcers that penetrate deeper into the dermis. After they break open, they form hard, thick, gray-yellow scabs, which sometimes leave scars. Ecthyma may be accompanied by swollen lymph nodes in the affected area.","Impetigo\n\nCauses","Impetigo\n\nIt is primarily caused by Staphylococcus aureus, and sometimes by Streptococcus pyogenes.Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; & Mitchell, Richard N. (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology (8th ed.). Saunders Elsevier. pp. 843 ISBN 978-1-4160-2973-1 Both bullous and nonbullous are primarily caused by S. aureus, with Streptococcus also commonly being involved in the nonbullous form.","Impetigo\n\nPredisposing factors","Impetigo\n\nPredisposing factors include poor hygiene, malnutrition, and anemia. Impetigo occurs more frequently among people who live in warm climates.","Impetigo\n\nTransmission","Impetigo\n\nThe infection is spread by direct contact with lesions or with nasal carriers. The incubation period is 1–3 days after exposure to Streptococcus and 4–10 days for Staphylococcus. Dried streptococci in the air are not infectious to intact skin. Scratching may spread the lesions.","Impetigo\n\nDiagnosis","Impetigo\n\nImpetigo is usually diagnosed based on its appearance. It generally appears as honey-colored scabs formed from dried serum, and is often found on the arms, legs, or face.","Impetigo\n\nTreatment","Impetigo\n\nFor generations, the disease was treated with an application of the antiseptic gentian violet. Today, topical or oral antibiotics are usually prescribed. Mild cases may be treated with bactericidal ointment, such as mupirocin.","Impetigo\n\nMore severe cases require oral antibiotics, such as dicloxacillin, flucloxacillin, or erythromycin. Alternatively, amoxicillin combined with clavulanate potassium, cephalosporins (first-generation) and many others may also be used as an antibiotic treatment. Alternatives for people who are seriously allergic to penicillin or infections with MRSA include doxycycline, clindamycin, and SMX-TMP. When streptococci alone are the cause, penicillin is the drug of choice.","Impetigo\n\nEpidemiology","Impetigo\n\nGlobally, impetigo affected about 140 million people (2% of the population) in 2010."],"string":"[\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe human body is the entire structure of a human being and comprises a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet.\\nEvery part of the body is composed of various types of cells, the fundamental unit of life.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd\\nSearch&dbbooks&doptcmdl\\nGenBookHL&termCell+Movements+and+the+Shaping+of+the+Vertebrate+Body+AND+mboc4%5Bbook%5D+AND+374635%5Buid%5D&rid\\nmboc4.section.3919 Cell Movements and the Shaping of the Vertebrate Body] in Chapter 21 of [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmdSearch&db\\nbooks&doptcmdlGenBookHL&term\\ncell+biology+AND+mboc4%5Bbook%5D+AND+373693%5Buid%5D&ridmboc4 Molecular Biology of the Cell] fourth edition, edited by Bruce Alberts (2002) published by Garland Science. The Alberts text discusses how the \\\"cellular building blocks\\\" move to shape developing embryos. It is also common to describe small molecules such as amino acids as \\\"[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd\\nSearch&dbbooks&doptcmdl\\nGenBookHL&term%22all+cells%22+AND+mboc4%5Bbook%5D+AND+372023%5Buid%5D&rid\\nmboc4.section.4#23 molecular building blocks]\\\".\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nAt maturity, the estimated average number of cells in the body is given as 37.2 trillion. This number is stated to be of partial data and to be used as a starting point for further calculations. The number given is arrived at by totalling the cell numbers of all the organs of the body and cell types. The composition of the human body is made up of a number of certain elements including carbon, calcium and phosphorus.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe study of the human body involves anatomy and physiology. The human body can show anatomical non-pathological anomalies known as variations which need to be able to be recognised. Physiology focuses on the systems and their organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nStructure\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nSkeletal structure frames the overall shape of the body and does not alter much over a lifetime. General body shape (and female body shape) is influenced by the distribution of muscle and fat tissue and is also affected by various hormones. The average height of an adult male human (in developed countries) is about and the adult female is about . Height is largely determined by genes and diet. Body type and body composition are influenced by factors such as genetics, diet, and exercise.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe human body has several body cavities the largest of which is the abdominopelvic cavity. These cavities house the various body organs including the spinal cord which also accommodates the production and flow of cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricular system of the brain.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nMany other smaller cavities exist throughout the body called sinuses, which have varied functions. Sinuses in general usage refers to the paranasal sinuses which are involved in the condition sinusitis. The paranasal sinuses are four pairs of vital air-cavities in the cranial bones. These air-filled spaces are paired between the eyes, above the eyes, deeper behind the eyes and around the nasal cavity.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nComposition\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe average adult body contains between 5 and 5.5 litres of blood and approximately 10 litres of interstitial fluid.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe composition of the human body can be referred to in terms of its water content, elements content, tissue types or material types. The adult human body contains approximately 60% water, and so makes up a significant proportion of the body, both in terms of weight and volume. Water content can vary from a high 75% in a newborn infant to a lower 45% in an obese person. (These figures are necessarily statistical averages).\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe vast majority of cells in the human body are not human at all; rather they are of bacteria, archaea, and methanogens such as Methanobrevibacter smithii. The largest proportion of these form the gut flora. The whole population of microbiota include microorganisms of the skin and other body parts and this altogether is termed as the human microbiome.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe proportions of the elements of the body can be referred to in terms of the main elements, minor ones and trace elements. Material type may also be referred to as including water, protein, connective tissue, fats, carbohydrates and bone.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nHuman anatomy\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nHuman anatomy (gr. ἀνατομία, \\\"dissection\\\", from ἀνά, \\\"up\\\", and τέμνειν, \\\"cut\\\") is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the human body. Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy (histology) Gross anatomy (also called topographical anatomy, regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by the naked eye. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of microscopes to study minute anatomical structures, and is the field of histology which studies the organization of tissues at all levels, from cell biology (previously called cytology), to organs. Anatomy, human physiology (the study of function), and biochemistry (the study of the chemistry of living structures) are complementary basic medical sciences, that are generally taught together (or in tandem) to students studying medicine.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nIn some of its facets human anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology, through common roots in evolution; for example, much of the human body maintains the ancient segmental pattern that is present in all vertebrates with basic units being repeated, which is particularly obvious in the vertebral column and in the ribcage, and which can be traced from the somitogenesis stage in very early embryos.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nGenerally, physicians, dentists, physiotherapists, nurses, paramedics, radiographers, other health professionals, and students of certain biological sciences, learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures, and tutorials. The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience in examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope; and in addition, medical and dental students generally also learn anatomy with practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers (corpses). A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required for all medical doctors, especially surgeons, and doctors working in some diagnostic specialities, such as histopathology and radiology.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nHuman anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry are basic medical sciences, generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has recently been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nAnatomical variations\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nIn human anatomy, the term anatomical variation refers to a non-pathologic anatomic structure that is different from normal. The possible anatomic variations in each organ and its arterial and venous supply must be known by physicians, such as surgeons or radiologists, in order to identify them. Unlike congenital anomalies, anatomic variations are typically inconsequential and do not constitute a disorder. Accessory muscles are rare anatomical duplicates of muscle that can occur and only require treatment where function is impaired. The accessory soleus muscle in the ankle is one such variation and one which does not need to be rectified. Another more common variation found in around ten per cent of the population is the accessory spleen.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nHuman physiology\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nHuman physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. Physiology focuses principally at the level of organs and systems. Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology, and animal experimentation has provided much of the foundation of physiological knowledge. Anatomy and physiology are closely related fields of study: anatomy, the study of form, and physiology, the study of function, are intrinsically related and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe study of how physiology is altered in disease is pathophysiology.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nSystems\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe human body consists of many interacting systems. Each system contributes to the maintenance of homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. A system consists of two or more organs, which are functional collections of tissue. Systems do not work in isolation, and the well-being of the person depends upon the well-being of all the interacting body systems. Some combining systems are referred to by their joint names such as the nervous system and the endocrine system known together as the neuroendocrine system.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nFile:Organ Systems I.jpg\\nFile:Organ Systems II.jpg\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nHomeostasis\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe term homeostasis refers to a system that regulates its internal environment and maintains a stable, relatively constant condition; such as maintaining an equal temperature, or acid balance pH. This is required for the body to function properly. Without a relatively constant pH, temperature, blood flow, and position, survival would be impossible.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nMany interacting systems and mechanisms act to maintain the human's internal environment. The nervous system receives information from the body and transmits this to the brain via neurotransmitters. The endocrine system may release hormones to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Cell metabolism may help to maintain the blood's pH.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nSociety and culture\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nDepiction\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nAnatomy has become a key part of the visual arts. Basic concepts of how muscles and bones function and change with movement are vital in drawing, painting or animating a human figure. Many books (such as \\\"Human Anatomy for Artists: The Elements of Form\\\") have been written as guides to drawing the human body anatomically correctly. Leonardo da Vinci sought to improve his art through a better understanding of human anatomy. In the process he advanced both human anatomy and its representation in art.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nBecause the structure of living organisms is complex, anatomy is organized by levels, from the smallest components of cells to the largest organs and their relationship to others.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nAppearance\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nHistory of anatomy\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe history of anatomy has been characterized, over a long period of time, by an ongoing, developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the human body. Methods have advanced dramatically, from the simple examination by dissection of animals and cadavers (corpses), to the development and use of the microscope, to the far more technological advances of the electron microscope and other complex techniques developed since the beginning of the 20th century. During the 19th and early 20th centuries it was the most prominent biological field of scientific study.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nHistory of physiology\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe study of human physiology dates back to at least 420 B.C. and the time of Hippocrates, the father of western medicine. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece, while Claudius Galenus (c. 126–199 A.D.), known as Galen, was the first to use experiments to probe the function of the body. Galen was the founder of experimental physiology. The medical world moved on from Galenism only with the appearance of Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nFollowing from the Middle Ages, the Renaissance brought an increase of physiological research in the Western world that triggered the modern study of anatomy and physiology. Andreas Vesalius was an author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica. Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. Anatomist William Harvey described the circulatory system in the 17th century, demonstrating the fruitful combination of close observations and careful experiments to learn about the functions of the body, which was fundamental to the development of experimental physiology. Herman Boerhaave is sometimes referred to as a father of physiology due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and textbook Institutiones medicae (1708).\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nIn the 18th century, important works in this field were done by Pierre Cabanis, a French doctor and physiologist.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nIn the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular with the 1838 appearance of the Cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. It radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. Claude Bernard's (1813–1878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of milieu interieur (internal environment), which would later be taken up and championed as \\\"homeostasis\\\" by American physiologist Walter Cannon (1871–1945).\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nIn the 20th century, biologists also became interested in how organisms other than human beings function, eventually spawning the fields of comparative physiology and ecophysiology. Major figures in these fields include Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew. Most recently, evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nThe biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nIn terms of the human body, the endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals that integrate function. Homeostasis is a major aspect with regard to the interactions in the body.\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nGallery\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nHuman body external features:\",\n \"Human body\\n\\nBlack human body features-en.svg\\nHuman body features-en.svg\\nHuman Body.jpg\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nImpetigo is a contagious bacterial skin infection most common among preschool children. People who play close contact sports, such as wrestling are also susceptible, regardless of age. Antibiotic creams or pills are often used as a remedy.\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nGlobally impetigo affected about 140 million people (2% of the population) in 2010. Impetigo is not as common in adults. The name derives from the Latin impetere (\\\"assail\\\"). It is also known as school sores.[http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Impetigo_or_school_sores?OpenDocument Impetigo — school sores — Better Health Channel]\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nClassification\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nContagious impetigo\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nThis most common form of impetigo, also called nonbullous impetigo, most often begins as a red sore near the nose or mouth which soon breaks, leaking pus or fluid, and forms a honey-colored scab, followed by a red mark which heals without leaving a scar. Sores are not painful, but they may be itchy. Lymph nodes in the affected area may be swollen, but fever is rare. Touching or scratching the sores may easily spread the infection to other parts of the body.\\nUlcerations with erythema and scarring also may result from scratching or abrading of the skin.\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nBullous impetigo\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nBullous impetigo, mainly seen in children younger than 2 years, involves painless, fluid-filled blisters, mostly on the arms, legs, and trunk, surrounded by red and itchy (but not sore) skin. The blisters may be large or small. After they break, they form yellow scabs.\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nEcthyma\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nIn this form of impetigo, painful fluid- or pus-filled sores with redness of skin, usually on the arms and legs, become ulcers that penetrate deeper into the dermis. After they break open, they form hard, thick, gray-yellow scabs, which sometimes leave scars. Ecthyma may be accompanied by swollen lymph nodes in the affected area.\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nCauses\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nIt is primarily caused by Staphylococcus aureus, and sometimes by Streptococcus pyogenes.Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; & Mitchell, Richard N. (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology (8th ed.). Saunders Elsevier. pp. 843 ISBN 978-1-4160-2973-1 Both bullous and nonbullous are primarily caused by S. aureus, with Streptococcus also commonly being involved in the nonbullous form.\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nPredisposing factors\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nPredisposing factors include poor hygiene, malnutrition, and anemia. Impetigo occurs more frequently among people who live in warm climates.\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nTransmission\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nThe infection is spread by direct contact with lesions or with nasal carriers. The incubation period is 1–3 days after exposure to Streptococcus and 4–10 days for Staphylococcus. Dried streptococci in the air are not infectious to intact skin. Scratching may spread the lesions.\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nDiagnosis\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nImpetigo is usually diagnosed based on its appearance. It generally appears as honey-colored scabs formed from dried serum, and is often found on the arms, legs, or face.\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nTreatment\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nFor generations, the disease was treated with an application of the antiseptic gentian violet. Today, topical or oral antibiotics are usually prescribed. Mild cases may be treated with bactericidal ointment, such as mupirocin.\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nMore severe cases require oral antibiotics, such as dicloxacillin, flucloxacillin, or erythromycin. Alternatively, amoxicillin combined with clavulanate potassium, cephalosporins (first-generation) and many others may also be used as an antibiotic treatment. Alternatives for people who are seriously allergic to penicillin or infections with MRSA include doxycycline, clindamycin, and SMX-TMP. When streptococci alone are the cause, penicillin is the drug of choice.\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nEpidemiology\",\n \"Impetigo\\n\\nGlobally, impetigo affected about 140 million people (2% of the population) in 2010.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137091,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2321"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What famous outlaw committed the Wild West's first train robbery on July 21, 1873 in Adair, Iowa?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Jesse James"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["jesse james outlaw","jesse james","mr howard","jesse w james","jesse james northfield raid","jesse woodson james"],"string":"[\n \"jesse james outlaw\",\n \"jesse james\",\n \"mr howard\",\n \"jesse w james\",\n \"jesse james northfield raid\",\n \"jesse woodson james\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["American frontier\n\nThe American Frontier comprises the geography, history, folklore, and cultural expression of life in the forward wave of American expansion that began with English colonial settlements in the early 17th century and ended with the admission of the last mainland territories as states in 1912. \"Frontier\" refers to a contrasting region at the edge of a European-American line of settlement. American historians cover multiple frontiers but the folklore is focused primarily on the 19th century west of the Mississippi River. Enormous popular attention in the media focuses on the Western United States in the second half of the 19th century, a period sometimes called the Old West, or the Wild West, frequently exaggerating the romance and violence of the period.","American frontier\n\nAs defined by Hine and Faragher, \"frontier history tells the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the land, the development of markets, and the formation of states.\" They explain, \"It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, and the merging of peoples and cultures that gave birth and continuing life to America.\" Through treaties with foreign nations and native tribes; political compromise; military conquest; establishment of law and order; the building of farms, ranches, and towns; the marking of trails and digging of mines; and the pulling in of great migrations of foreigners, the United States expanded from coast to coast, fulfilling the dreams of Manifest Destiny. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner in his \"Frontier Thesis\" (1893) theorized that the frontier was a process that transformed Europeans into a new people, the Americans, whose values focused on equality, democracy, and optimism, as well as individualism, self-reliance, and even violence. Thus, Turner's Frontier Thesis proclaimed the westward frontier as the defining process of American history.","American frontier\n\nAs the American frontier passed into history, the myths of the West in fiction and film took firm hold in the imagination of Americans and foreigners alike. America is exceptional in choosing its iconic self-image. David Murdoch has said: \"No other nation has taken a time and place from its past and produced a construct of the imagination equal to America's creation of the West.\"","American frontier\n\nThe terms \"West\" and \"Frontier\"","American frontier\n\nThe frontier line was the outer line of European-American settlement. It moved steadily westward from the 1630s to the 1880s (with occasional movements north into Maine and Vermont, south into Florida, and east from California into Nevada). Turner favored the Census Bureau definition of the \"frontier line\" as a settlement density of two people per square mile. The \"West\" was the recently settled area near that boundary. Thus, parts of the Midwest and American South, though no longer considered \"western\", have a frontier heritage along with the modern western states. In the 21st century, however, the term \"American West\" is most often used for the area west of the Mississippi River.","American frontier\n\nColonial frontier","American frontier\n\nIn the colonial era, before 1776, the west was of high priority for settlers and politicians. The American frontier began when Jamestown, Virginia was settled by the English in 1607. In the earliest days of European settlement of the Atlantic coast, down to about 1680, the frontier was essentially any part of the interior of the continent beyond the fringe of existing settlements along the Atlantic coast. English, French, Spanish and Dutch patterns of expansion and settlement were quite different. Only a few thousand French migrated to Canada; these habitants settled in villages along the St. Lawrence river, building communities that remained stable for long stretches; they did not simply jump west the way the British did. Although French fur traders ranged widely through the Great Lakes and mid-west region they seldom settled down. French settlement was limited to a few very small villages such as Kaskaskia, Illinois as well as a larger settlement around New Orleans. Likewise, the Dutch set up fur trading posts in the Hudson River valley, followed by large grants of land to rich landowning patroons who brought in tenant farmers who created compact, permanent villages.","American frontier\n\nThey created a dense rural settlement in upstate New York, but they did not push westward.","American frontier\n\nAreas in the north that were in the frontier stage by 1700 generally had poor transportation facilities, so the opportunity for commercial agriculture was low. These areas remained primarily in subsistence agriculture, and as a result by the 1760s these societies were highly egalitarian, as explained by historian Jackson Turner Main:\nThe typical frontier society therefore was one in which class distinctions were minimized. The wealthy speculator, if one was involved, usually remained at home, so that ordinarily no one of wealth was a resident. The class of landless poor was small. The great majority were landowners, most of whom were also poor because they were starting with little property and had not yet cleared much land nor had they acquired the farm tools and animals which would one day make them prosperous. Few artisans settled on the frontier except for those who practiced a trade to supplement their primary occupation of farming. There might be a storekeeper, a minister, and perhaps a doctor; and there were a number of landless laborers. All the rest were farmers.","American frontier\n\nIn the South, frontier areas that lacked transportation, such as the Appalachian Mountain region, remained based on subsistence farming and resembled the egalitarianism of their northern counterparts, although they had a larger upper-class of slaveowners. North Carolina was representative. However frontier areas of 1700 that had good river connections were increasingly transformed into plantation agriculture. Rich men came in, bought up the good land, and worked it with slaves. The area was no longer \"frontier.\" It had a stratified society comprising a powerful upper-class white landowning gentry, a small middle-class, a fairly large group of landless or tenant white farmers, and a growing slave population at the bottom of the social pyramid. Unlike the North, where small towns and even cities were common, the South was overwhelmingly rural.","American frontier\n\nThe Near West","American frontier\n\nThe seaboard colonial settlements gave priority to land ownership for individual farmers, and as the population grew they pushed westward for fresh farm land. Unlike Britain, where a small number of landlords owned most of the good land, ownership in America was cheap, easy and widespread. Land ownership brought a degree of independence as well as a vote for local and provincial offices. The typical New England settlements were quite compact and small—under a square mile. Conflict with the Native Americans arose out of political issues, viz. who would rule. Early frontier areas east of the Appalachian Mountains included the Connecticut River valley, and northern New England (which was a move to the north, not the west).","American frontier\n\nMost of the frontiers experienced Indian wars, The \"French and Indian Wars\" were imperial wars between Britain and France (part of the worldwide Seven Years' War), with the French making up for their small colonial population base by enlisting Indian war parties as allies. The series of large wars spilling over from European wars ended in a complete victory for the British. In the war ending settlement (1763), the lands west of the Mississippi river, including New Orleans, went to Spain. East of the River the lands—and what is now Canada—went to Britain.","American frontier\n\nRegardless of wars Americans were moving across the Appalachians into western Pennsylvania, what is now West Virginia, and areas of the Ohio Country, Kentucky and Tennessee. In the southern settlements via the Cumberland Gap, their most famous leader was Daniel Boone, but to the north, closer to dense colonial populations and Europe immigrants, a certain Virginia gentleman, George Washington promoted settlements in West Virginia and Southwestern Pennsylvania to lands he'd acquired title to both as a surveyor and as someone who'd distinguished himself as an officer in Virginia's colonial militia. West of the mountain's settlements were curtailed abruptly by a decree by the British crown in 1763, which also deconflicted many of the conflicting claims made by various colonies. The Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768) was an attempt by colonials to re-open in part, trans-Appalachian settlements from the Eastern Seaboard cities.","American frontier\n\nNew Nation","American frontier\n\nThe first major movement west of the Appalachian mountains originated in Pennsylvania, Virginia and North Carolina as soon as the Revolutionary War ended in 1781. Pioneers housed themselves in a rough lean-to or at most a one-room log cabin. The main food supply at first came from hunting deer, turkeys, and other abundant game. \nClad in typical frontier garb, leather breeches, moccasins, fur cap, and hunting shirt, and girded by a belt from which hung a hunting knife and a shot pouch – all homemade – the pioneer presented a unique appearance. In a short time he opened in the woods a patch, or clearing, on which he grew corn, wheat, flax, tobacco and other products, even fruit. \nIn a few years the pioneer added hogs, sheep and cattle, and perhaps acquired a horse. Homespun clothing replaced the animal skins. The more restless pioneers grew dissatisfied with over civilized life, and uprooted themselves again to move 50 or hundred miles further west.","American frontier\n\nLand policy","American frontier\n\nThe land policy of the new nation was conservative, paying special attention to the needs of the settled East. The goals sought by both parties in the 1790–1820 era were to grow the economy; avoid draining away the skilled workers needed in the East; distribute the land wisely; sell it at prices that were reasonable to settlers yet high enough to pay off the national debt; clear legal titles; and create a diversified Western economy that would be closely interconnected with the settled areas with minimal risk of a breakaway movement. By the 1830s, however, the West was filling up with squatters who had no legal deed, although they may have paid money to previous settlers. The Jacksonian Democrats favored the squatters by promising rapid access to cheap land. By contrast, Henry Clay was alarmed at the \"lawless rabble\" heading West who were undermining the utopian concept of a law-abiding, stable middle-class republican community. Rich southerners, meanwhile, looked for opportunities to buy high-quality land to set up slave plantations.","American frontier\n\nThe Free Soil movement of the 1840s called for low-cost land for free white farmers, a position enacted into law by the new Republican Party in 1862, offering free 160 acre homesteads to all adults, male and female, black and white, native-born or immigrant.","American frontier\n\nThe Louisiana Purchase","American frontier\n\nAfter winning the Revolutionary War (1783), American settlers in large numbers poured into the west. In 1788, American pioneers to the Northwest Territory established Marietta, Ohio as the first permanent American settlement in the Northwest Territory.","American frontier\n\nIn 1775, Daniel Boone blazed a trail for the Transylvania Company from Virginia through the Cumberland Gap into central Kentucky. It was later lengthened to reach the Falls of the Ohio at Louisville. The Wilderness Road was steep and rough, and it could only be traversed on foot or horseback, but it was the best route for thousands of settlers moving into Kentucky. In some areas they had to face Indian attacks. In 1784 alone, Indians killed over 100 travelers on the Wilderness Road. No Indians lived permanently in Kentucky but they sent raiding parties to stop the newcomers. One of those intercepted was Abraham Lincoln's grandfather, who was scalped in 1784 near Louisville.","American frontier\n\nAcquisition of Indian lands","American frontier\n\nThe War of 1812 marked the final confrontation between major Indian forces trying to stop the advance, with British aid. The British war goal included the creation of an independent Indian state (under British auspices) in the Midwest. American frontier militiamen under General Andrew Jackson defeated the Creeks and opened the Southwest, while militia under Governor William Henry Harrison defeated the Indian-British alliance at the Battle of the Thames in Canada in 1813. The death in battle of the Indian leader Tecumseh dissolved the coalition of hostile Indian tribes. Meanwhile, General Andrew Jackson ended the Indian military threat in the Southeast at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814 in Alabama. In general the frontiersmen battled the Indians with little help from the U.S. Army or the federal government.","American frontier\n\nTo end the War of 1812 John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and Albert Gallatin (a leading anthropologist) and the other American diplomats negotiated the Treaty of Ghent in 1814 with Britain. They rejected the British plan to set up an Indian state in U.S. territory south of the Great Lakes. They explained the American policy toward acquisition of Indian lands:\nThe United States, while intending never to acquire lands from the Indians otherwise than peaceably, and with their free consent, are fully determined, in that manner, progressively, and in proportion as their growing population may require, to reclaim from the state of nature, and to bring into cultivation every portion of the territory contained within their acknowledged boundaries. In thus providing for the support of millions of civilized beings, they will not violate any dictate of justice or of humanity; for they will not only give to the few thousand savages scattered over that territory an ample equivalent for any right they may surrender, but will always leave them the possession of lands more than they can cultivate, and more than adequate to their subsistence, comfort, and enjoyment, by cultivation.","American frontier\n\nIf this be a spirit of aggrandizement, the undersigned are prepared to admit, in that sense, its existence; but they must deny that it affords the slightest proof of an intention not to respect the boundaries between them and European nations, or of a desire to encroach upon the territories of Great Britain. [...] They will not suppose that that Government will avow, as the basis of their policy towards the United States a system of arresting their natural growth within their own territories, for the sake of preserving a perpetual desert for savages.","American frontier\n\nNew territories and states","American frontier\n\nAs settlers poured in, the frontier districts first became territories, with an elected legislature and a governor appointed by the president. Then when population reached 100,000 the territory applied for statehood. Frontiersmen typically dropped the legalistic formalities and restrictive franchise favored by eastern upper classes, and adopting more democracy and more egalitarianism.","American frontier\n\nIn 1800 the western frontier had reached the Mississippi River. St. Louis, Missouri was the largest town on the frontier, the gateway for travel westward, and a principal trading center for Mississippi River traffic and inland commerce.","American frontier\n\nThomas Jefferson thought of himself as a man of the frontier and was keenly interested in expanding and exploring the West. Jefferson's Louisiana Purchase of 1803 doubled the size of the nation at the cost of $15 million, or about $0.04 per acre ($ million in dollars, less than 42 cents per acre). Federalists opposed the expansion, but Jeffersonians hailed the opportunity to create millions of new farms to expand the domain of land-owning yeomen; the ownership would strengthen the ideal republican society, based on agriculture (not commerce), governed lightly, and promoting self-reliance and virtue, as well as form the political base for Jeffersonian Democracy.","American frontier\n\nEven before the purchase Jefferson was planning expeditions to explore and map the lands. He charged Lewis and Clark to \"explore the Missouri River, and such principal stream of it, as, by its course and communication with the waters of the Pacific Ocean; whether the Columbia, Oregon, Colorado or any other river may offer the most direct and practicable communication across the continent for the purposes of commerce\". Jefferson also instructed the expedition to study the region's native tribes (including their morals, language, and culture), weather, soil, rivers, commercial trading, animal and plant life.","American frontier\n\nEntrepreneurs, most notably John Jacob Astor quickly seized the opportunity and expanded fur trading operations into the Pacific Northwest. Astor's \"Fort Astoria\" (later Fort George), at the mouth of the Columbia River, became the first permanent white settlement in that area, although it was not profitable for Astor. He set up the American Fur Company in an attempt to break the hold that the Hudson's Bay Company monopoly had over the region. By 1820, Astor had taken over independent traders to create a profitable monopoly; he left the business as a multi-millionaire in 1834.","American frontier\n\nThe fur trade","American frontier\n\nAs the frontier moved westward, trappers and hunters moved ahead of settlers, searching out new supplies of beaver and other skins for shipment to Europe. The hunters were the first Europeans in much of the Old West and they formed the first working relationships with the Native Americans in the West. They added extensive knowledge of the Northwest terrain, including the important South Pass through the central Rocky Mountains. Discovered about 1812, it later became a major route for settlers to Oregon and Washington. By 1820, however, a new \"brigade-rendezvous\" system sent company men in \"brigades\" cross-country on long expeditions, bypassing many tribes. It also encouraged \"free trappers\" to explore new regions on their own. At the end of the gathering season, the trappers would \"rendezvous\" and turn in their goods for pay at river ports along the Green River, the Upper Missouri, and the Upper Mississippi. St. Louis was the largest of the rendezvous towns. By 1830, however, fashions changed and beaver hats were replaced by silk hats, ending the demand for expensive American furs. Thus ended the era of the mountain men, trappers and scouts such as Jedediah Smith, Hugh Glass, Davy Crockett, Jack Omohundro and others.","American frontier\n\nThe trade in beaver fur virtually ceased by 1845.","American frontier\n\nThe federal government and the West","American frontier\n\nThere was wide agreement on the need to settle the new territories quickly, but the debate polarized over the price the government should charge. The conservatives and Whigs, typified by president John Quincy Adams, wanted a moderated pace that charged the newcomers enough to pay the costs of the federal government. The Democrats, however, tolerated a wild scramble for land at very low prices. The final resolution came in the Homestead Law of 1862, with a moderated pace that gave settlers 160 acres free after they worked on it for five years.","American frontier\n\nThe private profit motive dominated the movement westward, but the Federal Government played a supporting role in securing land through treaties and setting up territorial governments, with governors appointed by the President. The federal government first acquired western territory through treaties with other nations or native tribes. Then it sent surveyors to map and document the land. By the 20th century Washington bureaucracies managed the federal lands such as the General Land Office in the Interior department, and after 1891 the Forest Service in the Department of Agriculture. After 1900 dam building and flood control became major concerns.","American frontier\n\nTransportation was a key issue and the Army (especially the Army Corps of Engineers) was given full responsibility for facilitating navigation on the rivers. The steamboat, first used on the Ohio River in 1811, made possible inexpensive travel using the river systems, especially the Mississippi and Missouri rivers and their tributaries. Army expeditions up the Missouri River in 1818–25 allowed engineers to improve the technology. For example, the Army's steamboat \"Western Engineer\" of 1819 combined a very shallow draft with one of the earliest stern wheels. In 1819–25, Colonel Henry Atkinson developed keelboats with hand-powered paddle wheels.","American frontier\n\nThe federal postal system played a crucial role in national expansion. It facilitated expansion into the West by creating an inexpensive, fast, convenient communication system. Letters from early settlers provided information and boosterism to encourage increased migration to the West, helped scattered families stay in touch and provide neutral help, assisted entrepreneurs to find business opportunities, and made possible regular commercial relationships between merchants and the West and wholesalers and factories back east. The postal service likewise assisted the Army in expanding control over the vast western territories. The widespread circulation of important newspapers by mail, such as the New York Weekly Tribune, facilitated coordination among politicians in different states. The postal service helped integrated established areas with the frontier, creating a spirit of nationalism and providing a necessary infrastructure.","American frontier\n\nScientists, artists and explorers","American frontier\n\nGovernment and private enterprise sent many explorers to the West. In 1805–6, Army lieutenant Zebulon Pike (1779–1813) led a party of 20 soldiers to find the head waters of the Mississippi. He later explored the Red and Arkansas Rivers in Spanish territory, eventually reaching the Rio Grande. On his return, Pike sighted the peak in Colorado named after him. Major Stephen Harriman Long (1784–1864) led the Yellowstone and Missouri expeditions of 1819–1820, but his categorizing in 1823 of the Great Plains as arid and useless led to the region getting a bad reputation as the \"Great American Desert\", which discouraged settlement in that area for several decades.","American frontier\n\nIn 1811, naturalists Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859) and John Bradbury (1768–1823) traveled up the Missouri River with the Astoria expedition, documenting and drawing plant and animal life. Later, Nuthall explored the Indian Territory (Oklahoma), the Oregon Trail, and even Hawaii. His book A Journal of Travels into the Arkansas Territory was an important account of frontier life. Although Nuthall was the most traveled Western naturalist before 1840, unfortunately most of his documentation and specimens were lost. Artist George Catlin (1796–1872) traveled up the Missouri as far as North Dakota, producing accurate paintings of Native American culture. A Swiss visitor Karl Bodmer (1809–93), was in the U.S. in 1832–34 with the Prince Maximilian expedition; he made compelling landscapes and portraits. In 1803, John James Audubon (1785–1851) immigrated from Haiti and established a reputation as a leading explorer, woodsman, painter, and naturalist. His greatest achievement involved classifying and painting in minute details 500 species of birds, called Birds of America.","American frontier\n\nThe most famous of the explorers was John Charles Frémont (1813–1890), a commissioned officer in the Army's Corps of Topographical Engineers. He displayed a talent for exploration and a genius at self-promotion that gave him the sobriquet of \"Pathmarker of the West\" and led him to the presidential nomination of the new Republican Party in 1856. He led a series of expeditions in the 1840s which answered many of the outstanding geographic questions about the little-known region. He crossed through the Rocky Mountains by five different routes, and mapped parts of Oregon and California. In 1846–7, he played a role in conquering California. In 1848–49, Frémont was assigned to locate a central route through the mountains for the proposed transcontinental railroad, but his expedition ended in near-disaster when it became lost and was trapped by heavy snow. His reports mixed narrative of exciting adventure with scientific data, and detailed practical information for travelers. It caught the public imagination and inspired many to head west. Goetzman says it was \"monumental in its breadth—a classic of exploring literature.\"","American frontier\n\nWhile colleges were springing up across the Northeast, there was little competition on the western frontier for Transylvania University, founded in Lexington, Kentucky, in 1780. It boasted of a law school in addition to its undergraduate and a medical programs. Transylvania attracted politically ambitious young men from across the Southwest, including 50 who became United States senators, 101 Congressman, 36 governors and 34 ambassadors, as well as Jefferson Davis, the president of the Confederacy.","American frontier\n\nThe Antebellum West","American frontier\n\nReligion","American frontier\n\nThe established Eastern churches were slow to meet the needs of the frontier. The Presbyterians and Congregationalists, since they depended on well-educated ministers, were shorthanded in evangelizing the frontier. They set up a Plan of Union of 1801 to combine resources on the frontier. Most frontiersmen showed little commitment to religion until traveling evangelists began to appear and to produce \"revivals\". The local pioneers responded enthusiastically to these events and, in effect, evolved their own populist religions, especially during the Second Great Awakening (1790–1840), which featured outdoor camp meetings lasting a week or more and which introduced many people to organized religion for the first time. One of the largest and most famous camp meetings took place at Cane Ridge, Kentucky in 1801.","American frontier\n\nThe localistic Baptists set up small independent churches—Baptists abjured centralized authority; each local church was founded on the principle of independence of the local congregation. On the other hand, bishops of the well-organized, centralized Methodists assigned circuit riders to specific areas for several years at a time, then moved them to fresh territory. Several new denominations were formed, of which the largest was the Disciples of Christ.","American frontier\n\nDemocracy in the Midwest","American frontier\n\nHistorian Mark Wyman calls Wisconsin a \"palimpsest\" of layer upon layer of peoples and forces, each imprinting permanent influences. He identified these layers as multiple \"frontiers\" over three centuries: Native American frontier, French frontier, English frontier, fur-trade frontier, mining frontier, and the logging frontier. Finally the coming of the railroad brought the end of the frontier.","American frontier\n\nFrederick Jackson Turner grew up in Wisconsin during its last frontier stage, and in his travels around the state he could see the layers of social and political development. One of Turner's last students, Merle Curti used in-depth analysis of local Wisconsin history to test Turner's thesis about democracy. Turner's view was that American democracy, \"involved widespread participation in the making of decisions affecting the common life, the development of initiative and self-reliance, and equality of economic and cultural opportunity. It thus also involved Americanization of immigrant.\" Curti found that from 1840 to 1860 in Wisconsin the poorest groups gained rapidly in land ownership, and often rose to political leadership at the local level. He found that even landless young farmworkers were soon able to obtain their own farms. Free land on the frontier therefore created opportunity and democracy, for both European immigrants as well as old stock Yankees.","American frontier\n\nSouthwest","American frontier\n\nFrom the 1770s to the 1830s, pioneers moved into the new lands that stretched from Kentucky to Alabama to Texas. Most were farmers who moved in family groups.","American frontier\n\nHistorian Louis Hacker shows how wasteful was the first generation of pioneers; they were too ignorant to cultivate the land properly and when the natural fertility of virgin land was used up, they sold out and moved west to try again. Hacker says that in Kentucky about 1812:\n\"Farms were for sale with from ten to fifty acres cleared, possessing log houses, peach and sometimes apple orchards, inclosed in fences, and having plenty of standing timber for fuel. The land was sown in wheat and corn, which were the staples, while hemp [for making rope] was being cultivated in increasing quantities in the fertile river bottoms....\"","American frontier\n\n\"Yet, on the whole, it was an agricultural society without skill or resources. It committed all those sins which characterize a wasteful and ignorant husbandry. Grass seed was not sown for hay and as a result the farm animals had to forage for themselves in the forests; the fields were not permitted to lie in pasturage; a single crop was planted in the soil until the land was exhausted; the manure was not returned to the fields; only a small part of the farm was brought under cultivation, the rest being permitted to stand in timber. Instruments of cultivation were rude and clumsy and only too few, many of them being made on the farm. It is plain why the American frontier settler was on the move continually. It was, not his fear of a too close contact with the comforts and restraints of a civilized society that stirred him into a ceaseless activity, nor merely the chance of selling out at a profit to the coming wave of settlers; it was his wasting land that drove him on. Hunger was the goad.","American frontier\n\nThe pioneer farmer's ignorance, his inadequate facilities for cultivation, his limited means, of transport necessitated his frequent changes of scene. He could succeed only with virgin soil.\"","American frontier\n\nHacker adds that the second wave of settlers reclaimed the land, repaired the damage, and practiced superior and more profitable husbandry. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner explored the individualistic world view and values of the first generation:\n\"What they objected to was arbitrary obstacles, artificial limitations upon the freedom of each member of this frontier folk to work out his own career without fear or favor. What they instinctively opposed was the crystallization of differences, the monopolization of opportunity and the fixing of that monopoly by government or by social customs. The road must be open. The game must be played according to the rules. There must be no artificial stifling of equality of opportunity, no closed doors to the able, no stopping the free game before it was played to the end. More than that, there was an unformulated, perhaps, but very real feeling, that mere success in the game, by which the abler men were able to achieve preëminence gave to the successful ones no right to look down upon their neighbors, no vested title to assert superiority as a matter of pride and to the diminution of the equal right and dignity of the less successful.\"","American frontier\n\nManifest Destiny","American frontier\n\nManifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was pre-ordained to expand from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific coast. The concept was expressed during Colonial times, but the term was coined in the 1840s by a popular magazine which editorialized, \"the fulfillment of our manifest destiny...to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.\" As the nation grew, it said \"by the right of our manifest destiny.\" \"Manifest destiny\" became a rallying cry for expansionists in the Democratic Party in the 1840s as the Tyler and Polk administrations (1841–48) successfully promoted this nationalistic doctrine. However the Whig Party, which represented business and financial interests, stood opposed to Manifest Destiny. Whig leaders such as Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln called for deepening the society through modernization and urbanization instead of simple horizontal expansion. Starting with the annexation of Texas, the expansionists got the upper hand. John Quincy Adams, an anti-slavery Whig, felt the Texas annexation in 1845 to be \"the heaviest calamity that ever befell myself and my country\".","American frontier\n\nHelping settlers move westward were the emigrant \"guide books\" of the 1840s featuring route information supplied by the fur traders and the Frémont expeditions, and promising fertile farm land beyond the Rockies.","American frontier\n\nMexico and Texas","American frontier\n\nMexico became independent of Spain in 1821, and took over Spain's northern possessions stretching from Texas to California. Caravans began delivering goods to Mexico's Santa Fe along the Santa Fe Trail, over the 870 mi journey which took 48 days from Kansas City, Missouri (then known as Westport). Santa Fe was also the trailhead for the \"El Camino Real\" (the King's Highway), a trade route which carried American manufactured goods southward deep into Mexico and returned silver, furs, and mules northward (not to be confused with another \"Camino Real\" which connected the missions in California). A branch also ran eastward near the Gulf (also called the Old San Antonio Road). Santa Fe connected to California via the Old Spanish Trail.","American frontier\n\nThe Spanish and Mexican governments attracted American settlers to Texas with generous terms. Stephen F. Austin became an \"empresario,\" receiving contracts from the Mexican officials to bring in immigrants. In doing so, he also became the de facto political and military commander of the area. Tensions rose, however, after an abortive attempt to establish the independent nation of Fredonia in 1826. William Travis, leading the \"war party,\" advocated for independence from Mexico, while the \"peace party\" led by Austin attempted to get more autonomy within the current relationship. When Mexican president Santa Anna shifted alliances and joined the conservative Centralist party, he declared himself dictator and ordered soldiers into Texas to curtail new immigration and unrest. However, immigration continued and 30,000 Anglos with 3,000 slaves were settled in Texas by 1835. In 1836, the Texas Revolution erupted. Following losses at the Alamo and Goliad, the Texians won the decisive Battle of San Jacinto to secure independence. At San Jacinto, Sam Houston, commander-in-chief of the Texian Army and future President of the Republic of Texas famously shouted \"Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad\". The U.S. Congress declined to annex Texas, stalemated by contentious arguments over slavery and regional power.","American frontier\n\nThus, the Republic of Texas remained an independent power for nearly a decade before it was annexed as the 28th state in 1845. The government of Mexico, however, viewed Texas as a runaway province and asserted its ownership.","American frontier\n\nThe Mexican–American War","American frontier\n\nMexico refused to recognize the independence of Texas in 1836, but the U.S. and European powers did so. Mexico threatened war if Texas joined the U.S., which it did in 1845. American negotiators were turned away by a Mexicao government in turmoil. When the Mexican army killed 16 American soldiers in disputed territory war was at hand. Whigs, such as Congressman Abraham Lincoln denounced the war, but it was quite popular outside New England.","American frontier\n\nThe Mexican strategy was defensive; the American strategy was a three pronged offensive, using large numbers of volunteer soldiers. Overland forces seized New Mexico with little resistance and headed to California, which quickly fell to the American land and naval forces. From the main American base at New Orleans, General Zachary Taylor led forces into northern Mexico, winning a series of battles that ensued. The U.S. Navy transported General Winfield Scott to Veracruz. He then marched his 12,000 man force west to Mexico City, winning the final battle at Chapultepec. Talk of acquiring all of Mexico fell away when the army discovered the Mexican political and cultural values were so alien to America's. As the Cincinnati Herald asked, what would the U.S. do with eight million Mexicans \"with their idol worship, heathen superstition, and degraded mongrel races?\"","American frontier\n\nThe Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848 ceded the territories of California and New Mexico to the United States for $18.5 million (which included the assumption of claims against Mexico by settlers). The Gadsden Purchase in 1853 added southern Arizona, which was needed for a railroad route to California. In all Mexico ceded half a million square miles and included the states-to-be of California, Utah, Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming, in addition to Texas. Managing the new territories and dealing with the slavery issue caused intense controversy, particularly over the Wilmot Proviso, which would have outlawed slavery in the new territories. Congress never passed it, but rather temporarily resolved the issue of slavery in the West with the Compromise of 1850. California entered the Union in 1850 as a free state; the other areas remained territories for many years.","American frontier\n\nGrowth of Texas","American frontier\n\nThe new state grew rapidly as migrants poured into the fertile cotton lands of east Texas. German immigrants started to arrive in the early 1840s because of negative economic, social and political pressures in Germany. With their investments in cotton lands and slaves, planters established cotton plantations in the eastern districts. The central area of the state was developed more by subsistence farmers who seldom owned slaves.","American frontier\n\nTexas in its Wild West days attracted men who could shoot straight and possessed the zest for adventure, \"for masculine renown, patriotic service, martial glory and meaningful deaths.\"","American frontier\n\nThe California Gold Rush","American frontier\n\nIn 1846 about 10,000 Californios (Hispanics) lived in California, primarily on cattle ranches in what is now the Los Angeles area. A few hundred foreigners were scattered in the northern districts, including some Americans. With the outbreak of war with Mexico in 1846 the U.S. sent in Frémont and a U.S. Army unit, as well as naval forces, and quickly took control. As the war was ending gold was discovered in the north, and the word soon spread worldwide.","American frontier\n\nThousands of \"Forty-Niners\" reached California, by sailing around South America (or taking a short-cut through disease-ridden Panama), or walked the California trail. The population soared to over 200,000 in 1852, mostly in the gold districts that stretched into the mountains east of San Francisco.","American frontier\n\nHousing in San Francisco was at a premium, and abandoned ships whose crews had headed for the mines were often converted to temporary lodging. In the gold fields themselves living conditions were primitive, though the mild climate proved attractive. Supplies were expensive and food poor, typical diets consisting mostly of pork, beans, and whiskey. These highly male, transient communities with no established institutions were prone to high levels of violence, drunkenness, profanity, and greed-driven behavior. Without courts or law officers in the mining communities to enforce claims and justice, miners developed their own ad hoc legal system, based on the \"mining codes\" used in other mining communities abroad. Each camp had its own rules and often handed out justice by popular vote, sometimes acting fairly and at times exercising vigilantism—with Indians, Mexicans, and Chinese generally receiving the harshest sentences.","American frontier\n\nThe gold rush radically changed the California economy and brought in an array of professionals, including precious metal specialists, merchants, doctors, and attorneys, who added to the population of miners, saloon keepers, gamblers, and prostitutes. A San Francisco newspaper stated, \"The whole country... resounds to the sordid cry of gold! Gold! Gold! while the field is left half planted, the house half built, and everything neglected but the manufacture of shovels and pick axes.\" Over 250,000 miners found a total of more than $200 million in gold in the five years of the California Gold Rush. As thousands arrived, however, fewer and fewer miners struck their fortune, and most ended exhausted and broke.","American frontier\n\nViolent bandits often preyed upon the miners, such as the case of Jonathan R. Davis' killing of eleven bandits single-handedly. Camps spread out north and south of the American River and eastward into the Sierras. In a few years, nearly all of the independent miners were displaced as mines were purchased and run by mining companies, who then hired low-paid salaried miners. As gold became harder to find and more difficult to extract, individual prospectors gave way to paid work gangs, specialized skills, and mining machinery. Bigger mines, however, caused greater environmental damage. In the mountains, shaft mining predominated, producing large amounts of waste. Beginning in 1852, at the end of the '49 gold rush, through 1883, hydraulic mining was used. Despite huge profits being made, it fell into the hands of a few capitalists, displaced numerous miners, vast amounts of waste entered river systems, and did heavy ecological damage to the environment. Hydraulic mining ended when public outcry over the destruction of farmlands led to the outlawing of this practice.","American frontier\n\nThe mountainous areas of the triangle from New Mexico to California to South Dakota contained hundreds of hard rock mining sites, where prospectors discovered gold, silver, copper and other minerals (as well as some soft-rock coal). Temporary mining camps sprang up overnight; most became ghost towns when the ores were depleted.","American frontier\n\nThe discovery of the Comstock Lode, containing vast amounts of silver, resulted in the Nevada boomtowns of Virginia City, Carson City, and Silver City. The wealth from silver, more than from gold, fueled the maturation of San Francisco in the 1860s and helped the rise of some of its wealthiest families, such as that of George Hearst.","American frontier\n\nProspectors spread out and hunted for gold and silver along the Rockies and in the southwest. Soon gold was discovered in Colorado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Idaho, Montana, and South Dakota (by 1864).","American frontier\n\nThe Oregon Trail","American frontier\n\nTo get to the rich new lands of the West Coast, there were two options: some sailed around the southern tip of South America during a six-month voyage, but 400,000 others walked there on an overland route of more than 2,000 miles; their wagon trains usually left from Missouri. They moved in large groups under an experienced wagonmaster, bringing their clothing, farm supplies, weapons, and animals. These wagon trains followed major rivers, crossed prairies and mountains, and typically ended in Oregon and California. Pioneers generally attempted to complete the journey during a single warm season, usually over the course of six months. By 1836, when the first migrant wagon train was organized in Independence, Missouri, a wagon trail had been cleared to Fort Hall, Idaho. Trails were cleared further and further west, eventually reaching all the way to the Willamette Valley in Oregon. This network of wagon trails leading to the Pacific Northwest was later called the Oregon Trail. The eastern half of the route was also used by travelers on the California Trail (from 1843), Mormon Trail (from 1847), and Bozeman Trail (from 1863) before they turned off to their separate destinations.","American frontier\n\nIn the \"Wagon Train of 1843\", some 700 to 1,000 emigrants headed for Oregon; missionary Marcus Whitman led the wagons on the last leg. In 1846, the Barlow Road was completed around Mount Hood, providing a rough but passable wagon trail from the Missouri River to the Willamette Valley: about 2,000 miles. Though the main direction of travel on the early wagon trails was westward, people also used the Oregon Trail to travel eastward. Some did so because they were discouraged and defeated. Some returned with bags of gold and silver. Most were returning to pick up their families and move them all back west. These \"gobacks\" were a major source of information and excitement about the wonders and promises—and dangers and disappointments—of the far West.","American frontier\n\nNot all emigrants made it to their destination. The dangers of the overland route were numerous: snakebites, wagon accidents, violence from other travelers, suicide, malnutrition, stampedes, Indian attacks, a variety of diseases (dysentery, typhoid, and cholera were among the most common), exposure, avalanches, etc. One particularly well-known example of the treacherous nature of the journey is the story of the ill-fated Donner Party, which became trapped in the Sierra Nevada mountains during the winter of 1846–1847 in which nearly half of the 90 people traveling with the group died from starvation and exposure, and some resorted to cannibalism to survive, as well as the story of infamous cannibal Alfred Packer and his trek to Colorado in 1874. There were also frequent attacks from bandits and highwaymen, such as the infamous Harpe brothers who patrolled the frontier routes and targeted migrant groups.","American frontier\n\nMormons and Utah","American frontier\n\nIn Missouri and Illinois, animosity between the Mormon settlers and locals grew, which would mirror those in other states such as Utah years later. Violence finally erupted on October 24, 1838 when militias from both sides clashed and a mass killing of Mormons in Livingston County occurred 6 days later. An executive order was filed during these conflicts, and the Mormons were forced to scatter. Brigham Young, seeking to leave American jurisdiction to escape religious persecution in Illinois and Missouri, led the Mormons to the valley of the Great Salt Lake, owned at the time by Mexico but not controlled by them. A hundred rural Mormon settlements sprang up in what Young called \"Deseret\", which he ruled as a theocracy. It later became Utah Territory. Young's Salt Lake City settlement served as the hub of their network, which reached into neighboring territories as well. The communalism and advanced farming practices of the Mormons enabled them to succeed. They sold goods to wagon trains passing through and came to terms with local Indian tribes because Young decided it was cheaper to feed the Indians than fight them.","American frontier\n\nEducation became a high priority to protect the beleaguered group, reduce heresy and maintain group solidarity.","American frontier\n\nThe great threat to the Mormon kingdom in Utah was the U.S. government, which took ownership of Utah in 1848 and, pushed by the Protestant churches, rejected theocracy and polygamy. The Republican Party swore to destroy polygamy, which it saw as an affront to religious, cultural and moral values of a modern civilization. Confrontations verged on open warfare in the late 1850s as President Buchanan sent in troops. Although there were no military battles fought, and negotiations led to a stand down, violence still escalated and there were a number of casualties. Savagery escalated further on September 11, 1857 when a Mormon militia killed civilians headed for California. After the Civil War the federal government systematically took control of Utah away from the Mormons, and drove the church's leadership underground. Meanwhile, aggressive missionary work in the U.S. and Europe brought a flood of Mormon converts to Utah. Finally in 1890 the Church leadership announced polygamy was no longer a central tenet, and a compromise was reached, with Utah becoming a state and the Mormons dividing into Republicans and Democrats.","American frontier\n\nThe Pony Express and the telegraph","American frontier\n\nThe federal government provided subsidies for the development of mail and freight delivery, and by 1856, Congress authorized road improvements and an overland mail service to California. The new commercial wagon trains service primarily hauled freight. In 1858 John Butterfield (1801–69) established a stage service that went from Saint Louis to San Francisco in 24 days along a southern route. This route was abandoned in 1861 after Texas joined the Confederacy, in favor of stagecoach services established via Fort Laramie and Salt Lake City, a 24-day journey, with Wells Fargo & Co. as the foremost provider (initially using the old \"Butterfield\" name).","American frontier\n\nWilliam Russell, hoping to get a government contract for more rapid mail delivery service, started the Pony Express in 1860, cutting delivery time to ten days. He set up over 150 stations about 15 mi apart.","American frontier\n\nIn 1861 Congress passed the Land-Grant Telegraph Act which financed the construction of Western Union's transcontinental telegraph lines. Hiram Sibley, Western Union's head, negotiated exclusive agreements with railroads to run telegraph lines along their right-of-way. Eight years before the transcontinental railroad opened, the First Transcontinental Telegraph linked Omaha, Nebraska and San Francisco (and points in-between) on October 24, 1861. The Pony Express ended in just 18 months because it could not compete with the telegraph.","American frontier\n\nBleeding Kansas","American frontier\n\nConstitutionally, Congress could not deal with slavery in the states but it did have jurisdiction in the western territories. California unanimously rejected slavery in 1850 and became a free state. New Mexico allowed slavery, but it was rarely seen there. Kansas was off limits to slavery by the Compromise of 1820. Free Soil elements feared that if slavery were allowed rich planters would buy up the best lands and work them with gangs of slaves, leaving little opportunity for free white men to own farms. Few Southern planters were actually interested in Kansas, but the idea that slavery was illegal there implied they had a second-class status that was intolerable to their sense of honor, and seemed to violate the principle of state's rights. With the passage of the extremely controversial Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854, Congress left the decision up to the voters on the ground in Kansas. Across the North a new major party was formed to fight slavery: the Republican Party, with numerous westerners in leadership positions, most notably Abraham Lincoln of Illinois. To influence the territorial decision, anti-slavery elements (also called \"Jayhawkers\" or \"Free-soilers\") financed the migration of politically determined settlers.","American frontier\n\nBut pro-slavery advocates fought back with pro-slavery settlers from Missouri. Violence on both sides was the result; in all 56 men were killed by the time the violence abated in 1859. By 1860 the pro-slavery forces were in control—but Kansas had only two slaves. The antislavery forces took over by 1861, as Kansas became a free state. The episode demonstrated that a democratic compromise between North and South over slavery was impossible and served to hasten the Civil War.","American frontier\n\nCivil War in the West","American frontier\n\nThe Trans-Mississippi theater","American frontier\n\nThe Confederacy engaged in several important campaigns in the West. However, Kansas, a major area of conflict building up to the war, was the scene of only one battle, at Mine Creek. But its proximity to Confederate lines enabled pro-Confederate guerrillas, such as Quantrill's Raiders, to attack Union strongholds and massacre the residents.","American frontier\n\nIn Texas, citizens voted to join the Confederacy; anti-war Germans were hanged. Local troops took over the federal arsenal in San Antonio, with plans to grab the territories of northern New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado, and possibly California. Confederate Arizona was created by Arizona citizens who wanted protection against Apache raids after the United States Army units were moved out. The Confederacy then sets its sight to gain control of the New Mexico Territory. General Henry Hopkins Sibley was tasked for the campaign, and together with his New Mexico Army, marched right up the Rio Grande in an attempt to take the mineral wealth of Colorado as well as California. The First Regiment of Volunteers discovered the rebels, and they immediately warned and joined the Yankees at Fort Union. The Battle of Glorieta Pass soon erupted, and the Union ended the Confederate campaign and the area west of Texas remained in Union hands.","American frontier\n\nMissouri, a Union state where slavery was legal, became a battleground when the pro-secession governor, against the vote of the legislature, led troops to the federal arsenal at St. Louis; he was aided by Confederate forces from Arkansas and Louisiana. However Union General Samuel Curtis regained St. Louis and all of Missouri for the Union. The state was the scene of numerous raids and guerrilla warfare in the west.","American frontier\n\nPeacekeeping","American frontier\n\nThe U.S. Army after 1850 established a series of military posts across the frontier, designed to stop warfare among Indian tribes or between Indians and settlers. Throughout the 19th century, Army officers typically served built their careers in peacekeeper roles moving from fort to fort until retirement. Actual combat experience was uncommon for any one soldier.","American frontier\n\nThe most dramatic conflict was the Sioux war in Minnesota in 1862, when Dakota tribes systematically attacked German farms in an effort to drive out the settlers. Over a period of several days, Dakota attacks at the Lower Sioux Agency, New Ulm and Hutchinson, slaughtered 300 to 400 white settlers. The state militia fought back and Lincoln sent in federal troops. The ensuing battles at Fort Ridgely, Birch Coulee, Fort Abercrombie, and Wood Lake punctuated a six-week war, which ended in American victory. The federal government tried 425 Indians for murder, and 303 were convicted and sentenced to death. Lincoln pardoned the majority, but 38 leaders were hanged .","American frontier\n\nThe decreased presence of Union troops in the West left behind untrained militias; hostile tribes used the opportunity to attack settlers. The militia struck back hard, most notably by attacking the winter quarters of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians, filled with women and children, at the Sand Creek massacre in eastern Colorado in late 1864.","American frontier\n\nKit Carson and the U.S. Army in 1864 trapped the entire Navajo tribe in New Mexico, where they had been raiding settlers, and put them on a reservation. Within the Indian Territory, now Oklahoma, conflicts arose among the Five Civilized Tribes, most of which sided with the South being slaveholders themselves.","American frontier\n\nIn 1862, Congress enacted two major laws to facilitate settlement of the West: the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railroad Act. The result by 1890 was millions of new farms in the Plains states, many operated by new immigrants from Germany and Scandinavia.","American frontier\n\nThe Postbellum West","American frontier\n\nTerritorial governance after the Civil War","American frontier\n\nWith the war over and slavery abolished, the federal government focused on improving the governance of the territories. It subdivided several territories, preparing them for statehood, following the precedents set by the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. It standardized procedures and the supervision of territorial governments, taking away some local powers, and imposing much \"red tape\", growing the federal bureaucracy significantly.","American frontier\n\nFederal involvement in the territories was considerable. In addition to direct subsidies, the federal government maintained military posts, provided safety from Indian attacks, bankrolled treaty obligations, conducted surveys and land sales, built roads, staffed land offices, made harbour improvements, and subsidized overland mail delivery. Territorial citizens came to both decry federal power and local corruption, and at the same time, lament that more federal dollars were not sent their way.","American frontier\n\nTerritorial governors were political appointees and beholden to Washington so they usually governed with a light hand, allowing the legislatures to deal with the local issues. In addition to his role as civil governor, a territorial governor was also a militia commander, a local superintendent of Indian affairs, and the state liaison with federal agencies. The legislatures, on the other hand, spoke for the local citizens and they were given considerable leeway by the federal government to make local law.","American frontier\n\nThese improvements to governance still left plenty of room for profiteering. As Mark Twain wrote while working for his brother, the secretary of Nevada, \"The government of my country snubs honest simplicity, but fondles artistic villainy, and I think I might have developed into a very capable pickpocket if I had remained in the public service a year or two.\" \"Territorial rings\", corrupt associations of local politicians and business owners buttressed with federal patronage, embezzled from Indian tribes and local citizens, especially in the Dakota and New Mexico territories.","American frontier\n\nFederal land system","American frontier\n\nIn acquiring, preparing, and distributing public land to private ownership, the federal government generally followed the system set forth by the Land Ordinance of 1785. Federal exploration and scientific teams would undertake reconnaissance of the land and determine Native American habitation. Through treaty, land title would be ceded by the resident tribes. Then surveyors would create detailed maps marking the land into squares of six miles (10 km) on each side, subdivided first into one square mile blocks, then into 160 acre lots. Townships would be formed from the lots and sold at public auction. Unsold land could be purchased from the land office at a minimum price of $1.25 per acre.","American frontier\n\nAs part of public policy, the government would award public land to certain groups such as veterans, through the use of \"land script\". The script traded in a financial market, often at below the $1.25 per acre minimum price set by law, which gave speculators, investors, and developers another way to acquire large tracts of land cheaply. Land policy became politicized by competing factions and interests, and the question of slavery on new lands was contentious. As a counter to land speculators, farmers formed \"claims clubs\" to enable them to buy larger tracts than the 160 acre allotments by trading among themselves at controlled prices.","American frontier\n\nIn 1862, Congress passed three important bills that transformed the land system. The Homestead Act granted 160 acre free to each settler who improved the land for five years; citizens and non-citizens including squatters and women, were all eligible. The only cost was a modest filing fee. The law was especially important in the settling of the Plains states. Many took free homestead and others purchased their land from railroads at low rates.","American frontier\n\nThe Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 provided for the land needed to build the transcontinental railroad. The land given the railroads alternated with government-owned tracts saved for free distribution to homesteaders. In an effort to be equitable, the federal government reduced each tract to 80 acre because of its perceived higher value given its proximity to the rail line. Railroads had up to five years to sell or mortgage their land, after tracks were laid, after which unsold land could be purchased by anyone. Often railroads sold some of their government acquired land to homesteaders immediately to encourage settlement and the growth of markets the railroads would then be able to serve. Nebraska railroads in the 1870s were strong boosters of lands along their routes. They sent agents to Germany and Scandinavia with package deals that included cheap transportation for the family as well as its furniture and farm tools, and they offered long-term credit at low rates. Boosterism succeeded in attracting adventurous American and European families to Nebraska, helping them purchase land grant parcels on good terms. The selling price depended on such factors as soil quality, water, and distance from the railroad.","American frontier\n\nThe Morrill Act of 1862 provided land grants to states to begin colleges of agriculture and mechanical arts (engineering). Black colleges became eligible for these land grants in 1890. The Act succeeded in its goals to open new universities and make farming more scientific and profitable.","American frontier\n\nTranscontinental railroads","American frontier\n\nIn the 1850s government sponsored surveys to chart the remaining unexplored regions of the West, and to plan possible routes for a transcontinental railroad. Much of this work was undertaking by the Corps of Engineers, Corps of Topographical Engineers, and Bureau of Explorations and Surveys, and became known as \"The Great Reconnaissance.\" Regionalism animated debates in Congress regarding the choice of a northern, central or southern route. Engineering requirements for the rail route were an adequate supply of water and wood, and as nearly-level route as possible, given the weak locomotives of the era.","American frontier\n\nIn the 1850s proposals to build a transcontinental failed because of Congressional disputes over slavery. With the secession of the Confederate states in 1861, the modernizers in the Republican party took over Congress and wanted a line to link to California. Private companies were to build and operate the line. Construction would be done by unskilled laborers who would live in temporary camps along the way. Immigrants from China and Ireland did most of the construction work. Theodore Judah, the chief engineer of the Central Pacific surveyed the route from San Francisco east. Judah's tireless lobbying efforts in Washington were largely responsible for the passage of the 1862 Pacific Railroad Act, which authorized construction of both the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific (which built west from Omaha). In 1862 four rich San Francisco merchants (Leland Stanford, Collis Huntington, Charles Crocker, and Mark Hopkins) took charge, with Crocker in charge of construction. The line was completed in May 1869. Coast-to-coast passenger travel in 8 days now replaced wagon trains or sea voyages that took 6 to 10 months and cost much more.","American frontier\n\nThe road was built with mortgages from New York, Boston and London, backed by land grants. There were no federal cash subsidies, But there was a loan to the Central Pacific that was eventually repaid at six percent interest. The federal government offered land-grants in a checkerboard pattern. The railroad sold every-other square, with the government opening its half to homesteaders. The government also loaned money—later repaid—at $16,000 per mile on level stretches, and $32,000 to $48,000 in mountainous terrain. Local and state governments also aided the financing.","American frontier\n\nMost of the manual laborers on the Central Pacific were new arrivals from China. Kraus shows how these men lived and worked, and how they managed their money. He concludes that senior officials quickly realized the high degree of cleanliness and reliability of the Chinese. The Central Pacific employed over 12,000 Chinese workers, 90% of its manual work force. Ong explores whether or not the Chinese railroad workers were exploited by the railroad, with whites in the better positions. He finds the railroad set different wage rates for whites and Chinese and used the latter in the more menial and dangerous jobs, such as the handling and the pouring of nitroglycerin. However the railroad also provided camps and food the Chinese wanted and protected the Chinese workers from threats from whites.","American frontier\n\nBuilding the railroad required six main activities: surveying the route, blasting a right of way, building tunnels and bridges, clearing and laying the roadbed, laying the ties and rails, and maintaining and supplying the crews with food and tools. The work was highly physical, using horse-drawn plows and scrapers, and manual picks, axes, sledgehammers, and handcarts. A few steam-driven machines, such as shovels, were used. The rails were iron (steel came a few years later) and weighed 700 lb. and required five men to lift. For blasting, they used black powder. The Union Pacific construction crews, mostly Irish Americans, averaged about two miles (3 km) of new track per day.","American frontier\n\nSix transcontinental railroads were built in the Gilded Age (plus two in Canada); they opened up the West to farmers and ranchers. From north to south they were the Northern Pacific, Milwaukee Road, and Great Northern along the Canadian border; the Union Pacific/Central Pacific in the middle, and to the south the Santa Fe, and the Southern Pacific. All but the Great Northern of James J. Hill relied on land grants. The financial stories were often complex. For example, the Northern Pacific received its major land grant in 1864. Financier Jay Cooke (1821–1905) was in charge until 1873, when he went bankrupt. Federal courts, however, kept bankrupt railroads in operation. In 1881 Henry Villard (1835–1900) took over and finally completed the line to Seattle. But the line went bankrupt in the Panic of 1893 and Hill took it over. He then merged several lines with financing from J.P. Morgan, but President Theodore Roosevelt broke them up in 1904.","American frontier\n\nIn the first year of operation, 1869–70, 150,000 passengers made the long trip. Settlers were encouraged with promotions to come West on free scouting trips to buy railroad land on easy terms spread over several years. The railroads had \"Immigration Bureaus\" which advertised package low-cost deals including passage and land on easy terms for farmers in Germany and Scandinavia. The prairies, they were promised, did not mean backbreaking toil because \"settling on the prairie which is ready for the plow is different from plunging into a region covered with timber.\" The settlers were customers of the railroads, shipping their crops and cattle out, and bringing in manufactured products. All manufacturers benefited from the lower costs of transportation and the much larger radius of business.","American frontier\n\nWhite concludes with a mixed verdict. The transcontinentals did open up the West to settlement, brought in many thousands of high-tech, highly paid workers and managers, created thousands of towns and cities, oriented the nation onto an east–west axis, and proved highly valuable for the nation as a whole. On the other hand, too many were built, and they were built too far ahead of actual demand. The result was a bubble that left heavy losses to investors, and led to poor management practices. By contrast, as White notes, the lines in the Midwest and East supported by a very large population base, fostered farming, industry and mining while generating steady profits and receiving few government benefits.","American frontier\n\nMigration after the Civil War","American frontier\n\nAfter the Civil War, many from the East Coast and Europe were lured west by reports from relatives and by extensive advertising campaigns promising \"the Best Prairie Lands\", \"Low Prices\", \"Large Discounts For Cash\", and \"Better Terms Than Ever!\". The new railroads provided the opportunity for migrants to go out and take a look, with special family tickets, the cost of which could be applied to land purchases offered by the railroads. Farming the plains was indeed more difficult than back east. Water management was more critical, lightning fires were more prevalent, the weather was more extreme, rainfall was less predictable.","American frontier\n\nThe fearful stayed home. The actual migrants looked beyond fears of the unknown. Their chief motivation to move west was to find a better economic life than the one they had. Farmers sought larger, cheaper and more fertile land; merchants and tradesman sought new customers and new leadership opportunities. Laborers wanted higher paying work and better conditions. As settlers move West, they have to face many challenges along the way, such as the lack of wood for housing, bad weather like blizzards and droughts, and tornadoes that rain down snakes, fish and frogs, as well as the occasional range disputes. Homesteaders have to build their homes with sod, which were called as Sod Houses. One of the greatest plague that hit the homesteaders was the 1874 Locust Plague which devastated the Great Plains. These challenges hardened these settlers in taming the frontier.","American frontier\n\nOklahoma Land Rush","American frontier\n\nIn 1889, President Benjamin Harrison authorized the opening of 2000000 acre of unoccupied lands in the Oklahoma territory acquired from the native tribes. On April 22, over 100,000 settlers and cattlemen (known as \"boomers\") lined up at the border, and with the army's guns and bugles giving the signal, began a mad dash into the newly opened land to stake their claims (Land Run of 1889). A witness wrote, \"The horsemen had the best of it from the start. It was a fine race for a few minutes, but soon the riders began to spread out like a fan, and by the time they reached the horizon they were scattered about as far as the eye could see\". In one day, the towns of Oklahoma City, Norman, and Guthrie came into existence. In the same manner, millions of acres of additional land was opened up and settled in the following four years.","American frontier\n\nIndian Wars","American frontier\n\nIndian wars have occurred throughout the United States though the conflicts are generally separated into two categories; the Indian wars east of the Mississippi River and the Indian wars west of the Mississippi. The U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894) provided an estimate of deaths:\nThe Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate...","American frontier\n\nHistorian Russell Thornton estimates that from 1800-1890, wars and disease, reduced the Indian population from 600,000 to as few as 250,000. Many tribes in Texas, such as the Karankawan, Akokisa, Bidui and others, were extinguished due to conflicts with settlers. The rapid depopulation of the American Indians after the Civil War, alarmed the U.S. Government, and the Doolittle Committee was formed to investigate the causes as well recommendations to save the population. The solutions presented by the committee, such as the establishment of the five boards of inspection to prevent Indian abuses, had little effect as large Western migration commenced.","American frontier\n\nIndian wars east of the Mississippi","American frontier\n\nThe Trail of Tears","American frontier\n\nThe expansion of migration into the Southeastern United States in the 1820s to the 1830s forced the federal government to deal with the \"Indian question.\" The Indians were under federal control but were independent of state governments. State legislatures and state judges had no authority on their lands, and the states demanded control. Politically the new Democratic Party of President Andrew Jackson demanded removal of the Indians out of the southeastern states to new lands in the west, while the Whig Party and the Protestant churches were opposed to removal. The Jacksonian Democracy proved irresistible, as it won the presidential elections of 1828, 1832 and 1836. By 1837 the \"Indian Removal policy\" began, to implement the act of Congress signed by Andrew Jackson in 1830. Many historians have sharply attacked Jackson. The 1830 law theoretically provided for voluntary removal and had safeguards for the rights of Indians, but in reality the removal was involuntary, brutal and ignored safeguards. Jackson justified his actions by stating that Indians had \"neither the intelligence, the industry, the moral habits, nor the desire of improvements.\"","American frontier\n\nThe forced march of about twenty tribes included the \"Five Civilized Tribes\" (Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee, Chickasaw, and Seminole). To motivate natives reluctant to move, the federal government also promised rifles, blankets, tobacco, and cash. By 1835 the Cherokee, the last Indian nation in the South, had signed the removal treaty and relocated to Oklahoma. All the tribes were given new land in the \"Indian Territory\" (which later became Oklahoma). Of the approximate 70,000 Indians removed, about 18,000 died from disease, starvation, and exposure on the route. This exodus has become known as The Trail of Tears (in Cherokee \"Nunna dual Tsuny,\" \"The Trail Where they Cried\"). The impact of the removals was severe. The transplanted tribes had considerable difficulty adapting to their new surroundings and sometimes clashed with the tribes native to the area.","American frontier\n\nThe only way for an Indian to remain and avoid removal was to accept the federal offer of 640 acre or more of land (depending on family size) in exchange for leaving the tribe and becoming a state citizen subject to state law and federal law. However, many natives who took the offer were defrauded by \"ravenous speculators\" who stole their claims and sold their land to whites. In Mississippi alone, fraudulent claims reached 3800000 acre. Of the five tribes, the Seminole offered the most resistance, hiding out in the Florida swamps and waging a war which cost the U.S. Army 1,500 lives and $20 million.","American frontier\n\nIndian wars west of the Mississippi","American frontier\n\nIndian warriors in the West, using their traditional style of limited, battle-oriented warfare, confronted the U.S. Army. The Indians emphasized bravery in combat while the Army put its emphasis not so much on individual combat as on building networks of forts, developing a logistics system, and using the telegraph and railroads to coordinate and concentrate its forces. Plains Indian intertribal warfare bore no resemblance to the \"modern\" warfare practiced by the Americans along European lines, using its vast advantages in population and resources. Many tribes avoided warfare and others supported the U.S. Army. The tribes hostile to the government continued to pursue their traditional brand of fighting and, therefore, were unable to have any permanent success against the Army.","American frontier\n\nIndian wars were fought throughout the western regions, with more conflicts in the states bordering Mexico than in the interior states. Arizona ranked highest, with 310 known battles fought within the state's boundaries between Americans and the natives. Arizona ranked highest in war deaths, with 4,340 killed, including soldiers, civilians and Native Americans. That was more than twice as many as occurred in Texas, the second highest ranking state. Most of the deaths in Arizona were caused by the Apache. Michno also says that fifty-one percent of the Indian war battles between 1850 and 1890 took place in Arizona, Texas and New Mexico, as well as thirty-seven percent of the casualties in the county west of the Mississippi River.","American frontier\n\nOne of the deadliest Indian wars fought was the Snake War in 1864–1868, which was conducted by a confederacy of Northern Paiute, Bannock and Shoshone Native Americans, called the \"Snake Indians\" against the United States Army in the states of Oregon, Nevada, California, and Idaho which ran along the Snake River. The war started when tension arise between the local Indians and the flooding pioneer trains encroaching through their lands, which resulted in competition for food and resources. Indians included in this group attacked and harassed emigrant parties and miners crossing the Snake River Valley, which resulted in further retaliation of the white settlements and the intervention of the United States army. The war resulted in a total of 1,762 men who have been killed, wounded, and captured from both sides. Unlike other Indian Wars, the Snake War was widely forgotten in United States history due to having only limited coverage of the war.","American frontier\n\nThe Colorado War fought by Cheyenne, Arapaho and Sioux, was fought in the territories of Colorado to Nebraska. The conflict was fought in 1863-1865 while the American Civil War was still ongoing. Caused by dissolution between the Natives and the white settlers in the region, the war was infamous for the atrocities done between the two parties. White militias destroyed Native villages and killed Indian women and children such as the bloody Sand Creek Massacre, and the Indians also raided ranches, farms and killed white families such as the American Ranch Massacre and Raid on Godfrey Ranch.","American frontier\n\nIn the Apache Wars, Colonel Christopher \"Kit\" Carson forced the Mescalero Apache onto a reservation in 1862. In 1863–1864, Carson used a scorched earth policy in the Navajo Campaign, burning Navajo fields and homes, and capturing or killing their livestock. He was aided by other Indian tribes with long-standing enmity toward the Navajos, chiefly the Utes. Another prominent conflict of this war was Geronimo's fight against settlements in Texas in the 1880s. The Apaches under his command conducted ambushes on US cavalries and forts, such as their attack on Cibecue Creek, while also raiding upon prominent farms and ranches, such as their infamous attack on the Empire Ranch that killed three cowboys. The U.S. finally induced the last hostile Apache band under Geronimo to surrender in 1886.","American frontier\n\nDuring the Comanche campaign, the Red River War was fought in 1874–75 in response to the Comanche's dwindling food supply of buffalo, as well as the refusal of a few bands to be inducted in reservations. Comanches started raiding small settlements in Texas, which led to the Battle of Buffalo Wallow and Second Battle of Adobe Walls fought by buffalo hunters, and the Battle of Lost Valley against the Texas Rangers. The war finally ended with a final confrontation between the Comanches and the U.S. Cavalry in Palo Duro Canyon. The last Comanche war chief, Quanah Parker, surrendered in June 1875, which would finally end the wars fought by Texans and Indians.","American frontier\n\nRed Cloud's War was led by the Lakota chief Red Cloud against the military who were erecting forts along the Bozeman trail. It was the most successful campaign against the U.S. during the Indian Wars. By the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), the U.S. granted a large reservation to the Lakota, without military presence; it included the entire Black Hills. Captain Jack was a chief of the Native American Modoc tribe of California and Oregon, and was their leader during the Modoc War. With 53 Modoc warriors, Captain Jack held off 1,000 men of the U.S. Army for 7 months. Captain Jack killed Edward Canby.","American frontier\n\nIn June 1877, in the Nez Perce War the Nez Perce under Chief Joseph, unwilling to give up their traditional lands and move to a reservation, undertook a 1,200 mile fighting retreat from Oregon to near the Canadian border in Montana. Numbering only 200 warriors, the Nez Perce \"battled some 2,000 American regulars and volunteers of different military units, together with their Indian auxiliaries of many tribes, in a total of eighteen engagements, including four major battles and at least four fiercely contested skirmishes.\" The Nez Perce were finally surrounded at the Battle of Bear Paw and surrendered. The Great Sioux War of 1876 was conducted by the Lakota under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. The conflict began after repeated violations of the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) once gold was discovered in the hills. One of its famous battles was the Battle of the Little Bighorn, in which combined Sioux and Cheyenne forces defeated the 7th Cavalry, led by General George Armstrong Custer.","American frontier\n\nThe Ute War, fought by the Ute people against settlers in Utah and Colorado, led to two battles; the Meeker Massacre which killed 11 Indian agents, and the Pinhook massacre which killed 13 armed ranchers and cowboys. The Ute conflicts finally ended after the events of the Bluff War.","American frontier\n\nThe end of the Indian wars came at the Wounded Knee Massacre on December 29, 1890 where the 7th Cavalry attempted to disarm a Sioux man and precipitated an engagement in which about 150 Sioux men, women, and children were killed. Only thirteen days before, Sitting Bull had been killed with his son Crow Foot in a gun battle with a group of Indian police that had been sent by the American government to arrest him.","American frontier\n\nForts and outposts","American frontier\n\nAs the frontier moved westward, the establishment of U.S. military forts moved with it, representing and maintaining federal sovereignty over new territories. The military garrisons usually lacked defensible walls but were seldom attacked. They served as bases for troops at or near strategic areas, particularly for counteracting the Indian presence. For example, Fort Bowie protected Apache Pass in southern Arizona along the mail route between Tucson and El Paso and was used to launch attacks against Cochise and Geronimo. Fort Laramie and Fort Kearny helped protect immigrants crossing the Great Plains and a series of posts in California protected miners. Forts were constructed to launch attacks against the Sioux. As Indian reservations sprang up, the military set up forts to protect them. Forts also guarded the Union Pacific and other rail lines. Other important forts were Fort Sill, Oklahoma, Fort Smith, Arkansas, Fort Snelling, Minnesota, Fort Union, New Mexico, Fort Worth, Texas, and Fort Walla Walla in Washington. Fort Omaha, Nebraska was home to the Department of the Platte, and was responsible for outfitting most Western posts for more than 20 years after its founding in the late 1870s.","American frontier\n\nFort Huachuca in Arizona was also originally a frontier post and is still in use by the United States Army.","American frontier\n\nIndian reservations","American frontier\n\nSettlers on their way overland to Oregon and California became targets of Indian threats. Robert L. Munkres read 66 diaries of parties traveling the Oregon Trail between 1834 and 1860 to estimate the actual dangers they faced from Indian attacks in Nebraska and Wyoming. The vast majority of diarists reported no armed attacks at all. However many did report harassment by Indians who begged or demanded tolls, and stole horses and cattle. Madsen reports that the Shoshoni and Bannock tribes north and west of Utah were more aggressive toward wagon trains. The federal government attempted to reduce tensions and create new tribal boundaries in the Great Plains with two new treaties in the early 1850, The Treaty of Fort Laramie established tribal zones for the Sioux, Cheyennes, Arapahos, Crows, and others, and allowed for the building of roads and posts across the tribal lands. A second treaty secured safe passage along the Santa Fe Trail for wagon trains. In return, the tribes would receive, for ten years, annual compensation for damages caused by migrants. The Kansas and Nebraska territories also became contentious areas as the federal government sought those lands for the future transcontinental railroad.","American frontier\n\nIn the Far West settlers began to occupy land in Oregon and California before the federal government secured title from the native tribes, causing considerable friction. In Utah, the Mormons also moved in before federal ownership was obtained.","American frontier\n\nA new policy of establishing reservations came gradually into shape after the boundaries of the \"Indian Territory\" began to be ignored. In providing for Indian reservations, Congress and the Office of Indian Affairs hoped to de-tribalize Native Americans and prepare them for integration with the rest of American society, the \"ultimate incorporation into the great body of our citizen population.\" This allowed for the development of dozens of riverfront towns along the Missouri River in the new Nebraska Territory, which was carved from the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase after the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Influential pioneer towns included Omaha, Nebraska City and St. Joseph.","American frontier\n\nAmerican attitudes towards Indians during this period ranged from malevolence (\"the only good Indian is a dead Indian\") to misdirected humanitarianism (Indians live in \"inferior\" societies and by assimilation into white society they can be redeemed) to somewhat realistic (Native Americans and settlers could co-exist in separate but equal societies, dividing up the remaining western land). Dealing with nomadic tribes complicated the reservation strategy and decentralized tribal power made treaty making difficult among the Plains Indians. Conflicts erupted in the 1850s, resulting in various Indian wars. In these times of conflict, Indians become more stringent about white men entering their territory. Such as in the case of Oliver Loving, they would sometimes attack cowboys and their cattle if ever caught crossing in the borders of their land. They would also prey upon livestock if food was scarce during hard times. However, relationship between cowboys and Native Americans were more mutual than they are portrayed, and the former would occasionally pay a fine of 10 cents per cow for the latter to allow them to travel through their land. Indians also preyed upon stagecoaches travelling in the frontier for its horses and valuables.","American frontier\n\nAfter the Civil War, as the volunteer armies disbanded, the regular army cavalry regiments increased in number from six to ten, among them Custer's U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment of Little Bighorn fame, and the African-American U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment and U.S. 10th Cavalry Regiment. The black units, along with others (both cavalry and infantry), collectively became known as the Buffalo Soldiers. According to Robert M. Utley: \nthe frontier army was a conventional military force trying to control, by conventional military methods, a people that did not behave like conventional enemies and, indeed, quite often were not enemies at all. This is the most difficult of all military assignments, whether in Africa, Asia, or the American West.","American frontier\n\nSocial history","American frontier\n\nDemocratic society","American frontier\n\nWesterners were proud of their leadership in the movement for democracy and equality, a major theme for Frederick Jackson Turner. The new states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama and Ohio were more democratic than the parent states back East in terms of politics and society. The Western states were the first to give women the right to vote. By 1900 the West, especially California and Oregon, led the Progressive movement.","American frontier\n\nScholars have examined the social history of the west in search of the American character. The history of Kansas, argued historian Carl L. Becker a century ago, reflects American ideals. He wrote: \"The Kansas spirit is the American spirit double distilled. It is a new grafted product of American individualism, American idealism, American intolerance. Kansas is America in microcosm.\"","American frontier\n\nScholars have compared the emergence of democracy in America with other countries, with reference to the frontier experience. Selwyn Troen has made the comparison with Israel. The American frontiersmen relied on individual effort, in the context of very large quantities of unsettled land with weak external enemies. Israel by contrast, operated in a very small geographical zone, surrounded by more powerful neighbors. The Jewish pioneer was not building an individual or family enterprise, but was a conscious participant in nation building, with a high priority on collective and cooperative planned settlements. The Israeli pioneers brought in American experts on irrigation and agriculture to provide technical advice. However they rejected the American frontier model in favor of a European model that supported their political and security concerns.","American frontier\n\nUrban frontier","American frontier\n\nThe cities played an essential role in the development of the frontier, as transportation hubs, financial and communications centers, and providers of merchandise, services, and entertainment. As the railroads pushed westward into unsettled territory after 1860, they build service towns to handle the needs of railroad construction crews, train crews, and passengers who ate meals at scheduled stops. In most of the South, there were very few cities of any size for miles around, and this pattern held for Texas as well, so railroads did not arrive until the 1880s. They then shipped the cattle out and cattle drives became short-distance affairs. However the passenger trains were often the targets of armed gangs.","American frontier\n\nDenver's economy before 1870 had been rooted in mining; it then grew by expanding its role in railroads, wholesale trade, manufacturing, food processing, and servicing the growing agricultural and ranching hinterland. Between 1870 and 1890, manufacturing output soared from $600,000 to $40 million, and population grew by a factor of 20 times to 107,000. Denver had always attracted miners, workers, whores and travelers. Saloons and gambling dens sprung up overnight. The city fathers boasted of its fine theaters, and especially the Tabor Grand Opera House built in 1881. By 1890, Denver had grown to be the 26th largest city in America, and the fifth-largest city west of the Mississippi River. The boom times attracted millionaires and their mansions, as well as hustlers, poverty and crime. Denver gained regional notoriety with its range of bawdy houses, from the sumptuous quarters of renowned madams to the squalid \"cribs\" located a few blocks away. Business was good; visitors spent lavishly, then left town. As long as madams conducted their business discreetly, and \"crib girls\" did not advertise their availability too crudely, authorities took their bribes and looked the other way. Occasional cleanups and crack downs satisfied the demands for reform.","American frontier\n\nWith its giant mountain of copper, Butte, Montana was the largest, richest and rowdiest mining camp on the frontier. It was an ethnic stronghold, with the Irish Catholics in control of politics and of the best jobs at the leading mining corporation Anaconda Copper. City boosters opened a public library in 1894. Ring argues that the library was originally a mechanism of social control, \"an antidote to the miners' proclivity for drinking, whoring, and gambling.\" It was also designed to promote middle-class values and to convince Easterners the Butte was a cultivated city.","American frontier\n\nRace and ethnicity","American frontier\n\nEuropean immigrants","American frontier\n\nEuropean immigrants often built communities of similar religious and ethnic backgrounds. For example, many Finns went to Minnesota and Michigan, Swedes and Norwegians to Minnesota and the Dakotas, Irish to railroad centers along the transcontinental lines, Volga Germans to North Dakota, and German Jews to Portland, Oregon.","American frontier\n\nAfrican-Americans","American frontier\n\nAfrican Americans moved West as soldiers, as well as cowboys, farm hands, saloon workers, cooks, and outlaws. The Buffalo Soldiers were soldiers in the all-black 9th and 10th Cavalry regiments, and 24th and 25th Infantry Regiments of the U.S. Army. They had white officers and served in numerous western forts.","American frontier\n\nAbout 4000 blacks came to California in Gold Rush days. In 1879, after the end of Reconstruction in the South, several thousand Freedmen moved from Southern states to Kansas. Known as the Exodusters, they were lured by the prospect of good, cheap Homestead Law land and better treatment. The all-black town of Nicodemus, Kansas, which was founded in 1877, was an organized settlement that predates the Exodusters but is often associated with them.","American frontier\n\nAsians","American frontier\n\nThe California Gold Rush included thousands of Mexican and Chinese arrivals. Chinese migrants, many of whom were impoverished peasants, provided the major part of the workforce for the building of Central Pacific portion of the transcontinental railroad. Most of them went home by 1870 when the railroad was finished. Those who stayed on worked in mining, agriculture, and opened small shops such as groceries, laundries and restaurants. Hostility remained high as seen by Chinese Massacre Cove episode and the Rock Springs massacre. The Chinese were generally forced into self-sufficient \"Chinatowns\" in cities such as San Francisco. In Los Angeles, the last major anti-Chinese riot took place in 1871, after which local law enforcement grew stronger. In the late 19th century, Chinatowns were squalid slums known for their vice, prostitution, drugs, and violent battles between \"tongs.\" By the 1930s, however, Chinatowns had become clean, safe and attractive tourist destinations.","American frontier\n\nIn the 1890–1907 era, thousands of Japanese permanently migrated to Hawaii and California as farm workers. Immigrants born in Asia were generally ineligible for US citizenship until World War II. However their children born in the U.S. automatically became citizens.","American frontier\n\nHispanics","American frontier\n\nThe great majority of Hispanics who had been living in the former territories of New Spain remained and became American citizens in 1848. The 10,000 or so Californios lived in southern California and after 1880 were overshadowed by the hundreds of thousands of arrivals from the east. Those in New Mexico dominated towns and villages that changed little until well into the 20th century. New arrivals from Mexico arrived, especially after the Revolution of 1911 terrorized thousands of villages all across Mexico. Most refugees went to Texas or California, and soon poor barrios appeared in many border towns. Early on there was a criminal element as well. The California \"Robin Hood\", Joaquin Murieta, led a gang in the 1850s which burned houses, killed miners, and robbed stagecoaches. In Texas, Juan Cortina led a 20-year campaign against Anglos and the Texas Rangers, starting around 1859.","American frontier\n\nFamily life","American frontier\n\nOn the Great Plains very few single men attempted to operate a farm or ranch; farmers clearly understood the need for a hard-working wife, and numerous children, to handle the many chores, including child-rearing, feeding and clothing the family, managing the housework, and feeding the hired hands. During the early years of settlement, farm women played an integral role in assuring family survival by working outdoors. After a generation or so, women increasingly left the fields, thus redefining their roles within the family. New conveniences such as sewing and washing machines encouraged women to turn to domestic roles. The scientific housekeeping movement, promoted across the land by the media and government extension agents, as well as county fairs which featured achievements in home cookery and canning, advice columns for women in the farm papers, and home economics courses in the schools all contributed to this trend.","American frontier\n\nAlthough the eastern image of farm life on the prairies emphasizes the isolation of the lonely farmer and farm life, in reality rural folk created a rich social life for themselves. They often sponsored activities that combined work, food, and entertainment such as barn raisings, corn huskings, quilting bees, Grange meetings, church activities, and school functions. The womenfolk organized shared meals and potluck events, as well as extended visits between families.","American frontier\n\nChildhood","American frontier\n\nChildhood on the American frontier is contested territory. One group of scholars, following the lead of novelists Willa Cather and Laura Ingalls Wilder, argue the rural environment was beneficial to the child's upbringing. Historians Katherine Harris and Elliott West write that rural upbringing allowed children to break loose from urban hierarchies of age and gender, promoted family interdependence, and in the end produced children who were more self-reliant, mobile, adaptable, responsible, independent and more in touch with nature than their urban or eastern counterparts. On the other hand, historians Elizabeth Hampsten and Lillian Schlissel offer a grim portrait of loneliness, privation, abuse, and demanding physical labor from an early age. Riney-Kehrberg takes a middle position.","American frontier\n\nProstitution","American frontier\n\nEntrepreneurs set up shops and businesses to cater to the miners. World famous were the houses of prostitution found in every mining camp worldwide. Prostitution was a growth industry attracting sex workers from around the globe, pulled in by the money, despite the harsh and dangerous working conditions and low prestige. Chinese women were frequently sold by their families and taken to the camps as prostitutes; they had to send their earnings back to the family in China. In Virginia City, Nevada, a prostitute, Julia Bulette, was one of the few who achieved \"respectable\" status. She nursed victims of an influenza epidemic; this gave her acceptance in the community and the support of the sheriff. The townspeople were shocked when she was murdered in 1867; they gave her a lavish funeral and speedily tried and hanged her assailant. Until the 1890s, madams predominately ran the businesses, after which male pimps took over, and the treatment of the women generally declined. It was not uncommon for bordellos in Western towns to operate openly, without the stigma of East Coast cities.","American frontier\n\nGambling and prostitution were central to life in these western towns, and only later―as the female population increased, reformers moved in, and other civilizing influences arrived―did prostitution become less blatant and less common. After a decade or so the mining towns attracted respectable women who ran boarding houses, organized church societies, worked as laundresses and seamstresses, and strove for independent status.","American frontier\n\nLaw and order","American frontier\n\nHistorian Waddy W. Moore uses court records to show that on the sparsely settled Arkansas frontier lawlessness was common. He distinguished two types of crimes: unprofessional (dueling, crimes of drunkenness, selling whiskey to the Indians, cutting trees on federal land) and professional (rustling, highway robbery, counterfeiting). Criminals found many opportunities to rob pioneer families of their possessions, while the few underfunded lawmen had great difficulty detecting, arresting, holding, and convicting wrongdoers. Bandits, typically in groups of two or three, rarely attacked stagecoaches with a guard carrying a sawed-off, double-barreled shotgun; it proved less risky to rob teamsters, people on foot, and solitary horsemen, while bank robberies themselves were harder to pull off due to the security of the establishment. According also to historian Brian Robb, the earliest form of organized crime in America was born from the gangs of the Old West.","American frontier\n\nWhen criminals were convicted, punishment was severe. Aside from the occasional Western sheriff and Marshal, there were other various law enforcement agencies throughout the American frontier, such as the Texas Rangers and the North-West Mounted Police. These lawmen were not just instrumental in keeping peace, but also in protecting the locals from Indian and Mexican threats at the border. Law enforcement tended to be more stringent in towns than in rural areas. Law enforcement emphasized maintaining stability more than armed combat, focusing on drunkenness, disarming cowboys who violated gun-control edicts and dealing with flagrant breaches of gambling and prostitution ordinances.","American frontier\n\nDykstra argues that the violent image of the cattle towns in film and fiction is largely myth. The real Dodge City, he says, was the headquarters for the buffalo-hide trade of the Southern Plains and one of the West's principal cattle towns, a sale and shipping point for cattle arriving from Texas. He states there is a \"second Dodge City\" that belongs to the popular imagination and thrives as a cultural metaphor for violence, chaos, and depravity. For the cowboy arriving with money in hand after two months on the trail, the town was exciting. A contemporary eyewitness of Hays City, Kansas paints a vivid image of this cattle town:","American frontier\n\nIt has been acknowledged that the popular portrayal of Dodge City in film and fiction carries a note of truth, however, as gun crime was rampant in the city prior to the establishment of a local government. Soon after the city's residents officially established their first municipal government, however, a law banning concealed firearms was enacted and crime was reduced soon afterwards. Similar laws were passed in other frontier towns to reduce the rate of gun crime as well. As UCLA law professor Adam Wrinkler noted:","American frontier\n\nTombstone, Arizona was a turbulent mining town that flourished longer than most, from 1877 to 1929. Silver was discovered in 1877, and by 1881 the town had a population of over 10,000. In 1879 the newly arrived Earp brothers bought shares in the Vizina mine, water rights, and gambling concessions, but Virgil, Wyatt, and Morgan Earp obtained positions at different times as federal and local lawmen. After more than a year of threats and feuding, they killed three outlaws in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, the most famous gunfight of the Old West. In the aftermath, Virgil Earp was maimed in an ambush and Morgan Earp was assassinated while playing billiards. Wyatt and others, including his brothers James Earp and Warren Earp, pursued those they believed responsible in an extra-legal vendetta and warrants were issued for their arrest in the murder of Frank Stilwell. The Cochise County Cowboys were one of the first organized crime syndicates in the United States, and their demise came in the hands of Wyatt Earp.","American frontier\n\nWestern story tellers and film makers featured the gunfight in many Western productions. Walter Noble Burns's novel Tombstone (1927) made Earp famous. Hollywood celebrated Earp's Tombstone days with John Ford's My Darling Clementine (1946), John Sturges's Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957) and Hour of the Gun (1967), Frank Perry's Doc (1971), George Cosmatos's Tombstone (1993), and Lawrence Kasdan's Wyatt Earp (1994). They solidified Earp's modern reputation as the Old West's deadliest gunman.","American frontier\n\nBanditry","American frontier\n\nSome of the banditry of the West was carried out by Mexicans and Indians against white targets of opportunity along the U.S.–Mexico border, particularly in Texas, Arizona, and California. The second major type of banditry was conducted by the infamous outlaws of the West, including Jesse James, Billy the Kid, the Dalton Gang, Black Bart, Butch Cassidy and the Wild Bunch and hundreds of others who preyed on banks, trains, stagecoaches, and in some cases even armed government transports such as the Wham Paymaster Robbery and the Skeleton Canyon Robbery. Some of the outlaws, such as Jesse James, were products of the violence of the Civil War (James had ridden with Quantrill's Raiders) and others became outlaws during hard times in the cattle industry. Many were misfits and drifters who roamed the West avoiding the law. In rural areas Joaquin Murieta, Jack Powers, Augustine Chacon and other bandits terrorized the state. When outlaw gangs were near, towns would occasionally raise a posse to drive them out or capture them.","American frontier\n\nSeeing that the need to combat the bandits was a growing business opportunity, Allan Pinkerton ordered his National Detective Agency, founded in 1850, to open branches out West, and they got into the business of pursuing and capturing outlaws. There was plenty of business thanks to the criminals such as the James Gang, Butch Cassidy, Sam Bass, and dozens of others. To take refuge from the law, outlaws would use the advantages of the open range, remote passes and badlands to hide. While some settlements and towns in the frontier also house outlaws and criminals, which were called \"outlaw towns\".","American frontier\n\nBanditry was a major issue in California after 1849, as thousands of young men detached from family or community moved into a land with few law enforcement mechanisms. To combat this, the San Francisco Committee of Vigilance was established to give drumhead trials and death sentences to well-known offenders. As such, other earlier settlements created their own private agencies to protect communities due to the lack of peace-keeping establishments. These vigilance committees reflected different occupations in the frontier, such as land clubs, cattlemen's associations and mining camps. Similar vigilance committees also existed in Texas, and their main objective was to stamp out lawlessness and rid communities of desperadoes and rustlers. These committees would sometimes form mob rule for private vigilante groups, but usually were made up of responsible citizens who wanted only to maintain order. Criminals caught by these vigilance committees were treated cruelly; often hung or shot without any form of trial.","American frontier\n\nCivilians also took arms to defend themselves in the Old West, sometimes siding with lawmen (Coffeyville Bank Robbery), or siding with outlaws (Battle of Ingalls). In the Post-Civil War frontier, over 523 whites, 34 blacks and 75 others were victims of lynching. However, cases of lynching in the Old West wasn't primarily caused by the absence of a legal system, but also because of social class. Historian Michael J. Pfeifer writes, \"Contrary to the popular understanding, early territorial lynching did not flow from an absence or distance of law enforcement but rather from the social instability of early communities and their contest for property, status, and the definition of social order.\"","American frontier\n\nGunfights and feuds","American frontier\n\nThe names and exploits of Western gunslingers took a major role in American folklore, fiction and film. Their guns and costumes became children's toys for make-believe shootouts. The stories became immensely popular in Germany and other European countries, which produced their own novels and films about the American frontier. The image of a Wild West filled with countless gunfights was a myth based on repeated exaggerations. The most notable and well-known took place in Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Actual gunfights in the Old West were more episodic than being a common thing, but when gunfights did occur, the cause for each varied. Some were simply the result of the heat of the moment, while others were longstanding feuds, or between bandits and lawmen. Although mostly romanticized, there were instances of \"quick draw\" that did occur though rarely, such as Wild Bill Hickok – Davis Tutt shootout and Luke Short-Jim Courtright Duel. Fatal duels were fought to uphold personal honor in the West. To prevent gunfights, towns such as Dodge City and Tombstone prohibited firearms in town.","American frontier\n\nRange wars were infamous armed conflicts that took place in the \"open range\" of the American frontier. The subject of these conflicts was the control of lands freely used for farming and cattle grazing which gave the conflict its name. Range wars became more common by the end of the American Civil War, and numerous conflicts were fought such as the Pleasant Valley War, Mason County War, Johnson County War, Colorado Range War, Fence Cutting War, Colfax County War, Castaic Range War, Barber–Mizell feud, San Elizario Salt War and others. During a range war in Montana, a vigilante group called Stuart's Stranglers, which were made up of cattlemen and cowboys, killed up to 20 criminals and range squatters in 1884 alone. In Nebraska, stock grower Isom Olive led a range war in 1878 that killed a number of homesteaders from lynchings and shootouts before eventually leading to his own murder. Another infamous type of open range conflict were the Sheep Wars, which were fought between sheep ranchers and cattle ranchers over grazing rights and mainly occurred in Texas, Arizona and the border region of Wyoming and Colorado.","American frontier\n\nOther conflicts over land and territory were also fought such as the Regulator–Moderator War, Cortina Troubles, Las Cuevas War and the Bandit War. In most cases, formal military involvement were used to quickly put an end to these conflicts.","American frontier\n\nFeuds involving families and bloodlines also occurred much in the frontier. Since private agencies and vigilance committees were the substitute for proper courts, many families initially depended on themselves and their communities for their security and justice. These wars include the Lincoln County War, Tutt–Everett War, Flynn–Doran feud, Early–Hasley feud, Brooks-Baxter War, Sutton–Taylor feud, Horrell Brothers feud, Brooks–McFarland feud, Reese–Townsend feud and the Earp Vendetta Ride.","American frontier\n\nCattle","American frontier\n\nThe end of the bison herds opened up millions of acres for cattle ranching. Spanish cattlemen had introduced cattle ranching and longhorn cattle to the Southwest in the 17th century, and the men who worked the ranches, called \"vaqueros\", were the first \"cowboys\" in the West. After the Civil War, Texas ranchers raised large herds of longhorn cattle. The nearest railheads were 800 or more miles north in Kansas (Abilene, Kansas City, Dodge City, and Wichita). So once fattened the ranchers and their cowboys drove the herds north along the Western, Chisholm, and Shawnee trails. The cattle were shipped to Chicago, St. Louis, and points east for slaughter and consumption in the fast-growing cities. The Chisholm Trail, laid out by cattleman Joseph McCoy along an old trail marked by Jesse Chisholm, was the major artery of cattle commerce, carrying over 1.5 million head of cattle between 1867 and 1871 over the 800 mi from south Texas to Abilene, Kansas. The long drives were treacherous, especially crossing water such as the Brazos and the Red River and when they had to fend off Indians and rustlers looking to make off with their cattle.","American frontier\n\nA typical drive would take three to four months and contained two miles (3 km) of cattle six abreast. Despite the risks, a successful drive proved very profitable to everyone involved, as the price of one steer was $4 in Texas and $40 back East.","American frontier\n\nBy the 1870s and 1880s, cattle ranches expanded further north into new grazing grounds and replaced the bison herds in Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, Nebraska and the Dakota territory, using the rails to ship to both coasts. Many of the largest ranches were owned by Scottish and English financiers. The single largest cattle ranch in the entire West was owned by American John W. Iliff, \"cattle king of the Plains\", operating in Colorado and Wyoming. Gradually, longhorns were replaced by the American breeds of Hereford and Angus, introduced by settlers from the Northwest. Though less hardy and more disease-prone, these breeds produced better tasting beef and matured faster.","American frontier\n\nThe funding for the cattle industry came largely from British sources, as the European investors engaged in a speculative extravaganza—a \"bubble\". Graham concludes the mania was founded on genuine opportunity, as well as \"exaggeration, gullibility, inadequate communications, dishonesty, and incompetence.\" A severe winter engulfed the plains toward the end of 1886 and well into 1887, locking the prairie grass under ice and crusted snow which starving herds could not penetrate. The British lost most of their money—as did eastern investors like Theodore Roosevelt, but their investments did create a large industry that continues to cycle through boom and bust periods.","American frontier\n\nOn a much smaller scale sheep grazing was locally popular; sheep were easier to feed and needed less water. However, Americans did not eat mutton. As farmers moved in open range cattle ranching came to an end and was replaced by barbed wire spreads where water, breeding, feeding, and grazing could be controlled. This led to \"fence wars\" which erupted over disputes about water rights.","American frontier\n\nCowboys","American frontier\n\nCentral to the myth and the reality of the West is the American cowboy. His real life was a hard one and revolved around two annual roundups, spring and fall, the subsequent drives to market, and the time off in the cattle towns spending his hard earned money on food, clothing, gambling, and prostitution. During winter, many cowboys hired themselves out to ranches near the cattle towns, where they repaired and maintained equipment and buildings. For young cowboys and buckaroos, working cattle was not just a job but also a lifestyle, one that was lived in the freedom of the outdoors and, most of the time, on horseback. On a long drive, there was usually one cowboy for each 250 head of cattle. Alcohol was everywhere in the West (outside Mormondom), but on the trail the cowboys were forbidden to drink it. Often, hired cowboys were trained and knowledgeable in their trade such as herding, ranching and protecting cattle. To protect their herd from wild animals, hostile Indians and rustlers, cowboys carried with them their iconic weaponry such as Bowie knife, pistols, rifles and shotguns.","American frontier\n\nMany of the cowboys were veterans of the Civil War; a diverse group, they included Blacks, Hispanics, Native Americans, and immigrants from many lands. The earliest cowboys in Texas learned their trade, adapted their clothing, and took their jargon from the Mexican vaqueros or \"buckaroos\", the heirs of Spanish cattlemen from middle-south of Spain. Chaps, the heavy protective leather trousers worn by cowboys, got their name from the Spanish \"chaparreras\", and the lariat, or rope, was derived from \"la reata\". All the distinct clothing of the cowboy—boots, saddles, hats, pants, chaps, slickers, bandannas, gloves, and collar-less shirts—were practical and adaptable, designed for protection and comfort. The cowboy hat quickly developed the capability, even in the early years, to identify its wearer as someone associated with the West. The most enduring fashion adapted from the cowboy, popular nearly worldwide today, are \"blue jeans\", originally made by Levi Strauss for miners in 1850. It was the cowboy hat, above all, that came to symbolize the frontier.","American frontier\n\nBefore a drive, a cowboy's duties included riding out on the range and bringing together the scattered cattle. The best cattle would be selected, roped, and branded, and most male cattle were castrated. The cattle also needed to be dehorned and examined and treated for infections. On the long drives, the cowboys had to keep the cattle moving and in line. The cattle had to be watched day and night as they were prone to stampedes and straying. While camping every night, cowboys would often sing to their herd to keep them calm. The work days often lasted fourteen hours, with just six hours of sleep. It was grueling, dusty work, with just a few minutes of relaxation before and at the end of a long day. On the trail, drinking, gambling, and brawling were often prohibited and fined, and sometimes cursing as well. It was monotonous and boring work, with food to match: bacon, beans, bread, coffee, dried fruit, and potatoes. On average, cowboys earned $30 to $40 per month, because of the heavy physical and emotional toll, it was unusual for a cowboy to spend more than seven years on the range.","American frontier\n\nAs open range ranching and the long drives gave way to fenced in ranches in the 1880s, by the 1890s the glory days of the cowboy came to an end, and the myths about the \"free living\" cowboy began to emerge.","American frontier\n\nCowtowns","American frontier\n\nAnchoring the booming cattle industry of the 1860s and 1870s were the cattle towns in Kansas and Missouri. Like the mining towns in California and Nevada, cattle towns such as Abilene, Dodge City, and Ellsworth experienced a short period of boom and bust lasting about five years. The cattle towns would spring up as land speculators would rush in ahead of a proposed rail line and build a town and the supporting services attractive to the cattlemen and the cowboys. If the railroads complied, the new grazing ground and supporting town would secure the cattle trade. However, unlike the mining towns which in many cases became ghost towns and ceased to exist after the ore played out, cattle towns often evolved from cattle to farming and continued on after the grazing lands were exhausted.","American frontier\n\nConservation and environmentalism","American frontier\n\nConcern with the protection of the environment became a new issue in the late 19th century, pitting different interests. On the one side were the lumber and coal companies who called for maximum exploitation of natural resources to maximize jobs, economic growth, and their own profit.","American frontier\n\nIn the center were the conservationists, led by Theodore Roosevelt and his coalition of outdoorsmen, sportsmen, bird watchers and scientists. They wanted to reduce waste; emphasized the value of natural beauty for tourism and ample wildlife for hunters; and argued that careful management would not only enhance these goals but also increase the long-term economic benefits to society by planned harvesting and environmental protections. Roosevelt worked his entire career to put the issue high on the national agenda. He was deeply committed to conserving natural resources. He worked closely with Gifford Pinchot and used the Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to irrigate small farms and placed 230 million acres (360,000 mi² or 930,000 km²) under federal protection. Roosevelt set aside more Federal land, national parks, and nature preserves than all of his predecessors combined.","American frontier\n\nRoosevelt explained his position in 1910:\n\"Conservation means development as much as it does protection. I recognize the right and duty of this generation to develop and use the natural resources of our land but I do not recognize the right to waste them, or to rob, by wasteful use, the generations that come after us.\"","American frontier\n\nThe third element, smallest at first but growing rapidly after 1870, were the environmentalists who honored nature for its own sake, and rejected the goal of maximizing human benefits. Their leader was John Muir (1838–1914), a widely read author and naturalist and pioneer advocate of preservation of wilderness for its own sake, and founder of the Sierra Club. Muir, based in California, in 1889 started organizing support to preserve the sequoias in the Yosemite Valley; Congress did pass the Yosemite National Park bill (1890). In 1897 President Grover Cleveland created thirteen protected forests but lumber interests had Congress cancel the move. Muir, taking the persona of an Old Testament prophet, crusaded against the lumberman, portraying it as a contest \"between landscape righteousness and the devil.\" A master publicist, Muir's magazine articles, in Harper's Weekly (June 5, 1897) and the Atlantic Monthly turned the tide of public sentiment. He mobilized public opinion to support Roosevelt's program of setting aside national monuments, national forest reserves, and national parks. However Muir broke with Roosevelt and especially President William Howard Taft on the Hetch Hetchy dam, which was built in the Yosemite National Park to supply water to San Francisco.","American frontier\n\nBiographer Donald Worster says, \"Saving the American soul from a total surrender to materialism was the cause for which he fought.\"","American frontier\n\nBuffalo","American frontier\n\nThe rise of the cattle industry and the cowboy is directly tied to the demise of the huge herds of bison—usually called the \"buffalo\". Once numbering over 25 million on the Great Plains, the grass-eating herds were a vital resource animal for the Plains Indians, providing food, hides for clothing and shelter, and bones for implements. Loss of habitat, disease, and over-hunting steadily reduced the herds through the 19th century to the point of near extinction. The last 10–15 million died out in a decade 1872–1883; only 100 survived. The tribes that depended on the buffalo had little choice but to accept the government offer of reservations, where the government would feed and supply them on condition they did not go on the warpath. Conservationists founded the American Bison Society in 1905; it lobbied Congress to establish public bison herds. Several national parks in the U.S. and Canada were created, in part to provide a sanctuary for bison and other large wildlife, with no hunting allowed. The bison population reached 500,000 by 2003.","American frontier\n\nAmerican frontier in popular culture","American frontier\n\nThe exploration, settlement, exploitation, and conflicts of the \"American Old West\" form a unique tapestry of events, which has been celebrated by Americans and foreigners alike—in art, music, dance, novels, magazines, short stories, poetry, theater, video games, movies, radio, television, song, and oral tradition—which continues in the modern era. Levy argues that the physical and mythological West inspired composers Aaron Copland, Roy Harris, Virgil Thomson, Charles Wakefield Cadman, and Arthur Farwell.","American frontier\n\nReligious themes have inspired many environmentalists as they contemplate the pristine West before the frontiersmen violated its spirituality. Actually, as historian William Cronon has demonstrated, the concept of \"wilderness\" was highly negative and the antithesis of religiosity before the romantic movement of the 19th century.","American frontier\n\nThe Frontier Thesis of historian Frederick Jackson Turner, proclaimed in 1893, established the main lines of historiography which fashioned scholarship for three or four generations and appeared in the textbooks used by practically all American students.","American frontier\n\nPopularizing Western lore","American frontier\n\nThe mythologizing of the West began with minstrel shows and popular music in the 1840s. During the same period, P. T. Barnum presented Indian chiefs, dances, and other Wild West exhibits in his museums. However, large scale awareness really took off when the dime novel appeared in 1859, the first being Malaeska, the Indian Wife of the White Hunter. By simplifying reality and grossly exaggerating the truth, the novels captured the public's attention with sensational tales of violence and heroism, and fixed in the public's mind stereotypical images of heroes and villains—courageous cowboys and savage Indians, virtuous lawmen and ruthless outlaws, brave settlers and predatory cattlemen. Millions of copies and thousands of titles were sold. The novels relied on a series of predictable literary formulas appealing to mass tastes and were often written in as little as a few days. The most successful of all dime novels was Edward S. Ellis' Seth Jones (1860). Ned Buntline's stories glamorized Buffalo Bill Cody and Edward L. Wheeler created \"Deadwood Dick\", \"Hurricane Nell\", and \"Calamity Jane\".","American frontier\n\nBuffalo Bill Cody was the most effective popularizer of the Old West in the U.S. and Europe. He presented the first \"Wild West\" show in 1883, featuring a recreation of famous battles (especially Custer's Last Stand), expert marksmanship, and dramatic demonstrations of horsemanship by cowboys and Indians, as well as sure-shooting Annie Oakley.","American frontier\n\nElite Eastern writers and artists of the late 19th century promoted and celebrated western lore. Theodore Roosevelt, wearing his hats as historian, explorer, hunter, rancher and naturalist, was especially productive. Their work appeared in upscale national magazines such as Harper's Weekly featured illustrations by artists Frederic Remington, Charles M. Russell, and others. Readers bought action-filled stories by writers like Owen Wister, conveying vivid images of the Old West. Remington lamented the passing of an era he helped to chronicle when he wrote:\nI knew the wild riders and the vacant land were about to vanish forever...I saw the living, breathing end of three American centuries of smoke and dust and sweat.","American frontier\n\n20th century imagery","American frontier\n\nThe 20th century, both tourists to the West, and avid readers enjoyed the visual imagery of the frontier. The Western movies provided the most famous examples, as in the numerous films of John Ford. He was especially enamored of Monument Valley. Critic Keith Phipps says, \"its 5 sqmi have defined what decades of moviegoers think of when they imagine the American West.\" The heroic stories coming out of the building of the transcontinental railroad in the mid-1860s enlivened many dime novels, and illustrated many newspapers and magazines with the juxtaposition of traditional environment with the iron horse of modernity.","American frontier\n\nCowboy images","American frontier\n\nThe cowboy has for over a century been an iconic American image both in the country and abroad; recognized worldwide and revered by Americans. The most famous popularizers of the image include part-time cowboy and \"Rough Rider\" President Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), who made \"cowboy\" internationally synonymous with the brash aggressive American, and Indian Territory-born trick roper Will Rogers (1879–1935), the leading humorist of the 1920s.","American frontier\n\nRoosevelt conceptualized the herder (cowboy) as a stage of civilization distinct from the sedentary farmer—a theme well expressed in the 1944 Hollywood hit Oklahoma! that highlights the enduring conflict between cowboys and farmers. Roosevelt argued that the manhood typified by the cowboy—and outdoor activity and sports generally—was essential if American men were to avoid the softness and rot produced by an easy life in the city.","American frontier\n\nWill Rogers, the son of a Cherokee judge in Oklahoma, started with rope tricks and fancy riding, but by 1919 discovered his audiences were even more enchanted with his wit in his representation of the wisdom of the common man.","American frontier\n\nOthers who contributed to enhancing the romantic image of the American cowboy include Charles Siringo (1855—1928) and Andy Adams (1859–1935). Cowboy, Pinkerton detective, and western author, Siringo was the first authentic cowboy autobiographer. Adams spent the 1880s in the cattle industry in Texas and 1890s mining in the Rockies. When an 1898 play's portrayal of Texans outraged Adams, he started writing plays, short stories, and novels drawn from his own experiences. His The Log of a Cowboy (1903) became a classic novel about the cattle business, especially the cattle drive. It described a fictional drive of the Circle Dot herd from Texas to Montana in 1882, and became a leading source on cowboy life; historians retraced its path in the 1960s, confirming its basic accuracy. His writings are acclaimed and criticized for realistic fidelity to detail on the one hand and thin literary qualities on the other. \nMany regard Red River (1948), directed by Howard Hawks, and starring John Wayne and Montgomery Clift, as an authentic cattle drive depiction.","American frontier\n\nThe unique skills of the cowboys are highlighted in the rodeo. It began in organized fashion in the West in the 1880s, when several Western cities followed up on touring Wild West shows and organized celebrations that included rodeo activities. The establishment of major cowboy competitions in the East in the 1920s led to the growth of rodeo sports. Trail cowboys who were also known as gunfighters like John Wesley Hardin, Luke Short and others, were known for their prowess, speed and skill with their pistols and other firearms. Their violent escapades and reputations morphed over time into the stereotypical image of violence endured by the \"cowboy hero\".","American frontier\n\nCode of the West","American frontier\n\nHistorians of the American West have written about the mythic West; the west of western literature, art and of people's shared memories. The phenomenon is \"the Imagined West\". The \"Code of the West\" was an unwritten, socially agreed upon set of informal laws shaping the cowboy culture of the Old West. Over time, the cowboys developed a personal culture of their own, a blend of values that even retained vestiges of chivalry. Such hazardous work in isolated conditions also bred a tradition of self-dependence and individualism, with great value put on personal honesty, exemplified in songs and cowboy poetry.Atherton, Lewis The Cattle Kings, (University of Nebraska Press 1961) pp. 241–262. The code also included the Gunfighter, who sometimes followed a form of code duello adopted from the Old South, in order to solve disputes and duels. Extrajudicial justice seen during the frontier days such as lynching, vigilantism and gunfighting, in turn popularized by the Western genre, would later be known in modern times as examples of frontier justice, as the West became a thing of imagination by the late 19th century.","American frontier\n\nEnd of the frontier","American frontier\n\nFollowing the eleventh U.S. Census taken in 1890 the superintendent announced that there was no longer a clear line of advancing settlement, and hence no longer a frontier in the continental United States. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner seized upon the statistic to announce the end of the era in which the frontier process shaped the American character.","American frontier\n\nFresh farmland was increasingly hard to find after 1890—although the railroads advertised some in eastern Montana. Bicha shows that nearly 600,000 American farmers sought cheap land by moving to the Prairie frontier of the Canadian West from 1897 to 1914. However about two-thirds of them grew disillusioned and returned to the U.S. The admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1907 upon the combination of the Oklahoma Territory and the last remaining Indian Territory, and the Arizona and New Mexico territories as states in 1912, did not end the frontier. These contained plenty of unoccupied land, as did the territory of Alaska. Nevertheless, the ethos and storyline of the \"American frontier\" had passed.","American frontier\n\nHistoriography","American frontier\n\nScores of Turner students became professors in history departments in the western states, and taught courses on the frontier. Scholars have debunked many of the myths of the frontier, but they nevertheless live on in community traditions, folklore and fiction. In the 1970s a historiographical range war broke out between the traditional frontier studies, which stress the influence of the frontier on all of American history and culture, and the \"New Western History\" which narrows the geographical and time framework to concentrate on the trans-Mississippi West after 1850. It avoids the word \"frontier\" and stresses cultural interaction between white culture and groups such as Indians and Hispanics. History professor William Weeks of the University of San Diego argues that in this \"New Western History\" approach: \nIt is easy to tell who the bad guys are – they are almost invariably white, male, and middle-class or better, while the good guys are almost invariably non-white, non-male, or non-middle class.... Anglo-American civilization....is represented as patriarchal, racist, genocidal, and destructive of the environment, in addition to hypocritically betrayed the ideals on which it supposedly is built.","American frontier\n\nHowever, by 2005, Aron argues, the two sides had \"reached an equilibrium in their rhetorical arguments and critiques.\".","American frontier\n\nMeanwhile, environmental history has emerged, in large part from the frontier historiography, hence its emphasis on wilderness. It plays an increasingly large role in frontier studies. Historians approached the environment from the point of view of the frontier or regionalism. The first group emphasizes human agency on the environment; the second looks at the influence of the environment. William Cronon has argued that Turner's famous 1893 essay was environmental history in an embryonic form. It emphasized the vast power of free land to attract and reshape settlers, making a transition from wilderness to civilization.","American frontier\n\nJournalist Samuel Lubell saw similarities between the frontier's Americanization of immigrants that Turner described and the social climbing by later immigrants in large cities as they moved to wealthier neighborhoods. He compared the effects of the railroad opening up Western lands to urban transportation systems and the automobile, and Western settlers' \"land hunger\" to poor city residents seeking social status. Just as the Republican party benefited from support from \"old\" immigrant groups that settled on frontier farms, \"new\" urban immigrants formed an important part of the Democratic New Deal coalition that began with Franklin Delano Roosevelt's victory in the 1932 presidential election.","American frontier\n\nSince the 1960s an active center is the history department at the University of New Mexico, along with the University of New Mexico Press. Leading historians there include Gerald D. Nash, Donald C. Cutter, Richard N. Ellis, Richard Etulain, Margaret Connell-Szasz, Paul Hutton, Virginia Scharff, and Samuel Truett. The department has collaborated with other departments and emphasizes Southwestern regionalism, minorities in the Southwest, and historiography.","Train robbery\n\nTrain robbery is a type of robbery, in which the goal is to steal money or other valuables being carried aboard trains.","Train robbery\n\nHistory","Train robbery\n\nTrain robberies were more common in the past than today, when the speed of trains was slower, and often occurred in the American Old West. Trains carrying payroll shipments were a major target. These shipments would be guarded by an expressman whose duty it was to protect the cargo of the \"express car\".","Train robbery\n\nBandits would rely on the expressman to open the safe and provide the goods. Without the combination required for the combination lock, it was almost impossible to break into the safes. However, the invention of dynamite made it much easier to break into safes and rob the train. If the outlaw was unsatisfied with the goods, passengers of the train's carriages, who were generally unarmed, would be held at gunpoint and forced to hand over any valuables they were carrying, usually in the form of jewelry or currency.","Train robbery\n\nContrary to the method romanticized by Hollywood, outlaws were never known to jump from horseback onto a moving train. Usually, they would either board the train normally and wait for a good time to initiate the heist, or they would stop or derail the train and then begin the holdup.","Train robbery\n\nFamous train robbers include Bill Miner, Jesse James, and Butch Cassidy. Jesse James is mistakenly thought to have completed the first successful train robbery in the American West when on July 21, 1873 the James-Younger Gang took US $3,000 from a Rock Island Railroad train after derailing it southwest of the town of Adair, Iowa. However, the first peacetime train robbery in the United States actually occurred on October 6, 1866, when robbers boarded the Ohio & Mississippi train shortly after it left Seymour, Indiana. They broke into one safe and tipped the other off the train before jumping off. The Pinkerton National Detective Agency later traced the crime to the Reno Gang. There was one earlier train robbery in May 1865, but because it was committed by armed guerrillas and occurred shortly after the end of the Civil War, it is not considered to be the first peacetime train robbery in the United States. Some sources say that the May 1865 robbery took place at a water siding while the train was stopped taking on water.","Train robbery\n\nList of train robbers","Train robbery\n\nSome notable train robbers are:\n*Jesse James, (1847 – 1882)\n*Butch Cassidy, (1866 - 1908)\n*William L. Carlisle, (1890-1964)\n* Bill Miner , (1847-1913)","Train robbery\n\nNotable robberies","Train robbery\n\n* The Great Western Mail Robbery (1849)\nIn two robberies on the Bristol and Exeter Railway two passengers climbed from their carriage to the mail van and back. They were discovered at Bridgwater after the second robbery. One was Henry Poole, a former guard on the Great Western Railway, dismissed for misconduct (possibly on suspicion of another robbery); his fellow passenger, Edward Nightingale, was the son of a man accused, but acquitted, of robbing the Dover mailcoach in 1826, when 2 thieves had dressed in identical clothes to gain an alibi for the other. They were transported for 15 years. Edward appears to have been transported to Perth in 1854. * Great Gold Robbery of 1855, United Kingdom - France (1855)\n* Union Pacific Big Springs robbery, Nebraska, USA (1877)\n* Canyon Diablo Train Robbery, Arizona, USA (1889)\n* Fairbank Train Robbery, Arizona, USA (1900)\n* Rogów raid, Poland (1906) \n* Bezdany raid, Lithuania (1908)\n* Baxter's Curve Train Robbery, Texas, USA (1912)\n* Newton Gang, Rondout, Illinois, USA (1924) \n* Kakori Train Robbery, India (1925)\n* Attaque du train de l’or, France (1938)\n* B & O Zoot Suit Bandits, W.","Train robbery\n\nVirginia, USA (1949)\n* Japeri Train Robbery, Brazil (1960)\n* Great Train Robbery, United Kingdom (1963)\n* Sallins Train Robbery, Ireland (1976)\n* Sino-Russian Train Robbery, Russia (1993)","Train robbery\n\nIn fiction","Train robbery\n\n* The Great Train Robbery, film (1903)\n* Whispering Smith, film (1948), starring Alan Ladd\n* Man of the West, film (1958), starring Gary Cooper\n* O Assalto ao Trem Pagador (1962) a Brazilian film which portrays the Japeri Train Robbery\n* Tex Rides with the Boy Scouts (1968)\n* Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, film (1969), starring Paul Newman and Robert Redford\n* The Wild Bunch, film (1969), starring William Holden\n* One More Train to Rob, film (1971), starring George Peppard\n* The Train Robbers, film (1973), starring John Wayne\n* The Taking of Pelham One Two Three, film (1974), starring Walter Matthau\n* The Great Train Robbery, novel (1975)\n* The Missouri Breaks, film (1976), starring Jack Nicholson and Marlon Brando\n* The First Great Train Robbery, film, (1979), starring Sean Connery\n* The Chase, novel by Clive Cussler\n* The Grey Fox (1982) Canadian film starring Richard Farnsworth that was filmed on the British Columbia Railway\n* Tough Guys (1986) a comedy film about two elderly train robbers, starring Kirk Douglas and Burt Lancaster\n* Money Train, film (1995), starring Woody Harrelson and Wesley Snipes\n* The Train Job, an episode of the TV series Firefly that involved a train robbery\n* The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford, film (2007), starring Brad Pitt\n* The Taking of Pelham 123, film (2009), starring Denzel Washington and John Travolta\n* Dead Freight, an episode of the TV series Breaking Bad in which methylamine is stolen from a train","Adair, Iowa\n\nAdair is a city in Adair and Guthrie Counties in the U.S. state of Iowa. The population was 781 at the 2010 census.","Adair, Iowa\n\nThe Guthrie County portion of Adair is part of the Des Moines–West Des Moines Metropolitan Statistical Area.","Adair, Iowa\n\nHistory","Adair, Iowa\n\nThe Rock Island Railroad was built through the area in 1868. This led to the area being known as Summit Cut. This is in reference to the ridge that forms the watershed divide between the Missouri River and the Mississippi River. The town officially became Adair on August 20, 1872 when it was incorporated with the county. The town is named after General John Adair, a general in the War of 1812 who later became the 8th governor of Kentucky. Adair was the scene of the first successful train robbery in the American West when on July 21, 1873 the James-Younger Gang (led by Jesse James) took US $3,000 from the Rock Island Express after derailing it southwest of the town. The derailment killed the engineer.","Adair, Iowa\n\nA rare F5 tornado occurred near this town on June 27, 1953.","Adair, Iowa\n\nAdair is recognizable from Interstate 80 by its tall yellow \"smiley-face\" water tower. Humorously known as \"the happiest town on Earth\", its roadsign warmly greets visitors with, \"Welcome to Adair; it'll make you smile\". Some of the local businesses incorporate the smiley-face tower image into their company logos.","Adair, Iowa\n\nGeography","Adair, Iowa\n\nAdair is located at (41.500094, -94.643839).","Adair, Iowa\n\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.","Adair, Iowa\n\nDemographics","Adair, Iowa\n\n2010 census","Adair, Iowa\n\nAs of the census of 2010, there were 781 people, 361 households, and 208 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 403 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 98.1% White, 0.1% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 0.8% from other races, and 0.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.3% of the population.","Adair, Iowa\n\nThere were 361 households of which 24.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.2% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 1.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 42.4% were non-families. 38.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 19.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 2.88.","Adair, Iowa\n\nThe median age in the city was 41.9 years. 23.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.8% were from 25 to 44; 26.9% were from 45 to 64; and 17.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.0% male and 51.0% female.","Adair, Iowa\n\n2000 census","Adair, Iowa\n\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 839 people, 366 households, and 214 families residing in the city. The population density was 381.1 people per square mile (147.2/km²). There were 404 housing units at an average density of 183.5 per square mile (70.9/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 99.05% White, 0.12% Native American, 0.36% Asian, 0.24% from other races, and 0.24% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.19% of the population.","Adair, Iowa\n\nThere were 366 households out of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.4% were married couples living together, 5.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.5% were non-families. 39.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 21.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.97 and the average family size was 3.51.","Adair, Iowa\n\nAge spread: 22.2% under the age of 18, 17.3% from 18 to 24, 24.3% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 97.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.5 males.","Adair, Iowa\n\nThe median income for a household in the city was $31,319, and the median income for a family was $42,847. Males had a median income of $27,083 versus $22,941 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,557. About 2.5% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.3% of those under age 18 and 8.6% of those age 65 or over."],"string":"[\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe American Frontier comprises the geography, history, folklore, and cultural expression of life in the forward wave of American expansion that began with English colonial settlements in the early 17th century and ended with the admission of the last mainland territories as states in 1912. \\\"Frontier\\\" refers to a contrasting region at the edge of a European-American line of settlement. American historians cover multiple frontiers but the folklore is focused primarily on the 19th century west of the Mississippi River. Enormous popular attention in the media focuses on the Western United States in the second half of the 19th century, a period sometimes called the Old West, or the Wild West, frequently exaggerating the romance and violence of the period.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAs defined by Hine and Faragher, \\\"frontier history tells the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the land, the development of markets, and the formation of states.\\\" They explain, \\\"It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, and the merging of peoples and cultures that gave birth and continuing life to America.\\\" Through treaties with foreign nations and native tribes; political compromise; military conquest; establishment of law and order; the building of farms, ranches, and towns; the marking of trails and digging of mines; and the pulling in of great migrations of foreigners, the United States expanded from coast to coast, fulfilling the dreams of Manifest Destiny. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner in his \\\"Frontier Thesis\\\" (1893) theorized that the frontier was a process that transformed Europeans into a new people, the Americans, whose values focused on equality, democracy, and optimism, as well as individualism, self-reliance, and even violence. Thus, Turner's Frontier Thesis proclaimed the westward frontier as the defining process of American history.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAs the American frontier passed into history, the myths of the West in fiction and film took firm hold in the imagination of Americans and foreigners alike. America is exceptional in choosing its iconic self-image. David Murdoch has said: \\\"No other nation has taken a time and place from its past and produced a construct of the imagination equal to America's creation of the West.\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe terms \\\"West\\\" and \\\"Frontier\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe frontier line was the outer line of European-American settlement. It moved steadily westward from the 1630s to the 1880s (with occasional movements north into Maine and Vermont, south into Florida, and east from California into Nevada). Turner favored the Census Bureau definition of the \\\"frontier line\\\" as a settlement density of two people per square mile. The \\\"West\\\" was the recently settled area near that boundary. Thus, parts of the Midwest and American South, though no longer considered \\\"western\\\", have a frontier heritage along with the modern western states. In the 21st century, however, the term \\\"American West\\\" is most often used for the area west of the Mississippi River.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nColonial frontier\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn the colonial era, before 1776, the west was of high priority for settlers and politicians. The American frontier began when Jamestown, Virginia was settled by the English in 1607. In the earliest days of European settlement of the Atlantic coast, down to about 1680, the frontier was essentially any part of the interior of the continent beyond the fringe of existing settlements along the Atlantic coast. English, French, Spanish and Dutch patterns of expansion and settlement were quite different. Only a few thousand French migrated to Canada; these habitants settled in villages along the St. Lawrence river, building communities that remained stable for long stretches; they did not simply jump west the way the British did. Although French fur traders ranged widely through the Great Lakes and mid-west region they seldom settled down. French settlement was limited to a few very small villages such as Kaskaskia, Illinois as well as a larger settlement around New Orleans. Likewise, the Dutch set up fur trading posts in the Hudson River valley, followed by large grants of land to rich landowning patroons who brought in tenant farmers who created compact, permanent villages.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThey created a dense rural settlement in upstate New York, but they did not push westward.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAreas in the north that were in the frontier stage by 1700 generally had poor transportation facilities, so the opportunity for commercial agriculture was low. These areas remained primarily in subsistence agriculture, and as a result by the 1760s these societies were highly egalitarian, as explained by historian Jackson Turner Main:\\nThe typical frontier society therefore was one in which class distinctions were minimized. The wealthy speculator, if one was involved, usually remained at home, so that ordinarily no one of wealth was a resident. The class of landless poor was small. The great majority were landowners, most of whom were also poor because they were starting with little property and had not yet cleared much land nor had they acquired the farm tools and animals which would one day make them prosperous. Few artisans settled on the frontier except for those who practiced a trade to supplement their primary occupation of farming. There might be a storekeeper, a minister, and perhaps a doctor; and there were a number of landless laborers. All the rest were farmers.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn the South, frontier areas that lacked transportation, such as the Appalachian Mountain region, remained based on subsistence farming and resembled the egalitarianism of their northern counterparts, although they had a larger upper-class of slaveowners. North Carolina was representative. However frontier areas of 1700 that had good river connections were increasingly transformed into plantation agriculture. Rich men came in, bought up the good land, and worked it with slaves. The area was no longer \\\"frontier.\\\" It had a stratified society comprising a powerful upper-class white landowning gentry, a small middle-class, a fairly large group of landless or tenant white farmers, and a growing slave population at the bottom of the social pyramid. Unlike the North, where small towns and even cities were common, the South was overwhelmingly rural.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Near West\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe seaboard colonial settlements gave priority to land ownership for individual farmers, and as the population grew they pushed westward for fresh farm land. Unlike Britain, where a small number of landlords owned most of the good land, ownership in America was cheap, easy and widespread. Land ownership brought a degree of independence as well as a vote for local and provincial offices. The typical New England settlements were quite compact and small—under a square mile. Conflict with the Native Americans arose out of political issues, viz. who would rule. Early frontier areas east of the Appalachian Mountains included the Connecticut River valley, and northern New England (which was a move to the north, not the west).\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nMost of the frontiers experienced Indian wars, The \\\"French and Indian Wars\\\" were imperial wars between Britain and France (part of the worldwide Seven Years' War), with the French making up for their small colonial population base by enlisting Indian war parties as allies. The series of large wars spilling over from European wars ended in a complete victory for the British. In the war ending settlement (1763), the lands west of the Mississippi river, including New Orleans, went to Spain. East of the River the lands—and what is now Canada—went to Britain.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nRegardless of wars Americans were moving across the Appalachians into western Pennsylvania, what is now West Virginia, and areas of the Ohio Country, Kentucky and Tennessee. In the southern settlements via the Cumberland Gap, their most famous leader was Daniel Boone, but to the north, closer to dense colonial populations and Europe immigrants, a certain Virginia gentleman, George Washington promoted settlements in West Virginia and Southwestern Pennsylvania to lands he'd acquired title to both as a surveyor and as someone who'd distinguished himself as an officer in Virginia's colonial militia. West of the mountain's settlements were curtailed abruptly by a decree by the British crown in 1763, which also deconflicted many of the conflicting claims made by various colonies. The Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768) was an attempt by colonials to re-open in part, trans-Appalachian settlements from the Eastern Seaboard cities.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nNew Nation\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe first major movement west of the Appalachian mountains originated in Pennsylvania, Virginia and North Carolina as soon as the Revolutionary War ended in 1781. Pioneers housed themselves in a rough lean-to or at most a one-room log cabin. The main food supply at first came from hunting deer, turkeys, and other abundant game. \\nClad in typical frontier garb, leather breeches, moccasins, fur cap, and hunting shirt, and girded by a belt from which hung a hunting knife and a shot pouch – all homemade – the pioneer presented a unique appearance. In a short time he opened in the woods a patch, or clearing, on which he grew corn, wheat, flax, tobacco and other products, even fruit. \\nIn a few years the pioneer added hogs, sheep and cattle, and perhaps acquired a horse. Homespun clothing replaced the animal skins. The more restless pioneers grew dissatisfied with over civilized life, and uprooted themselves again to move 50 or hundred miles further west.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nLand policy\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe land policy of the new nation was conservative, paying special attention to the needs of the settled East. The goals sought by both parties in the 1790–1820 era were to grow the economy; avoid draining away the skilled workers needed in the East; distribute the land wisely; sell it at prices that were reasonable to settlers yet high enough to pay off the national debt; clear legal titles; and create a diversified Western economy that would be closely interconnected with the settled areas with minimal risk of a breakaway movement. By the 1830s, however, the West was filling up with squatters who had no legal deed, although they may have paid money to previous settlers. The Jacksonian Democrats favored the squatters by promising rapid access to cheap land. By contrast, Henry Clay was alarmed at the \\\"lawless rabble\\\" heading West who were undermining the utopian concept of a law-abiding, stable middle-class republican community. Rich southerners, meanwhile, looked for opportunities to buy high-quality land to set up slave plantations.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Free Soil movement of the 1840s called for low-cost land for free white farmers, a position enacted into law by the new Republican Party in 1862, offering free 160 acre homesteads to all adults, male and female, black and white, native-born or immigrant.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Louisiana Purchase\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAfter winning the Revolutionary War (1783), American settlers in large numbers poured into the west. In 1788, American pioneers to the Northwest Territory established Marietta, Ohio as the first permanent American settlement in the Northwest Territory.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn 1775, Daniel Boone blazed a trail for the Transylvania Company from Virginia through the Cumberland Gap into central Kentucky. It was later lengthened to reach the Falls of the Ohio at Louisville. The Wilderness Road was steep and rough, and it could only be traversed on foot or horseback, but it was the best route for thousands of settlers moving into Kentucky. In some areas they had to face Indian attacks. In 1784 alone, Indians killed over 100 travelers on the Wilderness Road. No Indians lived permanently in Kentucky but they sent raiding parties to stop the newcomers. One of those intercepted was Abraham Lincoln's grandfather, who was scalped in 1784 near Louisville.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAcquisition of Indian lands\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe War of 1812 marked the final confrontation between major Indian forces trying to stop the advance, with British aid. The British war goal included the creation of an independent Indian state (under British auspices) in the Midwest. American frontier militiamen under General Andrew Jackson defeated the Creeks and opened the Southwest, while militia under Governor William Henry Harrison defeated the Indian-British alliance at the Battle of the Thames in Canada in 1813. The death in battle of the Indian leader Tecumseh dissolved the coalition of hostile Indian tribes. Meanwhile, General Andrew Jackson ended the Indian military threat in the Southeast at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814 in Alabama. In general the frontiersmen battled the Indians with little help from the U.S. Army or the federal government.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nTo end the War of 1812 John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and Albert Gallatin (a leading anthropologist) and the other American diplomats negotiated the Treaty of Ghent in 1814 with Britain. They rejected the British plan to set up an Indian state in U.S. territory south of the Great Lakes. They explained the American policy toward acquisition of Indian lands:\\nThe United States, while intending never to acquire lands from the Indians otherwise than peaceably, and with their free consent, are fully determined, in that manner, progressively, and in proportion as their growing population may require, to reclaim from the state of nature, and to bring into cultivation every portion of the territory contained within their acknowledged boundaries. In thus providing for the support of millions of civilized beings, they will not violate any dictate of justice or of humanity; for they will not only give to the few thousand savages scattered over that territory an ample equivalent for any right they may surrender, but will always leave them the possession of lands more than they can cultivate, and more than adequate to their subsistence, comfort, and enjoyment, by cultivation.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIf this be a spirit of aggrandizement, the undersigned are prepared to admit, in that sense, its existence; but they must deny that it affords the slightest proof of an intention not to respect the boundaries between them and European nations, or of a desire to encroach upon the territories of Great Britain. [...] They will not suppose that that Government will avow, as the basis of their policy towards the United States a system of arresting their natural growth within their own territories, for the sake of preserving a perpetual desert for savages.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nNew territories and states\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAs settlers poured in, the frontier districts first became territories, with an elected legislature and a governor appointed by the president. Then when population reached 100,000 the territory applied for statehood. Frontiersmen typically dropped the legalistic formalities and restrictive franchise favored by eastern upper classes, and adopting more democracy and more egalitarianism.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn 1800 the western frontier had reached the Mississippi River. St. Louis, Missouri was the largest town on the frontier, the gateway for travel westward, and a principal trading center for Mississippi River traffic and inland commerce.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThomas Jefferson thought of himself as a man of the frontier and was keenly interested in expanding and exploring the West. Jefferson's Louisiana Purchase of 1803 doubled the size of the nation at the cost of $15 million, or about $0.04 per acre ($ million in dollars, less than 42 cents per acre). Federalists opposed the expansion, but Jeffersonians hailed the opportunity to create millions of new farms to expand the domain of land-owning yeomen; the ownership would strengthen the ideal republican society, based on agriculture (not commerce), governed lightly, and promoting self-reliance and virtue, as well as form the political base for Jeffersonian Democracy.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nEven before the purchase Jefferson was planning expeditions to explore and map the lands. He charged Lewis and Clark to \\\"explore the Missouri River, and such principal stream of it, as, by its course and communication with the waters of the Pacific Ocean; whether the Columbia, Oregon, Colorado or any other river may offer the most direct and practicable communication across the continent for the purposes of commerce\\\". Jefferson also instructed the expedition to study the region's native tribes (including their morals, language, and culture), weather, soil, rivers, commercial trading, animal and plant life.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nEntrepreneurs, most notably John Jacob Astor quickly seized the opportunity and expanded fur trading operations into the Pacific Northwest. Astor's \\\"Fort Astoria\\\" (later Fort George), at the mouth of the Columbia River, became the first permanent white settlement in that area, although it was not profitable for Astor. He set up the American Fur Company in an attempt to break the hold that the Hudson's Bay Company monopoly had over the region. By 1820, Astor had taken over independent traders to create a profitable monopoly; he left the business as a multi-millionaire in 1834.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe fur trade\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAs the frontier moved westward, trappers and hunters moved ahead of settlers, searching out new supplies of beaver and other skins for shipment to Europe. The hunters were the first Europeans in much of the Old West and they formed the first working relationships with the Native Americans in the West. They added extensive knowledge of the Northwest terrain, including the important South Pass through the central Rocky Mountains. Discovered about 1812, it later became a major route for settlers to Oregon and Washington. By 1820, however, a new \\\"brigade-rendezvous\\\" system sent company men in \\\"brigades\\\" cross-country on long expeditions, bypassing many tribes. It also encouraged \\\"free trappers\\\" to explore new regions on their own. At the end of the gathering season, the trappers would \\\"rendezvous\\\" and turn in their goods for pay at river ports along the Green River, the Upper Missouri, and the Upper Mississippi. St. Louis was the largest of the rendezvous towns. By 1830, however, fashions changed and beaver hats were replaced by silk hats, ending the demand for expensive American furs. Thus ended the era of the mountain men, trappers and scouts such as Jedediah Smith, Hugh Glass, Davy Crockett, Jack Omohundro and others.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe trade in beaver fur virtually ceased by 1845.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe federal government and the West\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThere was wide agreement on the need to settle the new territories quickly, but the debate polarized over the price the government should charge. The conservatives and Whigs, typified by president John Quincy Adams, wanted a moderated pace that charged the newcomers enough to pay the costs of the federal government. The Democrats, however, tolerated a wild scramble for land at very low prices. The final resolution came in the Homestead Law of 1862, with a moderated pace that gave settlers 160 acres free after they worked on it for five years.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe private profit motive dominated the movement westward, but the Federal Government played a supporting role in securing land through treaties and setting up territorial governments, with governors appointed by the President. The federal government first acquired western territory through treaties with other nations or native tribes. Then it sent surveyors to map and document the land. By the 20th century Washington bureaucracies managed the federal lands such as the General Land Office in the Interior department, and after 1891 the Forest Service in the Department of Agriculture. After 1900 dam building and flood control became major concerns.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nTransportation was a key issue and the Army (especially the Army Corps of Engineers) was given full responsibility for facilitating navigation on the rivers. The steamboat, first used on the Ohio River in 1811, made possible inexpensive travel using the river systems, especially the Mississippi and Missouri rivers and their tributaries. Army expeditions up the Missouri River in 1818–25 allowed engineers to improve the technology. For example, the Army's steamboat \\\"Western Engineer\\\" of 1819 combined a very shallow draft with one of the earliest stern wheels. In 1819–25, Colonel Henry Atkinson developed keelboats with hand-powered paddle wheels.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe federal postal system played a crucial role in national expansion. It facilitated expansion into the West by creating an inexpensive, fast, convenient communication system. Letters from early settlers provided information and boosterism to encourage increased migration to the West, helped scattered families stay in touch and provide neutral help, assisted entrepreneurs to find business opportunities, and made possible regular commercial relationships between merchants and the West and wholesalers and factories back east. The postal service likewise assisted the Army in expanding control over the vast western territories. The widespread circulation of important newspapers by mail, such as the New York Weekly Tribune, facilitated coordination among politicians in different states. The postal service helped integrated established areas with the frontier, creating a spirit of nationalism and providing a necessary infrastructure.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nScientists, artists and explorers\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nGovernment and private enterprise sent many explorers to the West. In 1805–6, Army lieutenant Zebulon Pike (1779–1813) led a party of 20 soldiers to find the head waters of the Mississippi. He later explored the Red and Arkansas Rivers in Spanish territory, eventually reaching the Rio Grande. On his return, Pike sighted the peak in Colorado named after him. Major Stephen Harriman Long (1784–1864) led the Yellowstone and Missouri expeditions of 1819–1820, but his categorizing in 1823 of the Great Plains as arid and useless led to the region getting a bad reputation as the \\\"Great American Desert\\\", which discouraged settlement in that area for several decades.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn 1811, naturalists Thomas Nuttall (1786–1859) and John Bradbury (1768–1823) traveled up the Missouri River with the Astoria expedition, documenting and drawing plant and animal life. Later, Nuthall explored the Indian Territory (Oklahoma), the Oregon Trail, and even Hawaii. His book A Journal of Travels into the Arkansas Territory was an important account of frontier life. Although Nuthall was the most traveled Western naturalist before 1840, unfortunately most of his documentation and specimens were lost. Artist George Catlin (1796–1872) traveled up the Missouri as far as North Dakota, producing accurate paintings of Native American culture. A Swiss visitor Karl Bodmer (1809–93), was in the U.S. in 1832–34 with the Prince Maximilian expedition; he made compelling landscapes and portraits. In 1803, John James Audubon (1785–1851) immigrated from Haiti and established a reputation as a leading explorer, woodsman, painter, and naturalist. His greatest achievement involved classifying and painting in minute details 500 species of birds, called Birds of America.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe most famous of the explorers was John Charles Frémont (1813–1890), a commissioned officer in the Army's Corps of Topographical Engineers. He displayed a talent for exploration and a genius at self-promotion that gave him the sobriquet of \\\"Pathmarker of the West\\\" and led him to the presidential nomination of the new Republican Party in 1856. He led a series of expeditions in the 1840s which answered many of the outstanding geographic questions about the little-known region. He crossed through the Rocky Mountains by five different routes, and mapped parts of Oregon and California. In 1846–7, he played a role in conquering California. In 1848–49, Frémont was assigned to locate a central route through the mountains for the proposed transcontinental railroad, but his expedition ended in near-disaster when it became lost and was trapped by heavy snow. His reports mixed narrative of exciting adventure with scientific data, and detailed practical information for travelers. It caught the public imagination and inspired many to head west. Goetzman says it was \\\"monumental in its breadth—a classic of exploring literature.\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nWhile colleges were springing up across the Northeast, there was little competition on the western frontier for Transylvania University, founded in Lexington, Kentucky, in 1780. It boasted of a law school in addition to its undergraduate and a medical programs. Transylvania attracted politically ambitious young men from across the Southwest, including 50 who became United States senators, 101 Congressman, 36 governors and 34 ambassadors, as well as Jefferson Davis, the president of the Confederacy.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Antebellum West\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe established Eastern churches were slow to meet the needs of the frontier. The Presbyterians and Congregationalists, since they depended on well-educated ministers, were shorthanded in evangelizing the frontier. They set up a Plan of Union of 1801 to combine resources on the frontier. Most frontiersmen showed little commitment to religion until traveling evangelists began to appear and to produce \\\"revivals\\\". The local pioneers responded enthusiastically to these events and, in effect, evolved their own populist religions, especially during the Second Great Awakening (1790–1840), which featured outdoor camp meetings lasting a week or more and which introduced many people to organized religion for the first time. One of the largest and most famous camp meetings took place at Cane Ridge, Kentucky in 1801.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe localistic Baptists set up small independent churches—Baptists abjured centralized authority; each local church was founded on the principle of independence of the local congregation. On the other hand, bishops of the well-organized, centralized Methodists assigned circuit riders to specific areas for several years at a time, then moved them to fresh territory. Several new denominations were formed, of which the largest was the Disciples of Christ.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nDemocracy in the Midwest\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nHistorian Mark Wyman calls Wisconsin a \\\"palimpsest\\\" of layer upon layer of peoples and forces, each imprinting permanent influences. He identified these layers as multiple \\\"frontiers\\\" over three centuries: Native American frontier, French frontier, English frontier, fur-trade frontier, mining frontier, and the logging frontier. Finally the coming of the railroad brought the end of the frontier.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nFrederick Jackson Turner grew up in Wisconsin during its last frontier stage, and in his travels around the state he could see the layers of social and political development. One of Turner's last students, Merle Curti used in-depth analysis of local Wisconsin history to test Turner's thesis about democracy. Turner's view was that American democracy, \\\"involved widespread participation in the making of decisions affecting the common life, the development of initiative and self-reliance, and equality of economic and cultural opportunity. It thus also involved Americanization of immigrant.\\\" Curti found that from 1840 to 1860 in Wisconsin the poorest groups gained rapidly in land ownership, and often rose to political leadership at the local level. He found that even landless young farmworkers were soon able to obtain their own farms. Free land on the frontier therefore created opportunity and democracy, for both European immigrants as well as old stock Yankees.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nSouthwest\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nFrom the 1770s to the 1830s, pioneers moved into the new lands that stretched from Kentucky to Alabama to Texas. Most were farmers who moved in family groups.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nHistorian Louis Hacker shows how wasteful was the first generation of pioneers; they were too ignorant to cultivate the land properly and when the natural fertility of virgin land was used up, they sold out and moved west to try again. Hacker says that in Kentucky about 1812:\\n\\\"Farms were for sale with from ten to fifty acres cleared, possessing log houses, peach and sometimes apple orchards, inclosed in fences, and having plenty of standing timber for fuel. The land was sown in wheat and corn, which were the staples, while hemp [for making rope] was being cultivated in increasing quantities in the fertile river bottoms....\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\n\\\"Yet, on the whole, it was an agricultural society without skill or resources. It committed all those sins which characterize a wasteful and ignorant husbandry. Grass seed was not sown for hay and as a result the farm animals had to forage for themselves in the forests; the fields were not permitted to lie in pasturage; a single crop was planted in the soil until the land was exhausted; the manure was not returned to the fields; only a small part of the farm was brought under cultivation, the rest being permitted to stand in timber. Instruments of cultivation were rude and clumsy and only too few, many of them being made on the farm. It is plain why the American frontier settler was on the move continually. It was, not his fear of a too close contact with the comforts and restraints of a civilized society that stirred him into a ceaseless activity, nor merely the chance of selling out at a profit to the coming wave of settlers; it was his wasting land that drove him on. Hunger was the goad.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe pioneer farmer's ignorance, his inadequate facilities for cultivation, his limited means, of transport necessitated his frequent changes of scene. He could succeed only with virgin soil.\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nHacker adds that the second wave of settlers reclaimed the land, repaired the damage, and practiced superior and more profitable husbandry. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner explored the individualistic world view and values of the first generation:\\n\\\"What they objected to was arbitrary obstacles, artificial limitations upon the freedom of each member of this frontier folk to work out his own career without fear or favor. What they instinctively opposed was the crystallization of differences, the monopolization of opportunity and the fixing of that monopoly by government or by social customs. The road must be open. The game must be played according to the rules. There must be no artificial stifling of equality of opportunity, no closed doors to the able, no stopping the free game before it was played to the end. More than that, there was an unformulated, perhaps, but very real feeling, that mere success in the game, by which the abler men were able to achieve preëminence gave to the successful ones no right to look down upon their neighbors, no vested title to assert superiority as a matter of pride and to the diminution of the equal right and dignity of the less successful.\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nManifest Destiny\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nManifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was pre-ordained to expand from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific coast. The concept was expressed during Colonial times, but the term was coined in the 1840s by a popular magazine which editorialized, \\\"the fulfillment of our manifest destiny...to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.\\\" As the nation grew, it said \\\"by the right of our manifest destiny.\\\" \\\"Manifest destiny\\\" became a rallying cry for expansionists in the Democratic Party in the 1840s as the Tyler and Polk administrations (1841–48) successfully promoted this nationalistic doctrine. However the Whig Party, which represented business and financial interests, stood opposed to Manifest Destiny. Whig leaders such as Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln called for deepening the society through modernization and urbanization instead of simple horizontal expansion. Starting with the annexation of Texas, the expansionists got the upper hand. John Quincy Adams, an anti-slavery Whig, felt the Texas annexation in 1845 to be \\\"the heaviest calamity that ever befell myself and my country\\\".\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nHelping settlers move westward were the emigrant \\\"guide books\\\" of the 1840s featuring route information supplied by the fur traders and the Frémont expeditions, and promising fertile farm land beyond the Rockies.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nMexico and Texas\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nMexico became independent of Spain in 1821, and took over Spain's northern possessions stretching from Texas to California. Caravans began delivering goods to Mexico's Santa Fe along the Santa Fe Trail, over the 870 mi journey which took 48 days from Kansas City, Missouri (then known as Westport). Santa Fe was also the trailhead for the \\\"El Camino Real\\\" (the King's Highway), a trade route which carried American manufactured goods southward deep into Mexico and returned silver, furs, and mules northward (not to be confused with another \\\"Camino Real\\\" which connected the missions in California). A branch also ran eastward near the Gulf (also called the Old San Antonio Road). Santa Fe connected to California via the Old Spanish Trail.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Spanish and Mexican governments attracted American settlers to Texas with generous terms. Stephen F. Austin became an \\\"empresario,\\\" receiving contracts from the Mexican officials to bring in immigrants. In doing so, he also became the de facto political and military commander of the area. Tensions rose, however, after an abortive attempt to establish the independent nation of Fredonia in 1826. William Travis, leading the \\\"war party,\\\" advocated for independence from Mexico, while the \\\"peace party\\\" led by Austin attempted to get more autonomy within the current relationship. When Mexican president Santa Anna shifted alliances and joined the conservative Centralist party, he declared himself dictator and ordered soldiers into Texas to curtail new immigration and unrest. However, immigration continued and 30,000 Anglos with 3,000 slaves were settled in Texas by 1835. In 1836, the Texas Revolution erupted. Following losses at the Alamo and Goliad, the Texians won the decisive Battle of San Jacinto to secure independence. At San Jacinto, Sam Houston, commander-in-chief of the Texian Army and future President of the Republic of Texas famously shouted \\\"Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad\\\". The U.S. Congress declined to annex Texas, stalemated by contentious arguments over slavery and regional power.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThus, the Republic of Texas remained an independent power for nearly a decade before it was annexed as the 28th state in 1845. The government of Mexico, however, viewed Texas as a runaway province and asserted its ownership.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Mexican–American War\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nMexico refused to recognize the independence of Texas in 1836, but the U.S. and European powers did so. Mexico threatened war if Texas joined the U.S., which it did in 1845. American negotiators were turned away by a Mexicao government in turmoil. When the Mexican army killed 16 American soldiers in disputed territory war was at hand. Whigs, such as Congressman Abraham Lincoln denounced the war, but it was quite popular outside New England.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Mexican strategy was defensive; the American strategy was a three pronged offensive, using large numbers of volunteer soldiers. Overland forces seized New Mexico with little resistance and headed to California, which quickly fell to the American land and naval forces. From the main American base at New Orleans, General Zachary Taylor led forces into northern Mexico, winning a series of battles that ensued. The U.S. Navy transported General Winfield Scott to Veracruz. He then marched his 12,000 man force west to Mexico City, winning the final battle at Chapultepec. Talk of acquiring all of Mexico fell away when the army discovered the Mexican political and cultural values were so alien to America's. As the Cincinnati Herald asked, what would the U.S. do with eight million Mexicans \\\"with their idol worship, heathen superstition, and degraded mongrel races?\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848 ceded the territories of California and New Mexico to the United States for $18.5 million (which included the assumption of claims against Mexico by settlers). The Gadsden Purchase in 1853 added southern Arizona, which was needed for a railroad route to California. In all Mexico ceded half a million square miles and included the states-to-be of California, Utah, Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming, in addition to Texas. Managing the new territories and dealing with the slavery issue caused intense controversy, particularly over the Wilmot Proviso, which would have outlawed slavery in the new territories. Congress never passed it, but rather temporarily resolved the issue of slavery in the West with the Compromise of 1850. California entered the Union in 1850 as a free state; the other areas remained territories for many years.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nGrowth of Texas\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe new state grew rapidly as migrants poured into the fertile cotton lands of east Texas. German immigrants started to arrive in the early 1840s because of negative economic, social and political pressures in Germany. With their investments in cotton lands and slaves, planters established cotton plantations in the eastern districts. The central area of the state was developed more by subsistence farmers who seldom owned slaves.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nTexas in its Wild West days attracted men who could shoot straight and possessed the zest for adventure, \\\"for masculine renown, patriotic service, martial glory and meaningful deaths.\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe California Gold Rush\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn 1846 about 10,000 Californios (Hispanics) lived in California, primarily on cattle ranches in what is now the Los Angeles area. A few hundred foreigners were scattered in the northern districts, including some Americans. With the outbreak of war with Mexico in 1846 the U.S. sent in Frémont and a U.S. Army unit, as well as naval forces, and quickly took control. As the war was ending gold was discovered in the north, and the word soon spread worldwide.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThousands of \\\"Forty-Niners\\\" reached California, by sailing around South America (or taking a short-cut through disease-ridden Panama), or walked the California trail. The population soared to over 200,000 in 1852, mostly in the gold districts that stretched into the mountains east of San Francisco.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nHousing in San Francisco was at a premium, and abandoned ships whose crews had headed for the mines were often converted to temporary lodging. In the gold fields themselves living conditions were primitive, though the mild climate proved attractive. Supplies were expensive and food poor, typical diets consisting mostly of pork, beans, and whiskey. These highly male, transient communities with no established institutions were prone to high levels of violence, drunkenness, profanity, and greed-driven behavior. Without courts or law officers in the mining communities to enforce claims and justice, miners developed their own ad hoc legal system, based on the \\\"mining codes\\\" used in other mining communities abroad. Each camp had its own rules and often handed out justice by popular vote, sometimes acting fairly and at times exercising vigilantism—with Indians, Mexicans, and Chinese generally receiving the harshest sentences.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe gold rush radically changed the California economy and brought in an array of professionals, including precious metal specialists, merchants, doctors, and attorneys, who added to the population of miners, saloon keepers, gamblers, and prostitutes. A San Francisco newspaper stated, \\\"The whole country... resounds to the sordid cry of gold! Gold! Gold! while the field is left half planted, the house half built, and everything neglected but the manufacture of shovels and pick axes.\\\" Over 250,000 miners found a total of more than $200 million in gold in the five years of the California Gold Rush. As thousands arrived, however, fewer and fewer miners struck their fortune, and most ended exhausted and broke.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nViolent bandits often preyed upon the miners, such as the case of Jonathan R. Davis' killing of eleven bandits single-handedly. Camps spread out north and south of the American River and eastward into the Sierras. In a few years, nearly all of the independent miners were displaced as mines were purchased and run by mining companies, who then hired low-paid salaried miners. As gold became harder to find and more difficult to extract, individual prospectors gave way to paid work gangs, specialized skills, and mining machinery. Bigger mines, however, caused greater environmental damage. In the mountains, shaft mining predominated, producing large amounts of waste. Beginning in 1852, at the end of the '49 gold rush, through 1883, hydraulic mining was used. Despite huge profits being made, it fell into the hands of a few capitalists, displaced numerous miners, vast amounts of waste entered river systems, and did heavy ecological damage to the environment. Hydraulic mining ended when public outcry over the destruction of farmlands led to the outlawing of this practice.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe mountainous areas of the triangle from New Mexico to California to South Dakota contained hundreds of hard rock mining sites, where prospectors discovered gold, silver, copper and other minerals (as well as some soft-rock coal). Temporary mining camps sprang up overnight; most became ghost towns when the ores were depleted.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe discovery of the Comstock Lode, containing vast amounts of silver, resulted in the Nevada boomtowns of Virginia City, Carson City, and Silver City. The wealth from silver, more than from gold, fueled the maturation of San Francisco in the 1860s and helped the rise of some of its wealthiest families, such as that of George Hearst.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nProspectors spread out and hunted for gold and silver along the Rockies and in the southwest. Soon gold was discovered in Colorado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Idaho, Montana, and South Dakota (by 1864).\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Oregon Trail\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nTo get to the rich new lands of the West Coast, there were two options: some sailed around the southern tip of South America during a six-month voyage, but 400,000 others walked there on an overland route of more than 2,000 miles; their wagon trains usually left from Missouri. They moved in large groups under an experienced wagonmaster, bringing their clothing, farm supplies, weapons, and animals. These wagon trains followed major rivers, crossed prairies and mountains, and typically ended in Oregon and California. Pioneers generally attempted to complete the journey during a single warm season, usually over the course of six months. By 1836, when the first migrant wagon train was organized in Independence, Missouri, a wagon trail had been cleared to Fort Hall, Idaho. Trails were cleared further and further west, eventually reaching all the way to the Willamette Valley in Oregon. This network of wagon trails leading to the Pacific Northwest was later called the Oregon Trail. The eastern half of the route was also used by travelers on the California Trail (from 1843), Mormon Trail (from 1847), and Bozeman Trail (from 1863) before they turned off to their separate destinations.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn the \\\"Wagon Train of 1843\\\", some 700 to 1,000 emigrants headed for Oregon; missionary Marcus Whitman led the wagons on the last leg. In 1846, the Barlow Road was completed around Mount Hood, providing a rough but passable wagon trail from the Missouri River to the Willamette Valley: about 2,000 miles. Though the main direction of travel on the early wagon trails was westward, people also used the Oregon Trail to travel eastward. Some did so because they were discouraged and defeated. Some returned with bags of gold and silver. Most were returning to pick up their families and move them all back west. These \\\"gobacks\\\" were a major source of information and excitement about the wonders and promises—and dangers and disappointments—of the far West.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nNot all emigrants made it to their destination. The dangers of the overland route were numerous: snakebites, wagon accidents, violence from other travelers, suicide, malnutrition, stampedes, Indian attacks, a variety of diseases (dysentery, typhoid, and cholera were among the most common), exposure, avalanches, etc. One particularly well-known example of the treacherous nature of the journey is the story of the ill-fated Donner Party, which became trapped in the Sierra Nevada mountains during the winter of 1846–1847 in which nearly half of the 90 people traveling with the group died from starvation and exposure, and some resorted to cannibalism to survive, as well as the story of infamous cannibal Alfred Packer and his trek to Colorado in 1874. There were also frequent attacks from bandits and highwaymen, such as the infamous Harpe brothers who patrolled the frontier routes and targeted migrant groups.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nMormons and Utah\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn Missouri and Illinois, animosity between the Mormon settlers and locals grew, which would mirror those in other states such as Utah years later. Violence finally erupted on October 24, 1838 when militias from both sides clashed and a mass killing of Mormons in Livingston County occurred 6 days later. An executive order was filed during these conflicts, and the Mormons were forced to scatter. Brigham Young, seeking to leave American jurisdiction to escape religious persecution in Illinois and Missouri, led the Mormons to the valley of the Great Salt Lake, owned at the time by Mexico but not controlled by them. A hundred rural Mormon settlements sprang up in what Young called \\\"Deseret\\\", which he ruled as a theocracy. It later became Utah Territory. Young's Salt Lake City settlement served as the hub of their network, which reached into neighboring territories as well. The communalism and advanced farming practices of the Mormons enabled them to succeed. They sold goods to wagon trains passing through and came to terms with local Indian tribes because Young decided it was cheaper to feed the Indians than fight them.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nEducation became a high priority to protect the beleaguered group, reduce heresy and maintain group solidarity.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe great threat to the Mormon kingdom in Utah was the U.S. government, which took ownership of Utah in 1848 and, pushed by the Protestant churches, rejected theocracy and polygamy. The Republican Party swore to destroy polygamy, which it saw as an affront to religious, cultural and moral values of a modern civilization. Confrontations verged on open warfare in the late 1850s as President Buchanan sent in troops. Although there were no military battles fought, and negotiations led to a stand down, violence still escalated and there were a number of casualties. Savagery escalated further on September 11, 1857 when a Mormon militia killed civilians headed for California. After the Civil War the federal government systematically took control of Utah away from the Mormons, and drove the church's leadership underground. Meanwhile, aggressive missionary work in the U.S. and Europe brought a flood of Mormon converts to Utah. Finally in 1890 the Church leadership announced polygamy was no longer a central tenet, and a compromise was reached, with Utah becoming a state and the Mormons dividing into Republicans and Democrats.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Pony Express and the telegraph\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe federal government provided subsidies for the development of mail and freight delivery, and by 1856, Congress authorized road improvements and an overland mail service to California. The new commercial wagon trains service primarily hauled freight. In 1858 John Butterfield (1801–69) established a stage service that went from Saint Louis to San Francisco in 24 days along a southern route. This route was abandoned in 1861 after Texas joined the Confederacy, in favor of stagecoach services established via Fort Laramie and Salt Lake City, a 24-day journey, with Wells Fargo & Co. as the foremost provider (initially using the old \\\"Butterfield\\\" name).\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nWilliam Russell, hoping to get a government contract for more rapid mail delivery service, started the Pony Express in 1860, cutting delivery time to ten days. He set up over 150 stations about 15 mi apart.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn 1861 Congress passed the Land-Grant Telegraph Act which financed the construction of Western Union's transcontinental telegraph lines. Hiram Sibley, Western Union's head, negotiated exclusive agreements with railroads to run telegraph lines along their right-of-way. Eight years before the transcontinental railroad opened, the First Transcontinental Telegraph linked Omaha, Nebraska and San Francisco (and points in-between) on October 24, 1861. The Pony Express ended in just 18 months because it could not compete with the telegraph.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nBleeding Kansas\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nConstitutionally, Congress could not deal with slavery in the states but it did have jurisdiction in the western territories. California unanimously rejected slavery in 1850 and became a free state. New Mexico allowed slavery, but it was rarely seen there. Kansas was off limits to slavery by the Compromise of 1820. Free Soil elements feared that if slavery were allowed rich planters would buy up the best lands and work them with gangs of slaves, leaving little opportunity for free white men to own farms. Few Southern planters were actually interested in Kansas, but the idea that slavery was illegal there implied they had a second-class status that was intolerable to their sense of honor, and seemed to violate the principle of state's rights. With the passage of the extremely controversial Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854, Congress left the decision up to the voters on the ground in Kansas. Across the North a new major party was formed to fight slavery: the Republican Party, with numerous westerners in leadership positions, most notably Abraham Lincoln of Illinois. To influence the territorial decision, anti-slavery elements (also called \\\"Jayhawkers\\\" or \\\"Free-soilers\\\") financed the migration of politically determined settlers.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nBut pro-slavery advocates fought back with pro-slavery settlers from Missouri. Violence on both sides was the result; in all 56 men were killed by the time the violence abated in 1859. By 1860 the pro-slavery forces were in control—but Kansas had only two slaves. The antislavery forces took over by 1861, as Kansas became a free state. The episode demonstrated that a democratic compromise between North and South over slavery was impossible and served to hasten the Civil War.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nCivil War in the West\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Trans-Mississippi theater\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Confederacy engaged in several important campaigns in the West. However, Kansas, a major area of conflict building up to the war, was the scene of only one battle, at Mine Creek. But its proximity to Confederate lines enabled pro-Confederate guerrillas, such as Quantrill's Raiders, to attack Union strongholds and massacre the residents.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn Texas, citizens voted to join the Confederacy; anti-war Germans were hanged. Local troops took over the federal arsenal in San Antonio, with plans to grab the territories of northern New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado, and possibly California. Confederate Arizona was created by Arizona citizens who wanted protection against Apache raids after the United States Army units were moved out. The Confederacy then sets its sight to gain control of the New Mexico Territory. General Henry Hopkins Sibley was tasked for the campaign, and together with his New Mexico Army, marched right up the Rio Grande in an attempt to take the mineral wealth of Colorado as well as California. The First Regiment of Volunteers discovered the rebels, and they immediately warned and joined the Yankees at Fort Union. The Battle of Glorieta Pass soon erupted, and the Union ended the Confederate campaign and the area west of Texas remained in Union hands.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nMissouri, a Union state where slavery was legal, became a battleground when the pro-secession governor, against the vote of the legislature, led troops to the federal arsenal at St. Louis; he was aided by Confederate forces from Arkansas and Louisiana. However Union General Samuel Curtis regained St. Louis and all of Missouri for the Union. The state was the scene of numerous raids and guerrilla warfare in the west.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nPeacekeeping\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe U.S. Army after 1850 established a series of military posts across the frontier, designed to stop warfare among Indian tribes or between Indians and settlers. Throughout the 19th century, Army officers typically served built their careers in peacekeeper roles moving from fort to fort until retirement. Actual combat experience was uncommon for any one soldier.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe most dramatic conflict was the Sioux war in Minnesota in 1862, when Dakota tribes systematically attacked German farms in an effort to drive out the settlers. Over a period of several days, Dakota attacks at the Lower Sioux Agency, New Ulm and Hutchinson, slaughtered 300 to 400 white settlers. The state militia fought back and Lincoln sent in federal troops. The ensuing battles at Fort Ridgely, Birch Coulee, Fort Abercrombie, and Wood Lake punctuated a six-week war, which ended in American victory. The federal government tried 425 Indians for murder, and 303 were convicted and sentenced to death. Lincoln pardoned the majority, but 38 leaders were hanged .\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe decreased presence of Union troops in the West left behind untrained militias; hostile tribes used the opportunity to attack settlers. The militia struck back hard, most notably by attacking the winter quarters of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians, filled with women and children, at the Sand Creek massacre in eastern Colorado in late 1864.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nKit Carson and the U.S. Army in 1864 trapped the entire Navajo tribe in New Mexico, where they had been raiding settlers, and put them on a reservation. Within the Indian Territory, now Oklahoma, conflicts arose among the Five Civilized Tribes, most of which sided with the South being slaveholders themselves.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn 1862, Congress enacted two major laws to facilitate settlement of the West: the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railroad Act. The result by 1890 was millions of new farms in the Plains states, many operated by new immigrants from Germany and Scandinavia.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Postbellum West\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nTerritorial governance after the Civil War\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nWith the war over and slavery abolished, the federal government focused on improving the governance of the territories. It subdivided several territories, preparing them for statehood, following the precedents set by the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. It standardized procedures and the supervision of territorial governments, taking away some local powers, and imposing much \\\"red tape\\\", growing the federal bureaucracy significantly.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nFederal involvement in the territories was considerable. In addition to direct subsidies, the federal government maintained military posts, provided safety from Indian attacks, bankrolled treaty obligations, conducted surveys and land sales, built roads, staffed land offices, made harbour improvements, and subsidized overland mail delivery. Territorial citizens came to both decry federal power and local corruption, and at the same time, lament that more federal dollars were not sent their way.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nTerritorial governors were political appointees and beholden to Washington so they usually governed with a light hand, allowing the legislatures to deal with the local issues. In addition to his role as civil governor, a territorial governor was also a militia commander, a local superintendent of Indian affairs, and the state liaison with federal agencies. The legislatures, on the other hand, spoke for the local citizens and they were given considerable leeway by the federal government to make local law.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThese improvements to governance still left plenty of room for profiteering. As Mark Twain wrote while working for his brother, the secretary of Nevada, \\\"The government of my country snubs honest simplicity, but fondles artistic villainy, and I think I might have developed into a very capable pickpocket if I had remained in the public service a year or two.\\\" \\\"Territorial rings\\\", corrupt associations of local politicians and business owners buttressed with federal patronage, embezzled from Indian tribes and local citizens, especially in the Dakota and New Mexico territories.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nFederal land system\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn acquiring, preparing, and distributing public land to private ownership, the federal government generally followed the system set forth by the Land Ordinance of 1785. Federal exploration and scientific teams would undertake reconnaissance of the land and determine Native American habitation. Through treaty, land title would be ceded by the resident tribes. Then surveyors would create detailed maps marking the land into squares of six miles (10 km) on each side, subdivided first into one square mile blocks, then into 160 acre lots. Townships would be formed from the lots and sold at public auction. Unsold land could be purchased from the land office at a minimum price of $1.25 per acre.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAs part of public policy, the government would award public land to certain groups such as veterans, through the use of \\\"land script\\\". The script traded in a financial market, often at below the $1.25 per acre minimum price set by law, which gave speculators, investors, and developers another way to acquire large tracts of land cheaply. Land policy became politicized by competing factions and interests, and the question of slavery on new lands was contentious. As a counter to land speculators, farmers formed \\\"claims clubs\\\" to enable them to buy larger tracts than the 160 acre allotments by trading among themselves at controlled prices.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn 1862, Congress passed three important bills that transformed the land system. The Homestead Act granted 160 acre free to each settler who improved the land for five years; citizens and non-citizens including squatters and women, were all eligible. The only cost was a modest filing fee. The law was especially important in the settling of the Plains states. Many took free homestead and others purchased their land from railroads at low rates.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 provided for the land needed to build the transcontinental railroad. The land given the railroads alternated with government-owned tracts saved for free distribution to homesteaders. In an effort to be equitable, the federal government reduced each tract to 80 acre because of its perceived higher value given its proximity to the rail line. Railroads had up to five years to sell or mortgage their land, after tracks were laid, after which unsold land could be purchased by anyone. Often railroads sold some of their government acquired land to homesteaders immediately to encourage settlement and the growth of markets the railroads would then be able to serve. Nebraska railroads in the 1870s were strong boosters of lands along their routes. They sent agents to Germany and Scandinavia with package deals that included cheap transportation for the family as well as its furniture and farm tools, and they offered long-term credit at low rates. Boosterism succeeded in attracting adventurous American and European families to Nebraska, helping them purchase land grant parcels on good terms. The selling price depended on such factors as soil quality, water, and distance from the railroad.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Morrill Act of 1862 provided land grants to states to begin colleges of agriculture and mechanical arts (engineering). Black colleges became eligible for these land grants in 1890. The Act succeeded in its goals to open new universities and make farming more scientific and profitable.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nTranscontinental railroads\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn the 1850s government sponsored surveys to chart the remaining unexplored regions of the West, and to plan possible routes for a transcontinental railroad. Much of this work was undertaking by the Corps of Engineers, Corps of Topographical Engineers, and Bureau of Explorations and Surveys, and became known as \\\"The Great Reconnaissance.\\\" Regionalism animated debates in Congress regarding the choice of a northern, central or southern route. Engineering requirements for the rail route were an adequate supply of water and wood, and as nearly-level route as possible, given the weak locomotives of the era.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn the 1850s proposals to build a transcontinental failed because of Congressional disputes over slavery. With the secession of the Confederate states in 1861, the modernizers in the Republican party took over Congress and wanted a line to link to California. Private companies were to build and operate the line. Construction would be done by unskilled laborers who would live in temporary camps along the way. Immigrants from China and Ireland did most of the construction work. Theodore Judah, the chief engineer of the Central Pacific surveyed the route from San Francisco east. Judah's tireless lobbying efforts in Washington were largely responsible for the passage of the 1862 Pacific Railroad Act, which authorized construction of both the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific (which built west from Omaha). In 1862 four rich San Francisco merchants (Leland Stanford, Collis Huntington, Charles Crocker, and Mark Hopkins) took charge, with Crocker in charge of construction. The line was completed in May 1869. Coast-to-coast passenger travel in 8 days now replaced wagon trains or sea voyages that took 6 to 10 months and cost much more.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe road was built with mortgages from New York, Boston and London, backed by land grants. There were no federal cash subsidies, But there was a loan to the Central Pacific that was eventually repaid at six percent interest. The federal government offered land-grants in a checkerboard pattern. The railroad sold every-other square, with the government opening its half to homesteaders. The government also loaned money—later repaid—at $16,000 per mile on level stretches, and $32,000 to $48,000 in mountainous terrain. Local and state governments also aided the financing.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nMost of the manual laborers on the Central Pacific were new arrivals from China. Kraus shows how these men lived and worked, and how they managed their money. He concludes that senior officials quickly realized the high degree of cleanliness and reliability of the Chinese. The Central Pacific employed over 12,000 Chinese workers, 90% of its manual work force. Ong explores whether or not the Chinese railroad workers were exploited by the railroad, with whites in the better positions. He finds the railroad set different wage rates for whites and Chinese and used the latter in the more menial and dangerous jobs, such as the handling and the pouring of nitroglycerin. However the railroad also provided camps and food the Chinese wanted and protected the Chinese workers from threats from whites.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nBuilding the railroad required six main activities: surveying the route, blasting a right of way, building tunnels and bridges, clearing and laying the roadbed, laying the ties and rails, and maintaining and supplying the crews with food and tools. The work was highly physical, using horse-drawn plows and scrapers, and manual picks, axes, sledgehammers, and handcarts. A few steam-driven machines, such as shovels, were used. The rails were iron (steel came a few years later) and weighed 700 lb. and required five men to lift. For blasting, they used black powder. The Union Pacific construction crews, mostly Irish Americans, averaged about two miles (3 km) of new track per day.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nSix transcontinental railroads were built in the Gilded Age (plus two in Canada); they opened up the West to farmers and ranchers. From north to south they were the Northern Pacific, Milwaukee Road, and Great Northern along the Canadian border; the Union Pacific/Central Pacific in the middle, and to the south the Santa Fe, and the Southern Pacific. All but the Great Northern of James J. Hill relied on land grants. The financial stories were often complex. For example, the Northern Pacific received its major land grant in 1864. Financier Jay Cooke (1821–1905) was in charge until 1873, when he went bankrupt. Federal courts, however, kept bankrupt railroads in operation. In 1881 Henry Villard (1835–1900) took over and finally completed the line to Seattle. But the line went bankrupt in the Panic of 1893 and Hill took it over. He then merged several lines with financing from J.P. Morgan, but President Theodore Roosevelt broke them up in 1904.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn the first year of operation, 1869–70, 150,000 passengers made the long trip. Settlers were encouraged with promotions to come West on free scouting trips to buy railroad land on easy terms spread over several years. The railroads had \\\"Immigration Bureaus\\\" which advertised package low-cost deals including passage and land on easy terms for farmers in Germany and Scandinavia. The prairies, they were promised, did not mean backbreaking toil because \\\"settling on the prairie which is ready for the plow is different from plunging into a region covered with timber.\\\" The settlers were customers of the railroads, shipping their crops and cattle out, and bringing in manufactured products. All manufacturers benefited from the lower costs of transportation and the much larger radius of business.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nWhite concludes with a mixed verdict. The transcontinentals did open up the West to settlement, brought in many thousands of high-tech, highly paid workers and managers, created thousands of towns and cities, oriented the nation onto an east–west axis, and proved highly valuable for the nation as a whole. On the other hand, too many were built, and they were built too far ahead of actual demand. The result was a bubble that left heavy losses to investors, and led to poor management practices. By contrast, as White notes, the lines in the Midwest and East supported by a very large population base, fostered farming, industry and mining while generating steady profits and receiving few government benefits.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nMigration after the Civil War\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAfter the Civil War, many from the East Coast and Europe were lured west by reports from relatives and by extensive advertising campaigns promising \\\"the Best Prairie Lands\\\", \\\"Low Prices\\\", \\\"Large Discounts For Cash\\\", and \\\"Better Terms Than Ever!\\\". The new railroads provided the opportunity for migrants to go out and take a look, with special family tickets, the cost of which could be applied to land purchases offered by the railroads. Farming the plains was indeed more difficult than back east. Water management was more critical, lightning fires were more prevalent, the weather was more extreme, rainfall was less predictable.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe fearful stayed home. The actual migrants looked beyond fears of the unknown. Their chief motivation to move west was to find a better economic life than the one they had. Farmers sought larger, cheaper and more fertile land; merchants and tradesman sought new customers and new leadership opportunities. Laborers wanted higher paying work and better conditions. As settlers move West, they have to face many challenges along the way, such as the lack of wood for housing, bad weather like blizzards and droughts, and tornadoes that rain down snakes, fish and frogs, as well as the occasional range disputes. Homesteaders have to build their homes with sod, which were called as Sod Houses. One of the greatest plague that hit the homesteaders was the 1874 Locust Plague which devastated the Great Plains. These challenges hardened these settlers in taming the frontier.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nOklahoma Land Rush\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn 1889, President Benjamin Harrison authorized the opening of 2000000 acre of unoccupied lands in the Oklahoma territory acquired from the native tribes. On April 22, over 100,000 settlers and cattlemen (known as \\\"boomers\\\") lined up at the border, and with the army's guns and bugles giving the signal, began a mad dash into the newly opened land to stake their claims (Land Run of 1889). A witness wrote, \\\"The horsemen had the best of it from the start. It was a fine race for a few minutes, but soon the riders began to spread out like a fan, and by the time they reached the horizon they were scattered about as far as the eye could see\\\". In one day, the towns of Oklahoma City, Norman, and Guthrie came into existence. In the same manner, millions of acres of additional land was opened up and settled in the following four years.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIndian Wars\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIndian wars have occurred throughout the United States though the conflicts are generally separated into two categories; the Indian wars east of the Mississippi River and the Indian wars west of the Mississippi. The U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894) provided an estimate of deaths:\\nThe Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate...\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nHistorian Russell Thornton estimates that from 1800-1890, wars and disease, reduced the Indian population from 600,000 to as few as 250,000. Many tribes in Texas, such as the Karankawan, Akokisa, Bidui and others, were extinguished due to conflicts with settlers. The rapid depopulation of the American Indians after the Civil War, alarmed the U.S. Government, and the Doolittle Committee was formed to investigate the causes as well recommendations to save the population. The solutions presented by the committee, such as the establishment of the five boards of inspection to prevent Indian abuses, had little effect as large Western migration commenced.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIndian wars east of the Mississippi\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Trail of Tears\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe expansion of migration into the Southeastern United States in the 1820s to the 1830s forced the federal government to deal with the \\\"Indian question.\\\" The Indians were under federal control but were independent of state governments. State legislatures and state judges had no authority on their lands, and the states demanded control. Politically the new Democratic Party of President Andrew Jackson demanded removal of the Indians out of the southeastern states to new lands in the west, while the Whig Party and the Protestant churches were opposed to removal. The Jacksonian Democracy proved irresistible, as it won the presidential elections of 1828, 1832 and 1836. By 1837 the \\\"Indian Removal policy\\\" began, to implement the act of Congress signed by Andrew Jackson in 1830. Many historians have sharply attacked Jackson. The 1830 law theoretically provided for voluntary removal and had safeguards for the rights of Indians, but in reality the removal was involuntary, brutal and ignored safeguards. Jackson justified his actions by stating that Indians had \\\"neither the intelligence, the industry, the moral habits, nor the desire of improvements.\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe forced march of about twenty tribes included the \\\"Five Civilized Tribes\\\" (Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee, Chickasaw, and Seminole). To motivate natives reluctant to move, the federal government also promised rifles, blankets, tobacco, and cash. By 1835 the Cherokee, the last Indian nation in the South, had signed the removal treaty and relocated to Oklahoma. All the tribes were given new land in the \\\"Indian Territory\\\" (which later became Oklahoma). Of the approximate 70,000 Indians removed, about 18,000 died from disease, starvation, and exposure on the route. This exodus has become known as The Trail of Tears (in Cherokee \\\"Nunna dual Tsuny,\\\" \\\"The Trail Where they Cried\\\"). The impact of the removals was severe. The transplanted tribes had considerable difficulty adapting to their new surroundings and sometimes clashed with the tribes native to the area.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe only way for an Indian to remain and avoid removal was to accept the federal offer of 640 acre or more of land (depending on family size) in exchange for leaving the tribe and becoming a state citizen subject to state law and federal law. However, many natives who took the offer were defrauded by \\\"ravenous speculators\\\" who stole their claims and sold their land to whites. In Mississippi alone, fraudulent claims reached 3800000 acre. Of the five tribes, the Seminole offered the most resistance, hiding out in the Florida swamps and waging a war which cost the U.S. Army 1,500 lives and $20 million.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIndian wars west of the Mississippi\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIndian warriors in the West, using their traditional style of limited, battle-oriented warfare, confronted the U.S. Army. The Indians emphasized bravery in combat while the Army put its emphasis not so much on individual combat as on building networks of forts, developing a logistics system, and using the telegraph and railroads to coordinate and concentrate its forces. Plains Indian intertribal warfare bore no resemblance to the \\\"modern\\\" warfare practiced by the Americans along European lines, using its vast advantages in population and resources. Many tribes avoided warfare and others supported the U.S. Army. The tribes hostile to the government continued to pursue their traditional brand of fighting and, therefore, were unable to have any permanent success against the Army.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIndian wars were fought throughout the western regions, with more conflicts in the states bordering Mexico than in the interior states. Arizona ranked highest, with 310 known battles fought within the state's boundaries between Americans and the natives. Arizona ranked highest in war deaths, with 4,340 killed, including soldiers, civilians and Native Americans. That was more than twice as many as occurred in Texas, the second highest ranking state. Most of the deaths in Arizona were caused by the Apache. Michno also says that fifty-one percent of the Indian war battles between 1850 and 1890 took place in Arizona, Texas and New Mexico, as well as thirty-seven percent of the casualties in the county west of the Mississippi River.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nOne of the deadliest Indian wars fought was the Snake War in 1864–1868, which was conducted by a confederacy of Northern Paiute, Bannock and Shoshone Native Americans, called the \\\"Snake Indians\\\" against the United States Army in the states of Oregon, Nevada, California, and Idaho which ran along the Snake River. The war started when tension arise between the local Indians and the flooding pioneer trains encroaching through their lands, which resulted in competition for food and resources. Indians included in this group attacked and harassed emigrant parties and miners crossing the Snake River Valley, which resulted in further retaliation of the white settlements and the intervention of the United States army. The war resulted in a total of 1,762 men who have been killed, wounded, and captured from both sides. Unlike other Indian Wars, the Snake War was widely forgotten in United States history due to having only limited coverage of the war.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Colorado War fought by Cheyenne, Arapaho and Sioux, was fought in the territories of Colorado to Nebraska. The conflict was fought in 1863-1865 while the American Civil War was still ongoing. Caused by dissolution between the Natives and the white settlers in the region, the war was infamous for the atrocities done between the two parties. White militias destroyed Native villages and killed Indian women and children such as the bloody Sand Creek Massacre, and the Indians also raided ranches, farms and killed white families such as the American Ranch Massacre and Raid on Godfrey Ranch.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn the Apache Wars, Colonel Christopher \\\"Kit\\\" Carson forced the Mescalero Apache onto a reservation in 1862. In 1863–1864, Carson used a scorched earth policy in the Navajo Campaign, burning Navajo fields and homes, and capturing or killing their livestock. He was aided by other Indian tribes with long-standing enmity toward the Navajos, chiefly the Utes. Another prominent conflict of this war was Geronimo's fight against settlements in Texas in the 1880s. The Apaches under his command conducted ambushes on US cavalries and forts, such as their attack on Cibecue Creek, while also raiding upon prominent farms and ranches, such as their infamous attack on the Empire Ranch that killed three cowboys. The U.S. finally induced the last hostile Apache band under Geronimo to surrender in 1886.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nDuring the Comanche campaign, the Red River War was fought in 1874–75 in response to the Comanche's dwindling food supply of buffalo, as well as the refusal of a few bands to be inducted in reservations. Comanches started raiding small settlements in Texas, which led to the Battle of Buffalo Wallow and Second Battle of Adobe Walls fought by buffalo hunters, and the Battle of Lost Valley against the Texas Rangers. The war finally ended with a final confrontation between the Comanches and the U.S. Cavalry in Palo Duro Canyon. The last Comanche war chief, Quanah Parker, surrendered in June 1875, which would finally end the wars fought by Texans and Indians.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nRed Cloud's War was led by the Lakota chief Red Cloud against the military who were erecting forts along the Bozeman trail. It was the most successful campaign against the U.S. during the Indian Wars. By the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), the U.S. granted a large reservation to the Lakota, without military presence; it included the entire Black Hills. Captain Jack was a chief of the Native American Modoc tribe of California and Oregon, and was their leader during the Modoc War. With 53 Modoc warriors, Captain Jack held off 1,000 men of the U.S. Army for 7 months. Captain Jack killed Edward Canby.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn June 1877, in the Nez Perce War the Nez Perce under Chief Joseph, unwilling to give up their traditional lands and move to a reservation, undertook a 1,200 mile fighting retreat from Oregon to near the Canadian border in Montana. Numbering only 200 warriors, the Nez Perce \\\"battled some 2,000 American regulars and volunteers of different military units, together with their Indian auxiliaries of many tribes, in a total of eighteen engagements, including four major battles and at least four fiercely contested skirmishes.\\\" The Nez Perce were finally surrounded at the Battle of Bear Paw and surrendered. The Great Sioux War of 1876 was conducted by the Lakota under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. The conflict began after repeated violations of the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) once gold was discovered in the hills. One of its famous battles was the Battle of the Little Bighorn, in which combined Sioux and Cheyenne forces defeated the 7th Cavalry, led by General George Armstrong Custer.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Ute War, fought by the Ute people against settlers in Utah and Colorado, led to two battles; the Meeker Massacre which killed 11 Indian agents, and the Pinhook massacre which killed 13 armed ranchers and cowboys. The Ute conflicts finally ended after the events of the Bluff War.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe end of the Indian wars came at the Wounded Knee Massacre on December 29, 1890 where the 7th Cavalry attempted to disarm a Sioux man and precipitated an engagement in which about 150 Sioux men, women, and children were killed. Only thirteen days before, Sitting Bull had been killed with his son Crow Foot in a gun battle with a group of Indian police that had been sent by the American government to arrest him.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nForts and outposts\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAs the frontier moved westward, the establishment of U.S. military forts moved with it, representing and maintaining federal sovereignty over new territories. The military garrisons usually lacked defensible walls but were seldom attacked. They served as bases for troops at or near strategic areas, particularly for counteracting the Indian presence. For example, Fort Bowie protected Apache Pass in southern Arizona along the mail route between Tucson and El Paso and was used to launch attacks against Cochise and Geronimo. Fort Laramie and Fort Kearny helped protect immigrants crossing the Great Plains and a series of posts in California protected miners. Forts were constructed to launch attacks against the Sioux. As Indian reservations sprang up, the military set up forts to protect them. Forts also guarded the Union Pacific and other rail lines. Other important forts were Fort Sill, Oklahoma, Fort Smith, Arkansas, Fort Snelling, Minnesota, Fort Union, New Mexico, Fort Worth, Texas, and Fort Walla Walla in Washington. Fort Omaha, Nebraska was home to the Department of the Platte, and was responsible for outfitting most Western posts for more than 20 years after its founding in the late 1870s.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nFort Huachuca in Arizona was also originally a frontier post and is still in use by the United States Army.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIndian reservations\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nSettlers on their way overland to Oregon and California became targets of Indian threats. Robert L. Munkres read 66 diaries of parties traveling the Oregon Trail between 1834 and 1860 to estimate the actual dangers they faced from Indian attacks in Nebraska and Wyoming. The vast majority of diarists reported no armed attacks at all. However many did report harassment by Indians who begged or demanded tolls, and stole horses and cattle. Madsen reports that the Shoshoni and Bannock tribes north and west of Utah were more aggressive toward wagon trains. The federal government attempted to reduce tensions and create new tribal boundaries in the Great Plains with two new treaties in the early 1850, The Treaty of Fort Laramie established tribal zones for the Sioux, Cheyennes, Arapahos, Crows, and others, and allowed for the building of roads and posts across the tribal lands. A second treaty secured safe passage along the Santa Fe Trail for wagon trains. In return, the tribes would receive, for ten years, annual compensation for damages caused by migrants. The Kansas and Nebraska territories also became contentious areas as the federal government sought those lands for the future transcontinental railroad.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn the Far West settlers began to occupy land in Oregon and California before the federal government secured title from the native tribes, causing considerable friction. In Utah, the Mormons also moved in before federal ownership was obtained.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nA new policy of establishing reservations came gradually into shape after the boundaries of the \\\"Indian Territory\\\" began to be ignored. In providing for Indian reservations, Congress and the Office of Indian Affairs hoped to de-tribalize Native Americans and prepare them for integration with the rest of American society, the \\\"ultimate incorporation into the great body of our citizen population.\\\" This allowed for the development of dozens of riverfront towns along the Missouri River in the new Nebraska Territory, which was carved from the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase after the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Influential pioneer towns included Omaha, Nebraska City and St. Joseph.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAmerican attitudes towards Indians during this period ranged from malevolence (\\\"the only good Indian is a dead Indian\\\") to misdirected humanitarianism (Indians live in \\\"inferior\\\" societies and by assimilation into white society they can be redeemed) to somewhat realistic (Native Americans and settlers could co-exist in separate but equal societies, dividing up the remaining western land). Dealing with nomadic tribes complicated the reservation strategy and decentralized tribal power made treaty making difficult among the Plains Indians. Conflicts erupted in the 1850s, resulting in various Indian wars. In these times of conflict, Indians become more stringent about white men entering their territory. Such as in the case of Oliver Loving, they would sometimes attack cowboys and their cattle if ever caught crossing in the borders of their land. They would also prey upon livestock if food was scarce during hard times. However, relationship between cowboys and Native Americans were more mutual than they are portrayed, and the former would occasionally pay a fine of 10 cents per cow for the latter to allow them to travel through their land. Indians also preyed upon stagecoaches travelling in the frontier for its horses and valuables.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAfter the Civil War, as the volunteer armies disbanded, the regular army cavalry regiments increased in number from six to ten, among them Custer's U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment of Little Bighorn fame, and the African-American U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment and U.S. 10th Cavalry Regiment. The black units, along with others (both cavalry and infantry), collectively became known as the Buffalo Soldiers. According to Robert M. Utley: \\nthe frontier army was a conventional military force trying to control, by conventional military methods, a people that did not behave like conventional enemies and, indeed, quite often were not enemies at all. This is the most difficult of all military assignments, whether in Africa, Asia, or the American West.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nSocial history\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nDemocratic society\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nWesterners were proud of their leadership in the movement for democracy and equality, a major theme for Frederick Jackson Turner. The new states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama and Ohio were more democratic than the parent states back East in terms of politics and society. The Western states were the first to give women the right to vote. By 1900 the West, especially California and Oregon, led the Progressive movement.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nScholars have examined the social history of the west in search of the American character. The history of Kansas, argued historian Carl L. Becker a century ago, reflects American ideals. He wrote: \\\"The Kansas spirit is the American spirit double distilled. It is a new grafted product of American individualism, American idealism, American intolerance. Kansas is America in microcosm.\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nScholars have compared the emergence of democracy in America with other countries, with reference to the frontier experience. Selwyn Troen has made the comparison with Israel. The American frontiersmen relied on individual effort, in the context of very large quantities of unsettled land with weak external enemies. Israel by contrast, operated in a very small geographical zone, surrounded by more powerful neighbors. The Jewish pioneer was not building an individual or family enterprise, but was a conscious participant in nation building, with a high priority on collective and cooperative planned settlements. The Israeli pioneers brought in American experts on irrigation and agriculture to provide technical advice. However they rejected the American frontier model in favor of a European model that supported their political and security concerns.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nUrban frontier\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe cities played an essential role in the development of the frontier, as transportation hubs, financial and communications centers, and providers of merchandise, services, and entertainment. As the railroads pushed westward into unsettled territory after 1860, they build service towns to handle the needs of railroad construction crews, train crews, and passengers who ate meals at scheduled stops. In most of the South, there were very few cities of any size for miles around, and this pattern held for Texas as well, so railroads did not arrive until the 1880s. They then shipped the cattle out and cattle drives became short-distance affairs. However the passenger trains were often the targets of armed gangs.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nDenver's economy before 1870 had been rooted in mining; it then grew by expanding its role in railroads, wholesale trade, manufacturing, food processing, and servicing the growing agricultural and ranching hinterland. Between 1870 and 1890, manufacturing output soared from $600,000 to $40 million, and population grew by a factor of 20 times to 107,000. Denver had always attracted miners, workers, whores and travelers. Saloons and gambling dens sprung up overnight. The city fathers boasted of its fine theaters, and especially the Tabor Grand Opera House built in 1881. By 1890, Denver had grown to be the 26th largest city in America, and the fifth-largest city west of the Mississippi River. The boom times attracted millionaires and their mansions, as well as hustlers, poverty and crime. Denver gained regional notoriety with its range of bawdy houses, from the sumptuous quarters of renowned madams to the squalid \\\"cribs\\\" located a few blocks away. Business was good; visitors spent lavishly, then left town. As long as madams conducted their business discreetly, and \\\"crib girls\\\" did not advertise their availability too crudely, authorities took their bribes and looked the other way. Occasional cleanups and crack downs satisfied the demands for reform.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nWith its giant mountain of copper, Butte, Montana was the largest, richest and rowdiest mining camp on the frontier. It was an ethnic stronghold, with the Irish Catholics in control of politics and of the best jobs at the leading mining corporation Anaconda Copper. City boosters opened a public library in 1894. Ring argues that the library was originally a mechanism of social control, \\\"an antidote to the miners' proclivity for drinking, whoring, and gambling.\\\" It was also designed to promote middle-class values and to convince Easterners the Butte was a cultivated city.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nRace and ethnicity\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nEuropean immigrants\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nEuropean immigrants often built communities of similar religious and ethnic backgrounds. For example, many Finns went to Minnesota and Michigan, Swedes and Norwegians to Minnesota and the Dakotas, Irish to railroad centers along the transcontinental lines, Volga Germans to North Dakota, and German Jews to Portland, Oregon.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAfrican-Americans\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAfrican Americans moved West as soldiers, as well as cowboys, farm hands, saloon workers, cooks, and outlaws. The Buffalo Soldiers were soldiers in the all-black 9th and 10th Cavalry regiments, and 24th and 25th Infantry Regiments of the U.S. Army. They had white officers and served in numerous western forts.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAbout 4000 blacks came to California in Gold Rush days. In 1879, after the end of Reconstruction in the South, several thousand Freedmen moved from Southern states to Kansas. Known as the Exodusters, they were lured by the prospect of good, cheap Homestead Law land and better treatment. The all-black town of Nicodemus, Kansas, which was founded in 1877, was an organized settlement that predates the Exodusters but is often associated with them.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAsians\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe California Gold Rush included thousands of Mexican and Chinese arrivals. Chinese migrants, many of whom were impoverished peasants, provided the major part of the workforce for the building of Central Pacific portion of the transcontinental railroad. Most of them went home by 1870 when the railroad was finished. Those who stayed on worked in mining, agriculture, and opened small shops such as groceries, laundries and restaurants. Hostility remained high as seen by Chinese Massacre Cove episode and the Rock Springs massacre. The Chinese were generally forced into self-sufficient \\\"Chinatowns\\\" in cities such as San Francisco. In Los Angeles, the last major anti-Chinese riot took place in 1871, after which local law enforcement grew stronger. In the late 19th century, Chinatowns were squalid slums known for their vice, prostitution, drugs, and violent battles between \\\"tongs.\\\" By the 1930s, however, Chinatowns had become clean, safe and attractive tourist destinations.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn the 1890–1907 era, thousands of Japanese permanently migrated to Hawaii and California as farm workers. Immigrants born in Asia were generally ineligible for US citizenship until World War II. However their children born in the U.S. automatically became citizens.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nHispanics\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe great majority of Hispanics who had been living in the former territories of New Spain remained and became American citizens in 1848. The 10,000 or so Californios lived in southern California and after 1880 were overshadowed by the hundreds of thousands of arrivals from the east. Those in New Mexico dominated towns and villages that changed little until well into the 20th century. New arrivals from Mexico arrived, especially after the Revolution of 1911 terrorized thousands of villages all across Mexico. Most refugees went to Texas or California, and soon poor barrios appeared in many border towns. Early on there was a criminal element as well. The California \\\"Robin Hood\\\", Joaquin Murieta, led a gang in the 1850s which burned houses, killed miners, and robbed stagecoaches. In Texas, Juan Cortina led a 20-year campaign against Anglos and the Texas Rangers, starting around 1859.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nFamily life\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nOn the Great Plains very few single men attempted to operate a farm or ranch; farmers clearly understood the need for a hard-working wife, and numerous children, to handle the many chores, including child-rearing, feeding and clothing the family, managing the housework, and feeding the hired hands. During the early years of settlement, farm women played an integral role in assuring family survival by working outdoors. After a generation or so, women increasingly left the fields, thus redefining their roles within the family. New conveniences such as sewing and washing machines encouraged women to turn to domestic roles. The scientific housekeeping movement, promoted across the land by the media and government extension agents, as well as county fairs which featured achievements in home cookery and canning, advice columns for women in the farm papers, and home economics courses in the schools all contributed to this trend.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAlthough the eastern image of farm life on the prairies emphasizes the isolation of the lonely farmer and farm life, in reality rural folk created a rich social life for themselves. They often sponsored activities that combined work, food, and entertainment such as barn raisings, corn huskings, quilting bees, Grange meetings, church activities, and school functions. The womenfolk organized shared meals and potluck events, as well as extended visits between families.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nChildhood\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nChildhood on the American frontier is contested territory. One group of scholars, following the lead of novelists Willa Cather and Laura Ingalls Wilder, argue the rural environment was beneficial to the child's upbringing. Historians Katherine Harris and Elliott West write that rural upbringing allowed children to break loose from urban hierarchies of age and gender, promoted family interdependence, and in the end produced children who were more self-reliant, mobile, adaptable, responsible, independent and more in touch with nature than their urban or eastern counterparts. On the other hand, historians Elizabeth Hampsten and Lillian Schlissel offer a grim portrait of loneliness, privation, abuse, and demanding physical labor from an early age. Riney-Kehrberg takes a middle position.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nProstitution\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nEntrepreneurs set up shops and businesses to cater to the miners. World famous were the houses of prostitution found in every mining camp worldwide. Prostitution was a growth industry attracting sex workers from around the globe, pulled in by the money, despite the harsh and dangerous working conditions and low prestige. Chinese women were frequently sold by their families and taken to the camps as prostitutes; they had to send their earnings back to the family in China. In Virginia City, Nevada, a prostitute, Julia Bulette, was one of the few who achieved \\\"respectable\\\" status. She nursed victims of an influenza epidemic; this gave her acceptance in the community and the support of the sheriff. The townspeople were shocked when she was murdered in 1867; they gave her a lavish funeral and speedily tried and hanged her assailant. Until the 1890s, madams predominately ran the businesses, after which male pimps took over, and the treatment of the women generally declined. It was not uncommon for bordellos in Western towns to operate openly, without the stigma of East Coast cities.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nGambling and prostitution were central to life in these western towns, and only later―as the female population increased, reformers moved in, and other civilizing influences arrived―did prostitution become less blatant and less common. After a decade or so the mining towns attracted respectable women who ran boarding houses, organized church societies, worked as laundresses and seamstresses, and strove for independent status.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nLaw and order\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nHistorian Waddy W. Moore uses court records to show that on the sparsely settled Arkansas frontier lawlessness was common. He distinguished two types of crimes: unprofessional (dueling, crimes of drunkenness, selling whiskey to the Indians, cutting trees on federal land) and professional (rustling, highway robbery, counterfeiting). Criminals found many opportunities to rob pioneer families of their possessions, while the few underfunded lawmen had great difficulty detecting, arresting, holding, and convicting wrongdoers. Bandits, typically in groups of two or three, rarely attacked stagecoaches with a guard carrying a sawed-off, double-barreled shotgun; it proved less risky to rob teamsters, people on foot, and solitary horsemen, while bank robberies themselves were harder to pull off due to the security of the establishment. According also to historian Brian Robb, the earliest form of organized crime in America was born from the gangs of the Old West.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nWhen criminals were convicted, punishment was severe. Aside from the occasional Western sheriff and Marshal, there were other various law enforcement agencies throughout the American frontier, such as the Texas Rangers and the North-West Mounted Police. These lawmen were not just instrumental in keeping peace, but also in protecting the locals from Indian and Mexican threats at the border. Law enforcement tended to be more stringent in towns than in rural areas. Law enforcement emphasized maintaining stability more than armed combat, focusing on drunkenness, disarming cowboys who violated gun-control edicts and dealing with flagrant breaches of gambling and prostitution ordinances.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nDykstra argues that the violent image of the cattle towns in film and fiction is largely myth. The real Dodge City, he says, was the headquarters for the buffalo-hide trade of the Southern Plains and one of the West's principal cattle towns, a sale and shipping point for cattle arriving from Texas. He states there is a \\\"second Dodge City\\\" that belongs to the popular imagination and thrives as a cultural metaphor for violence, chaos, and depravity. For the cowboy arriving with money in hand after two months on the trail, the town was exciting. A contemporary eyewitness of Hays City, Kansas paints a vivid image of this cattle town:\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIt has been acknowledged that the popular portrayal of Dodge City in film and fiction carries a note of truth, however, as gun crime was rampant in the city prior to the establishment of a local government. Soon after the city's residents officially established their first municipal government, however, a law banning concealed firearms was enacted and crime was reduced soon afterwards. Similar laws were passed in other frontier towns to reduce the rate of gun crime as well. As UCLA law professor Adam Wrinkler noted:\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nTombstone, Arizona was a turbulent mining town that flourished longer than most, from 1877 to 1929. Silver was discovered in 1877, and by 1881 the town had a population of over 10,000. In 1879 the newly arrived Earp brothers bought shares in the Vizina mine, water rights, and gambling concessions, but Virgil, Wyatt, and Morgan Earp obtained positions at different times as federal and local lawmen. After more than a year of threats and feuding, they killed three outlaws in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, the most famous gunfight of the Old West. In the aftermath, Virgil Earp was maimed in an ambush and Morgan Earp was assassinated while playing billiards. Wyatt and others, including his brothers James Earp and Warren Earp, pursued those they believed responsible in an extra-legal vendetta and warrants were issued for their arrest in the murder of Frank Stilwell. The Cochise County Cowboys were one of the first organized crime syndicates in the United States, and their demise came in the hands of Wyatt Earp.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nWestern story tellers and film makers featured the gunfight in many Western productions. Walter Noble Burns's novel Tombstone (1927) made Earp famous. Hollywood celebrated Earp's Tombstone days with John Ford's My Darling Clementine (1946), John Sturges's Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957) and Hour of the Gun (1967), Frank Perry's Doc (1971), George Cosmatos's Tombstone (1993), and Lawrence Kasdan's Wyatt Earp (1994). They solidified Earp's modern reputation as the Old West's deadliest gunman.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nBanditry\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nSome of the banditry of the West was carried out by Mexicans and Indians against white targets of opportunity along the U.S.–Mexico border, particularly in Texas, Arizona, and California. The second major type of banditry was conducted by the infamous outlaws of the West, including Jesse James, Billy the Kid, the Dalton Gang, Black Bart, Butch Cassidy and the Wild Bunch and hundreds of others who preyed on banks, trains, stagecoaches, and in some cases even armed government transports such as the Wham Paymaster Robbery and the Skeleton Canyon Robbery. Some of the outlaws, such as Jesse James, were products of the violence of the Civil War (James had ridden with Quantrill's Raiders) and others became outlaws during hard times in the cattle industry. Many were misfits and drifters who roamed the West avoiding the law. In rural areas Joaquin Murieta, Jack Powers, Augustine Chacon and other bandits terrorized the state. When outlaw gangs were near, towns would occasionally raise a posse to drive them out or capture them.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nSeeing that the need to combat the bandits was a growing business opportunity, Allan Pinkerton ordered his National Detective Agency, founded in 1850, to open branches out West, and they got into the business of pursuing and capturing outlaws. There was plenty of business thanks to the criminals such as the James Gang, Butch Cassidy, Sam Bass, and dozens of others. To take refuge from the law, outlaws would use the advantages of the open range, remote passes and badlands to hide. While some settlements and towns in the frontier also house outlaws and criminals, which were called \\\"outlaw towns\\\".\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nBanditry was a major issue in California after 1849, as thousands of young men detached from family or community moved into a land with few law enforcement mechanisms. To combat this, the San Francisco Committee of Vigilance was established to give drumhead trials and death sentences to well-known offenders. As such, other earlier settlements created their own private agencies to protect communities due to the lack of peace-keeping establishments. These vigilance committees reflected different occupations in the frontier, such as land clubs, cattlemen's associations and mining camps. Similar vigilance committees also existed in Texas, and their main objective was to stamp out lawlessness and rid communities of desperadoes and rustlers. These committees would sometimes form mob rule for private vigilante groups, but usually were made up of responsible citizens who wanted only to maintain order. Criminals caught by these vigilance committees were treated cruelly; often hung or shot without any form of trial.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nCivilians also took arms to defend themselves in the Old West, sometimes siding with lawmen (Coffeyville Bank Robbery), or siding with outlaws (Battle of Ingalls). In the Post-Civil War frontier, over 523 whites, 34 blacks and 75 others were victims of lynching. However, cases of lynching in the Old West wasn't primarily caused by the absence of a legal system, but also because of social class. Historian Michael J. Pfeifer writes, \\\"Contrary to the popular understanding, early territorial lynching did not flow from an absence or distance of law enforcement but rather from the social instability of early communities and their contest for property, status, and the definition of social order.\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nGunfights and feuds\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe names and exploits of Western gunslingers took a major role in American folklore, fiction and film. Their guns and costumes became children's toys for make-believe shootouts. The stories became immensely popular in Germany and other European countries, which produced their own novels and films about the American frontier. The image of a Wild West filled with countless gunfights was a myth based on repeated exaggerations. The most notable and well-known took place in Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Actual gunfights in the Old West were more episodic than being a common thing, but when gunfights did occur, the cause for each varied. Some were simply the result of the heat of the moment, while others were longstanding feuds, or between bandits and lawmen. Although mostly romanticized, there were instances of \\\"quick draw\\\" that did occur though rarely, such as Wild Bill Hickok – Davis Tutt shootout and Luke Short-Jim Courtright Duel. Fatal duels were fought to uphold personal honor in the West. To prevent gunfights, towns such as Dodge City and Tombstone prohibited firearms in town.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nRange wars were infamous armed conflicts that took place in the \\\"open range\\\" of the American frontier. The subject of these conflicts was the control of lands freely used for farming and cattle grazing which gave the conflict its name. Range wars became more common by the end of the American Civil War, and numerous conflicts were fought such as the Pleasant Valley War, Mason County War, Johnson County War, Colorado Range War, Fence Cutting War, Colfax County War, Castaic Range War, Barber–Mizell feud, San Elizario Salt War and others. During a range war in Montana, a vigilante group called Stuart's Stranglers, which were made up of cattlemen and cowboys, killed up to 20 criminals and range squatters in 1884 alone. In Nebraska, stock grower Isom Olive led a range war in 1878 that killed a number of homesteaders from lynchings and shootouts before eventually leading to his own murder. Another infamous type of open range conflict were the Sheep Wars, which were fought between sheep ranchers and cattle ranchers over grazing rights and mainly occurred in Texas, Arizona and the border region of Wyoming and Colorado.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nOther conflicts over land and territory were also fought such as the Regulator–Moderator War, Cortina Troubles, Las Cuevas War and the Bandit War. In most cases, formal military involvement were used to quickly put an end to these conflicts.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nFeuds involving families and bloodlines also occurred much in the frontier. Since private agencies and vigilance committees were the substitute for proper courts, many families initially depended on themselves and their communities for their security and justice. These wars include the Lincoln County War, Tutt–Everett War, Flynn–Doran feud, Early–Hasley feud, Brooks-Baxter War, Sutton–Taylor feud, Horrell Brothers feud, Brooks–McFarland feud, Reese–Townsend feud and the Earp Vendetta Ride.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nCattle\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe end of the bison herds opened up millions of acres for cattle ranching. Spanish cattlemen had introduced cattle ranching and longhorn cattle to the Southwest in the 17th century, and the men who worked the ranches, called \\\"vaqueros\\\", were the first \\\"cowboys\\\" in the West. After the Civil War, Texas ranchers raised large herds of longhorn cattle. The nearest railheads were 800 or more miles north in Kansas (Abilene, Kansas City, Dodge City, and Wichita). So once fattened the ranchers and their cowboys drove the herds north along the Western, Chisholm, and Shawnee trails. The cattle were shipped to Chicago, St. Louis, and points east for slaughter and consumption in the fast-growing cities. The Chisholm Trail, laid out by cattleman Joseph McCoy along an old trail marked by Jesse Chisholm, was the major artery of cattle commerce, carrying over 1.5 million head of cattle between 1867 and 1871 over the 800 mi from south Texas to Abilene, Kansas. The long drives were treacherous, especially crossing water such as the Brazos and the Red River and when they had to fend off Indians and rustlers looking to make off with their cattle.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nA typical drive would take three to four months and contained two miles (3 km) of cattle six abreast. Despite the risks, a successful drive proved very profitable to everyone involved, as the price of one steer was $4 in Texas and $40 back East.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nBy the 1870s and 1880s, cattle ranches expanded further north into new grazing grounds and replaced the bison herds in Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, Nebraska and the Dakota territory, using the rails to ship to both coasts. Many of the largest ranches were owned by Scottish and English financiers. The single largest cattle ranch in the entire West was owned by American John W. Iliff, \\\"cattle king of the Plains\\\", operating in Colorado and Wyoming. Gradually, longhorns were replaced by the American breeds of Hereford and Angus, introduced by settlers from the Northwest. Though less hardy and more disease-prone, these breeds produced better tasting beef and matured faster.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe funding for the cattle industry came largely from British sources, as the European investors engaged in a speculative extravaganza—a \\\"bubble\\\". Graham concludes the mania was founded on genuine opportunity, as well as \\\"exaggeration, gullibility, inadequate communications, dishonesty, and incompetence.\\\" A severe winter engulfed the plains toward the end of 1886 and well into 1887, locking the prairie grass under ice and crusted snow which starving herds could not penetrate. The British lost most of their money—as did eastern investors like Theodore Roosevelt, but their investments did create a large industry that continues to cycle through boom and bust periods.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nOn a much smaller scale sheep grazing was locally popular; sheep were easier to feed and needed less water. However, Americans did not eat mutton. As farmers moved in open range cattle ranching came to an end and was replaced by barbed wire spreads where water, breeding, feeding, and grazing could be controlled. This led to \\\"fence wars\\\" which erupted over disputes about water rights.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nCowboys\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nCentral to the myth and the reality of the West is the American cowboy. His real life was a hard one and revolved around two annual roundups, spring and fall, the subsequent drives to market, and the time off in the cattle towns spending his hard earned money on food, clothing, gambling, and prostitution. During winter, many cowboys hired themselves out to ranches near the cattle towns, where they repaired and maintained equipment and buildings. For young cowboys and buckaroos, working cattle was not just a job but also a lifestyle, one that was lived in the freedom of the outdoors and, most of the time, on horseback. On a long drive, there was usually one cowboy for each 250 head of cattle. Alcohol was everywhere in the West (outside Mormondom), but on the trail the cowboys were forbidden to drink it. Often, hired cowboys were trained and knowledgeable in their trade such as herding, ranching and protecting cattle. To protect their herd from wild animals, hostile Indians and rustlers, cowboys carried with them their iconic weaponry such as Bowie knife, pistols, rifles and shotguns.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nMany of the cowboys were veterans of the Civil War; a diverse group, they included Blacks, Hispanics, Native Americans, and immigrants from many lands. The earliest cowboys in Texas learned their trade, adapted their clothing, and took their jargon from the Mexican vaqueros or \\\"buckaroos\\\", the heirs of Spanish cattlemen from middle-south of Spain. Chaps, the heavy protective leather trousers worn by cowboys, got their name from the Spanish \\\"chaparreras\\\", and the lariat, or rope, was derived from \\\"la reata\\\". All the distinct clothing of the cowboy—boots, saddles, hats, pants, chaps, slickers, bandannas, gloves, and collar-less shirts—were practical and adaptable, designed for protection and comfort. The cowboy hat quickly developed the capability, even in the early years, to identify its wearer as someone associated with the West. The most enduring fashion adapted from the cowboy, popular nearly worldwide today, are \\\"blue jeans\\\", originally made by Levi Strauss for miners in 1850. It was the cowboy hat, above all, that came to symbolize the frontier.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nBefore a drive, a cowboy's duties included riding out on the range and bringing together the scattered cattle. The best cattle would be selected, roped, and branded, and most male cattle were castrated. The cattle also needed to be dehorned and examined and treated for infections. On the long drives, the cowboys had to keep the cattle moving and in line. The cattle had to be watched day and night as they were prone to stampedes and straying. While camping every night, cowboys would often sing to their herd to keep them calm. The work days often lasted fourteen hours, with just six hours of sleep. It was grueling, dusty work, with just a few minutes of relaxation before and at the end of a long day. On the trail, drinking, gambling, and brawling were often prohibited and fined, and sometimes cursing as well. It was monotonous and boring work, with food to match: bacon, beans, bread, coffee, dried fruit, and potatoes. On average, cowboys earned $30 to $40 per month, because of the heavy physical and emotional toll, it was unusual for a cowboy to spend more than seven years on the range.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAs open range ranching and the long drives gave way to fenced in ranches in the 1880s, by the 1890s the glory days of the cowboy came to an end, and the myths about the \\\"free living\\\" cowboy began to emerge.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nCowtowns\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAnchoring the booming cattle industry of the 1860s and 1870s were the cattle towns in Kansas and Missouri. Like the mining towns in California and Nevada, cattle towns such as Abilene, Dodge City, and Ellsworth experienced a short period of boom and bust lasting about five years. The cattle towns would spring up as land speculators would rush in ahead of a proposed rail line and build a town and the supporting services attractive to the cattlemen and the cowboys. If the railroads complied, the new grazing ground and supporting town would secure the cattle trade. However, unlike the mining towns which in many cases became ghost towns and ceased to exist after the ore played out, cattle towns often evolved from cattle to farming and continued on after the grazing lands were exhausted.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nConservation and environmentalism\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nConcern with the protection of the environment became a new issue in the late 19th century, pitting different interests. On the one side were the lumber and coal companies who called for maximum exploitation of natural resources to maximize jobs, economic growth, and their own profit.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nIn the center were the conservationists, led by Theodore Roosevelt and his coalition of outdoorsmen, sportsmen, bird watchers and scientists. They wanted to reduce waste; emphasized the value of natural beauty for tourism and ample wildlife for hunters; and argued that careful management would not only enhance these goals but also increase the long-term economic benefits to society by planned harvesting and environmental protections. Roosevelt worked his entire career to put the issue high on the national agenda. He was deeply committed to conserving natural resources. He worked closely with Gifford Pinchot and used the Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to irrigate small farms and placed 230 million acres (360,000 mi² or 930,000 km²) under federal protection. Roosevelt set aside more Federal land, national parks, and nature preserves than all of his predecessors combined.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nRoosevelt explained his position in 1910:\\n\\\"Conservation means development as much as it does protection. I recognize the right and duty of this generation to develop and use the natural resources of our land but I do not recognize the right to waste them, or to rob, by wasteful use, the generations that come after us.\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe third element, smallest at first but growing rapidly after 1870, were the environmentalists who honored nature for its own sake, and rejected the goal of maximizing human benefits. Their leader was John Muir (1838–1914), a widely read author and naturalist and pioneer advocate of preservation of wilderness for its own sake, and founder of the Sierra Club. Muir, based in California, in 1889 started organizing support to preserve the sequoias in the Yosemite Valley; Congress did pass the Yosemite National Park bill (1890). In 1897 President Grover Cleveland created thirteen protected forests but lumber interests had Congress cancel the move. Muir, taking the persona of an Old Testament prophet, crusaded against the lumberman, portraying it as a contest \\\"between landscape righteousness and the devil.\\\" A master publicist, Muir's magazine articles, in Harper's Weekly (June 5, 1897) and the Atlantic Monthly turned the tide of public sentiment. He mobilized public opinion to support Roosevelt's program of setting aside national monuments, national forest reserves, and national parks. However Muir broke with Roosevelt and especially President William Howard Taft on the Hetch Hetchy dam, which was built in the Yosemite National Park to supply water to San Francisco.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nBiographer Donald Worster says, \\\"Saving the American soul from a total surrender to materialism was the cause for which he fought.\\\"\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nBuffalo\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe rise of the cattle industry and the cowboy is directly tied to the demise of the huge herds of bison—usually called the \\\"buffalo\\\". Once numbering over 25 million on the Great Plains, the grass-eating herds were a vital resource animal for the Plains Indians, providing food, hides for clothing and shelter, and bones for implements. Loss of habitat, disease, and over-hunting steadily reduced the herds through the 19th century to the point of near extinction. The last 10–15 million died out in a decade 1872–1883; only 100 survived. The tribes that depended on the buffalo had little choice but to accept the government offer of reservations, where the government would feed and supply them on condition they did not go on the warpath. Conservationists founded the American Bison Society in 1905; it lobbied Congress to establish public bison herds. Several national parks in the U.S. and Canada were created, in part to provide a sanctuary for bison and other large wildlife, with no hunting allowed. The bison population reached 500,000 by 2003.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nAmerican frontier in popular culture\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe exploration, settlement, exploitation, and conflicts of the \\\"American Old West\\\" form a unique tapestry of events, which has been celebrated by Americans and foreigners alike—in art, music, dance, novels, magazines, short stories, poetry, theater, video games, movies, radio, television, song, and oral tradition—which continues in the modern era. Levy argues that the physical and mythological West inspired composers Aaron Copland, Roy Harris, Virgil Thomson, Charles Wakefield Cadman, and Arthur Farwell.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nReligious themes have inspired many environmentalists as they contemplate the pristine West before the frontiersmen violated its spirituality. Actually, as historian William Cronon has demonstrated, the concept of \\\"wilderness\\\" was highly negative and the antithesis of religiosity before the romantic movement of the 19th century.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe Frontier Thesis of historian Frederick Jackson Turner, proclaimed in 1893, established the main lines of historiography which fashioned scholarship for three or four generations and appeared in the textbooks used by practically all American students.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nPopularizing Western lore\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe mythologizing of the West began with minstrel shows and popular music in the 1840s. During the same period, P. T. Barnum presented Indian chiefs, dances, and other Wild West exhibits in his museums. However, large scale awareness really took off when the dime novel appeared in 1859, the first being Malaeska, the Indian Wife of the White Hunter. By simplifying reality and grossly exaggerating the truth, the novels captured the public's attention with sensational tales of violence and heroism, and fixed in the public's mind stereotypical images of heroes and villains—courageous cowboys and savage Indians, virtuous lawmen and ruthless outlaws, brave settlers and predatory cattlemen. Millions of copies and thousands of titles were sold. The novels relied on a series of predictable literary formulas appealing to mass tastes and were often written in as little as a few days. The most successful of all dime novels was Edward S. Ellis' Seth Jones (1860). Ned Buntline's stories glamorized Buffalo Bill Cody and Edward L. Wheeler created \\\"Deadwood Dick\\\", \\\"Hurricane Nell\\\", and \\\"Calamity Jane\\\".\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nBuffalo Bill Cody was the most effective popularizer of the Old West in the U.S. and Europe. He presented the first \\\"Wild West\\\" show in 1883, featuring a recreation of famous battles (especially Custer's Last Stand), expert marksmanship, and dramatic demonstrations of horsemanship by cowboys and Indians, as well as sure-shooting Annie Oakley.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nElite Eastern writers and artists of the late 19th century promoted and celebrated western lore. Theodore Roosevelt, wearing his hats as historian, explorer, hunter, rancher and naturalist, was especially productive. Their work appeared in upscale national magazines such as Harper's Weekly featured illustrations by artists Frederic Remington, Charles M. Russell, and others. Readers bought action-filled stories by writers like Owen Wister, conveying vivid images of the Old West. Remington lamented the passing of an era he helped to chronicle when he wrote:\\nI knew the wild riders and the vacant land were about to vanish forever...I saw the living, breathing end of three American centuries of smoke and dust and sweat.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\n20th century imagery\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe 20th century, both tourists to the West, and avid readers enjoyed the visual imagery of the frontier. The Western movies provided the most famous examples, as in the numerous films of John Ford. He was especially enamored of Monument Valley. Critic Keith Phipps says, \\\"its 5 sqmi have defined what decades of moviegoers think of when they imagine the American West.\\\" The heroic stories coming out of the building of the transcontinental railroad in the mid-1860s enlivened many dime novels, and illustrated many newspapers and magazines with the juxtaposition of traditional environment with the iron horse of modernity.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nCowboy images\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe cowboy has for over a century been an iconic American image both in the country and abroad; recognized worldwide and revered by Americans. The most famous popularizers of the image include part-time cowboy and \\\"Rough Rider\\\" President Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), who made \\\"cowboy\\\" internationally synonymous with the brash aggressive American, and Indian Territory-born trick roper Will Rogers (1879–1935), the leading humorist of the 1920s.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nRoosevelt conceptualized the herder (cowboy) as a stage of civilization distinct from the sedentary farmer—a theme well expressed in the 1944 Hollywood hit Oklahoma! that highlights the enduring conflict between cowboys and farmers. Roosevelt argued that the manhood typified by the cowboy—and outdoor activity and sports generally—was essential if American men were to avoid the softness and rot produced by an easy life in the city.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nWill Rogers, the son of a Cherokee judge in Oklahoma, started with rope tricks and fancy riding, but by 1919 discovered his audiences were even more enchanted with his wit in his representation of the wisdom of the common man.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nOthers who contributed to enhancing the romantic image of the American cowboy include Charles Siringo (1855—1928) and Andy Adams (1859–1935). Cowboy, Pinkerton detective, and western author, Siringo was the first authentic cowboy autobiographer. Adams spent the 1880s in the cattle industry in Texas and 1890s mining in the Rockies. When an 1898 play's portrayal of Texans outraged Adams, he started writing plays, short stories, and novels drawn from his own experiences. His The Log of a Cowboy (1903) became a classic novel about the cattle business, especially the cattle drive. It described a fictional drive of the Circle Dot herd from Texas to Montana in 1882, and became a leading source on cowboy life; historians retraced its path in the 1960s, confirming its basic accuracy. His writings are acclaimed and criticized for realistic fidelity to detail on the one hand and thin literary qualities on the other. \\nMany regard Red River (1948), directed by Howard Hawks, and starring John Wayne and Montgomery Clift, as an authentic cattle drive depiction.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nThe unique skills of the cowboys are highlighted in the rodeo. It began in organized fashion in the West in the 1880s, when several Western cities followed up on touring Wild West shows and organized celebrations that included rodeo activities. The establishment of major cowboy competitions in the East in the 1920s led to the growth of rodeo sports. Trail cowboys who were also known as gunfighters like John Wesley Hardin, Luke Short and others, were known for their prowess, speed and skill with their pistols and other firearms. Their violent escapades and reputations morphed over time into the stereotypical image of violence endured by the \\\"cowboy hero\\\".\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nCode of the West\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nHistorians of the American West have written about the mythic West; the west of western literature, art and of people's shared memories. The phenomenon is \\\"the Imagined West\\\". The \\\"Code of the West\\\" was an unwritten, socially agreed upon set of informal laws shaping the cowboy culture of the Old West. Over time, the cowboys developed a personal culture of their own, a blend of values that even retained vestiges of chivalry. Such hazardous work in isolated conditions also bred a tradition of self-dependence and individualism, with great value put on personal honesty, exemplified in songs and cowboy poetry.Atherton, Lewis The Cattle Kings, (University of Nebraska Press 1961) pp. 241–262. The code also included the Gunfighter, who sometimes followed a form of code duello adopted from the Old South, in order to solve disputes and duels. Extrajudicial justice seen during the frontier days such as lynching, vigilantism and gunfighting, in turn popularized by the Western genre, would later be known in modern times as examples of frontier justice, as the West became a thing of imagination by the late 19th century.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nEnd of the frontier\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nFollowing the eleventh U.S. Census taken in 1890 the superintendent announced that there was no longer a clear line of advancing settlement, and hence no longer a frontier in the continental United States. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner seized upon the statistic to announce the end of the era in which the frontier process shaped the American character.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nFresh farmland was increasingly hard to find after 1890—although the railroads advertised some in eastern Montana. Bicha shows that nearly 600,000 American farmers sought cheap land by moving to the Prairie frontier of the Canadian West from 1897 to 1914. However about two-thirds of them grew disillusioned and returned to the U.S. The admission of Oklahoma as a state in 1907 upon the combination of the Oklahoma Territory and the last remaining Indian Territory, and the Arizona and New Mexico territories as states in 1912, did not end the frontier. These contained plenty of unoccupied land, as did the territory of Alaska. Nevertheless, the ethos and storyline of the \\\"American frontier\\\" had passed.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nHistoriography\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nScores of Turner students became professors in history departments in the western states, and taught courses on the frontier. Scholars have debunked many of the myths of the frontier, but they nevertheless live on in community traditions, folklore and fiction. In the 1970s a historiographical range war broke out between the traditional frontier studies, which stress the influence of the frontier on all of American history and culture, and the \\\"New Western History\\\" which narrows the geographical and time framework to concentrate on the trans-Mississippi West after 1850. It avoids the word \\\"frontier\\\" and stresses cultural interaction between white culture and groups such as Indians and Hispanics. History professor William Weeks of the University of San Diego argues that in this \\\"New Western History\\\" approach: \\nIt is easy to tell who the bad guys are – they are almost invariably white, male, and middle-class or better, while the good guys are almost invariably non-white, non-male, or non-middle class.... Anglo-American civilization....is represented as patriarchal, racist, genocidal, and destructive of the environment, in addition to hypocritically betrayed the ideals on which it supposedly is built.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nHowever, by 2005, Aron argues, the two sides had \\\"reached an equilibrium in their rhetorical arguments and critiques.\\\".\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nMeanwhile, environmental history has emerged, in large part from the frontier historiography, hence its emphasis on wilderness. It plays an increasingly large role in frontier studies. Historians approached the environment from the point of view of the frontier or regionalism. The first group emphasizes human agency on the environment; the second looks at the influence of the environment. William Cronon has argued that Turner's famous 1893 essay was environmental history in an embryonic form. It emphasized the vast power of free land to attract and reshape settlers, making a transition from wilderness to civilization.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nJournalist Samuel Lubell saw similarities between the frontier's Americanization of immigrants that Turner described and the social climbing by later immigrants in large cities as they moved to wealthier neighborhoods. He compared the effects of the railroad opening up Western lands to urban transportation systems and the automobile, and Western settlers' \\\"land hunger\\\" to poor city residents seeking social status. Just as the Republican party benefited from support from \\\"old\\\" immigrant groups that settled on frontier farms, \\\"new\\\" urban immigrants formed an important part of the Democratic New Deal coalition that began with Franklin Delano Roosevelt's victory in the 1932 presidential election.\",\n \"American frontier\\n\\nSince the 1960s an active center is the history department at the University of New Mexico, along with the University of New Mexico Press. Leading historians there include Gerald D. Nash, Donald C. Cutter, Richard N. Ellis, Richard Etulain, Margaret Connell-Szasz, Paul Hutton, Virginia Scharff, and Samuel Truett. The department has collaborated with other departments and emphasizes Southwestern regionalism, minorities in the Southwest, and historiography.\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\nTrain robbery is a type of robbery, in which the goal is to steal money or other valuables being carried aboard trains.\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\nTrain robberies were more common in the past than today, when the speed of trains was slower, and often occurred in the American Old West. Trains carrying payroll shipments were a major target. These shipments would be guarded by an expressman whose duty it was to protect the cargo of the \\\"express car\\\".\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\nBandits would rely on the expressman to open the safe and provide the goods. Without the combination required for the combination lock, it was almost impossible to break into the safes. However, the invention of dynamite made it much easier to break into safes and rob the train. If the outlaw was unsatisfied with the goods, passengers of the train's carriages, who were generally unarmed, would be held at gunpoint and forced to hand over any valuables they were carrying, usually in the form of jewelry or currency.\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\nContrary to the method romanticized by Hollywood, outlaws were never known to jump from horseback onto a moving train. Usually, they would either board the train normally and wait for a good time to initiate the heist, or they would stop or derail the train and then begin the holdup.\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\nFamous train robbers include Bill Miner, Jesse James, and Butch Cassidy. Jesse James is mistakenly thought to have completed the first successful train robbery in the American West when on July 21, 1873 the James-Younger Gang took US $3,000 from a Rock Island Railroad train after derailing it southwest of the town of Adair, Iowa. However, the first peacetime train robbery in the United States actually occurred on October 6, 1866, when robbers boarded the Ohio & Mississippi train shortly after it left Seymour, Indiana. They broke into one safe and tipped the other off the train before jumping off. The Pinkerton National Detective Agency later traced the crime to the Reno Gang. There was one earlier train robbery in May 1865, but because it was committed by armed guerrillas and occurred shortly after the end of the Civil War, it is not considered to be the first peacetime train robbery in the United States. Some sources say that the May 1865 robbery took place at a water siding while the train was stopped taking on water.\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\nList of train robbers\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\nSome notable train robbers are:\\n*Jesse James, (1847 – 1882)\\n*Butch Cassidy, (1866 - 1908)\\n*William L. Carlisle, (1890-1964)\\n* Bill Miner , (1847-1913)\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\nNotable robberies\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\n* The Great Western Mail Robbery (1849)\\nIn two robberies on the Bristol and Exeter Railway two passengers climbed from their carriage to the mail van and back. They were discovered at Bridgwater after the second robbery. One was Henry Poole, a former guard on the Great Western Railway, dismissed for misconduct (possibly on suspicion of another robbery); his fellow passenger, Edward Nightingale, was the son of a man accused, but acquitted, of robbing the Dover mailcoach in 1826, when 2 thieves had dressed in identical clothes to gain an alibi for the other. They were transported for 15 years. Edward appears to have been transported to Perth in 1854. * Great Gold Robbery of 1855, United Kingdom - France (1855)\\n* Union Pacific Big Springs robbery, Nebraska, USA (1877)\\n* Canyon Diablo Train Robbery, Arizona, USA (1889)\\n* Fairbank Train Robbery, Arizona, USA (1900)\\n* Rogów raid, Poland (1906) \\n* Bezdany raid, Lithuania (1908)\\n* Baxter's Curve Train Robbery, Texas, USA (1912)\\n* Newton Gang, Rondout, Illinois, USA (1924) \\n* Kakori Train Robbery, India (1925)\\n* Attaque du train de l’or, France (1938)\\n* B & O Zoot Suit Bandits, W.\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\nVirginia, USA (1949)\\n* Japeri Train Robbery, Brazil (1960)\\n* Great Train Robbery, United Kingdom (1963)\\n* Sallins Train Robbery, Ireland (1976)\\n* Sino-Russian Train Robbery, Russia (1993)\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\nIn fiction\",\n \"Train robbery\\n\\n* The Great Train Robbery, film (1903)\\n* Whispering Smith, film (1948), starring Alan Ladd\\n* Man of the West, film (1958), starring Gary Cooper\\n* O Assalto ao Trem Pagador (1962) a Brazilian film which portrays the Japeri Train Robbery\\n* Tex Rides with the Boy Scouts (1968)\\n* Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, film (1969), starring Paul Newman and Robert Redford\\n* The Wild Bunch, film (1969), starring William Holden\\n* One More Train to Rob, film (1971), starring George Peppard\\n* The Train Robbers, film (1973), starring John Wayne\\n* The Taking of Pelham One Two Three, film (1974), starring Walter Matthau\\n* The Great Train Robbery, novel (1975)\\n* The Missouri Breaks, film (1976), starring Jack Nicholson and Marlon Brando\\n* The First Great Train Robbery, film, (1979), starring Sean Connery\\n* The Chase, novel by Clive Cussler\\n* The Grey Fox (1982) Canadian film starring Richard Farnsworth that was filmed on the British Columbia Railway\\n* Tough Guys (1986) a comedy film about two elderly train robbers, starring Kirk Douglas and Burt Lancaster\\n* Money Train, film (1995), starring Woody Harrelson and Wesley Snipes\\n* The Train Job, an episode of the TV series Firefly that involved a train robbery\\n* The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford, film (2007), starring Brad Pitt\\n* The Taking of Pelham 123, film (2009), starring Denzel Washington and John Travolta\\n* Dead Freight, an episode of the TV series Breaking Bad in which methylamine is stolen from a train\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nAdair is a city in Adair and Guthrie Counties in the U.S. state of Iowa. The population was 781 at the 2010 census.\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nThe Guthrie County portion of Adair is part of the Des Moines–West Des Moines Metropolitan Statistical Area.\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nThe Rock Island Railroad was built through the area in 1868. This led to the area being known as Summit Cut. This is in reference to the ridge that forms the watershed divide between the Missouri River and the Mississippi River. The town officially became Adair on August 20, 1872 when it was incorporated with the county. The town is named after General John Adair, a general in the War of 1812 who later became the 8th governor of Kentucky. Adair was the scene of the first successful train robbery in the American West when on July 21, 1873 the James-Younger Gang (led by Jesse James) took US $3,000 from the Rock Island Express after derailing it southwest of the town. The derailment killed the engineer.\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nA rare F5 tornado occurred near this town on June 27, 1953.\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nAdair is recognizable from Interstate 80 by its tall yellow \\\"smiley-face\\\" water tower. Humorously known as \\\"the happiest town on Earth\\\", its roadsign warmly greets visitors with, \\\"Welcome to Adair; it'll make you smile\\\". Some of the local businesses incorporate the smiley-face tower image into their company logos.\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nAdair is located at (41.500094, -94.643839).\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, is land and is water.\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\n2010 census\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nAs of the census of 2010, there were 781 people, 361 households, and 208 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 403 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 98.1% White, 0.1% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 0.8% from other races, and 0.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.3% of the population.\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nThere were 361 households of which 24.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.2% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 1.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 42.4% were non-families. 38.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 19.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 2.88.\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nThe median age in the city was 41.9 years. 23.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.8% were from 25 to 44; 26.9% were from 45 to 64; and 17.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.0% male and 51.0% female.\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\n2000 census\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 839 people, 366 households, and 214 families residing in the city. The population density was 381.1 people per square mile (147.2/km²). There were 404 housing units at an average density of 183.5 per square mile (70.9/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 99.05% White, 0.12% Native American, 0.36% Asian, 0.24% from other races, and 0.24% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.19% of the population.\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nThere were 366 households out of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.4% were married couples living together, 5.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.5% were non-families. 39.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 21.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.97 and the average family size was 3.51.\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nAge spread: 22.2% under the age of 18, 17.3% from 18 to 24, 24.3% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 97.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.5 males.\",\n \"Adair, Iowa\\n\\nThe median income for a household in the city was $31,319, and the median income for a family was $42,847. Males had a median income of $27,083 versus $22,941 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,557. About 2.5% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.3% of those under age 18 and 8.6% of those age 65 or over.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137092,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2322"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What jazz legend was commonly known as Satchmo, short for satchelmouth, and has the New Orleans airport named for him?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Louis Armstrong"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["armstrong louis 22satchmo 22","louis 22satchmo 22 armstrong","armstrong louis","armstrong louis pops","louis armstrong","louis pops armstrong","sachimo","luois armstrong","louis 22pops 22 armstrong","louis satchmo armstrong","louis “satchmo” armstrong","louie armstrong","daniel louis armstrong","armstrong louis 22pops 22","louis daniel armstrong","satchelmouth musician","louis armstong","louis armstrong discography","louis amstrong","louis armstrong and his orchestra","sachmo","armstrong louis satchmo","satchmo"],"string":"[\n \"armstrong louis 22satchmo 22\",\n \"louis 22satchmo 22 armstrong\",\n \"armstrong louis\",\n \"armstrong louis pops\",\n \"louis armstrong\",\n \"louis pops armstrong\",\n \"sachimo\",\n \"luois armstrong\",\n \"louis 22pops 22 armstrong\",\n \"louis satchmo armstrong\",\n \"louis “satchmo” armstrong\",\n \"louie armstrong\",\n \"daniel louis armstrong\",\n \"armstrong louis 22pops 22\",\n \"louis daniel armstrong\",\n \"satchelmouth musician\",\n \"louis armstong\",\n \"louis armstrong discography\",\n \"louis amstrong\",\n \"louis armstrong and his orchestra\",\n \"sachmo\",\n \"armstrong louis satchmo\",\n \"satchmo\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Jazz\n\nJazz is a music genre that originated from African American communities of New Orleans in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It emerged in the form of independent traditional and popular musical styles, all linked by the common bonds of African American and European American musical parentage with a performance orientation. Jazz spans a period of over a hundred years, encompassing a very wide range of music, making it difficult to define. Jazz makes heavy use of improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation and the swing note, as well as aspects of European harmony, American popular music, the brass band tradition, and African musical elements such as blue notes and African-American styles such as ragtime. Although the foundation of jazz is deeply rooted within the black experience of the United States, different cultures have contributed their own experience and styles to the art form as well. Intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as \"one of America's original art forms\".","Jazz\n\nAs jazz spread around the world, it drew on different national, regional, and local musical cultures, which gave rise to many distinctive styles. New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass-band marches, French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City jazz, a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style and Gypsy jazz (a style that emphasized musette waltzes) were the prominent styles. Bebop emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging \"musician's music\" which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.","Jazz\n\nThe 1950s saw the emergence of free jazz, which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal structures, and in the mid-1950s, hard bop emerged, which introduced influences from rhythm and blues, gospel, and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock music's rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound. In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful, garnering significant radio airplay. Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s, such as Latin and Afro-Cuban jazz.","Jazz\n\nEtymology and definition","Jazz\n\nThe question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to jasm, a slang term dating back to 1860 meaning \"pep, energy.\" The earliest written record of the word is in a 1912 article in the Los Angeles Times in which a minor league baseball pitcher described a pitch which he called a jazz ball \"because it wobbles and you simply can’t do anything with it.\"","Jazz\n\nThe use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune. Archived at Observatoire Musical Français, Paris-Sorbonne University. Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November 14, 1916 Times-Picayune article about \"jas bands.\" In an interview with NPR, musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the original slang connotations of the term, saying: \"When Broadway picked it up, they called it 'J-A-Z-Z.. It wasn't called that. It was spelled 'J-A-S-S.' That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, you wouldn't say it in front of ladies.\" The American Dialect Society named it the Word of the Twentieth Century.","Jazz\n\nJazz has proved to be very difficult to define, since it encompasses such a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years, from ragtime to the 2010-era rock-infused fusion. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music. But critic Joachim-Ernst Berendt argues that its terms of reference and its definition should be broader, defining jazz as a \"form of art music which originated in the United States through the confrontation of the Negro with European music\" and arguing that it differs from European music in that jazz has a \"special relationship to time defined as 'swing'\", involves \"a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role\" and contains a \"sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician\". In the opinion of Robert Christgau, \"most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence and promise of jazz.\"","Jazz\n\nA broader definition that encompasses all of the radically different eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis Jackson: \"it is music that includes qualities such as swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being open to different musical possibilities\". Krin Gibbard has provided an overview of the discussion on definitions, arguing that \"jazz is a construct\" that, while artificial, still is useful to designate \"a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition\". In contrast to the efforts of commentators and enthusiasts of certain types of jazz, who have argued for narrower definitions that exclude other types, the musicians themselves are often reluctant to define the music they play. As Duke Ellington, one of jazz's most famous figures, said: \"It's all music\".","Jazz\n\nElements and issues","Jazz\n\nImprovisation","Jazz\n\nAlthough jazz is considered highly difficult to define, at least in part because it contains so many varied subgenres, improvisation is consistently regarded as being one of its key elements. The centrality of improvisation in jazz is attributed to influential earlier forms of music: the early blues, a form of folk music which arose in part from the work songs and field hollers of the African-American slaves on plantations. These were commonly structured around a repetitive call-and-response pattern, but early blues was also highly improvisational. European classical music performance is evaluated by its fidelity to the musical score, with much less discretion over interpretation, ornamentation and accompaniment: the classical performer's primary goal is to play a composition as it was written. In contrast, jazz is often characterized as the product of group creativity, interaction, and collaboration, which places varying degrees of value on the contributions of composer (if there is one) and performers.","Jazz\n\nIn jazz, the skilled performer will interpret a tune in very individual ways, never playing the same composition the same way twice; depending on the performer's mood and personal experience, interactions with other musicians, or even members of the audience, a jazz musician may alter melodies, harmonies or time signature at will.","Jazz\n\nThe approach to improvisation has developed enormously over the history of the music. In early New Orleans and Dixieland jazz, performers took turns playing the melody, while others improvised countermelodies. By the swing era, big bands were coming to rely more on arranged music: arrangements were either written or learned by ear and memorized, while individual soloists would improvise within these arrangements. Later, in bebop the focus shifted back toward small groups and minimal arrangements; the melody would be stated briefly at the start and end of a piece, but the core of the performance would be the series of improvisations. Later styles such as modal jazz abandoned the strict notion of a chord progression, allowing the individual musicians to improvise even more freely within the context of a given scale or mode. In many forms of jazz, a soloist is often supported by a rhythm section consisting of one or more chordal instruments (piano, guitar, etc.), double bass playing the basslines and drum kit. These performers provide accompaniment by playing chords and rhythms that outline the song structure and complement the soloist.","Jazz\n\nIn avant-garde and free jazz idioms, the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of chords, scales and rhythmic meters.","Jazz\n\nTradition and race","Jazz\n\nSince at least the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that are commercially oriented or influenced by popular music have been criticized by purists. According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a \"tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form\". Traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, the 1970s jazz fusion era and much else as periods of debasement of the music and betrayals of the tradition. An alternative viewpoint is that jazz is able to absorb and transform influences from diverse musical styles, and that, by avoiding the creation of 'norms', other newer, avant-garde forms of jazz will be free to emerge.","Jazz\n\nTo some African Americans, jazz has highlighted their contribution to American society and helped bring attention to black history and culture, but for others, the music and term \"jazz\" are reminders of \"an oppressive and racist society and restrictions on their artistic visions\". Amiri Baraka argues that there is a distinct \"white jazz\" music genre expressive of whiteness. White jazz musicians appeared in the early 1920s in the Midwestern United States, as well as other areas. Bix Beiderbecke was one of the most prominent white jazz musicians. An influential style referred to as the Chicago School (or Chicago Style) was developed by white musicians including Bud Freeman, Jimmy McPartland. Frank Teschemacher, Dave Tough, and Eddie Condon. Others from Chicago such as Benny Goodman and Gene Krupa became leading members of big-band swing during the 1930s.","Jazz\n\nRole of women","Jazz\n\nWomen jazz performers and composers have contributed throughout jazz history. While women such as Billie Holiday, Ella Fitzgerald, Dinah Washington, Ethel Waters, Betty Carter, Adelaide Hall, Abbey Lincoln, and Anita O'Day are famous for their jazz singing, women have achieved much less recognition for their contributions as composers, bandleaders, and instrumental performers. Other notable jazz women include piano player Lil Hardin Armstrong and jazz songwriters Irene Higginbotham (1918-1988) and Dorothy Fields (1905-1974). Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early 1920s, with the piano being one of the earliest instruments used which allowed female artists a degree of social acceptance. Some well known artists of the time include Sweet Emma Barrett, Mary Lou Williams, Billie Pierce, Jeanette Kimball and Lovie Austin.","Jazz\n\nWhen the men were drafted for WWII, many all-women big band jazz bands took over. The International Sweethearts of Rhythm (founded 1937) was a well-known jazz group of this era, becoming the first all-women integrated band in the U.S., touring Europe in 1945 and becoming the first black women to travel with the USO. The dress codes of the era required women to wear strapless dresses and high heeled shoes, which was somewhat of a hindrance to the integration of women into the big bands of suit-wearing men. Nevertheless, women were hired into many of the big-league big bands such as Woody Herman and Gerald Wilson.","Jazz\n\nHistory","Jazz\n\nJazz originated in the late 19th to early 20th century as interpretations of American and European classical music entwined with African and slave folk songs and the influences of West African culture. Its composition and style have changed many times throughout the years with each performer's personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the genre.","Jazz\n\nOrigins","Jazz\n\nBlended African and European music sensibilities","Jazz\n\nBy 1866, the Atlantic slave trade had brought nearly 400,000 Africans to North America. The slaves came largely from West Africa and the greater Congo River basin, and brought strong musical traditions with them. The African traditions primarily make use of a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, and the rhythms have a counter-metric structure and reflect African speech patterns.","Jazz\n\nLavish festivals featuring African-based dances to drums were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or Congo Square, in New Orleans until 1843. There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings elsewhere in the southern United States. Robert Palmer said of percussive slave music:","Jazz\n\nUsually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the year's crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that included horned headdresses and cow tails and heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered \"gumbo box\", apparently a frame drum; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary percussion. There are quite a few [accounts] from the southeastern states and Louisiana dating from the period 1820–1850. Some of the earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming was never actively discouraged for very long and homemade drums were used to accompany public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil War.","Jazz\n\nAnother influence came from the harmonic style of hymns of the church, which black slaves had learned and incorporated into their own music as spirituals. The origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, whereas the spirituals are homophonic, rural blues and early jazz \"was largely based on concepts of heterophony.\"","Jazz\n\nDuring the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own cakewalk dances. In turn, European-American minstrel show performers in blackface popularized the music internationally, combining syncopation with European harmonic accompaniment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted slave rhythms and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus between the Afro-Caribbean and African-American cultures.","Jazz\n\nAfrican rhythmic retention","Jazz\n\nThe \"Black Codes\" outlawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African drumming traditions were not preserved in North America, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the Caribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were retained in the United States in large part through \"body rhythms\" such as stomping, clapping, and patting juba.","Jazz\n\nIn the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman, what preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was \"Afro-Latin music\", similar to what was played in the Caribbean at the time. A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music as tresillo is a fundamental rhythmic figure heard in many different slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as the Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New Orleans Congo Square and Gottschalk's compositions (for example \"Souvenirs From Havana\" (1859)). Tresillo is the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic cell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the music of the African Diaspora.","Jazz\n\nTresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans second line music and in other forms of popular music from that city from the turn of the 20th century to present. \"By and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions,\" the Jazz historian Gunther Schuller observed. \"Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed.\"","Jazz\n\nIn the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums, snare drums and fifes, and an original African-American drum and fife music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic figures. This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. \"The snare and bass drummers played syncopated cross-rhythms,\" observed the writer Robert Palmer (writer), speculating that \"this tradition must have dated back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it could have not have developed in the first place if there hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in the culture it nurtured.\"","Jazz\n\n\"Spanish tinge\"—the Afro-Cuban rhythmic influence","Jazz\n\nAfrican-American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century, when the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international popularity. Musicians from Havana and New Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the musically fertile Crescent City. John Storm Roberts states that the musical genre habanera \"reached the U.S. twenty years before the first rag was published.\" For the more than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime, and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.","Jazz\n\nHabaneras were widely available as sheet music, and were the first written music which was rhythmically based on an African motif (1803), From the perspective of African-American music, the habanera rhythm (also known as congo, tango-congo, or tango. ) can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the backbeat. The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the United States, and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.","Jazz\n\nNew Orleans native Louis Moreau Gottschalk's piano piece \"Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)\" (1860) was influenced by the composer's studies in Cuba: the habanera rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand. In Gottschalk's symphonic work \"A Night in the Tropics\" (1859), the tresillo variant cinquillo appears extensively. The figure was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers.","Jazz\n\nComparing the music of New Orleans with the music of Cuba, Wynton Marsalis observes that tresillo is the New Orleans \"clave\", a Spanish word meaning 'code' or 'key', as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery. Although technically the pattern is only half a clave, Marsalis makes the point that the single-celled figure is the guide-pattern of New Orleans music. Jelly Roll Morton called the rhythmic figure the Spanish tinge, and considered it an essential ingredient of jazz.","Jazz\n\n1890s–1910s","Jazz\n\nRagtime","Jazz\n\nThe abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, during which time many marching bands were formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs and brothels, as ragtime developed.","Jazz\n\nRagtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African-American musicians such as the entertainer Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895. Two years later, Vess Ossman recorded a medley of these songs as a banjo solo known as \"Rag Time Medley\". Also in 1897, the white composer William H. Krell published his \"Mississippi Rag\" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom Turpin published his \"Harlem Rag\", the first rag published by an African-American.","Jazz\n\nThe classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his \"Original Rags\" in 1898, and in 1899 had an international hit with \"Maple Leaf Rag\", a multi-strain ragtime march with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass line with copious seventh chords. Its structure was the basis for many other rags, and the syncopations in the right hand, especially in the transition between the first and second strain, were novel at the time.","Jazz\n\nAfrican-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and its variants, the habanera rhythm and cinquillo, are heard in the ragtime compositions of Joplin, Turpin, and others. Joplin's \"Solace\" (1909) is generally considered to be within the habanera genre: both of the pianist's hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of a march rhythm. Ned Sublette postulates that the tresillo/habanera rhythm \"found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,\" whilst Roberts suggests that \"the habanera influence may have been part of what freed black music from ragtime's European bass.\"","Jazz\n\nBlues","Jazz\n\nAfrican genesis","Jazz\n\nBlues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre, which originated in African-American communities of primarily the \"Deep South\" of the United States at the end of the 19th century from their spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts and chants and rhymed simple narrative ballads.","Jazz\n\nThe African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the development of blue notes in blues and jazz. As Kubik explains:\nMany of the rural blues of the Deep South are stylistically an extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt:\n* A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as found for example among the Hausa. It is characterized by melisma, wavy intonation, pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework, and a declamatory voice.\n* An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents (1999: 94).","Jazz\n\nW. C. Handy: early published blues","Jazz\n\nW. C. Handy became intrigued by the folk blues of the Deep South whilst traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within a limited melodic range, sounding like a field holler, and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another \"voice\". Handy and his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with the blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band instrument format, and arrange them in a popular music form.","Jazz\n\nHandy wrote about his adopting of the blues:","Jazz\n\nThe primitive southern Negro, as he sang, was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale, slurring between major and minor. Whether in the cotton field of the Delta or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always the same. Till then, however, I had never heard this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro, or by any white man. I tried to convey this effect ... by introducing flat thirds and sevenths (now called blue notes) into my song, although its prevailing key was major ..., and I carried this device into my melody as well.","Jazz\n\nThe publication of his \"Memphis Blues\" sheet music in 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, but \"more like a cakewalk\" ). This composition, as well as his later \"St. Louis Blues\" and others, included the habanera rhythm,W. C. Handy, Father of the Blues: An Autobiography, edited by Arna Bontemps: foreword by Abbe Niles. Macmillan Company, New York; (1941), pp. 99, 100 (no ISBN in this first printing). and would become jazz standards. Handy's music career began in the pre-jazz era, and contributed to the codification of jazz through the publication of some of the first jazz sheet music.","Jazz\n\nWithin the context of Western harmony","Jazz\n\nThe blues form which is ubiquitous in jazz is characterized by specific chord progressions, of which the twelve-bar blues progression is the most common. An important part of the sound are the blue notes which, for expressive purposes, are sung or played flattened, or gradually bent (minor 3rd to major 3rd) in relation to the pitch of the major scale. The blues were the key that opened up an entirely new approach to Western harmony, ultimately leading to a high level of harmonic complexity in jazz.","Jazz\n\nNew Orleans","Jazz\n\nThe music of New Orleans had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. Many early jazz performers played in venues throughout the city, such as the brothels and bars of the red-light district around Basin Street, known as \"Storyville\". In addition to dance bands, there were numerous marching bands who played at lavish funerals (later called jazz funerals), which were arranged by the African-American and European American communities. The instruments used in marching bands and dance bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass, reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale, and drums. Small bands which mixed self-taught and well educated African-American musicians, many of whom came from the funeral-procession tradition of New Orleans, played a seminal role in the development and dissemination of early jazz. These bands travelled throughout Black communities in the Deep South and, from around 1914 onwards, Afro-Creole and African-American musicians played in vaudeville shows which took jazz to western and northern US cities.","Jazz\n\nIn New Orleans, a white marching band leader named Papa Jack Laine integrated blacks and whites in his marching band. Laine was known as \"the father of white jazz\" because of the many top players who passed through his bands (including George Brunies, Sharkey Bonano and the future members of the Original Dixieland Jass Band). Laine was a good talent scout. During the early 1900s jazz was mostly done in the African-American and mulatto communities, due to segregation laws. The red light district of Storyville, New Orleans was crucial in bringing jazz music to a wider audience via tourists who came to the port city. Many jazz musicians from the African-American communities were hired to perform live music in brothels and bars, including many early jazz pioneers such as Buddy Bolden and Jelly Roll Morton, in addition to those from New Orleans other communities such as Lorenzo Tio and Alcide Nunez. Louis Armstrong also got his start in Storyville and would later find success in Chicago (along with others from New Orleans) after the United States government shut down Storyville in 1917.","Jazz\n\nSyncopation","Jazz\n\nThe cornetist Buddy Bolden led a band who are often mentioned as one of the prime originators of the style later to be called \"jazz\". He played in New Orleans around 1895–1906, before developing a mental illness; there are no recordings of him playing. Bolden's band is credited with creating the big four, the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march. As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.","Jazz\n\nAfro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in Storyville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows around southern cities, also playing in Chicago and New York. In 1905 he composed his \"Jelly Roll Blues\", which on its publication in 1915 became the first jazz arrangement in print, introducing more musicians to the New Orleans style.","Jazz\n\nMorton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he called the Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz. In his own words: Now in one of my earliest tunes, \"New Orleans Blues,\" you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.","Jazz\n\nMorton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the early jazz form known as ragtime to jazz piano, and could perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a series of recordings for the Library of Congress, in which he demonstrated the difference between the two styles. Morton's solos however were still close to ragtime, and were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in later jazz; but his use of the blues was of equal importance.","Jazz\n\nSwing","Jazz\n\nMorton loosened ragtime's rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a swing feeling. Swing is the most important and enduring African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft quoted definition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: \"if you don't feel it, you'll never know it.\" The New Harvard Dictionary of Music states that swing is: \"An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz ... Swing defies analysis; claims to its presence may inspire arguments.\" The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple subdivisions: swing superimposes six subdivisions of the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions. This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-American music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple and duple-pulse \"grids\".","Jazz\n\nNew Orleans brass bands are a lasting influence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans' Camelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also credited with the abandonment of ragtime's stiffness in favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any other musician, codified the rhythmic technique of swing in jazz, and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.","Jazz\n\nThe Original Dixieland Jass Band made the music's first recordings early in 1917, and their \"Livery Stable Blues\" became the earliest released jazz record. That year, numerous other bands made recordings featuring \"jazz\" in the title or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War I, James Reese Europe's \"Hellfighters\" infantry band took ragtime to Europe, then on their return recorded Dixieland standards including \"Darktown Strutters' Ball\".","Jazz\n\nOther regions","Jazz\n\nIn the northeastern United States, a \"hot\" style of playing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe's symphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York, which played a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912. The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake influenced James P. Johnson's development of stride piano playing, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline.","Jazz\n\nIn Ohio and elsewhere in the midwest the major influence was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut-bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon by the Black middle-class.","Jazz\n\n1920s and 1930s","Jazz\n\nJazz Age","Jazz\n\nFrom 1920 to 1933 Prohibition in the United States banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies which became lively venues of the \"Jazz Age\", hosting popular music including current dance songs, novelty songs and show tunes. Jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as threatening the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent values of the Roaring 20s. Professor Henry van Dyke of Princeton University wrote: \"... it is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion.\" The media too began to denigrate jazz. The New York Times used stories and headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagers were said by the paper to have used jazz to scare off bears, when in fact they had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.","Jazz\n\nIn 1919 Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans began playing in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings. That year also saw the first recording by Bessie Smith, the most famous of the 1920s blues singers. Chicago meanwhile was the main center developing the new \"Hot Jazz\", where King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.","Jazz\n\nDespite its Southern black origins, there was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras. In 1918 Paul Whiteman and his orchestra became a hit in San Francisco, California, signing with Victor Talking Machine Company in 1920 and becoming the top bandleader of the 1920s, giving \"hot jazz\" a white component, hiring white musicians including Bix Beiderbecke, Jimmy Dorsey, Tommy Dorsey, Frankie Trumbauer, and Joe Venuti. In 1924 Whiteman commissioned Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, which was premiered by his orchestra. After the band successfully toured Europe, huge hot jazz orchestras in theater pits caught on with other whites, including Fred Waring, Jean Goldkette, and Nathaniel Shilkret. Whiteman's success was based on a \"rhetoric of domestication\" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable (read \"white\") a previously inchoate (read \"black\") kind of music.","Jazz\n\nWhiteman's success caused blacks to follow suit, including Earl Hines (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago in 1928), Duke Ellington (who opened at the Cotton Club in Harlem in 1927), Lionel Hampton, Fletcher Henderson, Claude Hopkins, and Don Redman, with Henderson and Redman developing the \"talking to one another\" formula for \"hot\" Swing music.","Jazz\n\nIn 1924 Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded \"stiff, stodgy,\" with \"jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality.\" The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of \"Mandy, Make Up Your Mind\" by George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924). (The example approximates Armstrong's solo, as it doesn't convey his use of swing.)","Jazz\n\nAlso in the 1920s Skiffle, jazz played with homemade instruments such as washboard, jugs, musical saw, kazoos, etc. began to be recorded in Chicago, Ill., later merging with country music.","Jazz\n\nArmstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic Hot Five band, where he popularized scat singing.","Jazz\n\nJelly Roll Morton recorded with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his Red Hot Peppers.","Jazz\n\nBy 1930 the New Orleans-style ensemble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world.","Jazz\n\nSwing","Jazz\n\nThe 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the \"big\" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Glenn Miller, Artie Shaw, Harry James, and Jimmie Lunceford. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to \"solo\" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be very complex \"important\" music.","Jazz\n\nSwing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the radio \"live\" nightly across America for many years, especially by Earl Hines and his Grand Terrace Cafe Orchestra broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago (well placed for \"live\" US time-zones).","Jazz\n\nOver time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930, Benny Goodman hired pianist Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and guitarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist Lester Young (inventor of much of hipster jargon) marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as \"jumping the blues\" or jump blues used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s.","Jazz\n\nBeginnings of European jazz","Jazz\n\nAs only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time. The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.","Jazz\n\nBritish jazz began with a tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919. In 1926 Fred Elizalde and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC.","Jazz\n\nThis distinct style entered full swing in France with the Quintette du Hot Club de France, which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman, since his style was also a fusion of the two. Belgian guitar virtuoso Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall \"musette\" and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments are steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass, and solos pass from one player to another as the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section. Some music researchers hold that it was Philadelphia's Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti who pioneered the guitar-violin partnership typical of the genre, which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the late 1920s.","Jazz\n\n1940s and 1950s","Jazz\n\n\"American music\"—the influence of Ellington","Jazz\n\nBy the 1940s, Duke Ellington's music had transcended the bounds of swing, bridging jazz and art music in a natural synthesis. Ellington called his music \"American Music\" rather than jazz, and liked to describe those who impressed him as \"beyond category.\" These included many of the musicians who were members of his orchestra, some of whom are considered among the best in jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded them into one of the most well-known jazz orchestral units in the history of jazz. He often composed specifically for the style and skills of these individuals, such as \"Jeep's Blues\" for Johnny Hodges, \"Concerto for Cootie\" for Cootie Williams (which later became \"Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me\" with Bob Russell's lyrics), and \"The Mooche\" for Tricky Sam Nanton and Bubber Miley. He also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, such as Juan Tizol's \"Caravan\" and \"Perdido\", which brought the \"Spanish Tinge\" to big-band jazz. Several members of the orchestra remained with him for several decades.","Jazz\n\nThe band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed tremendous creativity.","Jazz\n\nBebop","Jazz\n\nIn the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging \"musician's music.\" The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie and Clifford Brown, and drummer Max Roach. Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itself more as an art form, thus lessening its potential popular and commercial appeal.","Jazz\n\nComposer Gunther Schuller wrote:\n ... In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians. They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work. Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz ... but the band never made recordings.","Jazz\n\nDizzy Gillespie wrote:\n ... People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band. But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the same basic music. The difference was in how you got from here to here to here ... naturally each age has got its own shit.","Jazz\n\nRhythm","Jazz\n\nSince bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride cymbal was used to keep time while the snare and bass drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncopated linear rhythmic complexity.","Jazz\n\nHarmony","Jazz\n\nBebop musicians employed several harmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz, engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an added chromatic passing note; bebop also uses \"passing\" chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. New forms of chromaticism and dissonance were introduced into jazz, and the dissonant tritone (or \"flatted fifth\") interval became the \"most important interval of bebop\" Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era songs and reused with a new and more complex melody to form new compositions, a practice which was already well-established in earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style. Bebop made use of several relatively common chord progressions, such as blues (at base, I-IV-V, but infused with II-V motion) and 'rhythm changes' (I-VI-II-V) - the chords to the 1930s pop standard \"I Got Rhythm.\" Late bop also moved towards extended forms that represented a departure from pop and show tunes.","Jazz\n\nThe harmonic development in bebop is often traced back to a transcendent moment experienced by Charlie Parker while performing \"Cherokee\" at Clark Monroe's Uptown House, New York, in early 1942:\n I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped changes that were being used, ... and I kept thinking there's bound to be something else. I could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it.... I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did, I found that by using the higher intervals of a chord as a melody line and backing them with appropriately related changes, I could play the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive—Parker.","Jazz\n\nGerhard Kubik postulates that the harmonic development in bebop sprang from the blues and other African-related tonal sensibilities, rather than 20th-century Western art music as some have suggested:\n Auditory inclinations were the African legacy in [Parker's] life, reconfirmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound world at odds with the Western diatonic chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of the blues as a basis for drawing upon various African matrices.","Jazz\n\nSamuel Floyd states that blues were both the bedrock and propelling force of bebop, bringing about three main developments:\n* A new harmonic conception, using extended chord structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and melodic variety.\n* A developed and even more highly syncopated, linear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity in which the blue note of the fifth degree was established as an important melodic-harmonic device.\n* The reestablishment of the blues as the music's primary organizing and functional principle.","Jazz\n\nAs Kubik explained:\nWhile for an outside observer, the harmonic innovations in bebop would appear to be inspired by experiences in Western \"serious\" music, from Claude Debussy to Arnold Schoenberg, such a scheme cannot be sustained by the evidence from a cognitive approach. Claude Debussy did have some influence on jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's piano playing. And it is also true that Duke Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harmonic devices in European contemporary music. West Coast jazz would run into such debts as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self. Bebop then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach. The ultimate significance of all this is that the experiments in jazz during the 1940s brought back to African-American music several structural principles and techniques rooted in African traditions","Jazz\n\nThese divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time initially met with a divided, sometimes hostile, response among fans and fellow musicians, especially established swing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile critics, bebop seemed to be filled with \"racing, nervous phrases\". But despite the initial friction, by the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary.","Jazz\n\nAfro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)","Jazz\n\nMachito and Mario Bauza","Jazz\n\nThe general consensus among musicians and musicologists is that the first original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was \"Tanga\" (1943), composed by Cuban-born Mario Bauza and recorded by Machito and his Afro-Cubans in New York City. \"Tanga\" began as a spontaneous descarga (Cuban jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.","Jazz\n\nThis was the birth of Afro-Cuban jazz. The use of clave brought the African timeline, or key pattern, into jazz. Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled (binary) structure, which is a complex level of African cross-rhythm. Within the context of jazz however, harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and the harmonic \"one\" is always understood to be \"one\". If the progression begins on the \"three-side\" of clave, it is said to be in 3-2 clave. If the progression begins on the \"two-side\", its in 2-3 clave.","Jazz\n\nBobby Sanabria mentions several innovations of Machito's Afro-Cubans, citing them as the first band: to wed big band jazz arranging techniques within an original composition, with jazz oriented soloists utilizing an authentic Afro-Cuban based rhythm section in a successful manner; to explore modal harmony (a concept explored much later by Miles Davis and Gil Evans) from a jazz arranging perspective; and to overtly explore the concept of clave counterpoint from an arranging standpoint (the ability to weave seamlessly from one side of the clave to the other without breaking its rhythmic integrity within the structure of a musical arrangement). They were also the first band in the United States to publicly utilize the term Afro-Cuban as the band's moniker, thus identifying itself and acknowledging the West African roots of the musical form they were playing. It forced New York City's Latino and African-American communities to deal with their common West African musical roots in a direct way, whether they wanted to acknowledge it publicly or not.","Jazz\n\nDizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo","Jazz\n\nIt was Mario Bauzá who introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to the Cuban conga drummer and composer Chano Pozo. Gillespie and Pozo's brief collaboration produced some of the most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. \"Manteca\" (1947) is the first jazz standard to be rhythmically based on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntal guajeos (Afro-Cuban ostinatos) of the A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the bridge. Gillespie recounted: \"If I'd let it go like [Chano] wanted it, it would have been strictly Afro-Cuban all the way. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was writing an eight-bar bridge, but ... I had to keep going and ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge.\" The bridge gave \"Manteca\" a typical jazz harmonic structure, setting the piece apart from Bauza's modal \"Tanga\" of a few years earlier.","Jazz\n\nGillespie's collaboration with Pozo brought specific African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the boundaries of harmonic improvisation, cu-bop, as it was called, also drew more directly from African rhythmic structures. Jazz arrangements with a \"Latin\" A section and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during solos, became common practice with many \"Latin tunes\" of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be heard on pre-1980 recordings of \"Manteca\", \"A Night in Tunisia\", \"Tin Tin Deo\", and \"On Green Dolphin Street\".","Jazz\n\nAfrican cross-rhythm","Jazz\n\nCuban percussionist Mongo Santamaria first recorded his composition \"Afro Blue\" in 1959. \n\"Afro Blue\" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) cross-rhythm, or hemiola. The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8, or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2). The following example shows the original ostinato \"Afro Blue\" bass line; the slashed noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap your foot to \"keep time.\"","Jazz\n\nWhen John Coltrane covered \"Afro Blue\" in 1963, he inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a 3/4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3). Originally a B pentatonic blues, Coltrane expanded the harmonic structure of \"Afro Blue.\"","Jazz\n\nPerhaps the most respected Afro-cuban jazz combo of the late 1950s was vibraphonist Cal Tjader's band. Tjader had Mongo Santamaria, Armando Peraza, and Willie Bobo on his early recording dates.","Jazz\n\nDixieland revival","Jazz\n\nIn the late 1940s there was a revival of \"Dixieland\" music, harking back to the original contrapuntal New Orleans style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of early jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types of musicians involved in the revival: the first group was made up of those who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such as Bob Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and Wild Bill Davison. Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those in the Lu Watters band, Conrad Janis, and Ward Kimball and his Firehouse Five Plus Two Jazz Band. By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.","Jazz\n\nCool jazz and West Coast jazz","Jazz\n\nIn 1944 jazz impresario Norman Granz organized the first Jazz at the Philharmonic concert in Los Angeles, which helped make a star of Nat \"King\" Cole and Les Paul. In 1946 he founded Clef Records, discovering Canadian jazz pianist Oscar Peterson in 1949, and merging Clef Records with his new label Verve Records in 1956, which advanced the career of Ella Fitzgerald et al.","Jazz\n\nBy the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tension of bebop was replaced with a tendency toward calm and smoothness with the sounds of cool jazz, which favored long, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City, and dominated jazz in the first half of the 1950s. The starting point was a collection of 1949 and 1950 singles by a nonet led by Miles Davis, released as the Birth of the Cool (1957). Later cool jazz recordings by musicians such as Chet Baker, Dave Brubeck, Bill Evans, Gil Evans, Stan Getz, the Modern Jazz Quartet, and Gerry Mulligan usually had a \"lighter\" sound that avoided the aggressive tempos and harmonic abstraction of bebop.","Jazz\n\nCool jazz later became strongly identified with the West Coast jazz scene, as typified by singers Chet Baker, Mel Tormé, and Anita O'Day, but it also had a particular resonance in Europe, especially Scandinavia, where figures such as baritone saxophonist Lars Gullin and pianist Bengt Hallberg emerged. The theoretical underpinnings of cool jazz were laid out by the Chicago pianist Lennie Tristano, and its influence stretches into such later developments as bossa nova, modal jazz, and even free jazz.","Jazz\n\nHard bop","Jazz\n\nHard bop is an extension of bebop (or \"bop\") music which incorporates influences from rhythm and blues, gospel music and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coalescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s, and paralleled the rise of rhythm and blues. Miles Davis' 1954 performance of \"Walkin'\" at the first Newport Jazz Festival announced the style to the jazz world. The quintet Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by Blakey and featuring pianist Horace Silver and trumpeter Clifford Brown, were leaders in the hard bop movement along with Davis.","Jazz\n\nModal jazz","Jazz\n\nModal jazz is a development which began in the later 1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a solo was meant to fit into a given chord progression, but with modal jazz the soloist creates a melody using one (or a small number of) modes. The emphasis is thus shifted from harmony to melody: \"Historically, this caused a seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale),\" explained pianist Mark Levine.","Jazz\n\nThe modal theory stems from a work by George Russell. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater jazz world with Kind of Blue (1959), an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis' earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation, the entire Kind of Blue album was composed as a series of \"modal sketches\", in which each performer was given a set of scales that defined the parameters of their improvisation and style. \"I didn't write out the music for Kind of Blue, but brought in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity,\" recalled Davis. The track \"So What\" has only two chords: D-7 and E-7.","Jazz\n\nOther innovators in this style include Jackie McLean, and two of the musicians who had also played on Kind of Blue: John Coltrane and Bill Evans.","Jazz\n\nBy the 1950s, Afro-Cuban jazz had been using modes for at least a decade, as much of it borrowed from Cuban popular dance forms which are structured around multiple ostinatos with only a few chords. A case in point is Mario Bauza's \"Tanga\" (1943), the first Afro-Cuban jazz piece. Machito's Afro-Cubans recorded modal tunes in the 1940s, featuring jazz soloists such as Howard McGhee, Brew Moore, Charlie Parker and Flip Phillips. However, there is no evidence that Davis or other mainstream jazz musicians were influenced by the use of modes in Afro-Cuban jazz, or other branches of Latin jazz.","Jazz\n\nFree jazz","Jazz\n\nFree jazz, and the related form of avant-garde jazz broke through into an open space of \"free tonality\" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range of World music from India, Africa and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing. While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassist Charles Mingus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles and genres.","Jazz\n\nThe first major stirrings came in the 1950s with the early work of Ornette Coleman (whose 1960 album Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation coined the term) and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s exponents included Albert Ayler, Gato Barbieri, Carla Bley, Don Cherry, Larry Coryell, John Coltrane, Bill Dixon, Jimmy Giuffre, Steve Lacy, Michael Mantler, Sun Ra, Roswell Rudd, Pharoah Sanders, and John Tchicai. In developing his late style, Coltrane was especially influenced by the dissonance of Ayler's trio with bassist Gary Peacock and drummer Sunny Murray, a rhythm section honed with Cecil Taylor as leader. In November 1961 Coltrane played a gig at the Village Vanguard, which resulted in the classic Chasin' the 'Trane, which Down Beat magazine panned as \"Anti-Jazz\". On his 1961 tour of France he was booed, but persevered, signing with the new Impulse! Records in 1960 and turning it into \"the house that Trane built\", while championing many younger free jazz musicians, notably Archie Shepp, who often played with trumpeter Bill Dixon, who organized the 4-day \"October Revolution in Jazz\" in Manhattan in 1964, the first free jazz festival.","Jazz\n\nA series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the first half of 1965 show Coltrane's playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like multiphonics, utilization of overtones, and playing in the altissimo register, as well as a mutated return to Coltrane's sheets of sound. In the studio, he all but abandoned his soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with increasing freedom. The group's evolution can be traced through the recordings The John Coltrane Quartet Plays, Living Space and Transition (both June 1965), New Thing at Newport (July 1965), Sun Ship (August 1965) and First Meditations (September 1965).","Jazz\n\nIn June 1965 Coltrane and 10 other musicians recorded Ascension, a 40-minute long piece without breaks that included adventurous solos by young avante-garde musicians as well as Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collective improvisation sections that separated the solos. Dave Liebman later called it \"the torch that lit the free jazz thing.\". After recording with the quartet over the next few months, Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in September 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowing frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of the instrument.","Jazz\n\nFree jazz in Europe","Jazz\n\nFree jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe, in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy and Eric Dolphy spent extended periods there, and European musicians Michael Mantler, John Tchicai et al. traveled to the U.S. to learn it firsthand. A distinctive European contemporary jazz (often incorporating elements of free jazz but not limited to it) also flourished because of the emergence of European musicians such as Peter Brötzmann, John Surman, Zbigniew Namysłowski, Albert Mangelsdorff, Kenny Wheeler, and Mike Westbrook, who were anxious to develop new approaches reflecting their national and regional musical cultures and contexts. Since the 1960s various creative centers of jazz have developed in Europe, such as the creative jazz scene in Amsterdam. Following the work of veteran drummer Han Bennink and pianist Misha Mengelberg, musicians started to explore free music by collectively improvising until a certain form (melody, rhythm, or even famous song) is found by the band. Jazz critic Kevin Whitehead documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers Pool) orchestra in his book New Dutch Swing.","Jazz\n\nSince the 1990s Keith Jarrett has been prominent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditionalists.","Jazz\n\n1960s and 1970s","Jazz\n\nLatin jazz","Jazz\n\nLatin jazz is the term used to describe jazz which employs Latin American rhythms, and is generally understood to have a more specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz, as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either have a direct analog in Africa, or exhibit an African rhythmic influence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are Afro-Cuban jazz and Brazilian jazz.","Jazz\n\nIn the 1960s and 1970s many jazz musicians had only a basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as \"Latin tunes\", with no distinction between a Cuban son montuno and a Brazilian bossa nova. Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridley's Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, a bossa nova bass line is referred to as a \"Latin bass figure.\" It was not uncommon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playing a Cuban tumbao while the drumset and bass played a Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such as \"Manteca\", \"On Green Dolphin Street\" and \"Song for My Father\" have a \"Latin\" A section and a swung B section. Typically, the band would only play an even-eighth \"Latin\" feel in the A section of the head, and swing throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like Cal Tjader tended to be the exception. For example, on a 1959 live Tjader recording of \"A Night in Tunisia\", pianist Vince Guaraldi soloed through the entire form over an authentic mambo.","Jazz\n\nAfro-Cuban jazz","Jazz\n\nAfro-Cuban jazz often uses Afro-Cuban instruments such as congas, timbales, güiro and claves, combined with piano, double bass, etc. Afro-Cuban jazz began with Machito's Afro-Cubans in the early 1940s, but took off and entered the mainstream in the late 1940s when bebop musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor began experimenting with Cuban rhythms. Mongo Santamaria and Cal Tjader further refined the genre in the late 1950s.","Jazz\n\nAlthough a great deal of Cuban-based Latin jazz is modal, Latin jazz is not always modal: it can be as harmonically expansive as post-bop jazz. For example, Tito Puente recorded an arrangement of \"Giant Steps\" done to an Afro-Cuban guaguancó. A Latin jazz piece may momentarily contract harmonically, as in the case of a percussion solo over a one or two-chord piano guajeo.","Jazz\n\nGuajeos","Jazz\n\nGuajeo is the name for the typical Afro-Cuban ostinato melodies which are commonly used motifs in Latin jazz compositions. They originated in the genre known as son. Guajeos provide a rhythmic and melodic framework that may be varied within certain parameters, whilst still maintaining a repetitive - and thus \"danceable\" - structure. Most guajeos are rhythmically based on clave (rhythm).","Jazz\n\nGuajeos are one of the most important elements of the vocabulary of Afro-Cuban descarga (jazz-inspired instrumental jams), providing a means of tension and resolution and a sense of forward momentum, within a relatively simple harmonic structure. The use of multiple, contrapuntal guajeos in Latin jazz facilitates simultaneous collective improvisation based on theme variation. In a way, this polyphonic texture is reminiscent of the original New Orleans style of jazz.","Jazz\n\nAfro-Cuban jazz renaissance","Jazz\n\nFor most of its history, Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of the 1970s a new generation of New York City musicians had emerged who were fluent in both salsa dance music and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and trumpet) and Andy (bass). During 1974-1976 they were members of one of Eddie Palmieri's most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.","Jazz\n\nThis occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba The first Cuban band of this new wave was Irakere. Their \"Chékere-son\" (1976) introduced a style of \"Cubanized\" bebop-flavored horn lines that departed from the more angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was based on Charlie Parker's composition \"Billie's Bounce\", jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn lines. In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakere's Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion, their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz, and in the jazzy and complex contemporary form of popular dance music known as timba.","Jazz\n\nAfro-Brazilian jazz","Jazz\n\nBrazilian jazz such as bossa nova is derived from samba, with influences from jazz and other 20th-century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English, whilst he related term jazz-samba describes an adaptation of street samba into jazz.","Jazz\n\nThe bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians João Gilberto and Antônio Carlos Jobim, and was made popular by Elizete Cardoso's recording of \"Chega de Saudade\" on the Canção do Amor Demais LP. Gilberto's initial releases, and the 1959 film Black Orpheus, achieved significant popularity in Latin America; this spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented bossa nova's popularity and led to a worldwide boom, with 1963's Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald and Frank Sinatra, and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music.","Jazz\n\nBrazilian percussionists such as Airto Moreira and Naná Vasconcelos also influenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater audience to them.","Jazz\n\nPost-bop","Jazz\n\nPost-bop jazz is a form of small-combo jazz derived from earlier bop styles. The genre's origins lie in seminal work by John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, Charles Mingus, Wayne Shorter and Herbie Hancock. Generally, the term post-bop is taken to mean jazz from the mid-sixties onwards that assimilates influences from hard bop, modal jazz, the avant-garde and free jazz, without necessarily being immediately identifiable as any of the above.","Jazz\n\nMuch post-bop was recorded for Blue Note Records. Key albums include Speak No Evil by Shorter; The Real McCoy by McCoy Tyner; Maiden Voyage by Hancock; Miles Smiles by Davis; and Search for the New Land by Lee Morgan (an artist who is not typically associated with the post-bop genre). Most post-bop artists worked in other genres as well, with a particularly strong overlap with the later hard bop.","Jazz\n\nSoul jazz","Jazz\n\nSoul jazz was a development of hard bop which incorporated strong influences from blues, gospel and rhythm and blues to create music for small groups, often the organ trio of Hammond organ, drummer and tenor saxophonist. Unlike hard bop, soul jazz generally emphasized repetitive grooves and melodic hooks, and improvisations were often less complex than in other jazz styles. It often had a steadier \"funk\" style groove, which was different from the swing rhythms typical of much hard bop.","Jazz\n\nHorace Silver had a large influence on the soul jazz style, with songs that used funky and often gospel-based piano vamps. Important soul jazz organists included Jimmy McGriff, Jimmy Smith and Johnny Hammond Smith, and influential tenor saxophone players included Eddie \"Lockjaw\" Davis and Stanley Turrentine.","Jazz\n\nAfrican-inspired","Jazz\n\nThemes","Jazz\n\nThere was a resurgence of interest in jazz and other forms of African-American cultural expression during the Black Arts Movement and Black nationalist period of the 1960s and 1970s. African themes became popular, and many new jazz compositions were given African-related titles: \"Black Nile\" (Wayne Shorter), \"Blue Nile\" (Alice Coltrane), \"Obirin African\" (Art Blakey), \"Zambia\" (Lee Morgan), \"Appointment in Ghana\" (Jackie McLean), \"Marabi\" (Cannonball Adderley), \"Yoruba\" (Hubert Laws), and many more. Pianist Randy Weston's music incorporated African elements, such as in the large-scale suite \"Uhuru Africa\" (with the participation of poet Langston Hughes) and \"Highlife: Music From the New African Nations.\" Both Weston and saxophonist Stanley Turrentine covered the Nigerian Bobby Benson's piece \"Niger Mambo\", which features Afro-Caribbean and jazz elements within a West African Highlife style. Some musicians, including Pharoah Sanders, Hubert Laws and Wayne Shorter, began using African instruments such as kalimbas, bells, beaded gourds and other instruments which were not traditional to jazz.","Jazz\n\nRhythm","Jazz\n\nDuring this period there was an increased use of the typical African 12/8 cross-rhythmic structure in jazz. Herbie Hancock's \"Succotash\" on Inventions and Dimensions (1963) is an open-ended modal 12/8 improvised jam, in which Hancock's pattern of attack-points, rather than the pattern of pitches, is the primary focus of his improvisations, accompanied by Paul Chambers on bass, percussionist Osvaldo Martinez playing a traditional Afro-Cuban chekeré part and Willie Bobo playing an Abakuá bell pattern on a snare drum with brushes.","Jazz\n\nThe first jazz standard composed by a non-Latino to use an overt African 12/8 cross-rhythm was Wayne Shorter's \"Footprints\" (1967). On the version recorded on Miles Smiles by Miles Davis, the bass switches to a 4/4 tresillo figure at 2:20. \"Footprints\" is not, however, a Latin jazz tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed directly by Ron Carter (bass) and Tony Williams (drums) via the rhythmic sensibilities of swing. Throughout the piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent. In the example below, the main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads, which do not indicate bass notes.","Jazz\n\nPentatonic scales","Jazz\n\nThe use of pentatonic scales was another trend associated with Africa. The use of pentatonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of years.","Jazz\n\nMcCoy Tyner perfected the use of the pentatonic scale in his solos, and also used parallel fifths and fourths, which are common harmonies in West Africa.","Jazz\n\nThe minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by Joe Henderson on Horace Silver's \"African Queen\" (1965).","Jazz\n\nJazz pianist, theorist, and educator Mark Levine refers to the scale generated by beginning on the fifth step of a pentatonic scale as the V pentatonic scale.","Jazz\n\nLevine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all three chords of the standard II-V-I jazz progression. This is a very common progression, used in pieces such as Miles Davis' \"Tune Up.\" The following example shows the V pentatonic scale over a II-V-I progression.","Jazz\n\nAccordingly, John Coltrane's \"Giant Steps\" (1960), with its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three pentatonic scales. Coltrane studied Nicolas Slonimsky's Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns, which contains material that is virtually identical to portions of \"Giant Steps\". The harmonic complexity of \"Giant Steps\" is on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music. Superimposing the pentatonic scale over \"Giant Steps\" is not merely a matter of harmonic simplification, but also a sort of \"Africanizing\" of the piece, which provides an alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes that when mixed in with more conventional \"playing the changes\", pentatonic scales provide \"structure and a feeling of increased space.\"","Jazz\n\nJazz fusion","Jazz\n\nIn the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix and Frank Zappa. Jazz fusion often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex chords and harmonies.","Jazz\n\nAccording to AllMusic:\n...until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate. [However, ...] as rock became more creative and its musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored with hard bop and did not want to play strictly avant-garde music, the two different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces.\"","Jazz\n\nMiles Davis' new directions","Jazz\n\nIn 1969 Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with In a Silent Way, which can be considered his first fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily by producer Teo Macero, this quiet, static album would be equally influential to the development of ambient music.","Jazz\n\nAs Davis recalls:\nThe music I was really listening to in 1968 was James Brown, the great guitar player Jimi Hendrix, and a new group who had just come out with a hit record, \"Dance to the Music\", Sly and the Family Stone... I wanted to make it more like rock. When we recorded In a Silent Way I just threw out all the chord sheets and told everyone to play off of that.\"","Jazz\n\nTwo contributors to In a Silent Way also joined organist Larry Young to create one of the early acclaimed fusion albums: Emergency! by The Tony Williams Lifetime.","Jazz\n\nPsychedelic-jazz","Jazz\n\nBitches Brew","Jazz\n\nDavis' Bitches Brew (1970) album was his most successful of this era. Although inspired by rock and funk, Davis' fusion creations were original, and brought about a new type of avant-garde, electronic, psychedelic-jazz, as far from pop music as any other Davis work.","Jazz\n\nHerbie Hancock","Jazz\n\nPianist Herbie Hancock (a Davis alumnus) released four albums in the short-lived (1970–1973) psychedelic-jazz subgenre: Mwandishi (1972), Crossings (1973) and Sextant (1973). The rhythmic background was a mix of rock, funk, and African-type textures.","Jazz\n\nMusicians who had previously worked with Davis formed the four most influential fusion groups: Weather Report and Mahavishnu Orchestra emerged in 1971, and were soon followed by Return to Forever and The Headhunters.","Jazz\n\nWeather Report","Jazz\n\nWeather Report's self-titled electronic and psychedelic Weather Report debut album caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971, thanks to the pedigree of the group's members (including percussionist Airto Moreira), and their unorthodox approach to music. The album featured a softer sound than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing soprano saxophone, and with no synthesizers involved), but is still considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avant-garde experiments which Joe Zawinul and Shorter had pioneered with Miles Davis on Bitches Brew, including an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favour of continuous rhythm and movement – but took the music further. To emphasise the group's rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable avant-garde atmospheric piece \"Milky Way\", which featured by Shorter's extremely muted saxophone inducing vibrations in Zawinul's piano strings while the latter pedalled the instrument. Down Beat described the album as \"music beyond category\", and awarded it Album of the Year in the magazine's polls that year.","Jazz\n\nWeather Report's subsequent releases were creative funk-jazz works.","Jazz\n\nJazz-rock","Jazz\n\nAlthough some jazz purists protested against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock (such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful amplification, \"fuzz\" pedals, wah-wah pedals and other effects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, Eddie Harris, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummer Tony Williams (drummer), violinist Jean-Luc Ponty, guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola, John McLaughlin and Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter and bassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke. Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan, where the band Casiopea released over thirty fusion albums.","Jazz\n\nAccording to jazz writer Stuart Nicholson, \"just as free jazz appeared on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s ... jazz-rock briefly suggested the promise of doing the same\" with albums such as Williams' Emergency! (1970) and Davis' Agharta (1975), which Nicholson said \"suggested the potential of evolving into something that might eventually define itself as a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before.\" This development was stifled by commercialism, Nicholson said, as the genre \"mutated into a peculiar species of jazz-inflected pop music that eventually took up residence on FM radio\" at the end of the 1970s.","Jazz\n\nJazz-funk","Jazz\n\nBy the mid-1970s the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong back beat (groove), electrified sounds and, often, the presence of electronic analog synthesizers. Jazz-funk also draws influences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban rhythms and Jamaican reggae, notably Kingston bandleader Sonny Bradshaw. Another feature is the shift of emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important. The integration of funk, soul and R&B music into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz riffs and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.","Jazz\n\nEarly examples are Herbie Hancock's Headhunters band and Miles Davis' On the Corner album, which in 1972 began Davis' foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed, an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk. While there is a discernible rock and funk influence in the timbres of the instruments employed, other tonal and rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the musique concrète approach that Davis and producer Teo Macero had begun to explore in the late 1960s.","Jazz\n\nOther trends","Jazz\n\nJazz continued to expand and change, influenced by other types of music such as world music, avant garde classical music and rock and pop. Jazz musicians began to improvise on unusual instruments, such as the jazz harp (Alice Coltrane), the electrically amplified and wah-wah pedaled jazz violin (Jean-Luc Ponty) and the bagpipes (Rufus Harley). In 1966 jazz trumpeter Don Ellis and Indian sitar player Harihar Rao founded the Hindustani Jazz Sextet. In 1971 guitarist John McLaughlin's Mahavishnu Orchestra began playing a mix of rock and jazz infused with East Indian influences. In the 1970s the ECM record label began in Germany with artists including Keith Jarrett, Paul Bley, the Pat Metheny Group, Jan Garbarek, Ralph Towner, Kenny Wheeler, John Taylor, John Surman, and Eberhard Weber, establishing a new chamber music aesthetic which featured mainly acoustic instruments, occasionally incorporating elements of world music and folk.","Jazz\n\n1980s","Jazz\n\nIn 1987, the United States House of Representatives and Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative John Conyers, Jr. to define jazz as a unique form of American music, stating:\n... that jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated.\nIt passed in the House of Representatives on September 23, 1987 and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.HR-57 Center [http://www.hr57.org/hconres57.html HR-57 Center for the Preservation of Jazz and Blues, with the six-point mandate.]","Jazz\n\nResurgence of traditionalism","Jazz\n\nThe 1980s saw something of a reaction against the Fusion and Free Jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter Wynton Marsalis emerged early in the decade, and strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions of the small and large forms initially pioneered by artists such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, as well as the hard bop of the 1950s. It's debatable whether Marsalis' critical and commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the reaction against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particularly Modal Jazz and Post-Bop); nonetheless there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of traditionalism, even if Fusion and Free Jazz were by no means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve.","Jazz\n\nFor example, several musicians who had been prominent in the fusion genre during the 1970s began to record acoustic jazz once more, including Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock. Other musicians who had experimented with electronic instruments in the previous decade had abandoned them by the 1980s, for example Bill Evans, Joe Henderson and Stan Getz. Even the 1980s music of Miles Davis, although certainly still fusion, adopted a far more accessible and recognisably jazz-oriented approach than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return to a theme-and-solos approach.","Jazz\n\nThe emergence of young jazz talent beginning to perform in older, established musicians' groups further impacted the resurgence of traditionalism in the jazz community. In the 1970s, the groups of Betty Carter and Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers retained their conservative jazz approaches in the midst of fusion and jazz- rock, and in addition to difficulty booking their acts, struggled to find younger generations of personnel to authentically play traditional styles such as hard bop and bebop. In the late 1970s, however, a resurgence of younger jazz players in Blakey's band began to occur. This movement included musicians such as Valery Ponomarev and Bobby Watson, Dennis Irwin and James Williams.\nIn the 1980s, in addition to Wynton and Branford Marsalis, the emergence of pianists in the Jazz Messengers such as Donald Brown, Mulgrew Miller, and later, Benny Green, bassists such as Charles Fambrough, Lonnie Plaxico (and later, Peter Washington and Essiet Essiet) horn players such as Bill Pierce, Donald Harrison and later Javon Jackson and Terence Blanchard emerged as talented jazz musicians, all of whom made significant contributions in later 1990s and 2000s jazz music.","Jazz\n\n[http://www.jazzdiscography.com/Artists/Blakey/chron.htmJ Drummerworld: Art Blakey].","Jazz\n\nThe young Jazz Messengers' contemporaries, including Roy Hargrove, Marcus Roberts, Wallace Roney and Mark Whitfield were also influenced by Wynton Marsalis's emphasis toward jazz tradition. These younger rising stars rejected avant-garde approaches and instead championed the acoustic jazz sound of Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk and early recordings of the first Miles Davis quintet. This group of \"Young Lions\" sought to reaffirm jazz as a high art tradition comparable to the discipline of European classical music.","Jazz\n\nIn addition, Betty Carter's rotation of young musicians in her group foreshadowed many of New York's preeminent traditional jazz players later in their careers. Among these musicians were Jazz Messenger alumni Benny Green, Branford Marsalis and Ralph Peterson, Jr., as well as Kenny Washington, Lewis Nash, Curtis Lundy, Cyrus Chestnut, Mark Shim, Craig Handy, Greg Hutchinson and Marc Cary, Taurus Mateen and Geri Allen.","Jazz\n\nBlue Note Records's O.T.B. ensemble featured a rotation of young jazz musicians such as Kenny Garrett, Steve Wilson, Kenny Davis, Renee Rosnes, Ralph Peterson, Jr., Billy Drummond and Robert Hurst.","Jazz\n\nA similar reaction took place against free jazz. According to Ted Gioia:","Jazz\n\nthe very leaders of the avant garde started to signal a retreat from the core principles of Free Jazz. Anthony Braxton began recording standards over familiar chord changes. Cecil Taylor played duets in concert with Mary Lou Williams, and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his blistering keyboard attack. And the next generation of progressive players would be even more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice. Musicians such as David Murray or Don Pullen may have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they never forgot all the other ways one could play African-American music for fun and profit.","Jazz\n\nPianist Keith Jarrett — whose bands of the 1970s had played only original compositions with prominent free jazz elements — established his so-called 'Standards Trio' in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring collective improvisation, has primarily performed and recorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected them for the 1970s.","Jazz\n\nSmooth jazz","Jazz\n\nIn the early 1980s a commercial form of jazz fusion called \"pop fusion\" or \"smooth jazz\" became successful, garnering significant radio airplay in \"quiet storm\" time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S. This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan and Sade, as well as saxophonists including Grover Washington, Jr., Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James and David Sanborn. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are of 90–105 beats per minute), and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, especially soprano and tenor, and legato electric guitar are popular).","Jazz\n\nIn his Newsweek article \"The Problem With Jazz Criticism\", Stanley Crouch considers Miles Davis' playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often negative perceptions of smooth jazz, stating:\nI challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice, and reception.","Jazz\n\nAcid jazz, nu jazz and jazz rap","Jazz\n\nAcid jazz developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s, influenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music. Acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including Sampling (music) or a live DJ cutting and scratching), but it is just as likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as part of their performance. Jazz-funk musicians such as Roy Ayers and Donald Byrd are often credited as the forerunners of acid jazz.","Jazz\n\nNu jazz is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of live instrumentation with the beats of jazz house (as exemplified by St Germain, Jazzanova and Fila Brazillia) to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example The Cinematic Orchestra, Kobol and the Norwegian \"future jazz\" style pioneered by Bugge Wesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist and Nils Petter Molvær).","Jazz\n\nJazz rap developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and incorporates jazz influences into hip hop. In 1988, Gang Starr released the debut single \"Words I Manifest\", which sampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 \"Night in Tunisia\", and Stetsasonic released \"Talkin' All That Jazz\", which sampled Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starr's debut LP No More Mr. Nice Guy (1989) and their 1990 track \"Jazz Thing\" sampled Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis. The groups which made up the Native Tongues Posse tended toward jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Brothers' debut Straight Out the Jungle (1988), and A Tribe Called Quest's People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm (1990) and The Low End Theory (1991). Rap duo Pete Rock & CL Smooth incorporated jazz influences on their 1992 debut Mecca and the Soul Brother. Rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series began in 1993, using jazz musicians during the studio recordings.","Jazz\n\nThough jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis' final album Doo-Bop (released posthumously in 1992) was based around hip hop beats and collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Davis' ex-bandmate Herbie Hancock also absorbed hip-hop influences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album Dis Is Da Drum in 1994.","Jazz\n\nPunk jazz and jazzcore","Jazz\n\nThe relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with post-punk in London and New York City led to a new appreciation of jazz. In London, the Pop Group began to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk rock. In New York, No Wave took direct inspiration from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include Lydia Lunch's Queen of Siam,Bangs, Lester. \"Free Jazz / Punk Rock\". Musician Magazine, 1979. [http://www.notbored.org/bangs.html] Access date: July 20, 2008. Gray, the work of James Chance and the Contortions (who mixed Soul with free jazz and punk) and the Lounge Lizards (the first group to call themselves \"punk jazz\").","Jazz\n\nJohn Zorn took note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the Spy vs. Spy album in 1986, a collection of Ornette Coleman tunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style. In the same year, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brötzmann, Bill Laswell and Ronald Shannon Jackson recorded the first album under the name Last Exit (free jazz band), a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz. These developments are the origins of jazzcore, the fusion of free jazz with hardcore punk.","Jazz\n\nM-Base","Jazz\n\nThe M-Base movement started in the 1980s, when a loose collective of young African-American musicians in New York which included Steve Coleman, Greg Osby and Gary Thomas developed a complex but grooving sound.","Jazz\n\nIn the 1990s most M-Base participants turned to more conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance with the M-Base concept. Coleman's audience decreased, but his music and concepts influenced many musicians, both in terms of music technique and of the music's meaning. Hence, M-Base changed from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman \"school\", with a much advanced but already originally implied concept. Steve Coleman's music and M-Base concept gained recognition as \"next logical step\" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane and Ornette Coleman.","Jazz\n\n1990s–2010s","Jazz\n\nSince the 1990s jazz has been characterized by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide range of active styles and genres are popular. Individual performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in the same performance. Pianist Brad Mehldau and power trio The Bad Plus have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A firm avant-garde or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players, such as saxophonists Greg Osby and Charles Gayle, while others, such as James Carter, have incorporated free jazz elements into a more traditional framework.","Jazz\n\nOn the other side, even a singer like Harry Connick, Jr. (who has ten number-1 US jazz albums) is sometimes called a jazz musician, although there are only a few elements from jazz history in his mainly pop oriented music. Other recent vocalists have achieved popularity with a mix of traditional jazz and pop/rock forms, such as Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling and Jamie Cullum.","Jazz\n\nA number of players who usually perform in largely straight-ahead settings have emerged since the 1990s, including pianists Jason Moran and Vijay Iyer, guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, saxophonists Chris Potter and Joshua Redman, clarinetist Ken Peplowski and bassist Christian McBride.","Jazz\n\nAlthough jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the 1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include Pat Metheny, John Abercrombie, John Scofield and the Swedish group e.s.t.","Jazz\n\nIn 2001 Ken Burns's documentary Jazz was premiered on PBS, featuring Wynton Marsalis and other experts reviewing the entire history of jazz to that time.","Lakefront Airport\n\nLakefront Airport is a public use airport located four nautical miles (5 mi, 7 km) northeast of the central business district of New Orleans, in Orleans Parish, Louisiana, United States. Owned by the Orleans Levee District, it is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015, which categorized it as a general aviation reliever airport.","Lakefront Airport\n\nOriginally the major commercial airport in the New Orleans area, Lakefront Airport relinquished that role in 1946 when commercial airline service began from Moisant International Airport (now known as Louis Armstrong International Airport), a significantly larger facility located in the nearby suburb of Kenner. Lakefront Airport continues to serve as a general aviation airport with charter, private, and occasional military operations taking place. Commercial airline service is also available to destinations within the Gulf South Region. The terminal building's interior retains much of its original lavish 1930s decoration, and the art deco exterior, obscured for decades by a \"bomb-proof\" facade installed after World War II, has recently been returned to its original appearance. The terminal building houses a restaurant frequented by nearby residents, the Walnut Room. The sculpture installation in front of the terminal, \"Fountain of the Winds\" by Enrique Alferez, is a local landmark.","Lakefront Airport\n\nLakefront Airport was damaged by hurricane-force winds and the storm surge of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, and a number of the hangars and outlying buildings were destroyed. While the airport soon resumed functioning, restoration of the terminal building and other facilities proceeds slowly. With the exterior of the main terminal fully restored however, the classic Art Deco building was used as the headquarters of the fictional company Ferris Aircraft in the 2011 action hero film Green Lantern starring Ryan Reynolds and Blake Lively","Lakefront Airport\n\nHistory","Lakefront Airport\n\nThe airport was constructed in the mid-1930s by Huey Long on a man-made peninsula dredged by the Orleans Levee Board, jutting into Lake Pontchartrain on the Eastern New Orleans side of the Industrial Canal. It was originally named Shushan Airport after Levee Board president Abraham Shushan. The airport was inaugurated on 10 February 1934. Visitors noticed that every doorknob, window sill, countertop, and plumbing fixture either had the name or the initials of Abe Shushan. The airport was soon thereafter renamed New Orleans Airport, and was assigned the airport code \"NEW\", which it retains despite its current name.","Lakefront Airport\n\nDuring World War II, the airfield was used by the United States Army Air Forces and housed the Tropical Weather School in 1945.","Lakefront Airport\n\nAt the start of the 1960s, thick concrete panels were added to the main terminal building to turn it into a Cold War era bomb shelter.","Lakefront Airport\n\nLakefront Airport was badly damaged by storm surge during Hurricane Katrina in 2005, and again during Hurricane Isaac in 2012. While the airport was quickly brought back to service, many facilities remained in temporary trailers for years after Katrina.","Lakefront Airport\n\nOn January 23, 2010 a United States Navy Beechcraft T-34 Mentor training aircraft crashed into Lake Ponchartrain just over one mile from the approach end of the airport. The aircraft was intending to land at Naval Air Station-Joint Reserve Base New Orleans but diverted to Lakefront Airport due to weather. The student pilot on board survived, however, the instructor drowned. According to official reports, the aircrew lost track of their altitude which resulted in their ditching in the lake.","Lakefront Airport\n\nPost-Katrina reconstruction at the airport has included restoration of the main terminal building's original Art Deco facade. The Art Deco interior and restoration of the Shushan terminal is being filmed for a television documentary titled, Return Flight. Filming began in 2012 and will conclude in 2013 when the restoration draws to a close.","Lakefront Airport\n\nFacilities and aircraft","Lakefront Airport\n\nLakefront Airport covers an area of 473 acres (191 ha) at an elevation of 7 feet (2 m) above mean sea level. It has three asphalt paved runways: 18R/36L is 6,879 by 150 feet (2,097 x 46 m); 18L/36R is 3,697 by 75 feet (1,127 x 23 m); 9/27 is 3,114 by 75 feet (949 x 23 m).","Lakefront Airport\n\nFor the 12-month period ending January 31, 2012, the airport had 67,369 aircraft operations, an average of 184 per day: 90% general aviation, 6% military, and 4% air taxi. At that time there were 112 aircraft based at this airport: 69% single-engine, 20% multi-engine, 8% jet, and 3% helicopter.","Louis Armstrong\n\nLouis Armstrong (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971), nicknamed Satchmo or Pops, was an American trumpeter, composer, singer and occasional actor who was one of the most influential figures in jazz. His career spanned five decades, from the 1920s to the 1960s, and different eras in jazz.","Louis Armstrong\n\nComing to prominence in the 1920s as an \"inventive\" trumpet and cornet player, Armstrong was a foundational influence in jazz, shifting the focus of the music from collective improvisation to solo performance. With his instantly recognizable gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer, demonstrating great dexterity as an improviser, bending the lyrics and melody of a song for expressive purposes. He was also skilled at scat singing.","Louis Armstrong\n\nRenowned for his charismatic stage presence and voice almost as much as for his trumpet-playing, Armstrong's influence extends well beyond jazz music, and by the end of his career in the 1960s, he was widely regarded as a profound influence on popular music in general. Armstrong was one of the first truly popular African-American entertainers to \"cross over\", whose skin color was secondary to his music in an America that was extremely racially divided. He rarely publicly politicized his race, often to the dismay of fellow African-Americans, but took a well-publicized stand for desegregation in the Little Rock Crisis. His artistry and personality allowed him socially acceptable access to the upper echelons of American society which were highly restricted for black men of his era.","Louis Armstrong\n\nEarly life","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong often stated that he was born on July 4, 1900, a date that has been noted in many biographies. Although he died in 1971, it was not until the mid-1980s that his true birth date of August 4, 1901 was discovered by researcher Tad Jones through the examination of baptismal records.","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong was born into a poor family in New Orleans, Louisiana, and was the grandson of slaves. He spent his youth in poverty, in a rough neighborhood known as \"the Battlefield\", which was part of the Storyville legal prostitution district. His father, William Armstrong (1881–1922), abandoned the family when Louis was an infant and took up with another woman. His mother, Mary \"Mayann\" Albert (1886–1927), then left Louis and his younger sister, Beatrice Armstrong Collins (1903–1987), in the care of his grandmother, Josephine Armstrong, and at times, his Uncle Isaac. At five, he moved back to live with his mother and her relatives, and only saw his father in parades.","Louis Armstrong\n\nHe attended the Fisk School for Boys, where he most likely had early exposure to music. He brought in some money as a paperboy and also by finding discarded food and selling it to restaurants, but it was not enough to keep his mother from prostitution. He hung out in dance halls close to home, where he observed everything from licentious dancing to the quadrille. For extra money he also hauled coal to Storyville, and listened to the bands playing in the brothels and dance halls, especially Pete Lala's, where Joe \"King\" Oliver performed as well as other famous musicians who would drop in to jam.","Louis Armstrong\n\nAfter dropping out of the Fisk School at age eleven, Armstrong joined a quartet of boys who sang in the streets for money. He also started to get into trouble. Cornet player Bunk Johnson said he taught Armstrong (then 11) to play by ear at Dago Tony's Tonk in New Orleans, although in his later years Armstrong gave the credit to Oliver. Armstrong hardly looked back at his youth as the worst of times but drew inspiration from it instead: \"Every time I close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right in the heart of good old New Orleans... It has given me something to live for.\"","Louis Armstrong\n\nHe also worked for a Lithuanian-Jewish immigrant family, the Karnofskys, who had a junk hauling business and gave him odd jobs. They took him in and treated him like family; knowing he lived without a father, they fed and nurtured him. He later wrote a memoir of his relationship with the Karnofskys titled, Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, La., the Year of 1907. In it he describes his discovery that this family was also subject to discrimination by \"other white folks\" nationalities who felt that they were better than the Jewish race... \"I was only seven years old but I could easily see the ungodly treatment that the White Folks were handing the poor Jewish family whom I worked for.\" \nArmstrong wore a Star of David pendant for the rest of his life and wrote about what he learned from them: \"how to live—real life and determination.\"Teachout, Terry. [https://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/satchmo-and-the-jews/ \"Satchmo and the Jews\"] Commentary magazine, 1 November 2009.","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe influence of Karnofsky is remembered in New Orleans by the Karnofsky Project, a non-profit organization dedicated to accepting donated musical instruments to \"put them into the hands of an eager child who could not otherwise take part in a wonderful learning experience.\"","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong developed his cornet playing skills by playing in the band of the New Orleans Home for Colored Waifs, where he had been sent multiple times for general delinquency, most notably for firing his stepfather's pistol into the air at a New Year's Eve celebration, but it was only an empty shot, as police records confirm. Professor Peter Davis (who frequently appeared at the home at the request of its administrator, Captain Joseph Jones) instilled discipline in and provided musical training to the otherwise self-taught Armstrong. Eventually, Davis made Armstrong the band leader. The home band played around New Orleans and the thirteen-year-old Louis began to draw attention by his cornet playing, starting him on a musical career. At fourteen he was released from the home, living again with his father and new step-mother, Gertrude, and then back with his mother and thus back to the streets and their temptations. Armstrong got his first dance hall job at Henry Ponce's where Black Benny became his protector and guide. He hauled coal by day and played his cornet at night.","Louis Armstrong\n\nHe played in the city's frequent brass band parades and listened to older musicians every chance he got, learning from Bunk Johnson, Buddy Petit, Kid Ory, and above all, Joe \"King\" Oliver, who acted as a mentor and father figure to the young musician. Later, he played in brass bands and riverboats of New Orleans, and began traveling with the well-regarded band of Fate Marable, which toured on a steamboat up and down the Mississippi River. He described his time with Marable as \"going to the University,\" since it gave him a much wider experience working with written arrangements.","Louis Armstrong\n\nIn 1919, Joe Oliver decided to go north and resigned his position in Kid Ory's band; Armstrong replaced him. He also became second trumpet for the Tuxedo Brass Band, a society band.","Louis Armstrong\n\nCareer","Louis Armstrong\n\n1920s","Louis Armstrong\n\nThroughout his riverboat experience, Armstrong's musicianship began to mature and expand. At twenty, he could read music and started to be featured in extended trumpet solos, one of the first jazz men to do this, injecting his own personality and style into his solo turns. He had learned how to create a unique sound and also started using singing and patter in his performances. In 1922, Armstrong joined the exodus to Chicago, where he had been invited by his mentor, Joe \"King\" Oliver, to join his Creole Jazz Band and where he could make a sufficient income so that he no longer needed to supplement his music with day labor jobs. It was a boom time in Chicago and though race relations were poor, the city was teeming with jobs available for black people, who were making good wages in factories and had plenty to spend on entertainment.","Louis Armstrong\n\nOliver's band was among the most influential jazz bands in Chicago in the early 1920s, at a time when Chicago was the center of the jazz universe. Armstrong lived luxuriously in Chicago, in his own apartment with his own private bath (his first). Excited as he was to be in Chicago, he began his career-long pastime of writing nostalgic letters to friends in New Orleans. As Armstrong's reputation grew, he was challenged to \"cutting contests\" by hornmen trying to displace the new phenomenon, who could blow two hundred high Cs in a row. Armstrong made his first recordings on the Gennett and Okeh labels (jazz records were starting to boom across the country), including taking some solos and breaks, while playing second cornet in Oliver's band in 1923. At this time, he met Hoagy Carmichael (with whom he would collaborate later) who was introduced by friend Bix Beiderbecke, who now had his own Chicago band.","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong enjoyed working with Oliver, but Louis' second wife, pianist Lil Hardin Armstrong, urged him to seek more prominent billing and develop his newer style away from the influence of Oliver. Lil had her husband play classical music in church concerts to broaden his skill and improve his solo play and she prodded him into wearing more stylish attire to make him look sharp and to better offset his growing girth. Lil's influence eventually undermined Armstrong's relationship with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and additional moneys that Oliver held back from Armstrong and other band members. Armstrong and Oliver parted amicably in 1924. Shortly afterward, Armstrong received an invitation to go to New York City to play with the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, the top African-American band of the time. Armstrong switched to the trumpet to blend in better with the other musicians in his section. His influence upon Henderson's tenor sax soloist, Coleman Hawkins, can be judged by listening to the records made by the band during this period.","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong quickly adapted to the more tightly controlled style of Henderson, playing trumpet and even experimenting with the trombone. The other members quickly took up Armstrong's emotional, expressive pulse. Soon his act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans characters, especially preachers. The Henderson Orchestra was playing in prominent venues for white-only patrons, including the famed Roseland Ballroom, featuring the arrangements of Don Redman. Duke Ellington's orchestra would go to Roseland to catch Armstrong's performances and young horn men around town tried in vain to outplay him, splitting their lips in their attempts.","Louis Armstrong\n\nDuring this time, Armstrong made many recordings on the side, arranged by an old friend from New Orleans, pianist Clarence Williams; these included small jazz band sides with the Williams Blue Five (some of the most memorable pairing Armstrong with one of Armstrong's few rivals in fiery technique and ideas, Sidney Bechet) and a series of accompaniments with blues singers, including Bessie Smith, Ma Rainey, and Alberta Hunter.","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong returned to Chicago in 1925 due mostly to the urging of his wife, who wanted to pump up Armstrong's career and income. He was content in New York but later would concede that she was right and that the Henderson Orchestra was limiting his artistic growth. In publicity, much to his chagrin, she billed him as \"the World's Greatest Trumpet Player\". At first, he was actually a member of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and working for his wife. He began recording under his own name for Okeh with his famous Hot Five and Hot Seven groups, producing hits such as \"Potato Head Blues\", \"Muggles\", (a reference to marijuana, for which Armstrong had a lifelong fondness), and \"West End Blues\", the music of which set the standard and the agenda for jazz for many years to come.","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe group included Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), wife Lil on piano, and usually no drummer. Armstrong's band leading style was easygoing, as St. Cyr noted, \"One felt so relaxed working with him, and he was very broad-minded ... always did his best to feature each individual.\" Among the most notable of the Hot Five and Seven records were \"Cornet Chop Suey,\" \"Struttin' With Some Barbecue,\" \"Hotter Than that\" and \"Potato Head Blues,\", all featuring highly creative solos by Armstrong. His recordings soon after with pianist Earl \"Fatha\" Hines (most famously their 1928 \"Weatherbird\" duet) and Armstrong's trumpet introduction to and solo in \"West End Blues\" remain some of the most famous and influential improvisations in jazz history. Armstrong was now free to develop his personal style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effervescent jive, such as \"whip that thing, Miss Lil\" and \"Mr. Johnny Dodds, Aw, do that clarinet, boy!\"","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong also played with Erskine Tate's Little Symphony, which played mostly at the Vendome Theatre. They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, including jazz versions of classical music, such as \"Madame Butterfly\", which gave Armstrong experience with longer forms of music and with hosting before a large audience. He began to scat sing (improvised vocal jazz using nonsensical words) and was among the first to record it, on the Hot Five recording \"Heebie Jeebies\" in 1926. The recording was so popular that the group became the most famous jazz band in the United States, even though they had not performed live to any great extent. Young musicians across the country, black or white, were turned on by Armstrong's new type of jazz.","Louis Armstrong\n\nAfter separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at the Sunset Café for Al Capone's associate Joe Glaser in the Carroll Dickerson Orchestra, with Earl Hines on piano, which was soon renamed Louis Armstrong and his Stompers, though Hines was the music director and Glaser managed the orchestra. Hines and Armstrong became fast friends and successful collaborators.","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong returned to New York, in 1929, where he played in the pit orchestra of the successful musical Hot Chocolate, an all-black revue written by Andy Razaf and pianist/composer Fats Waller. He also made a cameo appearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his rendition of \"Ain't Misbehavin'\", his version of the song becoming his biggest selling record to date.","Louis Armstrong\n\n1930s","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong started to work at Connie's Inn in Harlem, chief rival to the Cotton Club, a venue for elaborately staged floor shows, and a front for gangster Dutch Schultz. Armstrong also had considerable success with vocal recordings, including versions of famous songs composed by his old friend Hoagy Carmichael. His 1930s recordings took full advantage of the new RCA ribbon microphone, introduced in 1931, which imparted a characteristic warmth to vocals and immediately became an intrinsic part of the 'crooning' sound of artists like Bing Crosby. Armstrong's famous interpretation of Carmichael's \"Stardust\" became one of the most successful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Armstrong's unique vocal sound and style and his innovative approach to singing songs that had already become standards.","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong's radical re-working of Sidney Arodin and Carmichael's \"Lazy River\" (recorded in 1931) encapsulated many features of his groundbreaking approach to melody and phrasing. The song begins with a brief trumpet solo, then the main melody is introduced by sobbing horns, memorably punctuated by Armstrong's growling interjections at the end of each bar: \"Yeah! ...\"Uh-huh\" ...\"Sure\" ... \"Way down, way down.\" In the first verse, he ignores the notated melody entirely and sings as if playing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing. In the second stanza he breaks into an almost fully improvised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage of Armstrong \"scat singing\".","Louis Armstrong\n\nAs with his trumpet playing, Armstrong's vocal innovations served as a foundation stone for the art of jazz vocal interpretation. The uniquely gritty coloration of his voice became a musical archetype that was much imitated and endlessly impersonated. His scat singing style was enriched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist. His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling cadences on sides such as \"Lazy River\" exerted a huge influence on younger white singers such as Bing Crosby.","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe Great Depression of the early 1930s was especially hard on the jazz scene. The Cotton Club closed in 1936 after a long downward spiral, and many musicians stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated. Bix Beiderbecke died and Fletcher Henderson’s band broke up. King Oliver made a few records but otherwise struggled. Sidney Bechet became a tailor and Kid Ory returned to New Orleans and raised chickens.","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 to seek new opportunities. He played at the New Cotton Club in Los Angeles with Lionel Hampton on drums. The band drew the Hollywood crowd, which could still afford a lavish night life, while radio broadcasts from the club connected with younger audiences at home. Bing Crosby and many other celebrities were regulars at the club. In 1931, Armstrong appeared in his first movie, Ex-Flame and was also convicted of marijuana possession but received a suspended sentence. He returned to Chicago in late 1931 and played in bands more in the Guy Lombardo vein and he recorded more standards. When the mob insisted that he get out of town,[http://riverwalkjazz.stanford.edu/program/louis-armstrong-30s-tribute-life-and-music-armstrong-30s Louis Armstrong in the 30s: A Tribute to the Life and Music of Armstrong in the 30s]. Retrieved May 5, 2015. Armstrong visited New Orleans, had a hero's welcome and saw old friends. He sponsored a local baseball team known as \"Armstrong's Secret Nine\" and had a cigar named after him. But soon he was on the road again and after a tour across the country shadowed by the mob, Armstrong decided to go to Europe to escape.","Louis Armstrong\n\nAfter returning to the United States, he undertook several exhausting tours. His agent Johnny Collins' erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash. Breach of contract violations plagued him. Finally, he hired Joe Glaser as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer, who began to straighten out his legal mess, his mob troubles, and his debts. Armstrong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, which were aggravated by his unorthodox playing style. As a result, he branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances. He appeared in movies again, including Crosby's 1936 hit Pennies from Heaven. In 1937, Armstrong substituted for Rudy Vallee on the CBS radio network and became the first African American to host a sponsored, national broadcast.","Louis Armstrong\n\n1940s","Louis Armstrong\n\nAfter spending many years on the road, Armstrong settled permanently in Queens, New York in 1943 in contentment with his fourth wife, Lucille. Although subject to the vicissitudes of Tin Pan Alley and the gangster-ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, he continued to develop his playing. He recorded Hoagy Carmichael's Rockin' Chair for Okeh Records.","Louis Armstrong\n\nDuring the subsequent thirty years, Armstrong played more than three hundred gigs a year. Bookings for big bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in public tastes: ballrooms closed, and there was competition from television and from other types of music becoming more popular than big band music. It became impossible under such circumstances to support and finance a 16-piece touring band.","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe All Stars","Louis Armstrong\n\nDuring the 1940s, a widespread revival of interest in the traditional jazz of the 1920s made it possible for Armstrong to consider a return to the small-group musical style of his youth. Following a highly successful small-group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, 1947, featuring Armstrong with trombonist/singer Jack Teagarden, Armstrong's manager, Joe Glaser dissolved the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947 and established a six-piece traditional jazz small group featuring Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden, Earl Hines and other top swing and Dixieland musicians, most of them ex-big band leaders. The new group was announced at the opening of Billy Berg's Supper Club.","Louis Armstrong\n\nThis group was called Louis Armstrong and his All Stars and included at various times Earl \"Fatha\" Hines, Barney Bigard, Edmond Hall, Jack Teagarden, Trummy Young, Arvell Shaw, Billy Kyle, Marty Napoleon, Big Sid Catlett, Cozy Cole, Tyree Glenn, Barrett Deems, Joe Darensbourg, Eddie Shu and percussionist Danny Barcelona. During this period, Armstrong made many recordings and appeared in over thirty films. He was the first jazz musician to appear on the cover of Time magazine, on February 21, 1949. In 1948, he participated in the Nice Jazz Festival, where Suzy Delair sang \"C'est si bon\", by Henri Betti and André Hornez, for the first time in public.","Louis Armstrong\n\n1950s–1970s","Louis Armstrong\n\nWith the publishers' permission, Armstrong recorded the first American version of \"C'est si bon\" on June 26, 1950, in New York, with English lyrics by Jerry Seelen. When it was released, the disc garnered worldwide sales. In the 1960s, he toured Ghana and Nigeria, performing with Victor Olaiya during the Nigerian Civil war. In 1964, he recorded his biggest-selling record, \"Hello, Dolly!\", a song by Jerry Herman, originally sung by Carol Channing. Armstrong's version remained on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks, longer than any other record produced that year, and went to No. 1 making him, at 62 years, 9 months and 5 days, the oldest person ever to accomplish that feat. In the process, he dislodged the Beatles from the No. 1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs.[http://www.jazzhouse.org/gone/lastpost2.php3?edit\n1176392524 Hale, James (editor of Jazzhouse.org), Danny Barcelona (1929–2007), Drums, Armstrong All-Star, The Last Post, 2007]. Retrieved July 4, 2007. Armstrong made his last recorded trumpet performances on his 1968 album Disney Songs the Satchmo Way. Armstrong kept up his busy tour schedule until a few years before his death in 1971.","Louis Armstrong\n\nHe also toured Africa, Europe, and Asia under the sponsorship of the US State Department with great success, earning the nickname \"Ambassador Satch\" and inspiring Dave Brubeck to compose his jazz musical The Real Ambassadors.","Louis Armstrong\n\nPersonal life","Louis Armstrong\n\nPronunciation of name","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe Louis Armstrong House Museum website states:","Louis Armstrong\n\nIn a memoir written for Robert Goffin between 1943 and 1944, Armstrong states, \"All white folks call me Louie,\" suggesting that he himself did not. That said, Armstrong was registered as \"Lewie\" for the 1920 U.S. Census. On various live records he's called \"Louie\" on stage, such as on the 1952 \"Can Anyone Explain?\" from the live album In Scandinavia vol.1. It should also be noted that \"Lewie\" is the French pronunciation of \"Louis\" and is commonly used in Louisiana.","Louis Armstrong\n\nFamily","Louis Armstrong\n\nOn March 19, 1918, at the age of 16, Louis married Daisy Parker, a prostitute from Gretna, Louisiana. They adopted a 3-year-old boy, Clarence Armstrong, whose mother, Louis' cousin Flora, died soon after giving birth. Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled (the result of a head injury at an early age) and Louis would spend the rest of his life taking care of him. Louis' marriage to Parker failed quickly and they separated in 1923.","Louis Armstrong\n\nOn February 4, 1924, Louis married Lil Hardin Armstrong, who was Oliver's pianist and had also divorced her first spouse only a few years earlier. His second wife was instrumental in developing his career, but in the late 1920s Hardin and Louis grew apart. They separated in 1931 and divorced in 1938, after which Louis married longtime girlfriend Alpha Smith. His marriage to his third wife lasted four years, and they divorced in 1942. Louis then married Lucille Wilson, a singer at the Cotton Club, to whom he was married until his death in 1971.","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong's marriages never produced any offspring, though he loved children. However, in December 2012, 57-year-old Sharon Preston-Folta claimed to be his daughter from a 1950s affair between Armstrong and Lucille \"Sweets\" Preston, a dancer at the Cotton Club. In a 1955 letter to his manager, Joe Glaser, Armstrong affirmed his belief that Preston's newborn baby was his daughter, and ordered Glaser to pay a monthly allowance of $400 to mother and child.","Louis Armstrong\n\nPersonality","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong was noted for his colorful and charismatic personality. His autobiography vexed some biographers and historians, as he had a habit of telling tales, particularly of his early childhood when he was less scrutinized, and his embellishments of his history often lack consistency.","Louis Armstrong\n\nIn addition to an entertainer, Armstrong was a leading personality of the day. He was beloved by an American public that gave even the greatest African American performers little access beyond their public celebrity, and he was able to live a private life of access and privilege afforded to few other African Americans during that era.","Louis Armstrong\n\nHe generally remained politically neutral, which at times alienated him from members of the black community who looked to him to use his prominence with white America to become more of an outspoken figure during the Civil Rights Movement of U.S. history.","Louis Armstrong\n\nNicknames","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe nicknames Satchmo and Satch are short for Satchelmouth. Like many things in Armstrong's life, which was filled with colorful stories both real and imagined, many of his own telling, the nickname has many possible origins.","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe most common tale that biographers tell is the story of Armstrong as a young boy dancing for pennies in the streets of New Orleans, who would scoop up the coins off of the streets and stick them into his mouth to avoid having the bigger children steal them from him. Someone dubbed him \"satchel mouth\" for his mouth acting as a satchel. Another tale is that because of his large mouth, he was nicknamed \"satchel mouth\" which became shortened to Satchmo.","Louis Armstrong\n\nEarly on he was also known as Dipper, short for Dippermouth, a reference to the piece Dippermouth Blues. and something of a riff on his unusual embouchure.","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe nickname Pops came from Armstrong's own tendency to forget people's names and simply call them \"pops\" instead. The nickname was soon turned on Armstrong himself. It was used as the title of a 2010 biography of Armstrong by Terry Teachout.","Louis Armstrong\n\nRace","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong was largely accepted into white society, both on stage and off, a privilege reserved for very few African-American public figures, and usually those of either exceptional talent or fair skin tone. As his fame grew, so did his access to the finer things in life usually denied to African-Americans, even famous ones. His renown was such that he dined in reputable restaurants and stayed in hotels usually exclusively for whites. It was a power and privilege that he enjoyed, although he was very careful not to flaunt it with fellow performers of color, and privately, he shared what access that he could with friends and fellow musicians.","Louis Armstrong\n\nThat still did not prevent members of the African-American community, particularly in the late 1950s to the early 1970s, from calling him an Uncle Tom, a black-on-black racial epithet for someone who kowtowed to white society at the expense of their own racial identity. Billie Holiday countered, however, \"Of course Pops toms, but he toms from the heart.\" He was criticized for accepting the title of \"King of The Zulus\" for Mardi Gras in 1949. In the New Orleans African-American community it is an honored role as the head of leading black Carnival Krewe, but bewildering or offensive to outsiders with their traditional costume of grass-skirts and blackface makeup satirizing southern white attitudes.","Louis Armstrong\n\nSome musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front of segregated audiences, and for not taking a strong enough stand in the American Civil Rights Movement. The few exceptions made it more effective when he did speak out. Armstrong's criticism of President Eisenhower, calling him \"two-faced\" and \"gutless\" because of his inaction during the conflict over school desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1957 made national news. As a protest, Armstrong canceled a planned tour of the Soviet Union on behalf of the State Department saying: \"The way they're treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell\" and that he could not represent his government abroad when it was in conflict with its own people.","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe FBI kept a file on Armstrong for his outspokenness about integration.","Louis Armstrong\n\nReligion","Louis Armstrong\n\nWhen asked about his religion, Armstrong would answer that he was raised a Baptist, always wore a Star of David, and was friends with the Pope. Armstrong wore the Star of David in honor of the Karnofsky family, who took him in as a child and lent him the money to buy his first cornet. Louis Armstrong was, in fact, baptized as a Catholic at the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans, and he met popes Pius XII and Paul VI, though there is no evidence that he considered himself Catholic. Armstrong seems to have been tolerant towards various religions, but also found humor in them.","Louis Armstrong\n\nPersonal habits","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong was concerned with his health. He used laxatives to control his weight, a practice he advocated both to acquaintances and in the diet plans he published under the title Lose Weight the Satchmo Way. Armstrong's laxative of preference in his younger days was Pluto Water, but he then became an enthusiastic convert when he discovered the herbal remedy Swiss Kriss. He would extol its virtues to anyone who would listen and pass out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the British Royal Family. (Armstrong also appeared in humorous, albeit risqué, cards that he had printed to send out to friends; the cards bore a picture of him sitting on a toilet—as viewed through a keyhole—with the slogan \"Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya!'\") The cards have sometimes been incorrectly described as ads for Swiss Kriss. In a live recording of \"Baby, It's Cold Outside\" with Velma Middleton, he changes the lyric from \"Put another record on while I pour\" to \"Take some Swiss Kriss while I pour.\"","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe concern with his health and weight was balanced by his love of food, reflected in such songs as \"Cheesecake\", \"Cornet Chop Suey,\" though \"Struttin’ with Some Barbecue\" was written about a fine-looking companion, not about food. He kept a strong connection throughout his life to the cooking of New Orleans, always signing his letters, \"Red beans and ricely yours...\"","Louis Armstrong\n\nWritings","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong’s gregariousness extended to writing. On the road, he wrote constantly, sharing favorite themes of his life with correspondents around the world. He avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at hand, recording instant takes on music, sex, food, childhood memories, his heavy \"medicinal\" marijuana use—and even his bowel movements, which he gleefully described. He had a fondness for lewd jokes and dirty limericks as well.","Louis Armstrong\n\nSocial organizations","Louis Armstrong\n\nLouis Armstrong was not, as is often claimed, a Freemason. Although he is usually listed as being a member of Montgomery Lodge No. 18 (Prince Hall) in New York, no such lodge has ever existed. However, Armstrong stated in his autobiography that he was a member of the Knights of Pythias which is not a Masonic group.","Louis Armstrong\n\nMusic","Louis Armstrong\n\nHorn playing and early jazz","Louis Armstrong\n\nIn his early years, Armstrong was best known for his virtuosity with the cornet and trumpet. The most lauded recordings on which Armstrong plays trumpet include the Hot Five and Hot Seven sessions, as well as those of the Red Onion Jazz Babies. Armstrong's improvisations, while unconventionally sophisticated for that era, were also subtle and highly melodic. The solo that Armstrong plays during the song Potato Head Blues has long been considered his best solo of that series.","Louis Armstrong\n\nPrior to Armstrong, most collective ensemble playing in jazz, along with its occasional solos, simply varied the melodies of the songs. Armstrong was virtually the first to create significant variations based on the chord harmonies of the songs instead of merely on the melodies. This opened a rich field for creation and improvisation, and significantly changed the music into a soloist's art form.","Louis Armstrong\n\nOften, Armstrong re-composed pop-tunes he played, simply with variations that made them more compelling to jazz listeners of the era. At the same time, however, his oeuvre includes many original melodies, creative leaps, and relaxed or driving rhythms. Armstrong's playing technique, honed by constant practice, extended the range, tone and capabilities of the trumpet. In his records, Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the jazz soloist, taking what had been essentially a collective folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous possibilities for individual expression.","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong was one of the first artists to use recordings of his performances to improve himself. Armstrong was an avid audiophile. He had a large collection of recordings, including reel-to-reel tapes, which he took on the road with him in a trunk during his later career. He enjoyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically. In the den of his home, he had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse and record along with his older recordings or the radio.","Louis Armstrong\n\nVocal popularity","Louis Armstrong\n\nAs his music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became very important. Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it with the first recording on which he scatted, \"Heebie Jeebies\". At a recording session for Okeh Records, when the sheet music supposedly fell on the floor and the music began before he could pick up the pages, Armstrong simply started singing nonsense syllables while Okeh president E.A. Fearn, who was at the session, kept telling him to continue. Armstrong did, thinking the track would be discarded, but that was the version that was pressed to disc, sold, and became an unexpected hit. Although the story was thought to be apocryphal, Armstrong himself confirmed it in at least one interview as well as in his memoirs. On a later recording, Armstrong also sang out \"I done forgot the words\" in the middle of recording \"I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas.\"","Louis Armstrong\n\nSuch records were hits and scat singing became a major part of his performances. Long before this, however, Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shortening and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, using his voice as creatively as his trumpet.","Louis Armstrong\n\nComposing","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong was a gifted composer who wrote more than fifty songs, which in a number of cases have become jazz standards (e.g., “Gully Low Blues,” “Potato Head Blues,” and “Swing That Music”).","Louis Armstrong\n\nColleagues and followers","Louis Armstrong\n\nDuring his long career he played and sang with some of the most important instrumentalists and vocalists of the time; among them were Bing Crosby, Duke Ellington, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Jimmie Rodgers, Bessie Smith and perhaps most famously Ella Fitzgerald. His influence upon Crosby is particularly important with regard to the subsequent development of popular music: Crosby admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many of his early recordings, notably \"Just One More Chance\" (1931). The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz describes Crosby's debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it does not acknowledge Armstrong by name:","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong recorded two albums with Ella Fitzgerald: Ella and Louis, and Ella and Louis Again for Verve Records, with the sessions featuring the backing musicianship of the Oscar Peterson Trio and drummers Buddy Rich (on the first album), and Louie Bellson (on the second). Norman Granz then had the vision for Ella and Louis to record Porgy and Bess which is the most famous and critically acclaimed version of the Gershwin brothers' work.","Louis Armstrong\n\nHis recordings for Columbia Records, Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy (1954) and Satch Plays Fats (all Fats Waller tunes) (1955) were both being considered masterpieces, as well as moderately well selling. In 1961 the All Stars participated in two albums - \"The Great Summit\" and \"The Great Reunion\" (now together as a single disc) with Duke Ellington. The albums feature many of Ellington's most famous compositions (as well as two exclusive cuts) with Duke sitting in on piano. His participation in Dave Brubeck's high-concept jazz musical The Real Ambassadors (1963) was critically acclaimed, and features \"Summer Song,\" one of Armstrong's most popular vocal efforts.","Louis Armstrong\n\nIn 1964 his recording of the song \"Hello Dolly\" went to number one. An album of the same title was quickly created around the song, and also shot to number one (knocking The Beatles off the top of the chart). The album sold very well for the rest of the year, quickly going \"Gold\" (500,000). His performance of \"Hello Dolly\" won for best male pop vocal performance at the 1964 Grammy Awards.","Louis Armstrong\n\nHits and later career","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong had nineteen \"Top Ten\" records including \"Stardust\", \"What a Wonderful World\", \"When The Saints Go Marching In\", \"Dream a Little Dream of Me\", \"Ain't Misbehavin'\", \"You Rascal You\", and \"Stompin' at the Savoy\". \"We Have All the Time in the World\" was featured on the soundtrack of the James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service, and enjoyed renewed popularity in the UK in 1994 when it featured on a Guinness advert. It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released.","Louis Armstrong\n\nIn 1964, Armstrong knocked The Beatles off the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart with \"Hello, Dolly!\", which gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest artist to have a number one song. His 1964 song \"Bout Time\" was later featured in the film Bewitched.","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong performed in Italy at the 1968 Sanremo Music Festival where he sang \"Mi Va di Cantare\" alongside his friend, the Eritrean-born Italian singer Lara Saint Paul. In February 1968, he also appeared with Lara Saint Paul on the Italian RAI television channel where he performed \"Grassa e Bella,\" a track he sang in Italian for the Italian market and C.D.I. label.","Louis Armstrong\n\nIn 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the United Kingdom with \"What a Wonderful World\", which topped the British charts for a month; however, the single did not chart at all in America. The song gained greater currency in the popular consciousness when it was used in the 1987 movie Good Morning, Vietnam, its subsequent re-release topping many charts around the world. Armstrong even appeared on the October 28, 1970, Johnny Cash Show, where he sang Nat King Cole's hit \"Rambling Rose\" and joined Cash to re-create his performance backing Jimmie Rodgers on \"Blue Yodel No. 9\".","Louis Armstrong\n\nStylistic range","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of Guy Lombardo, to Latin American folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera. Armstrong incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted him to stay in convenient narrow categories. Armstrong was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an early influence. Some of his solos from the 1950s, such as the hard rocking version of \"St. Louis Blues\" from the WC Handy album, show that the influence went in both directions.","Louis Armstrong\n\nLiterature, radio, films and TV","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a band leader or musician. His most familiar role was as the bandleader cum narrator in the 1956 musical, High Society, in which he sang the title song and performed a duet with Bing Crosby on \"Now You Has Jazz\". In 1947, he played himself in the movie New Orleans opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the Storyville district and the ensuing exodus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago. In the 1959 film, The Five Pennies (the story of the cornetist Red Nichols), Armstrong played himself as well as singing and playing several classic numbers. With Danny Kaye Armstrong performed a duet of \"When the Saints Go Marching In\" during which Kaye impersonated Armstrong. Armstrong also had a part in the film alongside James Stewart in The Glenn Miller Story in which Glenn (played by Stewart) jammed with Armstrong and a few other noted musicians of the time.","Louis Armstrong\n\nHe was the first African American to host a nationally broadcast radio show in the 1930s. In 1969, Armstrong had a cameo role in the film version of Hello, Dolly! as the bandleader, Louis, to which he sang the title song with actress Barbra Streisand. His solo recording of \"Hello, Dolly!\" is one of his most recognizable performances.","Louis Armstrong\n\nHe was heard on such radio programs as The Story of Swing (1937) and This Is Jazz (1947), and he also made countless television appearances, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, including appearances on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.","Louis Armstrong\n\nArgentine writer Julio Cortázar, a self-described Armstrong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong concert at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fictional creatures called Cronopios that are the subject of a number of Cortázar's short stories. Cortázar once called Armstrong himself \"Grandísimo Cronopio\" (The Great Cronopio).","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong appears as a minor fictionalized character in Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory Series. When he and his band escape from a Nazi-like Confederacy, they enhance the insipid mainstream music of the North. A young Armstrong also appears as a minor fictionalized character in Patrick Neate's 2001 novel Twelve Bar Blues, part of which is set in New Orleans, and which was a winner at that year's Whitbread Book Awards.","Louis Armstrong\n\nThere is a pivotal scene in Stardust Memories (1980) in which Woody Allen is overwhelmed by a recording of Armstrong's \"Stardust\" and experiences a nostalgic epiphany. The combination of the music and the perfect moment is the catalyst for much of the film's action, prompting the protagonist to fall in love with an ill-advised woman.","Louis Armstrong\n\nTerry Teachout wrote a one-man play about Armstrong called Satchmo at the Waldorf that was premiered in 2011 in Orlando, Fla., and has since been produced by Shakespeare & Company, Long Wharf Theater, and the Wilma Theater. The production ran off Broadway in 2014.","Louis Armstrong\n\nA fledgling musician named \"Louis,\" who is obsessed with Buddy Bolden, appears in two of David Fulmer's Storyville novels: Chasing the Devil's Tail and Jass.","Louis Armstrong\n\nDeath","Louis Armstrong\n\nAgainst his doctor's advice, Armstrong played a two-week engagement in March 1971 at the Waldorf-Astoria's Empire Room. At the end of it he was hospitalized for a heart attack. He was released from the hospital in May, and died of a heart attack in his sleep on July 6, 1971, a month before his 70th birthday. He was residing in Corona, Queens, New York City, at the time of his death. He was interred in Flushing Cemetery, Flushing, in Queens, New York City. \nHis honorary pallbearers included Bing Crosby, Ella Fitzgerald, Dizzy Gillespie, Pearl Bailey, Count Basie, Harry James, Frank Sinatra, Ed Sullivan, Earl Wilson, Alan King, Johnny Carson and David Frost. Peggy Lee sang The Lord's Prayer at the services while Al Hibbler sang \"Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen\" and Fred Robbins, a long-time friend, gave the eulogy.","Louis Armstrong\n\nAwards and honors","Louis Armstrong\n\nGrammy Awards","Louis Armstrong\n\nArmstrong was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy's National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the field of recording.","Louis Armstrong\n\nGrammy Hall of Fame","Louis Armstrong\n\nRecordings of Armstrong were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old, and that have \"qualitative or historical significance.\"","Louis Armstrong\n\nRock and Roll Hall of Fame","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed Armstrong's West End Blues on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and Roll.","Louis Armstrong\n\nInductions and honors","Louis Armstrong\n\nIn 1995, the U.S. Post Office issued a Louis Armstrong 32 cents commemorative postage stamp.","Louis Armstrong\n\nFilm honors","Louis Armstrong\n\nIn 1999 Armstrong was nominated for inclusion in the American Film Institute's 100 Years...100 Stars.","Louis Armstrong\n\nLegacy","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe influence of Armstrong on the development of jazz is virtually immeasurable. Yet, his irrepressible personality both as a performer, and as a public figure later in his career, was so strong that to some it sometimes overshadowed his contributions as a musician and singer.","Louis Armstrong\n\nAs a virtuoso trumpet player, Armstrong had a unique tone and an extraordinary talent for melodic improvisation. Through his playing, the trumpet emerged as a solo instrument in jazz and is used widely today. Additionally, jazz itself was transformed from a collectively improvised folk music to a soloist's serious art form largely through his influence. He was a masterful accompanist and ensemble player in addition to his extraordinary skills as a soloist. With his innovations, he raised the bar musically for all who came after him.","Louis Armstrong\n\nThough Armstrong is widely recognized as a pioneer of scat singing, Ethel Waters precedes his scatting on record in the 1930s according to Gary Giddins and others. Billie Holiday and Frank Sinatra are just two singers who were greatly indebted to him. Holiday said that she always wanted Bessie Smith's 'big' sound and Armstrong's feeling in her singing. Even special musicians like Duke Ellington have praised Armstrong through strong testimonials. Duke Ellington said, \"If anybody was a master, it was Louis Armstrong.\" In 1950, Bing Crosby, the most successful vocalist of the first half of the 20th century, said, \"He is the beginning and the end of music in America.\"","Louis Armstrong\n\nIn the summer of 2001, in commemoration of the centennial of Armstrong's birth, New Orleans's main airport was renamed Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport.","Louis Armstrong\n\nIn 2002, the Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings (1925–1928) were preserved in the United States National Recording Registry, a registry of recordings selected yearly by the National Recording Preservation Board for preservation in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress.","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe US Open tennis tournament's former main stadium was named Louis Armstrong Stadium in honor of Armstrong who had lived a few blocks from the site.","Louis Armstrong\n\nToday, there are many bands worldwide dedicated to preserving and honoring the music and style of Satchmo, including the Louis Armstrong Society located in New Orleans, Louisiana.","Louis Armstrong\n\nHome turned into National Historic Landmark","Louis Armstrong\n\nThe house where Armstrong lived for almost 28 years was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1977 and is now a museum. The Louis Armstrong House Museum, at 34-56 107th Street (between 34th and 37th Avenues) in Corona, Queens, presents concerts and educational programs, operates as a historic house museum and makes materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research. The museum is operated by the City University of New York's Queens College, following the dictates of Lucille Armstrong's will. The museum opened to the public on October 15, 2003. A new visitors center is planned.","Louis Armstrong\n\nDiscography","Louis Armstrong\n\nSingles","Louis Armstrong\n\nOriginal albums","Louis Armstrong\n\nThese LPs and EPs were released during Armstrong's lifetime and contained original studio and/or live recordings. The year and label information is for the first vinyl release, unless otherwise noted. Additional information such as number of tracks is given only when necessary to distinguish between different releases under the same title. In most cases, the number of CD releases listed is limited, with preference given to the label that originally released the album.","Louis Armstrong\n\nPosthumous releases","Louis Armstrong\n\nThese LPs and CDs were released after Armstrong's 1971 death.","Louis Armstrong\n\n* Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions\n** Hot Fives & Sevens (JSP, 1998)\n** The Complete Hot Five & Hot Seven Recordings (Columbia/Legacy)\n* Struttin' (Drive Archive, 1996) — 8 February 1947 concert with Edmond Hall's All-Stars\n* The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve (1997) — repackaging of Ella and Louis, Ella and Louis Again, and Porgy and Bess\n* rereleases of Together For The First Time and The Great Reunion\n** The Great Summit: The Master Takes (2001)\n** Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington: The Great Summit/Complete Sessions (2000) — includes additional CD of alternate takes\n* The Legendary Berlin Concert (Jazzpoint Records, 2000) — 22 March 1965 concert with Billy Kyle, Tyree Glenn, Eddie Shu, Arvell Shaw and Danny Barcelona","Louis Armstrong\n\nList of songs recorded","Louis Armstrong\n\nChronology of the recordings of Armstrong's songs:"],"string":"[\n \"Jazz\\n\\nJazz is a music genre that originated from African American communities of New Orleans in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It emerged in the form of independent traditional and popular musical styles, all linked by the common bonds of African American and European American musical parentage with a performance orientation. Jazz spans a period of over a hundred years, encompassing a very wide range of music, making it difficult to define. Jazz makes heavy use of improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation and the swing note, as well as aspects of European harmony, American popular music, the brass band tradition, and African musical elements such as blue notes and African-American styles such as ragtime. Although the foundation of jazz is deeply rooted within the black experience of the United States, different cultures have contributed their own experience and styles to the art form as well. Intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as \\\"one of America's original art forms\\\".\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAs jazz spread around the world, it drew on different national, regional, and local musical cultures, which gave rise to many distinctive styles. New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass-band marches, French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City jazz, a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style and Gypsy jazz (a style that emphasized musette waltzes) were the prominent styles. Bebop emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging \\\"musician's music\\\" which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe 1950s saw the emergence of free jazz, which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal structures, and in the mid-1950s, hard bop emerged, which introduced influences from rhythm and blues, gospel, and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock music's rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound. In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful, garnering significant radio airplay. Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s, such as Latin and Afro-Cuban jazz.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nEtymology and definition\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to jasm, a slang term dating back to 1860 meaning \\\"pep, energy.\\\" The earliest written record of the word is in a 1912 article in the Los Angeles Times in which a minor league baseball pitcher described a pitch which he called a jazz ball \\\"because it wobbles and you simply can’t do anything with it.\\\"\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune. Archived at Observatoire Musical Français, Paris-Sorbonne University. Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November 14, 1916 Times-Picayune article about \\\"jas bands.\\\" In an interview with NPR, musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the original slang connotations of the term, saying: \\\"When Broadway picked it up, they called it 'J-A-Z-Z.. It wasn't called that. It was spelled 'J-A-S-S.' That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, you wouldn't say it in front of ladies.\\\" The American Dialect Society named it the Word of the Twentieth Century.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nJazz has proved to be very difficult to define, since it encompasses such a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years, from ragtime to the 2010-era rock-infused fusion. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music. But critic Joachim-Ernst Berendt argues that its terms of reference and its definition should be broader, defining jazz as a \\\"form of art music which originated in the United States through the confrontation of the Negro with European music\\\" and arguing that it differs from European music in that jazz has a \\\"special relationship to time defined as 'swing'\\\", involves \\\"a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role\\\" and contains a \\\"sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician\\\". In the opinion of Robert Christgau, \\\"most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence and promise of jazz.\\\"\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nA broader definition that encompasses all of the radically different eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis Jackson: \\\"it is music that includes qualities such as swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being open to different musical possibilities\\\". Krin Gibbard has provided an overview of the discussion on definitions, arguing that \\\"jazz is a construct\\\" that, while artificial, still is useful to designate \\\"a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition\\\". In contrast to the efforts of commentators and enthusiasts of certain types of jazz, who have argued for narrower definitions that exclude other types, the musicians themselves are often reluctant to define the music they play. As Duke Ellington, one of jazz's most famous figures, said: \\\"It's all music\\\".\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nElements and issues\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nImprovisation\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAlthough jazz is considered highly difficult to define, at least in part because it contains so many varied subgenres, improvisation is consistently regarded as being one of its key elements. The centrality of improvisation in jazz is attributed to influential earlier forms of music: the early blues, a form of folk music which arose in part from the work songs and field hollers of the African-American slaves on plantations. These were commonly structured around a repetitive call-and-response pattern, but early blues was also highly improvisational. European classical music performance is evaluated by its fidelity to the musical score, with much less discretion over interpretation, ornamentation and accompaniment: the classical performer's primary goal is to play a composition as it was written. In contrast, jazz is often characterized as the product of group creativity, interaction, and collaboration, which places varying degrees of value on the contributions of composer (if there is one) and performers.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn jazz, the skilled performer will interpret a tune in very individual ways, never playing the same composition the same way twice; depending on the performer's mood and personal experience, interactions with other musicians, or even members of the audience, a jazz musician may alter melodies, harmonies or time signature at will.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe approach to improvisation has developed enormously over the history of the music. In early New Orleans and Dixieland jazz, performers took turns playing the melody, while others improvised countermelodies. By the swing era, big bands were coming to rely more on arranged music: arrangements were either written or learned by ear and memorized, while individual soloists would improvise within these arrangements. Later, in bebop the focus shifted back toward small groups and minimal arrangements; the melody would be stated briefly at the start and end of a piece, but the core of the performance would be the series of improvisations. Later styles such as modal jazz abandoned the strict notion of a chord progression, allowing the individual musicians to improvise even more freely within the context of a given scale or mode. In many forms of jazz, a soloist is often supported by a rhythm section consisting of one or more chordal instruments (piano, guitar, etc.), double bass playing the basslines and drum kit. These performers provide accompaniment by playing chords and rhythms that outline the song structure and complement the soloist.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn avant-garde and free jazz idioms, the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of chords, scales and rhythmic meters.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nTradition and race\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nSince at least the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that are commercially oriented or influenced by popular music have been criticized by purists. According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a \\\"tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form\\\". Traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, the 1970s jazz fusion era and much else as periods of debasement of the music and betrayals of the tradition. An alternative viewpoint is that jazz is able to absorb and transform influences from diverse musical styles, and that, by avoiding the creation of 'norms', other newer, avant-garde forms of jazz will be free to emerge.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nTo some African Americans, jazz has highlighted their contribution to American society and helped bring attention to black history and culture, but for others, the music and term \\\"jazz\\\" are reminders of \\\"an oppressive and racist society and restrictions on their artistic visions\\\". Amiri Baraka argues that there is a distinct \\\"white jazz\\\" music genre expressive of whiteness. White jazz musicians appeared in the early 1920s in the Midwestern United States, as well as other areas. Bix Beiderbecke was one of the most prominent white jazz musicians. An influential style referred to as the Chicago School (or Chicago Style) was developed by white musicians including Bud Freeman, Jimmy McPartland. Frank Teschemacher, Dave Tough, and Eddie Condon. Others from Chicago such as Benny Goodman and Gene Krupa became leading members of big-band swing during the 1930s.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nRole of women\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nWomen jazz performers and composers have contributed throughout jazz history. While women such as Billie Holiday, Ella Fitzgerald, Dinah Washington, Ethel Waters, Betty Carter, Adelaide Hall, Abbey Lincoln, and Anita O'Day are famous for their jazz singing, women have achieved much less recognition for their contributions as composers, bandleaders, and instrumental performers. Other notable jazz women include piano player Lil Hardin Armstrong and jazz songwriters Irene Higginbotham (1918-1988) and Dorothy Fields (1905-1974). Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early 1920s, with the piano being one of the earliest instruments used which allowed female artists a degree of social acceptance. Some well known artists of the time include Sweet Emma Barrett, Mary Lou Williams, Billie Pierce, Jeanette Kimball and Lovie Austin.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nWhen the men were drafted for WWII, many all-women big band jazz bands took over. The International Sweethearts of Rhythm (founded 1937) was a well-known jazz group of this era, becoming the first all-women integrated band in the U.S., touring Europe in 1945 and becoming the first black women to travel with the USO. The dress codes of the era required women to wear strapless dresses and high heeled shoes, which was somewhat of a hindrance to the integration of women into the big bands of suit-wearing men. Nevertheless, women were hired into many of the big-league big bands such as Woody Herman and Gerald Wilson.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nJazz originated in the late 19th to early 20th century as interpretations of American and European classical music entwined with African and slave folk songs and the influences of West African culture. Its composition and style have changed many times throughout the years with each performer's personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the genre.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nOrigins\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBlended African and European music sensibilities\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBy 1866, the Atlantic slave trade had brought nearly 400,000 Africans to North America. The slaves came largely from West Africa and the greater Congo River basin, and brought strong musical traditions with them. The African traditions primarily make use of a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, and the rhythms have a counter-metric structure and reflect African speech patterns.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nLavish festivals featuring African-based dances to drums were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or Congo Square, in New Orleans until 1843. There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings elsewhere in the southern United States. Robert Palmer said of percussive slave music:\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nUsually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the year's crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that included horned headdresses and cow tails and heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered \\\"gumbo box\\\", apparently a frame drum; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary percussion. There are quite a few [accounts] from the southeastern states and Louisiana dating from the period 1820–1850. Some of the earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming was never actively discouraged for very long and homemade drums were used to accompany public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil War.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAnother influence came from the harmonic style of hymns of the church, which black slaves had learned and incorporated into their own music as spirituals. The origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, whereas the spirituals are homophonic, rural blues and early jazz \\\"was largely based on concepts of heterophony.\\\"\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nDuring the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own cakewalk dances. In turn, European-American minstrel show performers in blackface popularized the music internationally, combining syncopation with European harmonic accompaniment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted slave rhythms and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus between the Afro-Caribbean and African-American cultures.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAfrican rhythmic retention\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe \\\"Black Codes\\\" outlawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African drumming traditions were not preserved in North America, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the Caribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were retained in the United States in large part through \\\"body rhythms\\\" such as stomping, clapping, and patting juba.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman, what preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was \\\"Afro-Latin music\\\", similar to what was played in the Caribbean at the time. A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music as tresillo is a fundamental rhythmic figure heard in many different slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as the Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New Orleans Congo Square and Gottschalk's compositions (for example \\\"Souvenirs From Havana\\\" (1859)). Tresillo is the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic cell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the music of the African Diaspora.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nTresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans second line music and in other forms of popular music from that city from the turn of the 20th century to present. \\\"By and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions,\\\" the Jazz historian Gunther Schuller observed. \\\"Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed.\\\"\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums, snare drums and fifes, and an original African-American drum and fife music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic figures. This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. \\\"The snare and bass drummers played syncopated cross-rhythms,\\\" observed the writer Robert Palmer (writer), speculating that \\\"this tradition must have dated back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it could have not have developed in the first place if there hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in the culture it nurtured.\\\"\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\n\\\"Spanish tinge\\\"—the Afro-Cuban rhythmic influence\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAfrican-American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century, when the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international popularity. Musicians from Havana and New Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the musically fertile Crescent City. John Storm Roberts states that the musical genre habanera \\\"reached the U.S. twenty years before the first rag was published.\\\" For the more than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime, and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nHabaneras were widely available as sheet music, and were the first written music which was rhythmically based on an African motif (1803), From the perspective of African-American music, the habanera rhythm (also known as congo, tango-congo, or tango. ) can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the backbeat. The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the United States, and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nNew Orleans native Louis Moreau Gottschalk's piano piece \\\"Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)\\\" (1860) was influenced by the composer's studies in Cuba: the habanera rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand. In Gottschalk's symphonic work \\\"A Night in the Tropics\\\" (1859), the tresillo variant cinquillo appears extensively. The figure was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nComparing the music of New Orleans with the music of Cuba, Wynton Marsalis observes that tresillo is the New Orleans \\\"clave\\\", a Spanish word meaning 'code' or 'key', as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery. Although technically the pattern is only half a clave, Marsalis makes the point that the single-celled figure is the guide-pattern of New Orleans music. Jelly Roll Morton called the rhythmic figure the Spanish tinge, and considered it an essential ingredient of jazz.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\n1890s–1910s\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nRagtime\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, during which time many marching bands were formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs and brothels, as ragtime developed.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nRagtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African-American musicians such as the entertainer Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895. Two years later, Vess Ossman recorded a medley of these songs as a banjo solo known as \\\"Rag Time Medley\\\". Also in 1897, the white composer William H. Krell published his \\\"Mississippi Rag\\\" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom Turpin published his \\\"Harlem Rag\\\", the first rag published by an African-American.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his \\\"Original Rags\\\" in 1898, and in 1899 had an international hit with \\\"Maple Leaf Rag\\\", a multi-strain ragtime march with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass line with copious seventh chords. Its structure was the basis for many other rags, and the syncopations in the right hand, especially in the transition between the first and second strain, were novel at the time.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAfrican-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and its variants, the habanera rhythm and cinquillo, are heard in the ragtime compositions of Joplin, Turpin, and others. Joplin's \\\"Solace\\\" (1909) is generally considered to be within the habanera genre: both of the pianist's hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of a march rhythm. Ned Sublette postulates that the tresillo/habanera rhythm \\\"found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,\\\" whilst Roberts suggests that \\\"the habanera influence may have been part of what freed black music from ragtime's European bass.\\\"\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBlues\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAfrican genesis\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBlues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre, which originated in African-American communities of primarily the \\\"Deep South\\\" of the United States at the end of the 19th century from their spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts and chants and rhymed simple narrative ballads.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the development of blue notes in blues and jazz. As Kubik explains:\\nMany of the rural blues of the Deep South are stylistically an extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt:\\n* A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as found for example among the Hausa. It is characterized by melisma, wavy intonation, pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework, and a declamatory voice.\\n* An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents (1999: 94).\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nW. C. Handy: early published blues\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nW. C. Handy became intrigued by the folk blues of the Deep South whilst traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within a limited melodic range, sounding like a field holler, and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another \\\"voice\\\". Handy and his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with the blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band instrument format, and arrange them in a popular music form.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nHandy wrote about his adopting of the blues:\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe primitive southern Negro, as he sang, was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale, slurring between major and minor. Whether in the cotton field of the Delta or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always the same. Till then, however, I had never heard this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro, or by any white man. I tried to convey this effect ... by introducing flat thirds and sevenths (now called blue notes) into my song, although its prevailing key was major ..., and I carried this device into my melody as well.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe publication of his \\\"Memphis Blues\\\" sheet music in 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, but \\\"more like a cakewalk\\\" ). This composition, as well as his later \\\"St. Louis Blues\\\" and others, included the habanera rhythm,W. C. Handy, Father of the Blues: An Autobiography, edited by Arna Bontemps: foreword by Abbe Niles. Macmillan Company, New York; (1941), pp. 99, 100 (no ISBN in this first printing). and would become jazz standards. Handy's music career began in the pre-jazz era, and contributed to the codification of jazz through the publication of some of the first jazz sheet music.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nWithin the context of Western harmony\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe blues form which is ubiquitous in jazz is characterized by specific chord progressions, of which the twelve-bar blues progression is the most common. An important part of the sound are the blue notes which, for expressive purposes, are sung or played flattened, or gradually bent (minor 3rd to major 3rd) in relation to the pitch of the major scale. The blues were the key that opened up an entirely new approach to Western harmony, ultimately leading to a high level of harmonic complexity in jazz.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nNew Orleans\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe music of New Orleans had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. Many early jazz performers played in venues throughout the city, such as the brothels and bars of the red-light district around Basin Street, known as \\\"Storyville\\\". In addition to dance bands, there were numerous marching bands who played at lavish funerals (later called jazz funerals), which were arranged by the African-American and European American communities. The instruments used in marching bands and dance bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass, reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale, and drums. Small bands which mixed self-taught and well educated African-American musicians, many of whom came from the funeral-procession tradition of New Orleans, played a seminal role in the development and dissemination of early jazz. These bands travelled throughout Black communities in the Deep South and, from around 1914 onwards, Afro-Creole and African-American musicians played in vaudeville shows which took jazz to western and northern US cities.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn New Orleans, a white marching band leader named Papa Jack Laine integrated blacks and whites in his marching band. Laine was known as \\\"the father of white jazz\\\" because of the many top players who passed through his bands (including George Brunies, Sharkey Bonano and the future members of the Original Dixieland Jass Band). Laine was a good talent scout. During the early 1900s jazz was mostly done in the African-American and mulatto communities, due to segregation laws. The red light district of Storyville, New Orleans was crucial in bringing jazz music to a wider audience via tourists who came to the port city. Many jazz musicians from the African-American communities were hired to perform live music in brothels and bars, including many early jazz pioneers such as Buddy Bolden and Jelly Roll Morton, in addition to those from New Orleans other communities such as Lorenzo Tio and Alcide Nunez. Louis Armstrong also got his start in Storyville and would later find success in Chicago (along with others from New Orleans) after the United States government shut down Storyville in 1917.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nSyncopation\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe cornetist Buddy Bolden led a band who are often mentioned as one of the prime originators of the style later to be called \\\"jazz\\\". He played in New Orleans around 1895–1906, before developing a mental illness; there are no recordings of him playing. Bolden's band is credited with creating the big four, the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march. As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAfro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in Storyville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows around southern cities, also playing in Chicago and New York. In 1905 he composed his \\\"Jelly Roll Blues\\\", which on its publication in 1915 became the first jazz arrangement in print, introducing more musicians to the New Orleans style.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nMorton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he called the Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz. In his own words: Now in one of my earliest tunes, \\\"New Orleans Blues,\\\" you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nMorton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the early jazz form known as ragtime to jazz piano, and could perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a series of recordings for the Library of Congress, in which he demonstrated the difference between the two styles. Morton's solos however were still close to ragtime, and were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in later jazz; but his use of the blues was of equal importance.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nSwing\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nMorton loosened ragtime's rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a swing feeling. Swing is the most important and enduring African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft quoted definition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: \\\"if you don't feel it, you'll never know it.\\\" The New Harvard Dictionary of Music states that swing is: \\\"An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz ... Swing defies analysis; claims to its presence may inspire arguments.\\\" The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple subdivisions: swing superimposes six subdivisions of the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions. This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-American music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple and duple-pulse \\\"grids\\\".\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nNew Orleans brass bands are a lasting influence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans' Camelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also credited with the abandonment of ragtime's stiffness in favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any other musician, codified the rhythmic technique of swing in jazz, and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe Original Dixieland Jass Band made the music's first recordings early in 1917, and their \\\"Livery Stable Blues\\\" became the earliest released jazz record. That year, numerous other bands made recordings featuring \\\"jazz\\\" in the title or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War I, James Reese Europe's \\\"Hellfighters\\\" infantry band took ragtime to Europe, then on their return recorded Dixieland standards including \\\"Darktown Strutters' Ball\\\".\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nOther regions\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn the northeastern United States, a \\\"hot\\\" style of playing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe's symphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York, which played a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912. The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake influenced James P. Johnson's development of stride piano playing, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn Ohio and elsewhere in the midwest the major influence was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut-bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon by the Black middle-class.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\n1920s and 1930s\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nJazz Age\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nFrom 1920 to 1933 Prohibition in the United States banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies which became lively venues of the \\\"Jazz Age\\\", hosting popular music including current dance songs, novelty songs and show tunes. Jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as threatening the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent values of the Roaring 20s. Professor Henry van Dyke of Princeton University wrote: \\\"... it is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion.\\\" The media too began to denigrate jazz. The New York Times used stories and headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagers were said by the paper to have used jazz to scare off bears, when in fact they had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn 1919 Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans began playing in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings. That year also saw the first recording by Bessie Smith, the most famous of the 1920s blues singers. Chicago meanwhile was the main center developing the new \\\"Hot Jazz\\\", where King Oliver joined Bill Johnson. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nDespite its Southern black origins, there was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras. In 1918 Paul Whiteman and his orchestra became a hit in San Francisco, California, signing with Victor Talking Machine Company in 1920 and becoming the top bandleader of the 1920s, giving \\\"hot jazz\\\" a white component, hiring white musicians including Bix Beiderbecke, Jimmy Dorsey, Tommy Dorsey, Frankie Trumbauer, and Joe Venuti. In 1924 Whiteman commissioned Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, which was premiered by his orchestra. After the band successfully toured Europe, huge hot jazz orchestras in theater pits caught on with other whites, including Fred Waring, Jean Goldkette, and Nathaniel Shilkret. Whiteman's success was based on a \\\"rhetoric of domestication\\\" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable (read \\\"white\\\") a previously inchoate (read \\\"black\\\") kind of music.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nWhiteman's success caused blacks to follow suit, including Earl Hines (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago in 1928), Duke Ellington (who opened at the Cotton Club in Harlem in 1927), Lionel Hampton, Fletcher Henderson, Claude Hopkins, and Don Redman, with Henderson and Redman developing the \\\"talking to one another\\\" formula for \\\"hot\\\" Swing music.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn 1924 Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded \\\"stiff, stodgy,\\\" with \\\"jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality.\\\" The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of \\\"Mandy, Make Up Your Mind\\\" by George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924). (The example approximates Armstrong's solo, as it doesn't convey his use of swing.)\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAlso in the 1920s Skiffle, jazz played with homemade instruments such as washboard, jugs, musical saw, kazoos, etc. began to be recorded in Chicago, Ill., later merging with country music.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nArmstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic Hot Five band, where he popularized scat singing.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nJelly Roll Morton recorded with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his Red Hot Peppers.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBy 1930 the New Orleans-style ensemble was a relic, and jazz belonged to the world.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nSwing\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the \\\"big\\\" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Glenn Miller, Artie Shaw, Harry James, and Jimmie Lunceford. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to \\\"solo\\\" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be very complex \\\"important\\\" music.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nSwing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the radio \\\"live\\\" nightly across America for many years, especially by Earl Hines and his Grand Terrace Cafe Orchestra broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago (well placed for \\\"live\\\" US time-zones).\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nOver time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930, Benny Goodman hired pianist Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and guitarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist Lester Young (inventor of much of hipster jargon) marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as \\\"jumping the blues\\\" or jump blues used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on boogie-woogie from the 1930s.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBeginnings of European jazz\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAs only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time. The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBritish jazz began with a tour by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1919. In 1926 Fred Elizalde and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThis distinct style entered full swing in France with the Quintette du Hot Club de France, which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman, since his style was also a fusion of the two. Belgian guitar virtuoso Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall \\\"musette\\\" and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments are steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass, and solos pass from one player to another as the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section. Some music researchers hold that it was Philadelphia's Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti who pioneered the guitar-violin partnership typical of the genre, which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on Okeh Records in the late 1920s.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\n1940s and 1950s\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\n\\\"American music\\\"—the influence of Ellington\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBy the 1940s, Duke Ellington's music had transcended the bounds of swing, bridging jazz and art music in a natural synthesis. Ellington called his music \\\"American Music\\\" rather than jazz, and liked to describe those who impressed him as \\\"beyond category.\\\" These included many of the musicians who were members of his orchestra, some of whom are considered among the best in jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded them into one of the most well-known jazz orchestral units in the history of jazz. He often composed specifically for the style and skills of these individuals, such as \\\"Jeep's Blues\\\" for Johnny Hodges, \\\"Concerto for Cootie\\\" for Cootie Williams (which later became \\\"Do Nothing Till You Hear from Me\\\" with Bob Russell's lyrics), and \\\"The Mooche\\\" for Tricky Sam Nanton and Bubber Miley. He also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, such as Juan Tizol's \\\"Caravan\\\" and \\\"Perdido\\\", which brought the \\\"Spanish Tinge\\\" to big-band jazz. Several members of the orchestra remained with him for several decades.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed tremendous creativity.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBebop\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging \\\"musician's music.\\\" The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie and Clifford Brown, and drummer Max Roach. Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itself more as an art form, thus lessening its potential popular and commercial appeal.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nComposer Gunther Schuller wrote:\\n ... In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians. They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work. Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz ... but the band never made recordings.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nDizzy Gillespie wrote:\\n ... People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band. But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the same basic music. The difference was in how you got from here to here to here ... naturally each age has got its own shit.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nRhythm\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nSince bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride cymbal was used to keep time while the snare and bass drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncopated linear rhythmic complexity.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nHarmony\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBebop musicians employed several harmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz, engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an added chromatic passing note; bebop also uses \\\"passing\\\" chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. New forms of chromaticism and dissonance were introduced into jazz, and the dissonant tritone (or \\\"flatted fifth\\\") interval became the \\\"most important interval of bebop\\\" Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era songs and reused with a new and more complex melody to form new compositions, a practice which was already well-established in earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style. Bebop made use of several relatively common chord progressions, such as blues (at base, I-IV-V, but infused with II-V motion) and 'rhythm changes' (I-VI-II-V) - the chords to the 1930s pop standard \\\"I Got Rhythm.\\\" Late bop also moved towards extended forms that represented a departure from pop and show tunes.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe harmonic development in bebop is often traced back to a transcendent moment experienced by Charlie Parker while performing \\\"Cherokee\\\" at Clark Monroe's Uptown House, New York, in early 1942:\\n I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped changes that were being used, ... and I kept thinking there's bound to be something else. I could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it.... I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did, I found that by using the higher intervals of a chord as a melody line and backing them with appropriately related changes, I could play the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive—Parker.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nGerhard Kubik postulates that the harmonic development in bebop sprang from the blues and other African-related tonal sensibilities, rather than 20th-century Western art music as some have suggested:\\n Auditory inclinations were the African legacy in [Parker's] life, reconfirmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound world at odds with the Western diatonic chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of the blues as a basis for drawing upon various African matrices.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nSamuel Floyd states that blues were both the bedrock and propelling force of bebop, bringing about three main developments:\\n* A new harmonic conception, using extended chord structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and melodic variety.\\n* A developed and even more highly syncopated, linear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity in which the blue note of the fifth degree was established as an important melodic-harmonic device.\\n* The reestablishment of the blues as the music's primary organizing and functional principle.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAs Kubik explained:\\nWhile for an outside observer, the harmonic innovations in bebop would appear to be inspired by experiences in Western \\\"serious\\\" music, from Claude Debussy to Arnold Schoenberg, such a scheme cannot be sustained by the evidence from a cognitive approach. Claude Debussy did have some influence on jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's piano playing. And it is also true that Duke Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harmonic devices in European contemporary music. West Coast jazz would run into such debts as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self. Bebop then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach. The ultimate significance of all this is that the experiments in jazz during the 1940s brought back to African-American music several structural principles and techniques rooted in African traditions\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThese divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time initially met with a divided, sometimes hostile, response among fans and fellow musicians, especially established swing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile critics, bebop seemed to be filled with \\\"racing, nervous phrases\\\". But despite the initial friction, by the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAfro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nMachito and Mario Bauza\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe general consensus among musicians and musicologists is that the first original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was \\\"Tanga\\\" (1943), composed by Cuban-born Mario Bauza and recorded by Machito and his Afro-Cubans in New York City. \\\"Tanga\\\" began as a spontaneous descarga (Cuban jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThis was the birth of Afro-Cuban jazz. The use of clave brought the African timeline, or key pattern, into jazz. Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled (binary) structure, which is a complex level of African cross-rhythm. Within the context of jazz however, harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and the harmonic \\\"one\\\" is always understood to be \\\"one\\\". If the progression begins on the \\\"three-side\\\" of clave, it is said to be in 3-2 clave. If the progression begins on the \\\"two-side\\\", its in 2-3 clave.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBobby Sanabria mentions several innovations of Machito's Afro-Cubans, citing them as the first band: to wed big band jazz arranging techniques within an original composition, with jazz oriented soloists utilizing an authentic Afro-Cuban based rhythm section in a successful manner; to explore modal harmony (a concept explored much later by Miles Davis and Gil Evans) from a jazz arranging perspective; and to overtly explore the concept of clave counterpoint from an arranging standpoint (the ability to weave seamlessly from one side of the clave to the other without breaking its rhythmic integrity within the structure of a musical arrangement). They were also the first band in the United States to publicly utilize the term Afro-Cuban as the band's moniker, thus identifying itself and acknowledging the West African roots of the musical form they were playing. It forced New York City's Latino and African-American communities to deal with their common West African musical roots in a direct way, whether they wanted to acknowledge it publicly or not.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nDizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIt was Mario Bauzá who introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to the Cuban conga drummer and composer Chano Pozo. Gillespie and Pozo's brief collaboration produced some of the most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. \\\"Manteca\\\" (1947) is the first jazz standard to be rhythmically based on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntal guajeos (Afro-Cuban ostinatos) of the A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the bridge. Gillespie recounted: \\\"If I'd let it go like [Chano] wanted it, it would have been strictly Afro-Cuban all the way. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was writing an eight-bar bridge, but ... I had to keep going and ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge.\\\" The bridge gave \\\"Manteca\\\" a typical jazz harmonic structure, setting the piece apart from Bauza's modal \\\"Tanga\\\" of a few years earlier.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nGillespie's collaboration with Pozo brought specific African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the boundaries of harmonic improvisation, cu-bop, as it was called, also drew more directly from African rhythmic structures. Jazz arrangements with a \\\"Latin\\\" A section and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during solos, became common practice with many \\\"Latin tunes\\\" of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be heard on pre-1980 recordings of \\\"Manteca\\\", \\\"A Night in Tunisia\\\", \\\"Tin Tin Deo\\\", and \\\"On Green Dolphin Street\\\".\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAfrican cross-rhythm\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nCuban percussionist Mongo Santamaria first recorded his composition \\\"Afro Blue\\\" in 1959. \\n\\\"Afro Blue\\\" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) cross-rhythm, or hemiola. The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8, or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2). The following example shows the original ostinato \\\"Afro Blue\\\" bass line; the slashed noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap your foot to \\\"keep time.\\\"\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nWhen John Coltrane covered \\\"Afro Blue\\\" in 1963, he inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a 3/4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3). Originally a B pentatonic blues, Coltrane expanded the harmonic structure of \\\"Afro Blue.\\\"\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nPerhaps the most respected Afro-cuban jazz combo of the late 1950s was vibraphonist Cal Tjader's band. Tjader had Mongo Santamaria, Armando Peraza, and Willie Bobo on his early recording dates.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nDixieland revival\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn the late 1940s there was a revival of \\\"Dixieland\\\" music, harking back to the original contrapuntal New Orleans style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of early jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types of musicians involved in the revival: the first group was made up of those who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such as Bob Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and Wild Bill Davison. Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those in the Lu Watters band, Conrad Janis, and Ward Kimball and his Firehouse Five Plus Two Jazz Band. By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nCool jazz and West Coast jazz\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn 1944 jazz impresario Norman Granz organized the first Jazz at the Philharmonic concert in Los Angeles, which helped make a star of Nat \\\"King\\\" Cole and Les Paul. In 1946 he founded Clef Records, discovering Canadian jazz pianist Oscar Peterson in 1949, and merging Clef Records with his new label Verve Records in 1956, which advanced the career of Ella Fitzgerald et al.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBy the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tension of bebop was replaced with a tendency toward calm and smoothness with the sounds of cool jazz, which favored long, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City, and dominated jazz in the first half of the 1950s. The starting point was a collection of 1949 and 1950 singles by a nonet led by Miles Davis, released as the Birth of the Cool (1957). Later cool jazz recordings by musicians such as Chet Baker, Dave Brubeck, Bill Evans, Gil Evans, Stan Getz, the Modern Jazz Quartet, and Gerry Mulligan usually had a \\\"lighter\\\" sound that avoided the aggressive tempos and harmonic abstraction of bebop.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nCool jazz later became strongly identified with the West Coast jazz scene, as typified by singers Chet Baker, Mel Tormé, and Anita O'Day, but it also had a particular resonance in Europe, especially Scandinavia, where figures such as baritone saxophonist Lars Gullin and pianist Bengt Hallberg emerged. The theoretical underpinnings of cool jazz were laid out by the Chicago pianist Lennie Tristano, and its influence stretches into such later developments as bossa nova, modal jazz, and even free jazz.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nHard bop\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nHard bop is an extension of bebop (or \\\"bop\\\") music which incorporates influences from rhythm and blues, gospel music and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coalescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s, and paralleled the rise of rhythm and blues. Miles Davis' 1954 performance of \\\"Walkin'\\\" at the first Newport Jazz Festival announced the style to the jazz world. The quintet Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by Blakey and featuring pianist Horace Silver and trumpeter Clifford Brown, were leaders in the hard bop movement along with Davis.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nModal jazz\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nModal jazz is a development which began in the later 1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a solo was meant to fit into a given chord progression, but with modal jazz the soloist creates a melody using one (or a small number of) modes. The emphasis is thus shifted from harmony to melody: \\\"Historically, this caused a seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale),\\\" explained pianist Mark Levine.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe modal theory stems from a work by George Russell. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater jazz world with Kind of Blue (1959), an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis' earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation, the entire Kind of Blue album was composed as a series of \\\"modal sketches\\\", in which each performer was given a set of scales that defined the parameters of their improvisation and style. \\\"I didn't write out the music for Kind of Blue, but brought in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity,\\\" recalled Davis. The track \\\"So What\\\" has only two chords: D-7 and E-7.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nOther innovators in this style include Jackie McLean, and two of the musicians who had also played on Kind of Blue: John Coltrane and Bill Evans.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBy the 1950s, Afro-Cuban jazz had been using modes for at least a decade, as much of it borrowed from Cuban popular dance forms which are structured around multiple ostinatos with only a few chords. A case in point is Mario Bauza's \\\"Tanga\\\" (1943), the first Afro-Cuban jazz piece. Machito's Afro-Cubans recorded modal tunes in the 1940s, featuring jazz soloists such as Howard McGhee, Brew Moore, Charlie Parker and Flip Phillips. However, there is no evidence that Davis or other mainstream jazz musicians were influenced by the use of modes in Afro-Cuban jazz, or other branches of Latin jazz.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nFree jazz\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nFree jazz, and the related form of avant-garde jazz broke through into an open space of \\\"free tonality\\\" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range of World music from India, Africa and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing. While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassist Charles Mingus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles and genres.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe first major stirrings came in the 1950s with the early work of Ornette Coleman (whose 1960 album Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation coined the term) and Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s exponents included Albert Ayler, Gato Barbieri, Carla Bley, Don Cherry, Larry Coryell, John Coltrane, Bill Dixon, Jimmy Giuffre, Steve Lacy, Michael Mantler, Sun Ra, Roswell Rudd, Pharoah Sanders, and John Tchicai. In developing his late style, Coltrane was especially influenced by the dissonance of Ayler's trio with bassist Gary Peacock and drummer Sunny Murray, a rhythm section honed with Cecil Taylor as leader. In November 1961 Coltrane played a gig at the Village Vanguard, which resulted in the classic Chasin' the 'Trane, which Down Beat magazine panned as \\\"Anti-Jazz\\\". On his 1961 tour of France he was booed, but persevered, signing with the new Impulse! Records in 1960 and turning it into \\\"the house that Trane built\\\", while championing many younger free jazz musicians, notably Archie Shepp, who often played with trumpeter Bill Dixon, who organized the 4-day \\\"October Revolution in Jazz\\\" in Manhattan in 1964, the first free jazz festival.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nA series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the first half of 1965 show Coltrane's playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like multiphonics, utilization of overtones, and playing in the altissimo register, as well as a mutated return to Coltrane's sheets of sound. In the studio, he all but abandoned his soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with increasing freedom. The group's evolution can be traced through the recordings The John Coltrane Quartet Plays, Living Space and Transition (both June 1965), New Thing at Newport (July 1965), Sun Ship (August 1965) and First Meditations (September 1965).\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn June 1965 Coltrane and 10 other musicians recorded Ascension, a 40-minute long piece without breaks that included adventurous solos by young avante-garde musicians as well as Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collective improvisation sections that separated the solos. Dave Liebman later called it \\\"the torch that lit the free jazz thing.\\\". After recording with the quartet over the next few months, Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in September 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowing frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of the instrument.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nFree jazz in Europe\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nFree jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe, in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy and Eric Dolphy spent extended periods there, and European musicians Michael Mantler, John Tchicai et al. traveled to the U.S. to learn it firsthand. A distinctive European contemporary jazz (often incorporating elements of free jazz but not limited to it) also flourished because of the emergence of European musicians such as Peter Brötzmann, John Surman, Zbigniew Namysłowski, Albert Mangelsdorff, Kenny Wheeler, and Mike Westbrook, who were anxious to develop new approaches reflecting their national and regional musical cultures and contexts. Since the 1960s various creative centers of jazz have developed in Europe, such as the creative jazz scene in Amsterdam. Following the work of veteran drummer Han Bennink and pianist Misha Mengelberg, musicians started to explore free music by collectively improvising until a certain form (melody, rhythm, or even famous song) is found by the band. Jazz critic Kevin Whitehead documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers Pool) orchestra in his book New Dutch Swing.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nSince the 1990s Keith Jarrett has been prominent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditionalists.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\n1960s and 1970s\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nLatin jazz\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nLatin jazz is the term used to describe jazz which employs Latin American rhythms, and is generally understood to have a more specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz, as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either have a direct analog in Africa, or exhibit an African rhythmic influence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are Afro-Cuban jazz and Brazilian jazz.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn the 1960s and 1970s many jazz musicians had only a basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as \\\"Latin tunes\\\", with no distinction between a Cuban son montuno and a Brazilian bossa nova. Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridley's Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, a bossa nova bass line is referred to as a \\\"Latin bass figure.\\\" It was not uncommon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playing a Cuban tumbao while the drumset and bass played a Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such as \\\"Manteca\\\", \\\"On Green Dolphin Street\\\" and \\\"Song for My Father\\\" have a \\\"Latin\\\" A section and a swung B section. Typically, the band would only play an even-eighth \\\"Latin\\\" feel in the A section of the head, and swing throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like Cal Tjader tended to be the exception. For example, on a 1959 live Tjader recording of \\\"A Night in Tunisia\\\", pianist Vince Guaraldi soloed through the entire form over an authentic mambo.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAfro-Cuban jazz\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAfro-Cuban jazz often uses Afro-Cuban instruments such as congas, timbales, güiro and claves, combined with piano, double bass, etc. Afro-Cuban jazz began with Machito's Afro-Cubans in the early 1940s, but took off and entered the mainstream in the late 1940s when bebop musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor began experimenting with Cuban rhythms. Mongo Santamaria and Cal Tjader further refined the genre in the late 1950s.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAlthough a great deal of Cuban-based Latin jazz is modal, Latin jazz is not always modal: it can be as harmonically expansive as post-bop jazz. For example, Tito Puente recorded an arrangement of \\\"Giant Steps\\\" done to an Afro-Cuban guaguancó. A Latin jazz piece may momentarily contract harmonically, as in the case of a percussion solo over a one or two-chord piano guajeo.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nGuajeos\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nGuajeo is the name for the typical Afro-Cuban ostinato melodies which are commonly used motifs in Latin jazz compositions. They originated in the genre known as son. Guajeos provide a rhythmic and melodic framework that may be varied within certain parameters, whilst still maintaining a repetitive - and thus \\\"danceable\\\" - structure. Most guajeos are rhythmically based on clave (rhythm).\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nGuajeos are one of the most important elements of the vocabulary of Afro-Cuban descarga (jazz-inspired instrumental jams), providing a means of tension and resolution and a sense of forward momentum, within a relatively simple harmonic structure. The use of multiple, contrapuntal guajeos in Latin jazz facilitates simultaneous collective improvisation based on theme variation. In a way, this polyphonic texture is reminiscent of the original New Orleans style of jazz.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAfro-Cuban jazz renaissance\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nFor most of its history, Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of the 1970s a new generation of New York City musicians had emerged who were fluent in both salsa dance music and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and trumpet) and Andy (bass). During 1974-1976 they were members of one of Eddie Palmieri's most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThis occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba The first Cuban band of this new wave was Irakere. Their \\\"Chékere-son\\\" (1976) introduced a style of \\\"Cubanized\\\" bebop-flavored horn lines that departed from the more angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was based on Charlie Parker's composition \\\"Billie's Bounce\\\", jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn lines. In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakere's Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion, their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz, and in the jazzy and complex contemporary form of popular dance music known as timba.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAfro-Brazilian jazz\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBrazilian jazz such as bossa nova is derived from samba, with influences from jazz and other 20th-century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English, whilst he related term jazz-samba describes an adaptation of street samba into jazz.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians João Gilberto and Antônio Carlos Jobim, and was made popular by Elizete Cardoso's recording of \\\"Chega de Saudade\\\" on the Canção do Amor Demais LP. Gilberto's initial releases, and the 1959 film Black Orpheus, achieved significant popularity in Latin America; this spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented bossa nova's popularity and led to a worldwide boom, with 1963's Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald and Frank Sinatra, and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBrazilian percussionists such as Airto Moreira and Naná Vasconcelos also influenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater audience to them.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nPost-bop\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nPost-bop jazz is a form of small-combo jazz derived from earlier bop styles. The genre's origins lie in seminal work by John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, Charles Mingus, Wayne Shorter and Herbie Hancock. Generally, the term post-bop is taken to mean jazz from the mid-sixties onwards that assimilates influences from hard bop, modal jazz, the avant-garde and free jazz, without necessarily being immediately identifiable as any of the above.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nMuch post-bop was recorded for Blue Note Records. Key albums include Speak No Evil by Shorter; The Real McCoy by McCoy Tyner; Maiden Voyage by Hancock; Miles Smiles by Davis; and Search for the New Land by Lee Morgan (an artist who is not typically associated with the post-bop genre). Most post-bop artists worked in other genres as well, with a particularly strong overlap with the later hard bop.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nSoul jazz\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nSoul jazz was a development of hard bop which incorporated strong influences from blues, gospel and rhythm and blues to create music for small groups, often the organ trio of Hammond organ, drummer and tenor saxophonist. Unlike hard bop, soul jazz generally emphasized repetitive grooves and melodic hooks, and improvisations were often less complex than in other jazz styles. It often had a steadier \\\"funk\\\" style groove, which was different from the swing rhythms typical of much hard bop.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nHorace Silver had a large influence on the soul jazz style, with songs that used funky and often gospel-based piano vamps. Important soul jazz organists included Jimmy McGriff, Jimmy Smith and Johnny Hammond Smith, and influential tenor saxophone players included Eddie \\\"Lockjaw\\\" Davis and Stanley Turrentine.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAfrican-inspired\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThemes\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThere was a resurgence of interest in jazz and other forms of African-American cultural expression during the Black Arts Movement and Black nationalist period of the 1960s and 1970s. African themes became popular, and many new jazz compositions were given African-related titles: \\\"Black Nile\\\" (Wayne Shorter), \\\"Blue Nile\\\" (Alice Coltrane), \\\"Obirin African\\\" (Art Blakey), \\\"Zambia\\\" (Lee Morgan), \\\"Appointment in Ghana\\\" (Jackie McLean), \\\"Marabi\\\" (Cannonball Adderley), \\\"Yoruba\\\" (Hubert Laws), and many more. Pianist Randy Weston's music incorporated African elements, such as in the large-scale suite \\\"Uhuru Africa\\\" (with the participation of poet Langston Hughes) and \\\"Highlife: Music From the New African Nations.\\\" Both Weston and saxophonist Stanley Turrentine covered the Nigerian Bobby Benson's piece \\\"Niger Mambo\\\", which features Afro-Caribbean and jazz elements within a West African Highlife style. Some musicians, including Pharoah Sanders, Hubert Laws and Wayne Shorter, began using African instruments such as kalimbas, bells, beaded gourds and other instruments which were not traditional to jazz.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nRhythm\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nDuring this period there was an increased use of the typical African 12/8 cross-rhythmic structure in jazz. Herbie Hancock's \\\"Succotash\\\" on Inventions and Dimensions (1963) is an open-ended modal 12/8 improvised jam, in which Hancock's pattern of attack-points, rather than the pattern of pitches, is the primary focus of his improvisations, accompanied by Paul Chambers on bass, percussionist Osvaldo Martinez playing a traditional Afro-Cuban chekeré part and Willie Bobo playing an Abakuá bell pattern on a snare drum with brushes.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe first jazz standard composed by a non-Latino to use an overt African 12/8 cross-rhythm was Wayne Shorter's \\\"Footprints\\\" (1967). On the version recorded on Miles Smiles by Miles Davis, the bass switches to a 4/4 tresillo figure at 2:20. \\\"Footprints\\\" is not, however, a Latin jazz tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed directly by Ron Carter (bass) and Tony Williams (drums) via the rhythmic sensibilities of swing. Throughout the piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent. In the example below, the main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads, which do not indicate bass notes.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nPentatonic scales\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe use of pentatonic scales was another trend associated with Africa. The use of pentatonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of years.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nMcCoy Tyner perfected the use of the pentatonic scale in his solos, and also used parallel fifths and fourths, which are common harmonies in West Africa.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by Joe Henderson on Horace Silver's \\\"African Queen\\\" (1965).\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nJazz pianist, theorist, and educator Mark Levine refers to the scale generated by beginning on the fifth step of a pentatonic scale as the V pentatonic scale.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nLevine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all three chords of the standard II-V-I jazz progression. This is a very common progression, used in pieces such as Miles Davis' \\\"Tune Up.\\\" The following example shows the V pentatonic scale over a II-V-I progression.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAccordingly, John Coltrane's \\\"Giant Steps\\\" (1960), with its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three pentatonic scales. Coltrane studied Nicolas Slonimsky's Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns, which contains material that is virtually identical to portions of \\\"Giant Steps\\\". The harmonic complexity of \\\"Giant Steps\\\" is on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music. Superimposing the pentatonic scale over \\\"Giant Steps\\\" is not merely a matter of harmonic simplification, but also a sort of \\\"Africanizing\\\" of the piece, which provides an alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes that when mixed in with more conventional \\\"playing the changes\\\", pentatonic scales provide \\\"structure and a feeling of increased space.\\\"\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nJazz fusion\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as Jimi Hendrix and Frank Zappa. Jazz fusion often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex chords and harmonies.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAccording to AllMusic:\\n...until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate. [However, ...] as rock became more creative and its musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored with hard bop and did not want to play strictly avant-garde music, the two different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces.\\\"\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nMiles Davis' new directions\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn 1969 Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with In a Silent Way, which can be considered his first fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily by producer Teo Macero, this quiet, static album would be equally influential to the development of ambient music.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAs Davis recalls:\\nThe music I was really listening to in 1968 was James Brown, the great guitar player Jimi Hendrix, and a new group who had just come out with a hit record, \\\"Dance to the Music\\\", Sly and the Family Stone... I wanted to make it more like rock. When we recorded In a Silent Way I just threw out all the chord sheets and told everyone to play off of that.\\\"\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nTwo contributors to In a Silent Way also joined organist Larry Young to create one of the early acclaimed fusion albums: Emergency! by The Tony Williams Lifetime.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nPsychedelic-jazz\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBitches Brew\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nDavis' Bitches Brew (1970) album was his most successful of this era. Although inspired by rock and funk, Davis' fusion creations were original, and brought about a new type of avant-garde, electronic, psychedelic-jazz, as far from pop music as any other Davis work.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nHerbie Hancock\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nPianist Herbie Hancock (a Davis alumnus) released four albums in the short-lived (1970–1973) psychedelic-jazz subgenre: Mwandishi (1972), Crossings (1973) and Sextant (1973). The rhythmic background was a mix of rock, funk, and African-type textures.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nMusicians who had previously worked with Davis formed the four most influential fusion groups: Weather Report and Mahavishnu Orchestra emerged in 1971, and were soon followed by Return to Forever and The Headhunters.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nWeather Report\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nWeather Report's self-titled electronic and psychedelic Weather Report debut album caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971, thanks to the pedigree of the group's members (including percussionist Airto Moreira), and their unorthodox approach to music. The album featured a softer sound than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing soprano saxophone, and with no synthesizers involved), but is still considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avant-garde experiments which Joe Zawinul and Shorter had pioneered with Miles Davis on Bitches Brew, including an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favour of continuous rhythm and movement – but took the music further. To emphasise the group's rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable avant-garde atmospheric piece \\\"Milky Way\\\", which featured by Shorter's extremely muted saxophone inducing vibrations in Zawinul's piano strings while the latter pedalled the instrument. Down Beat described the album as \\\"music beyond category\\\", and awarded it Album of the Year in the magazine's polls that year.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nWeather Report's subsequent releases were creative funk-jazz works.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nJazz-rock\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAlthough some jazz purists protested against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock (such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful amplification, \\\"fuzz\\\" pedals, wah-wah pedals and other effects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, Eddie Harris, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummer Tony Williams (drummer), violinist Jean-Luc Ponty, guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola, John McLaughlin and Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter and bassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke. Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan, where the band Casiopea released over thirty fusion albums.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAccording to jazz writer Stuart Nicholson, \\\"just as free jazz appeared on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s ... jazz-rock briefly suggested the promise of doing the same\\\" with albums such as Williams' Emergency! (1970) and Davis' Agharta (1975), which Nicholson said \\\"suggested the potential of evolving into something that might eventually define itself as a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before.\\\" This development was stifled by commercialism, Nicholson said, as the genre \\\"mutated into a peculiar species of jazz-inflected pop music that eventually took up residence on FM radio\\\" at the end of the 1970s.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nJazz-funk\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBy the mid-1970s the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong back beat (groove), electrified sounds and, often, the presence of electronic analog synthesizers. Jazz-funk also draws influences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban rhythms and Jamaican reggae, notably Kingston bandleader Sonny Bradshaw. Another feature is the shift of emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important. The integration of funk, soul and R&B music into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz riffs and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nEarly examples are Herbie Hancock's Headhunters band and Miles Davis' On the Corner album, which in 1972 began Davis' foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed, an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk. While there is a discernible rock and funk influence in the timbres of the instruments employed, other tonal and rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the musique concrète approach that Davis and producer Teo Macero had begun to explore in the late 1960s.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nOther trends\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nJazz continued to expand and change, influenced by other types of music such as world music, avant garde classical music and rock and pop. Jazz musicians began to improvise on unusual instruments, such as the jazz harp (Alice Coltrane), the electrically amplified and wah-wah pedaled jazz violin (Jean-Luc Ponty) and the bagpipes (Rufus Harley). In 1966 jazz trumpeter Don Ellis and Indian sitar player Harihar Rao founded the Hindustani Jazz Sextet. In 1971 guitarist John McLaughlin's Mahavishnu Orchestra began playing a mix of rock and jazz infused with East Indian influences. In the 1970s the ECM record label began in Germany with artists including Keith Jarrett, Paul Bley, the Pat Metheny Group, Jan Garbarek, Ralph Towner, Kenny Wheeler, John Taylor, John Surman, and Eberhard Weber, establishing a new chamber music aesthetic which featured mainly acoustic instruments, occasionally incorporating elements of world music and folk.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\n1980s\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn 1987, the United States House of Representatives and Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative John Conyers, Jr. to define jazz as a unique form of American music, stating:\\n... that jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated.\\nIt passed in the House of Representatives on September 23, 1987 and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.HR-57 Center [http://www.hr57.org/hconres57.html HR-57 Center for the Preservation of Jazz and Blues, with the six-point mandate.]\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nResurgence of traditionalism\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe 1980s saw something of a reaction against the Fusion and Free Jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter Wynton Marsalis emerged early in the decade, and strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions of the small and large forms initially pioneered by artists such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, as well as the hard bop of the 1950s. It's debatable whether Marsalis' critical and commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the reaction against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particularly Modal Jazz and Post-Bop); nonetheless there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of traditionalism, even if Fusion and Free Jazz were by no means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nFor example, several musicians who had been prominent in the fusion genre during the 1970s began to record acoustic jazz once more, including Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock. Other musicians who had experimented with electronic instruments in the previous decade had abandoned them by the 1980s, for example Bill Evans, Joe Henderson and Stan Getz. Even the 1980s music of Miles Davis, although certainly still fusion, adopted a far more accessible and recognisably jazz-oriented approach than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return to a theme-and-solos approach.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe emergence of young jazz talent beginning to perform in older, established musicians' groups further impacted the resurgence of traditionalism in the jazz community. In the 1970s, the groups of Betty Carter and Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers retained their conservative jazz approaches in the midst of fusion and jazz- rock, and in addition to difficulty booking their acts, struggled to find younger generations of personnel to authentically play traditional styles such as hard bop and bebop. In the late 1970s, however, a resurgence of younger jazz players in Blakey's band began to occur. This movement included musicians such as Valery Ponomarev and Bobby Watson, Dennis Irwin and James Williams.\\nIn the 1980s, in addition to Wynton and Branford Marsalis, the emergence of pianists in the Jazz Messengers such as Donald Brown, Mulgrew Miller, and later, Benny Green, bassists such as Charles Fambrough, Lonnie Plaxico (and later, Peter Washington and Essiet Essiet) horn players such as Bill Pierce, Donald Harrison and later Javon Jackson and Terence Blanchard emerged as talented jazz musicians, all of whom made significant contributions in later 1990s and 2000s jazz music.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\n[http://www.jazzdiscography.com/Artists/Blakey/chron.htmJ Drummerworld: Art Blakey].\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe young Jazz Messengers' contemporaries, including Roy Hargrove, Marcus Roberts, Wallace Roney and Mark Whitfield were also influenced by Wynton Marsalis's emphasis toward jazz tradition. These younger rising stars rejected avant-garde approaches and instead championed the acoustic jazz sound of Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk and early recordings of the first Miles Davis quintet. This group of \\\"Young Lions\\\" sought to reaffirm jazz as a high art tradition comparable to the discipline of European classical music.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn addition, Betty Carter's rotation of young musicians in her group foreshadowed many of New York's preeminent traditional jazz players later in their careers. Among these musicians were Jazz Messenger alumni Benny Green, Branford Marsalis and Ralph Peterson, Jr., as well as Kenny Washington, Lewis Nash, Curtis Lundy, Cyrus Chestnut, Mark Shim, Craig Handy, Greg Hutchinson and Marc Cary, Taurus Mateen and Geri Allen.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nBlue Note Records's O.T.B. ensemble featured a rotation of young jazz musicians such as Kenny Garrett, Steve Wilson, Kenny Davis, Renee Rosnes, Ralph Peterson, Jr., Billy Drummond and Robert Hurst.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nA similar reaction took place against free jazz. According to Ted Gioia:\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nthe very leaders of the avant garde started to signal a retreat from the core principles of Free Jazz. Anthony Braxton began recording standards over familiar chord changes. Cecil Taylor played duets in concert with Mary Lou Williams, and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his blistering keyboard attack. And the next generation of progressive players would be even more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice. Musicians such as David Murray or Don Pullen may have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they never forgot all the other ways one could play African-American music for fun and profit.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nPianist Keith Jarrett — whose bands of the 1970s had played only original compositions with prominent free jazz elements — established his so-called 'Standards Trio' in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring collective improvisation, has primarily performed and recorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected them for the 1970s.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nSmooth jazz\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn the early 1980s a commercial form of jazz fusion called \\\"pop fusion\\\" or \\\"smooth jazz\\\" became successful, garnering significant radio airplay in \\\"quiet storm\\\" time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S. This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan and Sade, as well as saxophonists including Grover Washington, Jr., Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James and David Sanborn. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are of 90–105 beats per minute), and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, especially soprano and tenor, and legato electric guitar are popular).\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn his Newsweek article \\\"The Problem With Jazz Criticism\\\", Stanley Crouch considers Miles Davis' playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often negative perceptions of smooth jazz, stating:\\nI challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice, and reception.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAcid jazz, nu jazz and jazz rap\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAcid jazz developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s, influenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music. Acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including Sampling (music) or a live DJ cutting and scratching), but it is just as likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as part of their performance. Jazz-funk musicians such as Roy Ayers and Donald Byrd are often credited as the forerunners of acid jazz.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nNu jazz is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of live instrumentation with the beats of jazz house (as exemplified by St Germain, Jazzanova and Fila Brazillia) to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example The Cinematic Orchestra, Kobol and the Norwegian \\\"future jazz\\\" style pioneered by Bugge Wesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist and Nils Petter Molvær).\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nJazz rap developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and incorporates jazz influences into hip hop. In 1988, Gang Starr released the debut single \\\"Words I Manifest\\\", which sampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 \\\"Night in Tunisia\\\", and Stetsasonic released \\\"Talkin' All That Jazz\\\", which sampled Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starr's debut LP No More Mr. Nice Guy (1989) and their 1990 track \\\"Jazz Thing\\\" sampled Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis. The groups which made up the Native Tongues Posse tended toward jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Brothers' debut Straight Out the Jungle (1988), and A Tribe Called Quest's People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm (1990) and The Low End Theory (1991). Rap duo Pete Rock & CL Smooth incorporated jazz influences on their 1992 debut Mecca and the Soul Brother. Rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series began in 1993, using jazz musicians during the studio recordings.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThough jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis' final album Doo-Bop (released posthumously in 1992) was based around hip hop beats and collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Davis' ex-bandmate Herbie Hancock also absorbed hip-hop influences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album Dis Is Da Drum in 1994.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nPunk jazz and jazzcore\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with post-punk in London and New York City led to a new appreciation of jazz. In London, the Pop Group began to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk rock. In New York, No Wave took direct inspiration from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include Lydia Lunch's Queen of Siam,Bangs, Lester. \\\"Free Jazz / Punk Rock\\\". Musician Magazine, 1979. [http://www.notbored.org/bangs.html] Access date: July 20, 2008. Gray, the work of James Chance and the Contortions (who mixed Soul with free jazz and punk) and the Lounge Lizards (the first group to call themselves \\\"punk jazz\\\").\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nJohn Zorn took note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the Spy vs. Spy album in 1986, a collection of Ornette Coleman tunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style. In the same year, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brötzmann, Bill Laswell and Ronald Shannon Jackson recorded the first album under the name Last Exit (free jazz band), a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz. These developments are the origins of jazzcore, the fusion of free jazz with hardcore punk.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nM-Base\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nThe M-Base movement started in the 1980s, when a loose collective of young African-American musicians in New York which included Steve Coleman, Greg Osby and Gary Thomas developed a complex but grooving sound.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn the 1990s most M-Base participants turned to more conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance with the M-Base concept. Coleman's audience decreased, but his music and concepts influenced many musicians, both in terms of music technique and of the music's meaning. Hence, M-Base changed from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman \\\"school\\\", with a much advanced but already originally implied concept. Steve Coleman's music and M-Base concept gained recognition as \\\"next logical step\\\" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane and Ornette Coleman.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\n1990s–2010s\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nSince the 1990s jazz has been characterized by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide range of active styles and genres are popular. Individual performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in the same performance. Pianist Brad Mehldau and power trio The Bad Plus have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A firm avant-garde or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players, such as saxophonists Greg Osby and Charles Gayle, while others, such as James Carter, have incorporated free jazz elements into a more traditional framework.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nOn the other side, even a singer like Harry Connick, Jr. (who has ten number-1 US jazz albums) is sometimes called a jazz musician, although there are only a few elements from jazz history in his mainly pop oriented music. Other recent vocalists have achieved popularity with a mix of traditional jazz and pop/rock forms, such as Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling and Jamie Cullum.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nA number of players who usually perform in largely straight-ahead settings have emerged since the 1990s, including pianists Jason Moran and Vijay Iyer, guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, saxophonists Chris Potter and Joshua Redman, clarinetist Ken Peplowski and bassist Christian McBride.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nAlthough jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the 1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include Pat Metheny, John Abercrombie, John Scofield and the Swedish group e.s.t.\",\n \"Jazz\\n\\nIn 2001 Ken Burns's documentary Jazz was premiered on PBS, featuring Wynton Marsalis and other experts reviewing the entire history of jazz to that time.\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nLakefront Airport is a public use airport located four nautical miles (5 mi, 7 km) northeast of the central business district of New Orleans, in Orleans Parish, Louisiana, United States. Owned by the Orleans Levee District, it is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015, which categorized it as a general aviation reliever airport.\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nOriginally the major commercial airport in the New Orleans area, Lakefront Airport relinquished that role in 1946 when commercial airline service began from Moisant International Airport (now known as Louis Armstrong International Airport), a significantly larger facility located in the nearby suburb of Kenner. Lakefront Airport continues to serve as a general aviation airport with charter, private, and occasional military operations taking place. Commercial airline service is also available to destinations within the Gulf South Region. The terminal building's interior retains much of its original lavish 1930s decoration, and the art deco exterior, obscured for decades by a \\\"bomb-proof\\\" facade installed after World War II, has recently been returned to its original appearance. The terminal building houses a restaurant frequented by nearby residents, the Walnut Room. The sculpture installation in front of the terminal, \\\"Fountain of the Winds\\\" by Enrique Alferez, is a local landmark.\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nLakefront Airport was damaged by hurricane-force winds and the storm surge of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, and a number of the hangars and outlying buildings were destroyed. While the airport soon resumed functioning, restoration of the terminal building and other facilities proceeds slowly. With the exterior of the main terminal fully restored however, the classic Art Deco building was used as the headquarters of the fictional company Ferris Aircraft in the 2011 action hero film Green Lantern starring Ryan Reynolds and Blake Lively\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nThe airport was constructed in the mid-1930s by Huey Long on a man-made peninsula dredged by the Orleans Levee Board, jutting into Lake Pontchartrain on the Eastern New Orleans side of the Industrial Canal. It was originally named Shushan Airport after Levee Board president Abraham Shushan. The airport was inaugurated on 10 February 1934. Visitors noticed that every doorknob, window sill, countertop, and plumbing fixture either had the name or the initials of Abe Shushan. The airport was soon thereafter renamed New Orleans Airport, and was assigned the airport code \\\"NEW\\\", which it retains despite its current name.\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nDuring World War II, the airfield was used by the United States Army Air Forces and housed the Tropical Weather School in 1945.\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nAt the start of the 1960s, thick concrete panels were added to the main terminal building to turn it into a Cold War era bomb shelter.\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nLakefront Airport was badly damaged by storm surge during Hurricane Katrina in 2005, and again during Hurricane Isaac in 2012. While the airport was quickly brought back to service, many facilities remained in temporary trailers for years after Katrina.\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nOn January 23, 2010 a United States Navy Beechcraft T-34 Mentor training aircraft crashed into Lake Ponchartrain just over one mile from the approach end of the airport. The aircraft was intending to land at Naval Air Station-Joint Reserve Base New Orleans but diverted to Lakefront Airport due to weather. The student pilot on board survived, however, the instructor drowned. According to official reports, the aircrew lost track of their altitude which resulted in their ditching in the lake.\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nPost-Katrina reconstruction at the airport has included restoration of the main terminal building's original Art Deco facade. The Art Deco interior and restoration of the Shushan terminal is being filmed for a television documentary titled, Return Flight. Filming began in 2012 and will conclude in 2013 when the restoration draws to a close.\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nFacilities and aircraft\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nLakefront Airport covers an area of 473 acres (191 ha) at an elevation of 7 feet (2 m) above mean sea level. It has three asphalt paved runways: 18R/36L is 6,879 by 150 feet (2,097 x 46 m); 18L/36R is 3,697 by 75 feet (1,127 x 23 m); 9/27 is 3,114 by 75 feet (949 x 23 m).\",\n \"Lakefront Airport\\n\\nFor the 12-month period ending January 31, 2012, the airport had 67,369 aircraft operations, an average of 184 per day: 90% general aviation, 6% military, and 4% air taxi. At that time there were 112 aircraft based at this airport: 69% single-engine, 20% multi-engine, 8% jet, and 3% helicopter.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nLouis Armstrong (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971), nicknamed Satchmo or Pops, was an American trumpeter, composer, singer and occasional actor who was one of the most influential figures in jazz. His career spanned five decades, from the 1920s to the 1960s, and different eras in jazz.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nComing to prominence in the 1920s as an \\\"inventive\\\" trumpet and cornet player, Armstrong was a foundational influence in jazz, shifting the focus of the music from collective improvisation to solo performance. With his instantly recognizable gravelly voice, Armstrong was also an influential singer, demonstrating great dexterity as an improviser, bending the lyrics and melody of a song for expressive purposes. He was also skilled at scat singing.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nRenowned for his charismatic stage presence and voice almost as much as for his trumpet-playing, Armstrong's influence extends well beyond jazz music, and by the end of his career in the 1960s, he was widely regarded as a profound influence on popular music in general. Armstrong was one of the first truly popular African-American entertainers to \\\"cross over\\\", whose skin color was secondary to his music in an America that was extremely racially divided. He rarely publicly politicized his race, often to the dismay of fellow African-Americans, but took a well-publicized stand for desegregation in the Little Rock Crisis. His artistry and personality allowed him socially acceptable access to the upper echelons of American society which were highly restricted for black men of his era.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong often stated that he was born on July 4, 1900, a date that has been noted in many biographies. Although he died in 1971, it was not until the mid-1980s that his true birth date of August 4, 1901 was discovered by researcher Tad Jones through the examination of baptismal records.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong was born into a poor family in New Orleans, Louisiana, and was the grandson of slaves. He spent his youth in poverty, in a rough neighborhood known as \\\"the Battlefield\\\", which was part of the Storyville legal prostitution district. His father, William Armstrong (1881–1922), abandoned the family when Louis was an infant and took up with another woman. His mother, Mary \\\"Mayann\\\" Albert (1886–1927), then left Louis and his younger sister, Beatrice Armstrong Collins (1903–1987), in the care of his grandmother, Josephine Armstrong, and at times, his Uncle Isaac. At five, he moved back to live with his mother and her relatives, and only saw his father in parades.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nHe attended the Fisk School for Boys, where he most likely had early exposure to music. He brought in some money as a paperboy and also by finding discarded food and selling it to restaurants, but it was not enough to keep his mother from prostitution. He hung out in dance halls close to home, where he observed everything from licentious dancing to the quadrille. For extra money he also hauled coal to Storyville, and listened to the bands playing in the brothels and dance halls, especially Pete Lala's, where Joe \\\"King\\\" Oliver performed as well as other famous musicians who would drop in to jam.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nAfter dropping out of the Fisk School at age eleven, Armstrong joined a quartet of boys who sang in the streets for money. He also started to get into trouble. Cornet player Bunk Johnson said he taught Armstrong (then 11) to play by ear at Dago Tony's Tonk in New Orleans, although in his later years Armstrong gave the credit to Oliver. Armstrong hardly looked back at his youth as the worst of times but drew inspiration from it instead: \\\"Every time I close my eyes blowing that trumpet of mine—I look right in the heart of good old New Orleans... It has given me something to live for.\\\"\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nHe also worked for a Lithuanian-Jewish immigrant family, the Karnofskys, who had a junk hauling business and gave him odd jobs. They took him in and treated him like family; knowing he lived without a father, they fed and nurtured him. He later wrote a memoir of his relationship with the Karnofskys titled, Louis Armstrong + the Jewish Family in New Orleans, La., the Year of 1907. In it he describes his discovery that this family was also subject to discrimination by \\\"other white folks\\\" nationalities who felt that they were better than the Jewish race... \\\"I was only seven years old but I could easily see the ungodly treatment that the White Folks were handing the poor Jewish family whom I worked for.\\\" \\nArmstrong wore a Star of David pendant for the rest of his life and wrote about what he learned from them: \\\"how to live—real life and determination.\\\"Teachout, Terry. [https://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/satchmo-and-the-jews/ \\\"Satchmo and the Jews\\\"] Commentary magazine, 1 November 2009.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe influence of Karnofsky is remembered in New Orleans by the Karnofsky Project, a non-profit organization dedicated to accepting donated musical instruments to \\\"put them into the hands of an eager child who could not otherwise take part in a wonderful learning experience.\\\"\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong developed his cornet playing skills by playing in the band of the New Orleans Home for Colored Waifs, where he had been sent multiple times for general delinquency, most notably for firing his stepfather's pistol into the air at a New Year's Eve celebration, but it was only an empty shot, as police records confirm. Professor Peter Davis (who frequently appeared at the home at the request of its administrator, Captain Joseph Jones) instilled discipline in and provided musical training to the otherwise self-taught Armstrong. Eventually, Davis made Armstrong the band leader. The home band played around New Orleans and the thirteen-year-old Louis began to draw attention by his cornet playing, starting him on a musical career. At fourteen he was released from the home, living again with his father and new step-mother, Gertrude, and then back with his mother and thus back to the streets and their temptations. Armstrong got his first dance hall job at Henry Ponce's where Black Benny became his protector and guide. He hauled coal by day and played his cornet at night.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nHe played in the city's frequent brass band parades and listened to older musicians every chance he got, learning from Bunk Johnson, Buddy Petit, Kid Ory, and above all, Joe \\\"King\\\" Oliver, who acted as a mentor and father figure to the young musician. Later, he played in brass bands and riverboats of New Orleans, and began traveling with the well-regarded band of Fate Marable, which toured on a steamboat up and down the Mississippi River. He described his time with Marable as \\\"going to the University,\\\" since it gave him a much wider experience working with written arrangements.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nIn 1919, Joe Oliver decided to go north and resigned his position in Kid Ory's band; Armstrong replaced him. He also became second trumpet for the Tuxedo Brass Band, a society band.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nCareer\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\n1920s\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThroughout his riverboat experience, Armstrong's musicianship began to mature and expand. At twenty, he could read music and started to be featured in extended trumpet solos, one of the first jazz men to do this, injecting his own personality and style into his solo turns. He had learned how to create a unique sound and also started using singing and patter in his performances. In 1922, Armstrong joined the exodus to Chicago, where he had been invited by his mentor, Joe \\\"King\\\" Oliver, to join his Creole Jazz Band and where he could make a sufficient income so that he no longer needed to supplement his music with day labor jobs. It was a boom time in Chicago and though race relations were poor, the city was teeming with jobs available for black people, who were making good wages in factories and had plenty to spend on entertainment.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nOliver's band was among the most influential jazz bands in Chicago in the early 1920s, at a time when Chicago was the center of the jazz universe. Armstrong lived luxuriously in Chicago, in his own apartment with his own private bath (his first). Excited as he was to be in Chicago, he began his career-long pastime of writing nostalgic letters to friends in New Orleans. As Armstrong's reputation grew, he was challenged to \\\"cutting contests\\\" by hornmen trying to displace the new phenomenon, who could blow two hundred high Cs in a row. Armstrong made his first recordings on the Gennett and Okeh labels (jazz records were starting to boom across the country), including taking some solos and breaks, while playing second cornet in Oliver's band in 1923. At this time, he met Hoagy Carmichael (with whom he would collaborate later) who was introduced by friend Bix Beiderbecke, who now had his own Chicago band.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong enjoyed working with Oliver, but Louis' second wife, pianist Lil Hardin Armstrong, urged him to seek more prominent billing and develop his newer style away from the influence of Oliver. Lil had her husband play classical music in church concerts to broaden his skill and improve his solo play and she prodded him into wearing more stylish attire to make him look sharp and to better offset his growing girth. Lil's influence eventually undermined Armstrong's relationship with his mentor, especially concerning his salary and additional moneys that Oliver held back from Armstrong and other band members. Armstrong and Oliver parted amicably in 1924. Shortly afterward, Armstrong received an invitation to go to New York City to play with the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, the top African-American band of the time. Armstrong switched to the trumpet to blend in better with the other musicians in his section. His influence upon Henderson's tenor sax soloist, Coleman Hawkins, can be judged by listening to the records made by the band during this period.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong quickly adapted to the more tightly controlled style of Henderson, playing trumpet and even experimenting with the trombone. The other members quickly took up Armstrong's emotional, expressive pulse. Soon his act included singing and telling tales of New Orleans characters, especially preachers. The Henderson Orchestra was playing in prominent venues for white-only patrons, including the famed Roseland Ballroom, featuring the arrangements of Don Redman. Duke Ellington's orchestra would go to Roseland to catch Armstrong's performances and young horn men around town tried in vain to outplay him, splitting their lips in their attempts.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nDuring this time, Armstrong made many recordings on the side, arranged by an old friend from New Orleans, pianist Clarence Williams; these included small jazz band sides with the Williams Blue Five (some of the most memorable pairing Armstrong with one of Armstrong's few rivals in fiery technique and ideas, Sidney Bechet) and a series of accompaniments with blues singers, including Bessie Smith, Ma Rainey, and Alberta Hunter.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong returned to Chicago in 1925 due mostly to the urging of his wife, who wanted to pump up Armstrong's career and income. He was content in New York but later would concede that she was right and that the Henderson Orchestra was limiting his artistic growth. In publicity, much to his chagrin, she billed him as \\\"the World's Greatest Trumpet Player\\\". At first, he was actually a member of the Lil Hardin Armstrong Band and working for his wife. He began recording under his own name for Okeh with his famous Hot Five and Hot Seven groups, producing hits such as \\\"Potato Head Blues\\\", \\\"Muggles\\\", (a reference to marijuana, for which Armstrong had a lifelong fondness), and \\\"West End Blues\\\", the music of which set the standard and the agenda for jazz for many years to come.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe group included Kid Ory (trombone), Johnny Dodds (clarinet), Johnny St. Cyr (banjo), wife Lil on piano, and usually no drummer. Armstrong's band leading style was easygoing, as St. Cyr noted, \\\"One felt so relaxed working with him, and he was very broad-minded ... always did his best to feature each individual.\\\" Among the most notable of the Hot Five and Seven records were \\\"Cornet Chop Suey,\\\" \\\"Struttin' With Some Barbecue,\\\" \\\"Hotter Than that\\\" and \\\"Potato Head Blues,\\\", all featuring highly creative solos by Armstrong. His recordings soon after with pianist Earl \\\"Fatha\\\" Hines (most famously their 1928 \\\"Weatherbird\\\" duet) and Armstrong's trumpet introduction to and solo in \\\"West End Blues\\\" remain some of the most famous and influential improvisations in jazz history. Armstrong was now free to develop his personal style as he wished, which included a heavy dose of effervescent jive, such as \\\"whip that thing, Miss Lil\\\" and \\\"Mr. Johnny Dodds, Aw, do that clarinet, boy!\\\"\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong also played with Erskine Tate's Little Symphony, which played mostly at the Vendome Theatre. They furnished music for silent movies and live shows, including jazz versions of classical music, such as \\\"Madame Butterfly\\\", which gave Armstrong experience with longer forms of music and with hosting before a large audience. He began to scat sing (improvised vocal jazz using nonsensical words) and was among the first to record it, on the Hot Five recording \\\"Heebie Jeebies\\\" in 1926. The recording was so popular that the group became the most famous jazz band in the United States, even though they had not performed live to any great extent. Young musicians across the country, black or white, were turned on by Armstrong's new type of jazz.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nAfter separating from Lil, Armstrong started to play at the Sunset Café for Al Capone's associate Joe Glaser in the Carroll Dickerson Orchestra, with Earl Hines on piano, which was soon renamed Louis Armstrong and his Stompers, though Hines was the music director and Glaser managed the orchestra. Hines and Armstrong became fast friends and successful collaborators.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong returned to New York, in 1929, where he played in the pit orchestra of the successful musical Hot Chocolate, an all-black revue written by Andy Razaf and pianist/composer Fats Waller. He also made a cameo appearance as a vocalist, regularly stealing the show with his rendition of \\\"Ain't Misbehavin'\\\", his version of the song becoming his biggest selling record to date.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\n1930s\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong started to work at Connie's Inn in Harlem, chief rival to the Cotton Club, a venue for elaborately staged floor shows, and a front for gangster Dutch Schultz. Armstrong also had considerable success with vocal recordings, including versions of famous songs composed by his old friend Hoagy Carmichael. His 1930s recordings took full advantage of the new RCA ribbon microphone, introduced in 1931, which imparted a characteristic warmth to vocals and immediately became an intrinsic part of the 'crooning' sound of artists like Bing Crosby. Armstrong's famous interpretation of Carmichael's \\\"Stardust\\\" became one of the most successful versions of this song ever recorded, showcasing Armstrong's unique vocal sound and style and his innovative approach to singing songs that had already become standards.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong's radical re-working of Sidney Arodin and Carmichael's \\\"Lazy River\\\" (recorded in 1931) encapsulated many features of his groundbreaking approach to melody and phrasing. The song begins with a brief trumpet solo, then the main melody is introduced by sobbing horns, memorably punctuated by Armstrong's growling interjections at the end of each bar: \\\"Yeah! ...\\\"Uh-huh\\\" ...\\\"Sure\\\" ... \\\"Way down, way down.\\\" In the first verse, he ignores the notated melody entirely and sings as if playing a trumpet solo, pitching most of the first line on a single note and using strongly syncopated phrasing. In the second stanza he breaks into an almost fully improvised melody, which then evolves into a classic passage of Armstrong \\\"scat singing\\\".\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nAs with his trumpet playing, Armstrong's vocal innovations served as a foundation stone for the art of jazz vocal interpretation. The uniquely gritty coloration of his voice became a musical archetype that was much imitated and endlessly impersonated. His scat singing style was enriched by his matchless experience as a trumpet soloist. His resonant, velvety lower-register tone and bubbling cadences on sides such as \\\"Lazy River\\\" exerted a huge influence on younger white singers such as Bing Crosby.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe Great Depression of the early 1930s was especially hard on the jazz scene. The Cotton Club closed in 1936 after a long downward spiral, and many musicians stopped playing altogether as club dates evaporated. Bix Beiderbecke died and Fletcher Henderson’s band broke up. King Oliver made a few records but otherwise struggled. Sidney Bechet became a tailor and Kid Ory returned to New Orleans and raised chickens.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong moved to Los Angeles in 1930 to seek new opportunities. He played at the New Cotton Club in Los Angeles with Lionel Hampton on drums. The band drew the Hollywood crowd, which could still afford a lavish night life, while radio broadcasts from the club connected with younger audiences at home. Bing Crosby and many other celebrities were regulars at the club. In 1931, Armstrong appeared in his first movie, Ex-Flame and was also convicted of marijuana possession but received a suspended sentence. He returned to Chicago in late 1931 and played in bands more in the Guy Lombardo vein and he recorded more standards. When the mob insisted that he get out of town,[http://riverwalkjazz.stanford.edu/program/louis-armstrong-30s-tribute-life-and-music-armstrong-30s Louis Armstrong in the 30s: A Tribute to the Life and Music of Armstrong in the 30s]. Retrieved May 5, 2015. Armstrong visited New Orleans, had a hero's welcome and saw old friends. He sponsored a local baseball team known as \\\"Armstrong's Secret Nine\\\" and had a cigar named after him. But soon he was on the road again and after a tour across the country shadowed by the mob, Armstrong decided to go to Europe to escape.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nAfter returning to the United States, he undertook several exhausting tours. His agent Johnny Collins' erratic behavior and his own spending ways left Armstrong short of cash. Breach of contract violations plagued him. Finally, he hired Joe Glaser as his new manager, a tough mob-connected wheeler-dealer, who began to straighten out his legal mess, his mob troubles, and his debts. Armstrong also began to experience problems with his fingers and lips, which were aggravated by his unorthodox playing style. As a result, he branched out, developing his vocal style and making his first theatrical appearances. He appeared in movies again, including Crosby's 1936 hit Pennies from Heaven. In 1937, Armstrong substituted for Rudy Vallee on the CBS radio network and became the first African American to host a sponsored, national broadcast.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\n1940s\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nAfter spending many years on the road, Armstrong settled permanently in Queens, New York in 1943 in contentment with his fourth wife, Lucille. Although subject to the vicissitudes of Tin Pan Alley and the gangster-ridden music business, as well as anti-black prejudice, he continued to develop his playing. He recorded Hoagy Carmichael's Rockin' Chair for Okeh Records.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nDuring the subsequent thirty years, Armstrong played more than three hundred gigs a year. Bookings for big bands tapered off during the 1940s due to changes in public tastes: ballrooms closed, and there was competition from television and from other types of music becoming more popular than big band music. It became impossible under such circumstances to support and finance a 16-piece touring band.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe All Stars\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nDuring the 1940s, a widespread revival of interest in the traditional jazz of the 1920s made it possible for Armstrong to consider a return to the small-group musical style of his youth. Following a highly successful small-group jazz concert at New York Town Hall on May 17, 1947, featuring Armstrong with trombonist/singer Jack Teagarden, Armstrong's manager, Joe Glaser dissolved the Armstrong big band on August 13, 1947 and established a six-piece traditional jazz small group featuring Armstrong with (initially) Teagarden, Earl Hines and other top swing and Dixieland musicians, most of them ex-big band leaders. The new group was announced at the opening of Billy Berg's Supper Club.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThis group was called Louis Armstrong and his All Stars and included at various times Earl \\\"Fatha\\\" Hines, Barney Bigard, Edmond Hall, Jack Teagarden, Trummy Young, Arvell Shaw, Billy Kyle, Marty Napoleon, Big Sid Catlett, Cozy Cole, Tyree Glenn, Barrett Deems, Joe Darensbourg, Eddie Shu and percussionist Danny Barcelona. During this period, Armstrong made many recordings and appeared in over thirty films. He was the first jazz musician to appear on the cover of Time magazine, on February 21, 1949. In 1948, he participated in the Nice Jazz Festival, where Suzy Delair sang \\\"C'est si bon\\\", by Henri Betti and André Hornez, for the first time in public.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\n1950s–1970s\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nWith the publishers' permission, Armstrong recorded the first American version of \\\"C'est si bon\\\" on June 26, 1950, in New York, with English lyrics by Jerry Seelen. When it was released, the disc garnered worldwide sales. In the 1960s, he toured Ghana and Nigeria, performing with Victor Olaiya during the Nigerian Civil war. In 1964, he recorded his biggest-selling record, \\\"Hello, Dolly!\\\", a song by Jerry Herman, originally sung by Carol Channing. Armstrong's version remained on the Hot 100 for 22 weeks, longer than any other record produced that year, and went to No. 1 making him, at 62 years, 9 months and 5 days, the oldest person ever to accomplish that feat. In the process, he dislodged the Beatles from the No. 1 position they had occupied for 14 consecutive weeks with three different songs.[http://www.jazzhouse.org/gone/lastpost2.php3?edit\\n1176392524 Hale, James (editor of Jazzhouse.org), Danny Barcelona (1929–2007), Drums, Armstrong All-Star, The Last Post, 2007]. Retrieved July 4, 2007. Armstrong made his last recorded trumpet performances on his 1968 album Disney Songs the Satchmo Way. Armstrong kept up his busy tour schedule until a few years before his death in 1971.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nHe also toured Africa, Europe, and Asia under the sponsorship of the US State Department with great success, earning the nickname \\\"Ambassador Satch\\\" and inspiring Dave Brubeck to compose his jazz musical The Real Ambassadors.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nPersonal life\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nPronunciation of name\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe Louis Armstrong House Museum website states:\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nIn a memoir written for Robert Goffin between 1943 and 1944, Armstrong states, \\\"All white folks call me Louie,\\\" suggesting that he himself did not. That said, Armstrong was registered as \\\"Lewie\\\" for the 1920 U.S. Census. On various live records he's called \\\"Louie\\\" on stage, such as on the 1952 \\\"Can Anyone Explain?\\\" from the live album In Scandinavia vol.1. It should also be noted that \\\"Lewie\\\" is the French pronunciation of \\\"Louis\\\" and is commonly used in Louisiana.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nFamily\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nOn March 19, 1918, at the age of 16, Louis married Daisy Parker, a prostitute from Gretna, Louisiana. They adopted a 3-year-old boy, Clarence Armstrong, whose mother, Louis' cousin Flora, died soon after giving birth. Clarence Armstrong was mentally disabled (the result of a head injury at an early age) and Louis would spend the rest of his life taking care of him. Louis' marriage to Parker failed quickly and they separated in 1923.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nOn February 4, 1924, Louis married Lil Hardin Armstrong, who was Oliver's pianist and had also divorced her first spouse only a few years earlier. His second wife was instrumental in developing his career, but in the late 1920s Hardin and Louis grew apart. They separated in 1931 and divorced in 1938, after which Louis married longtime girlfriend Alpha Smith. His marriage to his third wife lasted four years, and they divorced in 1942. Louis then married Lucille Wilson, a singer at the Cotton Club, to whom he was married until his death in 1971.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong's marriages never produced any offspring, though he loved children. However, in December 2012, 57-year-old Sharon Preston-Folta claimed to be his daughter from a 1950s affair between Armstrong and Lucille \\\"Sweets\\\" Preston, a dancer at the Cotton Club. In a 1955 letter to his manager, Joe Glaser, Armstrong affirmed his belief that Preston's newborn baby was his daughter, and ordered Glaser to pay a monthly allowance of $400 to mother and child.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nPersonality\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong was noted for his colorful and charismatic personality. His autobiography vexed some biographers and historians, as he had a habit of telling tales, particularly of his early childhood when he was less scrutinized, and his embellishments of his history often lack consistency.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nIn addition to an entertainer, Armstrong was a leading personality of the day. He was beloved by an American public that gave even the greatest African American performers little access beyond their public celebrity, and he was able to live a private life of access and privilege afforded to few other African Americans during that era.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nHe generally remained politically neutral, which at times alienated him from members of the black community who looked to him to use his prominence with white America to become more of an outspoken figure during the Civil Rights Movement of U.S. history.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nNicknames\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe nicknames Satchmo and Satch are short for Satchelmouth. Like many things in Armstrong's life, which was filled with colorful stories both real and imagined, many of his own telling, the nickname has many possible origins.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe most common tale that biographers tell is the story of Armstrong as a young boy dancing for pennies in the streets of New Orleans, who would scoop up the coins off of the streets and stick them into his mouth to avoid having the bigger children steal them from him. Someone dubbed him \\\"satchel mouth\\\" for his mouth acting as a satchel. Another tale is that because of his large mouth, he was nicknamed \\\"satchel mouth\\\" which became shortened to Satchmo.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nEarly on he was also known as Dipper, short for Dippermouth, a reference to the piece Dippermouth Blues. and something of a riff on his unusual embouchure.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe nickname Pops came from Armstrong's own tendency to forget people's names and simply call them \\\"pops\\\" instead. The nickname was soon turned on Armstrong himself. It was used as the title of a 2010 biography of Armstrong by Terry Teachout.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nRace\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong was largely accepted into white society, both on stage and off, a privilege reserved for very few African-American public figures, and usually those of either exceptional talent or fair skin tone. As his fame grew, so did his access to the finer things in life usually denied to African-Americans, even famous ones. His renown was such that he dined in reputable restaurants and stayed in hotels usually exclusively for whites. It was a power and privilege that he enjoyed, although he was very careful not to flaunt it with fellow performers of color, and privately, he shared what access that he could with friends and fellow musicians.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThat still did not prevent members of the African-American community, particularly in the late 1950s to the early 1970s, from calling him an Uncle Tom, a black-on-black racial epithet for someone who kowtowed to white society at the expense of their own racial identity. Billie Holiday countered, however, \\\"Of course Pops toms, but he toms from the heart.\\\" He was criticized for accepting the title of \\\"King of The Zulus\\\" for Mardi Gras in 1949. In the New Orleans African-American community it is an honored role as the head of leading black Carnival Krewe, but bewildering or offensive to outsiders with their traditional costume of grass-skirts and blackface makeup satirizing southern white attitudes.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nSome musicians criticized Armstrong for playing in front of segregated audiences, and for not taking a strong enough stand in the American Civil Rights Movement. The few exceptions made it more effective when he did speak out. Armstrong's criticism of President Eisenhower, calling him \\\"two-faced\\\" and \\\"gutless\\\" because of his inaction during the conflict over school desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1957 made national news. As a protest, Armstrong canceled a planned tour of the Soviet Union on behalf of the State Department saying: \\\"The way they're treating my people in the South, the government can go to hell\\\" and that he could not represent his government abroad when it was in conflict with its own people.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe FBI kept a file on Armstrong for his outspokenness about integration.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nWhen asked about his religion, Armstrong would answer that he was raised a Baptist, always wore a Star of David, and was friends with the Pope. Armstrong wore the Star of David in honor of the Karnofsky family, who took him in as a child and lent him the money to buy his first cornet. Louis Armstrong was, in fact, baptized as a Catholic at the Sacred Heart of Jesus Church in New Orleans, and he met popes Pius XII and Paul VI, though there is no evidence that he considered himself Catholic. Armstrong seems to have been tolerant towards various religions, but also found humor in them.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nPersonal habits\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong was concerned with his health. He used laxatives to control his weight, a practice he advocated both to acquaintances and in the diet plans he published under the title Lose Weight the Satchmo Way. Armstrong's laxative of preference in his younger days was Pluto Water, but he then became an enthusiastic convert when he discovered the herbal remedy Swiss Kriss. He would extol its virtues to anyone who would listen and pass out packets to everyone he encountered, including members of the British Royal Family. (Armstrong also appeared in humorous, albeit risqué, cards that he had printed to send out to friends; the cards bore a picture of him sitting on a toilet—as viewed through a keyhole—with the slogan \\\"Satch says, 'Leave it all behind ya!'\\\") The cards have sometimes been incorrectly described as ads for Swiss Kriss. In a live recording of \\\"Baby, It's Cold Outside\\\" with Velma Middleton, he changes the lyric from \\\"Put another record on while I pour\\\" to \\\"Take some Swiss Kriss while I pour.\\\"\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe concern with his health and weight was balanced by his love of food, reflected in such songs as \\\"Cheesecake\\\", \\\"Cornet Chop Suey,\\\" though \\\"Struttin’ with Some Barbecue\\\" was written about a fine-looking companion, not about food. He kept a strong connection throughout his life to the cooking of New Orleans, always signing his letters, \\\"Red beans and ricely yours...\\\"\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nWritings\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong’s gregariousness extended to writing. On the road, he wrote constantly, sharing favorite themes of his life with correspondents around the world. He avidly typed or wrote on whatever stationery was at hand, recording instant takes on music, sex, food, childhood memories, his heavy \\\"medicinal\\\" marijuana use—and even his bowel movements, which he gleefully described. He had a fondness for lewd jokes and dirty limericks as well.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nSocial organizations\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nLouis Armstrong was not, as is often claimed, a Freemason. Although he is usually listed as being a member of Montgomery Lodge No. 18 (Prince Hall) in New York, no such lodge has ever existed. However, Armstrong stated in his autobiography that he was a member of the Knights of Pythias which is not a Masonic group.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nHorn playing and early jazz\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nIn his early years, Armstrong was best known for his virtuosity with the cornet and trumpet. The most lauded recordings on which Armstrong plays trumpet include the Hot Five and Hot Seven sessions, as well as those of the Red Onion Jazz Babies. Armstrong's improvisations, while unconventionally sophisticated for that era, were also subtle and highly melodic. The solo that Armstrong plays during the song Potato Head Blues has long been considered his best solo of that series.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nPrior to Armstrong, most collective ensemble playing in jazz, along with its occasional solos, simply varied the melodies of the songs. Armstrong was virtually the first to create significant variations based on the chord harmonies of the songs instead of merely on the melodies. This opened a rich field for creation and improvisation, and significantly changed the music into a soloist's art form.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nOften, Armstrong re-composed pop-tunes he played, simply with variations that made them more compelling to jazz listeners of the era. At the same time, however, his oeuvre includes many original melodies, creative leaps, and relaxed or driving rhythms. Armstrong's playing technique, honed by constant practice, extended the range, tone and capabilities of the trumpet. In his records, Armstrong almost single-handedly created the role of the jazz soloist, taking what had been essentially a collective folk music and turning it into an art form with tremendous possibilities for individual expression.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong was one of the first artists to use recordings of his performances to improve himself. Armstrong was an avid audiophile. He had a large collection of recordings, including reel-to-reel tapes, which he took on the road with him in a trunk during his later career. He enjoyed listening to his own recordings, and comparing his performances musically. In the den of his home, he had the latest audio equipment and would sometimes rehearse and record along with his older recordings or the radio.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nVocal popularity\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nAs his music progressed and popularity grew, his singing also became very important. Armstrong was not the first to record scat singing, but he was masterful at it and helped popularize it with the first recording on which he scatted, \\\"Heebie Jeebies\\\". At a recording session for Okeh Records, when the sheet music supposedly fell on the floor and the music began before he could pick up the pages, Armstrong simply started singing nonsense syllables while Okeh president E.A. Fearn, who was at the session, kept telling him to continue. Armstrong did, thinking the track would be discarded, but that was the version that was pressed to disc, sold, and became an unexpected hit. Although the story was thought to be apocryphal, Armstrong himself confirmed it in at least one interview as well as in his memoirs. On a later recording, Armstrong also sang out \\\"I done forgot the words\\\" in the middle of recording \\\"I'm A Ding Dong Daddy From Dumas.\\\"\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nSuch records were hits and scat singing became a major part of his performances. Long before this, however, Armstrong was playing around with his vocals, shortening and lengthening phrases, interjecting improvisations, using his voice as creatively as his trumpet.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nComposing\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong was a gifted composer who wrote more than fifty songs, which in a number of cases have become jazz standards (e.g., “Gully Low Blues,” “Potato Head Blues,” and “Swing That Music”).\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nColleagues and followers\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nDuring his long career he played and sang with some of the most important instrumentalists and vocalists of the time; among them were Bing Crosby, Duke Ellington, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Jimmie Rodgers, Bessie Smith and perhaps most famously Ella Fitzgerald. His influence upon Crosby is particularly important with regard to the subsequent development of popular music: Crosby admired and copied Armstrong, as is evident on many of his early recordings, notably \\\"Just One More Chance\\\" (1931). The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz describes Crosby's debt to Armstrong in precise detail, although it does not acknowledge Armstrong by name:\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong recorded two albums with Ella Fitzgerald: Ella and Louis, and Ella and Louis Again for Verve Records, with the sessions featuring the backing musicianship of the Oscar Peterson Trio and drummers Buddy Rich (on the first album), and Louie Bellson (on the second). Norman Granz then had the vision for Ella and Louis to record Porgy and Bess which is the most famous and critically acclaimed version of the Gershwin brothers' work.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nHis recordings for Columbia Records, Louis Armstrong Plays W.C. Handy (1954) and Satch Plays Fats (all Fats Waller tunes) (1955) were both being considered masterpieces, as well as moderately well selling. In 1961 the All Stars participated in two albums - \\\"The Great Summit\\\" and \\\"The Great Reunion\\\" (now together as a single disc) with Duke Ellington. The albums feature many of Ellington's most famous compositions (as well as two exclusive cuts) with Duke sitting in on piano. His participation in Dave Brubeck's high-concept jazz musical The Real Ambassadors (1963) was critically acclaimed, and features \\\"Summer Song,\\\" one of Armstrong's most popular vocal efforts.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nIn 1964 his recording of the song \\\"Hello Dolly\\\" went to number one. An album of the same title was quickly created around the song, and also shot to number one (knocking The Beatles off the top of the chart). The album sold very well for the rest of the year, quickly going \\\"Gold\\\" (500,000). His performance of \\\"Hello Dolly\\\" won for best male pop vocal performance at the 1964 Grammy Awards.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nHits and later career\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong had nineteen \\\"Top Ten\\\" records including \\\"Stardust\\\", \\\"What a Wonderful World\\\", \\\"When The Saints Go Marching In\\\", \\\"Dream a Little Dream of Me\\\", \\\"Ain't Misbehavin'\\\", \\\"You Rascal You\\\", and \\\"Stompin' at the Savoy\\\". \\\"We Have All the Time in the World\\\" was featured on the soundtrack of the James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service, and enjoyed renewed popularity in the UK in 1994 when it featured on a Guinness advert. It reached number 3 in the charts on being re-released.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nIn 1964, Armstrong knocked The Beatles off the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart with \\\"Hello, Dolly!\\\", which gave the 63-year-old performer a U.S. record as the oldest artist to have a number one song. His 1964 song \\\"Bout Time\\\" was later featured in the film Bewitched.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong performed in Italy at the 1968 Sanremo Music Festival where he sang \\\"Mi Va di Cantare\\\" alongside his friend, the Eritrean-born Italian singer Lara Saint Paul. In February 1968, he also appeared with Lara Saint Paul on the Italian RAI television channel where he performed \\\"Grassa e Bella,\\\" a track he sang in Italian for the Italian market and C.D.I. label.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nIn 1968, Armstrong scored one last popular hit in the United Kingdom with \\\"What a Wonderful World\\\", which topped the British charts for a month; however, the single did not chart at all in America. The song gained greater currency in the popular consciousness when it was used in the 1987 movie Good Morning, Vietnam, its subsequent re-release topping many charts around the world. Armstrong even appeared on the October 28, 1970, Johnny Cash Show, where he sang Nat King Cole's hit \\\"Rambling Rose\\\" and joined Cash to re-create his performance backing Jimmie Rodgers on \\\"Blue Yodel No. 9\\\".\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nStylistic range\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong enjoyed many types of music, from blues to the arrangements of Guy Lombardo, to Latin American folksongs, to classical symphonies and opera. Armstrong incorporated influences from all these sources into his performances, sometimes to the bewilderment of fans who wanted him to stay in convenient narrow categories. Armstrong was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an early influence. Some of his solos from the 1950s, such as the hard rocking version of \\\"St. Louis Blues\\\" from the WC Handy album, show that the influence went in both directions.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nLiterature, radio, films and TV\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong appeared in more than a dozen Hollywood films, usually playing a band leader or musician. His most familiar role was as the bandleader cum narrator in the 1956 musical, High Society, in which he sang the title song and performed a duet with Bing Crosby on \\\"Now You Has Jazz\\\". In 1947, he played himself in the movie New Orleans opposite Billie Holiday, which chronicled the demise of the Storyville district and the ensuing exodus of musicians from New Orleans to Chicago. In the 1959 film, The Five Pennies (the story of the cornetist Red Nichols), Armstrong played himself as well as singing and playing several classic numbers. With Danny Kaye Armstrong performed a duet of \\\"When the Saints Go Marching In\\\" during which Kaye impersonated Armstrong. Armstrong also had a part in the film alongside James Stewart in The Glenn Miller Story in which Glenn (played by Stewart) jammed with Armstrong and a few other noted musicians of the time.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nHe was the first African American to host a nationally broadcast radio show in the 1930s. In 1969, Armstrong had a cameo role in the film version of Hello, Dolly! as the bandleader, Louis, to which he sang the title song with actress Barbra Streisand. His solo recording of \\\"Hello, Dolly!\\\" is one of his most recognizable performances.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nHe was heard on such radio programs as The Story of Swing (1937) and This Is Jazz (1947), and he also made countless television appearances, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, including appearances on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArgentine writer Julio Cortázar, a self-described Armstrong admirer, asserted that a 1952 Louis Armstrong concert at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris played a significant role in inspiring him to create the fictional creatures called Cronopios that are the subject of a number of Cortázar's short stories. Cortázar once called Armstrong himself \\\"Grandísimo Cronopio\\\" (The Great Cronopio).\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong appears as a minor fictionalized character in Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory Series. When he and his band escape from a Nazi-like Confederacy, they enhance the insipid mainstream music of the North. A young Armstrong also appears as a minor fictionalized character in Patrick Neate's 2001 novel Twelve Bar Blues, part of which is set in New Orleans, and which was a winner at that year's Whitbread Book Awards.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThere is a pivotal scene in Stardust Memories (1980) in which Woody Allen is overwhelmed by a recording of Armstrong's \\\"Stardust\\\" and experiences a nostalgic epiphany. The combination of the music and the perfect moment is the catalyst for much of the film's action, prompting the protagonist to fall in love with an ill-advised woman.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nTerry Teachout wrote a one-man play about Armstrong called Satchmo at the Waldorf that was premiered in 2011 in Orlando, Fla., and has since been produced by Shakespeare & Company, Long Wharf Theater, and the Wilma Theater. The production ran off Broadway in 2014.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nA fledgling musician named \\\"Louis,\\\" who is obsessed with Buddy Bolden, appears in two of David Fulmer's Storyville novels: Chasing the Devil's Tail and Jass.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nDeath\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nAgainst his doctor's advice, Armstrong played a two-week engagement in March 1971 at the Waldorf-Astoria's Empire Room. At the end of it he was hospitalized for a heart attack. He was released from the hospital in May, and died of a heart attack in his sleep on July 6, 1971, a month before his 70th birthday. He was residing in Corona, Queens, New York City, at the time of his death. He was interred in Flushing Cemetery, Flushing, in Queens, New York City. \\nHis honorary pallbearers included Bing Crosby, Ella Fitzgerald, Dizzy Gillespie, Pearl Bailey, Count Basie, Harry James, Frank Sinatra, Ed Sullivan, Earl Wilson, Alan King, Johnny Carson and David Frost. Peggy Lee sang The Lord's Prayer at the services while Al Hibbler sang \\\"Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen\\\" and Fred Robbins, a long-time friend, gave the eulogy.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nAwards and honors\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nGrammy Awards\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nArmstrong was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972 by the Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. This Special Merit Award is presented by vote of the Recording Academy's National Trustees to performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the field of recording.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nGrammy Hall of Fame\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nRecordings of Armstrong were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old, and that have \\\"qualitative or historical significance.\\\"\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nRock and Roll Hall of Fame\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed Armstrong's West End Blues on the list of 500 songs that shaped Rock and Roll.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nInductions and honors\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nIn 1995, the U.S. Post Office issued a Louis Armstrong 32 cents commemorative postage stamp.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nFilm honors\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nIn 1999 Armstrong was nominated for inclusion in the American Film Institute's 100 Years...100 Stars.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe influence of Armstrong on the development of jazz is virtually immeasurable. Yet, his irrepressible personality both as a performer, and as a public figure later in his career, was so strong that to some it sometimes overshadowed his contributions as a musician and singer.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nAs a virtuoso trumpet player, Armstrong had a unique tone and an extraordinary talent for melodic improvisation. Through his playing, the trumpet emerged as a solo instrument in jazz and is used widely today. Additionally, jazz itself was transformed from a collectively improvised folk music to a soloist's serious art form largely through his influence. He was a masterful accompanist and ensemble player in addition to his extraordinary skills as a soloist. With his innovations, he raised the bar musically for all who came after him.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThough Armstrong is widely recognized as a pioneer of scat singing, Ethel Waters precedes his scatting on record in the 1930s according to Gary Giddins and others. Billie Holiday and Frank Sinatra are just two singers who were greatly indebted to him. Holiday said that she always wanted Bessie Smith's 'big' sound and Armstrong's feeling in her singing. Even special musicians like Duke Ellington have praised Armstrong through strong testimonials. Duke Ellington said, \\\"If anybody was a master, it was Louis Armstrong.\\\" In 1950, Bing Crosby, the most successful vocalist of the first half of the 20th century, said, \\\"He is the beginning and the end of music in America.\\\"\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nIn the summer of 2001, in commemoration of the centennial of Armstrong's birth, New Orleans's main airport was renamed Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nIn 2002, the Louis Armstrong's Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings (1925–1928) were preserved in the United States National Recording Registry, a registry of recordings selected yearly by the National Recording Preservation Board for preservation in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe US Open tennis tournament's former main stadium was named Louis Armstrong Stadium in honor of Armstrong who had lived a few blocks from the site.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nToday, there are many bands worldwide dedicated to preserving and honoring the music and style of Satchmo, including the Louis Armstrong Society located in New Orleans, Louisiana.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nHome turned into National Historic Landmark\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThe house where Armstrong lived for almost 28 years was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1977 and is now a museum. The Louis Armstrong House Museum, at 34-56 107th Street (between 34th and 37th Avenues) in Corona, Queens, presents concerts and educational programs, operates as a historic house museum and makes materials in its archives of writings, books, recordings and memorabilia available to the public for research. The museum is operated by the City University of New York's Queens College, following the dictates of Lucille Armstrong's will. The museum opened to the public on October 15, 2003. A new visitors center is planned.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nDiscography\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nSingles\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nOriginal albums\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThese LPs and EPs were released during Armstrong's lifetime and contained original studio and/or live recordings. The year and label information is for the first vinyl release, unless otherwise noted. Additional information such as number of tracks is given only when necessary to distinguish between different releases under the same title. In most cases, the number of CD releases listed is limited, with preference given to the label that originally released the album.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nPosthumous releases\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nThese LPs and CDs were released after Armstrong's 1971 death.\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\n* Louis Armstrong Hot Five and Hot Seven Sessions\\n** Hot Fives & Sevens (JSP, 1998)\\n** The Complete Hot Five & Hot Seven Recordings (Columbia/Legacy)\\n* Struttin' (Drive Archive, 1996) — 8 February 1947 concert with Edmond Hall's All-Stars\\n* The Complete Ella Fitzgerald & Louis Armstrong on Verve (1997) — repackaging of Ella and Louis, Ella and Louis Again, and Porgy and Bess\\n* rereleases of Together For The First Time and The Great Reunion\\n** The Great Summit: The Master Takes (2001)\\n** Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington: The Great Summit/Complete Sessions (2000) — includes additional CD of alternate takes\\n* The Legendary Berlin Concert (Jazzpoint Records, 2000) — 22 March 1965 concert with Billy Kyle, Tyree Glenn, Eddie Shu, Arvell Shaw and Danny Barcelona\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nList of songs recorded\",\n \"Louis Armstrong\\n\\nChronology of the recordings of Armstrong's songs:\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137093,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2323"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"According to Greek mythology, both blessed and cursed by the god Apollo, which daughter of King Priam was given the gift of prophecy with the rub that nobody would believe her?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Cassandra"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["she who entangles men","kasandra","cassandra effect","κασσάνδρα","cassandra"],"string":"[\n \"she who entangles men\",\n \"kasandra\",\n \"cassandra effect\",\n \"κασσάνδρα\",\n \"cassandra\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Greek mythology\n\nGreek mythology is the body of myths and teachings that belong to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. It was a part of the religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars refer to and study the myths in an attempt to shed light on the religious and political institutions of Ancient Greece and its civilization, and to gain understanding of the nature of myth-making itself.","Greek mythology\n\nGreek mythology is explicitly embodied in a large collection of narratives, and implicitly in Greek representational arts, such as vase-paintings and votive gifts. Greek myth attempts to explain the origins of the world, and details the lives and adventures of a wide variety of gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines and mythological creatures. These accounts initially were disseminated in an oral-poetic tradition; today the Greek myths are known primarily from Greek literature.\nThe oldest known Greek literary sources, Homer's epic poems Iliad and Odyssey, focus on the Trojan War and its aftermath. Two poems by Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the Theogony and the Works and Days, contain accounts of the genesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the succession of human ages, the origin of human woes, and the origin of sacrificial practices. Myths are also preserved in the Homeric Hymns, in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle, in lyric poems, in the works of the tragedians and comedians of the fifth century BC, in writings of scholars and poets of the Hellenistic Age, and in texts from the time of the Roman Empire by writers such as Plutarch and Pausanias.","Greek mythology\n\nArchaeological findings provide a principal source of detail about Greek mythology, with gods and heroes featured prominently in the decoration of many artifacts. Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle as well as the adventures of Heracles. In the succeeding Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence. Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture, arts, and literature of Western civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language. Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and relevance in the themes.","Greek mythology\n\nSources","Greek mythology\n\nGreek mythology is known today primarily from Greek literature and representations on visual media dating from the Geometric period from c. 900–800 BC onward. In fact, literary and archaeological sources integrate, sometimes mutually supportive and sometimes in conflict; however, in many cases, the existence of this corpus of data is a strong indication that many elements of Greek mythology have strong factual and historical roots.","Greek mythology\n\nLiterary sources","Greek mythology\n\nMythical narration plays an important role in nearly every genre of Greek literature. Nevertheless, the only general mythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiquity was the Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus. This work attempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic legends. Apollodorus of Athens lived from c. 180–125 BC and wrote on many of these topics. His writings may have formed the basis for the collection; however the \"Library\" discusses events that occurred long after his death, hence the name Pseudo-Apollodorus.","Greek mythology\n\nAmong the earliest literary sources are Homer's two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Other poets completed the \"epic cycle\", but these later and lesser poems now are lost almost entirely. Despite their traditional name, the \"Homeric Hymns\" have no direct connection with Homer. They are choral hymns from the earlier part of the so-called Lyric age. Hesiod, a possible contemporary with Homer, offers in his Theogony (Origin of the Gods) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths, dealing with the creation of the world; the origin of the gods, Titans, and Giants; as well as elaborate genealogies, folktales, and etiological myths. Hesiod's Works and Days, a didactic poem about farming life, also includes the myths of Prometheus, Pandora, and the Five Ages. The poet gives advice on the best way to succeed in a dangerous world, rendered yet more dangerous by its gods.","Greek mythology\n\nLyrical poets often took their subjects from myth, but their treatment became gradually less narrative and more allusive. Greek lyric poets, including Pindar, Bacchylides and Simonides, and bucolic poets such as Theocritus and Bion, relate individual mythological incidents. Additionally, myth was central to classical Athenian drama. The tragic playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides took most of their plots from myths of the age of heroes and the Trojan War. Many of the great tragic stories (e.g. Agamemnon and his children, Oedipus, Jason, Medea, etc.) took on their classic form in these tragedies. The comic playwright Aristophanes also used myths, in The Birds and The Frogs.","Greek mythology\n\nHistorians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, and geographers Pausanias and Strabo, who traveled throughout the Greek world and noted the stories they heard, supplied numerous local myths and legends, often giving little-known alternative versions. Herodotus in particular, searched the various traditions presented him and found the historical or mythological roots in the confrontation between Greece and the East. Herodotus attempted to reconcile origins and the blending of differing cultural concepts.","Greek mythology\n\nThe poetry of the Hellenistic and Roman ages was primarily composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise. Nevertheless, it contains many important details that would otherwise be lost. This category includes the works of:\n# The Roman poets Ovid, Statius, Valerius Flaccus, Seneca and Virgil with Servius's commentary.\n# The Greek poets of the Late Antique period: Nonnus, Antoninus Liberalis, and Quintus Smyrnaeus.\n# The Greek poets of the Hellenistic period: Apollonius of Rhodes, Callimachus, Pseudo-Eratosthenes, and Parthenius.","Greek mythology\n\nProse writers from the same periods who make reference to myths include Apuleius, Petronius, Lollianus, and Heliodorus. Two other important non-poetical sources are the Fabulae and Astronomica of the Roman writer styled as Pseudo-Hyginus, the Imagines of Philostratus the Elder and Philostratus the Younger, and the Descriptions of Callistratus.","Greek mythology\n\nFinally, a number of Byzantine Greek writers provide important details of myth, much derived from earlier now lost Greek works. These preservers of myth include Arnobius, Hesychius, the author of the Suda, John Tzetzes, and Eustathius. They often treat mythology from a Christian moralizing perspective.","Greek mythology\n\nArchaeological sources","Greek mythology\n\nThe discovery of the Mycenaean civilization by the German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the nineteenth century, and the discovery of the Minoan civilization in Crete by the British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in the twentieth century, helped to explain many existing questions about Homer's epics and provided archaeological evidence for many of the mythological details about gods and heroes. Unfortunately, the evidence about myths and rituals at Mycenaean and Minoan sites is entirely monumental, as the Linear B script (an ancient form of Greek found in both Crete and mainland Greece) was used mainly to record inventories, although certain names of gods and heroes have been tentatively identified.","Greek mythology\n\nGeometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle, as well as the adventures of Heracles. These visual representations of myths are important for two reasons. Firstly, many Greek myths are attested on vases earlier than in literary sources: of the twelve labors of Heracles, for example, only the Cerberus adventure occurs in a contemporary literary text. Secondly, visual sources sometimes represent myths or mythical scenes that are not attested in any extant literary source. In some cases, the first known representation of a myth in geometric art predates its first known representation in late archaic poetry, by several centuries. In the Archaic (c. 750–c. 500 BC), Classical (c. 480–323 BC), and Hellenistic (323–146 BC) periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence.","Greek mythology\n\nSurvey of mythic history","Greek mythology\n\nGreek mythology has changed over time to accommodate the evolution of their culture, of which mythology, both overtly and in its unspoken assumptions, is an index of the changes. In Greek mythology's surviving literary forms, as found mostly at the end of the progressive changes, it is inherently political, as Gilbert Cuthbertson has argued.","Greek mythology\n\nThe earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were an agricultural people who, using Animism, assigned a spirit to every aspect of nature. Eventually, these vague spirits assumed human forms and entered the local mythology as gods. When tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula invaded, they brought with them a new pantheon of gods, based on conquest, force, prowess in battle, and violent heroism. Other older gods of the agricultural world fused with those of the more powerful invaders or else faded into insignificance.","Greek mythology\n\nAfter the middle of the Archaic period, myths about relationships between male gods and male heroes became more and more frequent, indicating the parallel development of pedagogic pederasty (eros paidikos, ), thought to have been introduced around 630 BC. By the end of the fifth century BC, poets had assigned at least one eromenos, an adolescent boy who was their sexual companion, to every important god except Ares and to many legendary figures. Previously existing myths, such as those of Achilles and Patroclus, also then were cast in a pederastic light. Alexandrian poets at first, then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire, often readapted stories of Greek mythological characters in this fashion.","Greek mythology\n\nThe achievement of epic poetry was to create story-cycles and, as a result, to develop a new sense of mythological chronology. Thus Greek mythology unfolds as a phase in the development of the world and of humans. While self-contradictions in these stories make an absolute timeline impossible, an approximate chronology may be discerned. The resulting mythological \"history of the world\" may be divided into three or four broader periods:\n# The myths of origin or age of gods (Theogonies, \"births of gods\"): myths about the origins of the world, the gods, and the human race.\n# The age when gods and mortals mingled freely: stories of the early interactions between gods, demigods, and mortals.\n# The age of heroes (heroic age), where divine activity was more limited. The last and greatest of the heroic legends is the story of the Trojan War and after (which is regarded by some researchers as a separate fourth period).","Greek mythology\n\nWhile the age of gods often has been of more interest to contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes, establishing a chronology and record of human accomplishments after the questions of how the world came into being were explained. For example, the heroic Iliad and Odyssey dwarfed the divine-focused Theogony and Homeric Hymns in both size and popularity. Under the influence of Homer the \"hero cult\" leads to a restructuring in spiritual life, expressed in the separation of the realm of the gods from the realm of the dead (heroes), of the Chthonic from the Olympian. In the Works and Days, Hesiod makes use of a scheme of Four Ages of Man (or Races): Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Iron. These races or ages are separate creations of the gods, the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronos, the subsequent races the creation of Zeus. The presence of evil was explained by the myth of Pandora, when all of the best of human capabilities, save hope, had been spilled out of her overturned jar. In Metamorphoses, Ovid follows Hesiod's concept of the four ages.","Greek mythology\n\nOrigins of the world and the gods","Greek mythology\n\n\"Myths of origin\" or \"creation myths\" represent an attempt to explain the beginnings of the universe in human language. The most widely accepted version at the time, although a philosophical account of the beginning of things, is reported by Hesiod, in his Theogony. He begins with Chaos, a yawning nothingness. Out of the void emerged Gaia (the Earth) and some other primary divine beings: Eros (Love), the Abyss (the Tartarus), and the Erebus. Without male assistance, Gaia gave birth to Uranus (the Sky) who then fertilized her. From that union were born first the Titans—six males: Coeus, Crius, Cronus, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Oceanus; and six females: Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Rhea, Theia, Themis, and Tethys. After Cronus was born, Gaia and Uranus decreed no more Titans were to be born. They were followed by the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires or Hundred-Handed Ones, who were both thrown into Tartarus by Uranus. This made Gaia furious. Cronus (\"the wily, youngest and most terrible of Gaia's children\"), was convinced by Gaia to castrate his father. He did this, and became the ruler of the Titans with his sister-wife Rhea as his consort, and the other Titans became his court.","Greek mythology\n\nA motif of father-against-son conflict was repeated when Cronus was confronted by his son, Zeus. Because Cronus had betrayed his father, he feared that his offspring would do the same, and so each time Rhea gave birth, he snatched up the child and ate it. Rhea hated this and tricked him by hiding Zeus and wrapping a stone in a baby's blanket, which Cronus ate. When Zeus was full grown, he fed Cronus a drugged drink which caused him to vomit, throwing up Rhea's other children and the stone, which had been sitting in Cronus's stomach all along. Zeus then challenged Cronus to war for the kingship of the gods. At last, with the help of the Cyclopes (whom Zeus freed from Tartarus), Zeus and his siblings were victorious, while Cronus and the Titans were hurled down to imprisonment in Tartarus.","Greek mythology\n\nZeus was plagued by the same concern and, after a prophecy that the offspring of his first wife, Metis, would give birth to a god \"greater than he\"—Zeus swallowed her. She was already pregnant with Athena, however, and she burst forth from his head—fully-grown and dressed for war.","Greek mythology\n\nThe earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the theogonies to be the prototypical poetic genre—the prototypical mythos—and imputed almost magical powers to it. Orpheus, the archetypal poet, also was the archetypal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas and storms in Apollonius' Argonautica, and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to Hades. When Hermes invents the lyre in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the first thing he does is sing about the birth of the gods. Hesiod's Theogony is not only the fullest surviving account of the gods, but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet's function, with its long preliminary invocation to the Muses. Theogony also was the subject of many lost poems, including those attributed to Orpheus, Musaeus, Epimenides, Abaris, and other legendary seers, which were used in private ritual purifications and mystery-rites. There are indications that Plato was familiar with some version of the Orphic theogony. A silence would have been expected about religious rites and beliefs, however, and that nature of the culture would not have been reported by members of the society while the beliefs were held.","Greek mythology\n\nAfter they ceased to become religious beliefs, few would have known the rites and rituals. Allusions often existed, however, to aspects that were quite public.","Greek mythology\n\nImages existed on pottery and religious artwork that were interpreted and more likely, misinterpreted in many diverse myths and tales. A few fragments of these works survive in quotations by Neoplatonist philosophers and recently unearthed papyrus scraps. One of these scraps, the Derveni Papyrus now proves that at least in the fifth century BC a theogonic-cosmogonic poem of Orpheus was in existence.W. Burkert, Greek Religion, 236* G. Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus, 147","Greek mythology\n\nThe first philosophical cosmologists reacted against, or sometimes built upon, popular mythical conceptions that had existed in the Greek world for some time. Some of these popular conceptions can be gleaned from the poetry of Homer and Hesiod. In Homer, the Earth was viewed as a flat disk afloat on the river of Oceanus and overlooked by a hemispherical sky with sun, moon, and stars. The Sun (Helios) traversed the heavens as a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. Sun, earth, heaven, rivers, and winds could be addressed in prayers and called to witness oaths. Natural fissures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades and his predecessors, home of the dead.* K. Algra, The Beginnings of Cosmology, 45 Influences from other cultures always afforded new themes.","Greek mythology\n\nGreek pantheon","Greek mythology\n\nAccording to Classical-era mythology, after the overthrow of the Titans, the new pantheon of gods and goddesses was confirmed. Among the principal Greek gods were the Olympians, residing on Mount Olympus under the eye of Zeus. (The limitation of their number to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea.) Besides the Olympians, the Greeks worshipped various gods of the countryside, the satyr-god Pan, Nymphs (spirits of rivers), Naiads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads (who were spirits of the trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, Satyrs, and others. In addition, there were the dark powers of the underworld, such as the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives. In order to honor the Ancient Greek pantheon, poets composed the Homeric Hymns (a group of thirty-three songs). Gregory Nagy regards \"the larger Homeric Hymns as simple preludes (compared with Theogony), each of which invokes one god\".","Greek mythology\n\nThe gods of Greek mythology are described as having essentially corporeal but ideal bodies. According to Walter Burkert, the defining characteristic of Greek anthropomorphism is that \"the Greek gods are persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts\". Regardless of their underlying forms, the Ancient Greek gods have many fantastic abilities; most significantly, the gods are not affected by disease, and can be wounded only under highly unusual circumstances. The Greeks considered immortality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods; this immortality, as well as unfading youth, was insured by the constant use of nectar and ambrosia, by which the divine blood was renewed in their veins.","Greek mythology\n\nEach god descends from his or her own genealogy, pursues differing interests, has a certain area of expertise, and is governed by a unique personality; however, these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants, which do not always agree with one another. When these gods are called upon in poetry, prayer or cult, they are referred to by a combination of their name and epithets, that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves (e.g., Apollo Musagetes is \"Apollo, [as] leader of the Muses\"). Alternatively the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece.","Greek mythology\n\nMost gods were associated with specific aspects of life. For example, Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty, Ares was the god of war, Hades the ruler of the underworld, and Athena the goddess of wisdom and courage. Some gods, such as Apollo and Dionysus, revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions, while others, such as Hestia (literally \"hearth\") and Helios (literally \"sun\"), were little more than personifications. The most impressive temples tended to be dedicated to a limited number of gods, who were the focus of large pan-Hellenic cults. It was, however, common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to minor gods. Many cities also honored the more well-known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere. During the heroic age, the cult of heroes (or demi-gods) supplemented that of the gods.","Greek mythology\n\nAge of gods and mortals","Greek mythology\n\nBridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and mortals moved together. These were the early days of the world when the groups mingled more freely than they did later. Most of these tales were later told by Ovid's Metamorphoses and they are often divided into two thematic groups: tales of love, and tales of punishment.","Greek mythology\n\nTales of love often involve incest, or the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god, resulting in heroic offspring. The stories generally suggest that relationships between gods and mortals are something to avoid; even consenting relationships rarely have happy endings. In a few cases, a female divinity mates with a mortal man, as in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, where the goddess lies with Anchises to produce Aeneas.","Greek mythology\n\nThe second type (tales of punishment) involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact, as when Prometheus steals fire from the gods, when Tantalus steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus' table and gives it to his own subjects—revealing to them the secrets of the gods, when Prometheus or Lycaon invents sacrifice, when Demeter teaches agriculture and the Mysteries to Triptolemus, or when Marsyas invents the aulos and enters into a musical contest with Apollo. Ian Morris considers Prometheus' adventures as \"a place between the history of the gods and that of man\". An anonymous papyrus fragment, dated to the third century, vividly portrays Dionysus' punishment of the king of Thrace, Lycurgus, whose recognition of the new god came too late, resulting in horrific penalties that extended into the afterlife. The story of the arrival of Dionysus to establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of an Aeschylean trilogy. In another tragedy, Euripides' The Bacchae, the king of Thebes, Pentheus, is punished by Dionysus, because he disrespected the god and spied on his Maenads, the female worshippers of the god.","Greek mythology\n\nIn another story, based on an old folktale-motif, and echoing a similar theme, Demeter was searching for her daughter, Persephone, having taken the form of an old woman called Doso, and received a hospitable welcome from Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. As a gift to Celeus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to make his son Demophon a god, but she was unable to complete the ritual because his mother Metanira walked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright, which angered Demeter, who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual.","Greek mythology\n\nHeroic age","Greek mythology\n\nThe age in which the heroes lived is known as the heroic age. The epic and genealogical poetry created cycles of stories clustered around particular heroes or events and established the family relationships between the heroes of different stories; they thus arranged the stories in sequence. According to Ken Dowden, \"There is even a saga effect: We can follow the fates of some families in successive generations\".","Greek mythology\n\nAfter the rise of the hero cult, gods and heroes constitute the sacral sphere and are invoked together in oaths and prayers which are addressed to them. Burkert notes that \"the roster of heroes, again in contrast to the gods, is never given fixed and final form. Great gods are no longer born, but new heroes can always be raised up from the army of the dead.\" Another important difference between the hero cult and the cult of gods is that the hero becomes the centre of local group identity.","Greek mythology\n\nThe monumental events of Heracles are regarded as the dawn of the age of heroes. To the Heroic Age are also ascribed three great events: the Argonautic expedition, the Theban Cycle and the Trojan War.","Greek mythology\n\nHeracles and the Heracleidae","Greek mythology\n\nSome scholars believe that behind Heracles' complicated mythology there was probably a real man, perhaps a chieftain-vassal of the kingdom of Argos. Some scholars suggest the story of Heracles is an allegory for the sun's yearly passage through the twelve constellations of the zodiac. Others point to earlier myths from other cultures, showing the story of Heracles as a local adaptation of hero myths already well established. Traditionally, Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene, granddaughter of Perseus. His fantastic solitary exploits, with their many folk-tale themes, provided much material for popular legend. According to Burkert, \"He is portrayed as a sacrificer, mentioned as a founder of altars, and imagined as a voracious eater himself; it is in this role that he appears in comedy, while his tragic end provided much material for tragedy — Heracles is regarded by Thalia Papadopoulou as \"a play of great significance in examination of other Euripidean dramas\". In art and literature Heracles was represented as an enormously strong man of moderate height; his characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also the club. Vase paintings demonstrate the unparalleled popularity of Heracles, his fight with the lion being depicted many hundreds of times.","Greek mythology\n\nHeracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythology and cult, and the exclamation \"mehercule\" became as familiar to the Romans as \"Herakleis\" was to the Greeks. In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders, although others also prayed to him for his characteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger.","Greek mythology\n\nHeracles attained the highest social prestige through his appointment as official ancestor of the Dorian kings. This probably served as a legitimation for the Dorian migrations into the Peloponnese. Hyllus, the eponymous hero of one Dorian phyle, became the son of Heracles and one of the Heracleidae or Heraclids (the numerous descendants of Heracles, especially the descendants of Hyllus — other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus). These Heraclids conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae, Sparta and Argos, claiming, according to legend, a right to rule them through their ancestor. Their rise to dominance is frequently called the \"Dorian invasion\". The Lydian and later the Macedonian kings, as rulers of the same rank, also became Heracleidae.","Greek mythology\n\nOther members of this earliest generation of heroes such as Perseus, Deucalion, Theseus and Bellerophon, have many traits in common with Heracles. Like him, their exploits are solitary, fantastic and border on fairy tale, as they slay monsters such as the Chimera and Medusa. Bellerophon's adventures are commonplace types, similar to the adventures of Heracles and Theseus. Sending a hero to his presumed death is also a recurrent theme of this early heroic tradition, used in the cases of Perseus and Bellerophon.","Greek mythology\n\nArgonauts","Greek mythology\n\nThe only surviving Hellenistic epic, the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes (epic poet, scholar, and director of the Library of Alexandria) tells the myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to retrieve the Golden Fleece from the mythical land of Colchis. In the Argonautica, Jason is impelled on his quest by king Pelias, who receives a prophecy that a man with one sandal would be his nemesis. Jason loses a sandal in a river, arrives at the court of Pelias, and the epic is set in motion. Nearly every member of the next generation of heroes, as well as Heracles, went with Jason in the ship Argo to fetch the Golden Fleece. This generation also included Theseus, who went to Crete to slay the Minotaur; Atalanta, the female heroine, and Meleager, who once had an epic cycle of his own to rival the Iliad and Odyssey. Pindar, Apollonius and the Bibliotheca endeavor to give full lists of the Argonauts.","Greek mythology\n\nAlthough Apollonius wrote his poem in the 3rd century BC, the composition of the story of the Argonauts is earlier than Odyssey, which shows familiarity with the exploits of Jason (the wandering of Odysseus may have been partly founded on it). In ancient times the expedition was regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening up of the Black Sea to Greek commerce and colonization. It was also extremely popular, forming a cycle to which a number of local legends became attached. The story of Medea, in particular, caught the imagination of the tragic poets.","Greek mythology\n\nHouse of Atreus and Theban Cycle","Greek mythology\n\nIn between the Argo and the Trojan War, there was a generation known chiefly for its horrific crimes. This includes the doings of Atreus and Thyestes at Argos. Behind the myth of the house of Atreus (one of the two principal heroic dynasties with the house of Labdacus) lies the problem of the devolution of power and of the mode of accession to sovereignty. The twins Atreus and Thyestes with their descendants played the leading role in the tragedy of the devolution of power in Mycenae.","Greek mythology\n\nThe Theban Cycle deals with events associated especially with Cadmus, the city's founder, and later with the doings of Laius and Oedipus at Thebes; a series of stories that lead to the eventual pillage of that city at the hands of the Seven Against Thebes and Epigoni. (It is not known whether the Seven Against Thebes figured in early epic.) As far as Oedipus is concerned, early epic accounts seem to have him continuing to rule at Thebes after the revelation that Iokaste was his mother, and subsequently marrying a second wife who becomes the mother of his children — markedly different from the tale known to us through tragedy (e.g. Sophocles' Oedipus the King) and later mythological accounts.","Greek mythology\n\nTrojan War and aftermath","Greek mythology\n\nGreek mythology culminates in the Trojan War, fought between Greece and Troy, and its aftermath. In Homer's works, such as the Iliad, the chief stories have already taken shape and substance, and individual themes were elaborated later, especially in Greek drama. The Trojan War also elicited great interest in the Roman culture because of the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero whose journey from Troy led to the founding of the city that would one day become Rome, as recounted in Virgil's Aeneid (Book II of Virgil's Aeneid contains the best-known account of the sack of Troy). Finally there are two pseudo-chronicles written in Latin that passed under the names of Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius.","Greek mythology\n\nThe Trojan War cycle, a collection of epic poems, starts with the events leading up to the war: Eris and the golden apple of Kallisti, the Judgement of Paris, the abduction of Helen, the sacrifice of Iphigenia at Aulis. To recover Helen, the Greeks launched a great expedition under the overall command of Menelaus' brother, Agamemnon, king of Argos or Mycenae, but the Trojans refused to return Helen. The Iliad, which is set in the tenth year of the war, tells of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, who was the finest Greek warrior, and the consequent deaths in battle of Achilles' beloved comrade Patroclus and Priam's eldest son, Hector. After Hector's death the Trojans were joined by two exotic allies, Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, king of the Ethiopians and son of the dawn-goddess Eos. Achilles killed both of these, but Paris then managed to kill Achilles with an arrow in the heel. Achilles' heel was the only part of his body which was not invulnerable to damage by human weaponry. Before they could take Troy, the Greeks had to steal from the citadel the wooden image of Pallas Athena (the Palladium).","Greek mythology\n\nFinally, with Athena's help, they built the Trojan Horse. Despite the warnings of Priam's daughter Cassandra, the Trojans were persuaded by Sinon, a Greek who feigned desertion, to take the horse inside the walls of Troy as an offering to Athena; the priest Laocoon, who tried to have the horse destroyed, was killed by sea-serpents. At night the Greek fleet returned, and the Greeks from the horse opened the gates of Troy. In the total sack that followed, Priam and his remaining sons were slaughtered; the Trojan women passed into slavery in various cities of Greece. The adventurous homeward voyages of the Greek leaders (including the wanderings of Odysseus and Aeneas (the Aeneid), and the murder of Agamemnon) were told in two epics, the Returns (the lost Nostoi) and Homer's Odyssey. The Trojan cycle also includes the adventures of the children of the Trojan generation (e.g., Orestes and Telemachus).","Greek mythology\n\nThe Trojan War provided a variety of themes and became a main source of inspiration for Ancient Greek artists (e.g. metopes on the Parthenon depicting the sack of Troy); this artistic preference for themes deriving from the Trojan Cycle indicates its importance to the Ancient Greek civilization. The same mythological cycle also inspired a series of posterior European literary writings. For instance, Trojan Medieval European writers, unacquainted with Homer at first hand, found in the Troy legend a rich source of heroic and romantic storytelling and a convenient framework into which to fit their own courtly and chivalric ideals. Twelfth-century authors, such as Benoît de Sainte-Maure (Roman de Troie [Romance of Troy, 1154–60]) and Joseph of Exeter (De Bello Troiano [On the Trojan War, 1183]) describe the war while rewriting the standard version they found in Dictys and Dares. They thus follow Horace's advice and Virgil's example: they rewrite a poem of Troy instead of telling something completely new.","Greek mythology\n\nSome of the more famous heroes noted for their inclusion in the Trojan War were:","Greek mythology\n\nOn the Trojan side:\n* Aeneas\n* Hector\n* Paris\nOn the Greek side:\n* Ajax (there were two Ajaxes)\n* Achilles\n* King Agamemnon\n* Menelaus\n* Odysseus","Greek mythology\n\nGreek and Roman conceptions of myth","Greek mythology\n\nMythology was at the heart of everyday life in Ancient Greece. Greeks regarded mythology as a part of their history. They used myth to explain natural phenomena, cultural variations, traditional enmities and friendships. It was a source of pride to be able to trace the descent of one's leaders from a mythological hero or a god. Few ever doubted that there was truth behind the account of the Trojan War in the Iliad and Odyssey. According to Victor Davis Hanson, a military historian, columnist, political essayist and former classics professor, and John Heath, a classics professor, the profound knowledge of the Homeric epos was deemed by the Greeks the basis of their acculturation. Homer was the \"education of Greece\" (Ἑλλάδος παίδευσις), and his poetry \"the Book\".","Greek mythology\n\nPhilosophy and myth","Greek mythology\n\nAfter the rise of philosophy, history, prose and rationalism in the late 5th century BC, the fate of myth became uncertain, and mythological genealogies gave place to a conception of history which tried to exclude the supernatural (such as the Thucydidean history). While poets and dramatists were reworking the myths, Greek historians and philosophers were beginning to criticize them.","Greek mythology\n\nA few radical philosophers like Xenophanes of Colophon were already beginning to label the poets' tales as blasphemous lies in the 6th century BC; Xenophanes had complained that Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods \"all that is shameful and disgraceful among men; they steal, commit adultery, and deceive one another\". This line of thought found its most sweeping expression in Plato's Republic and Laws. Plato created his own allegorical myths (such as the vision of Er in the Republic), attacked the traditional tales of the gods' tricks, thefts and adulteries as immoral, and objected to their central role in literature. Plato's criticism was the first serious challenge to the Homeric mythological tradition, referring to the myths as \"old wives' chatter\". For his part Aristotle criticized the Pre-socratic quasi-mythical philosophical approach and underscored that \"Hesiod and the theological writers were concerned only with what seemed plausible to themselves, and had no respect for us ... But it is not worth taking seriously writers who show off in the mythical style; as for those who do proceed by proving their assertions, we must cross-examine them\".","Greek mythology\n\nNevertheless, even Plato did not manage to wean himself and his society from the influence of myth; his own characterization for Socrates is based on the traditional Homeric and tragic patterns, used by the philosopher to praise the righteous life of his teacher:","Greek mythology\n\nHanson and Heath estimate that Plato's rejection of the Homeric tradition was not favorably received by the grassroots Greek civilization. The old myths were kept alive in local cults; they continued to influence poetry and to form the main subject of painting and sculpture.","Greek mythology\n\nMore sportingly, the 5th century BC tragedian Euripides often played with the old traditions, mocking them, and through the voice of his characters injecting notes of doubt. Yet the subjects of his plays were taken, without exception, from myth. Many of these plays were written in answer to a predecessor's version of the same or similar myth. Euripides mainly impugns the myths about the gods and begins his critique with an objection similar to the one previously expressed by Xenocrates: the gods, as traditionally represented, are far too crassly anthropomorphic.","Greek mythology\n\nHellenistic and Roman rationalism","Greek mythology\n\nDuring the Hellenistic period, mythology took on the prestige of elite knowledge that marks its possessors as belonging to a certain class. At the same time, the skeptical turn of the Classical age became even more pronounced. Greek mythographer Euhemerus established the tradition of seeking an actual historical basis for mythical beings and events. Although his original work (Sacred Scriptures) is lost, much is known about it from what is recorded by Diodorus and Lactantius.","Greek mythology\n\nRationalizing hermeneutics of myth became even more popular under the Roman Empire, thanks to the physicalist theories of Stoic and Epicurean philosophy. Stoics presented explanations of the gods and heroes as physical phenomena, while the Euhemerists rationalized them as historical figures. At the same time, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists promoted the moral significations of the mythological tradition, often based on Greek etymologies. Through his Epicurean message, Lucretius had sought to expel superstitious fears from the minds of his fellow-citizens. Livy, too, is skeptical about the mythological tradition and claims that he does not intend to pass judgement on such legends (fabulae). The challenge for Romans with a strong and apologetic sense of religious tradition was to defend that tradition while conceding that it was often a breeding-ground for superstition. The antiquarian Varro, who regarded religion as a human institution with great importance for the preservation of good in society, devoted rigorous study to the origins of religious cults. In his Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum (which has not survived, but Augustine's City of God indicates its general approach) Varro argues that whereas the superstitious man fears the gods, the truly religious person venerates them as parents.","Greek mythology\n\nAccording to Varro, there have been three accounts of deities in the Roman society: the mythical account created by poets for theatre and entertainment, the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city, and the natural account created by the philosophers. The best state is, adds Varro, where the civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher's.","Greek mythology\n\nRoman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal and allegorical acceptance of myth, declaring roundly that myths have no place in philosophy. Cicero is also generally disdainful of myth, but, like Varro, he is emphatic in his support for the state religion and its institutions. It is difficult to know how far down the social scale this rationalism extended. Cicero asserts that no one (not even old women and boys) is so foolish as to believe in the terrors of Hades or the existence of Scyllas, centaurs or other composite creatures, but, on the other hand, the orator elsewhere complains of the superstitious and credulous character of the people. De Natura Deorum is the most comprehensive summary of Cicero's line of thought.","Greek mythology\n\nSyncretizing trends","Greek mythology\n\nIn Ancient Roman times, a new Roman mythology was born through syncretization of numerous Greek and other foreign gods. This occurred because the Romans had little mythology of their own and inheritance of the Greek mythological tradition caused the major Roman gods to adopt characteristics of their Greek equivalents. The gods Zeus and Jupiter are an example of this mythological overlap. In addition to the combination of the two mythological traditions, the association of the Romans with eastern religions led to further syncretizations. For instance, the cult of Sun was introduced in Rome after Aurelian's successful campaigns in Syria. The Asiatic divinities Mithras (that is to say, the Sun) and Ba'al were combined with Apollo and Helios into one Sol Invictus, with conglomerated rites and compound attributes. Apollo might be increasingly identified in religion with Helios or even Dionysus, but texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments. The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice. The worship of Sol as special protector of the emperors and of the empire remained the chief imperial religion until it was replaced by Christianity.","Greek mythology\n\nThe surviving 2nd-century collection of Orphic Hymns (second century AD) and the Saturnalia of Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius (fifth century) are influenced by the theories of rationalism and the syncretizing trends as well. The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre-classical poetic compositions, attributed to Orpheus, himself the subject of a renowned myth. In reality, these poems were probably composed by several different poets, and contain a rich set of clues about prehistoric European mythology. The stated purpose of the Saturnalia is to transmit the Hellenic culture Macrobius has derived from his reading, even though much of his treatment of gods is colored by Egyptian and North African mythology and theology (which also affect the interpretation of Virgil). In Saturnalia reappear mythographical comments influenced by the Euhemerists, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists.","Greek mythology\n\nModern interpretations","Greek mythology\n\nThe genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the eighteenth century against \"the traditional attitude of Christian animosity\", in which the Christian reinterpretation of myth as a \"lie\" or fable had been retained. In Germany, by about 1795, there was a growing interest in Homer and Greek mythology. In Göttingen, Johann Matthias Gesner began to revive Greek studies, while his successor, Christian Gottlob Heyne, worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and laid the foundations for mythological research both in Germany and elsewhere.","Greek mythology\n\nComparative and psychoanalytic approaches","Greek mythology\n\nThe development of comparative philology in the 19th century, together with ethnological discoveries in the 20th century, established the science of myth. Since the Romantics, all study of myth has been comparative. Wilhelm Mannhardt, James Frazer, and Stith Thompson employed the comparative approach to collect and classify the themes of folklore and mythology. In 1871 Edward Burnett Tylor published his Primitive Culture, in which he applied the comparative method and tried to explain the origin and evolution of religion.D. Allen, Structure and Creativity in Religion, 9* Robert A. Segal, Theorizing about Myth, 16 Tylor's procedure of drawing together material culture, ritual and myth of widely separated cultures influenced both Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell. Max Müller applied the new science of comparative mythology to the study of myth, in which he detected the distorted remains of Aryan nature worship. Bronisław Malinowski emphasized the ways myth fulfills common social functions. Claude Lévi-Strauss and other structuralists have compared the formal relations and patterns in myths throughout the world.","Greek mythology\n\nSigmund Freud introduced a transhistorical and biological conception of man and a view of myth as an expression of repressed ideas. Dream interpretation is the basis of Freudian myth interpretation and Freud's concept of dreamwork recognizes the importance of contextual relationships for the interpretation of any individual element in a dream. This suggestion would find an important point of rapprochment between the structuralist and psychoanalytic approaches to myth in Freud's thought. Carl Jung extended the transhistorical, psychological approach with his theory of the \"collective unconscious\" and the archetypes (inherited \"archaic\" patterns), often encoded in myth, that arise out of it. According to Jung, \"myth-forming structural elements must be present in the unconscious psyche\". Comparing Jung's methodology with Joseph Campbell's theory, Robert A. Segal concludes that \"to interpret a myth Campbell simply identifies the archetypes in it. An interpretation of the Odyssey, for example, would show how Odysseus's life conforms to a heroic pattern. Jung, by contrast, considers the identification of archetypes merely the first step in the interpretation of a myth\".","Greek mythology\n\nKarl Kerényi, one of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology, gave up his early views of myth, in order to apply Jung's theories of archetypes to Greek myth.","Greek mythology\n\nOrigin theories","Greek mythology\n\nMax Müller attempted to understand an Indo-European religious form by tracing it back to its Indo-European (or, in Müller's time, \"Aryan\") \"original\" manifestation. In 1891, he claimed that \"the most important discovery which has been made during the nineteenth century with respect to the ancient history of mankind ... was this sample equation: Sanskrit Dyaus-pitar Greek Zeus \n Latin Jupiter = Old Norse Tyr\". The question of Greek mythology's place in Indo-European studies has generated much scholarship since Müller's time. For example, philologist Georges Dumézil draws a comparison between the Greek Uranus and the Sanskrit Varuna, although there is no hint that he believes them to be originally connected. In other cases, close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage, yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove, as in the case of the Greek Moirai and the Norns of Norse mythology.","Greek mythology\n\nArchaeology and mythography, on the other hand, have revealed that the Greeks were also inspired by some of the civilizations of Asia Minor and the Near East. Adonis seems to be the Greek counterpart — more clearly in cult than in myth — of a Near Eastern \"dying god\". Cybele is rooted in Anatolian culture while much of Aphrodite's iconography may spring from Semitic goddesses. There are also possible parallels between the earliest divine generations (Chaos and its children) and Tiamat in the Enuma Elish.L. Edmunds, Approaches to Greek Myth, 184* Robert A. Segal, A Greek Eternal Child, 64 According to Meyer Reinhold, \"near Eastern theogonic concepts, involving divine succession through violence and generational conflicts for power, found their way ... into Greek mythology\". In addition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, some scholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythology to the pre-Hellenic societies: Crete, Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes and Orchomenus. Historians of religion were fascinated by a number of apparently ancient configurations of myth connected with Crete (the god as bull, Zeus and Europa, Pasiphaë who yields to the bull and gives birth to the Minotaur etc.) Martin P.","Greek mythology\n\nNilsson concluded that all great classical Greek myths were tied to Mycenaen centres and were anchored in prehistoric times. Nevertheless, according to Burkert, the iconography of the Cretan Palace Period has provided almost no confirmation for these theories.","Greek mythology\n\nMotifs in Western art and literature","Greek mythology\n\nThe widespread adoption of Christianity did not curb the popularity of the myths. With the rediscovery of classical antiquity in the Renaissance, the poetry of Ovid became a major influence on the imagination of poets, dramatists, musicians and artists.* L. Burn, Greek Myths, 75 From the early years of Renaissance, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, portrayed the Pagan subjects of Greek mythology alongside more conventional Christian themes. Through the medium of Latin and the works of Ovid, Greek myth influenced medieval and Renaissance poets such as Petrarch, Boccaccio and Dante in Italy.","Greek mythology\n\nIn Northern Europe, Greek mythology never took the same hold of the visual arts, but its effect was very obvious on literature. The English imagination was fired by Greek mythology starting with Chaucer and John Milton and continuing through Shakespeare to Robert Bridges in the 20th century. Racine in France and Goethe in Germany revived Greek drama, reworking the ancient myths. Although during the Enlightenment of the 18th century reaction against Greek myth spread throughout Europe, the myths continued to provide an important source of raw material for dramatists, including those who wrote the libretti for many of Handel's and Mozart's operas. By the end of the 18th century, Romanticism initiated a surge of enthusiasm for all things Greek, including Greek mythology. In Britain, new translations of Greek tragedies and Homer inspired contemporary poets (such as Alfred Lord Tennyson, Keats, Byron and Shelley) and painters (such as Lord Leighton and Lawrence Alma-Tadema). Christoph Gluck, Richard Strauss, Jacques Offenbach and many others set Greek mythological themes to music. American authors of the 19th century, such as Thomas Bulfinch and Nathaniel Hawthorne, held that the study of the classical myths was essential to the understanding of English and American literature.","Greek mythology\n\nIn more recent times, classical themes have been reinterpreted by dramatists Jean Anouilh, Jean Cocteau, and Jean Giraudoux in France, Eugene O'Neill in America, and T. S. Eliot in Britain and by novelists such as James Joyce and André Gide.","Apollo\n\nApollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: , Apollōn ( ); Doric: , Apellōn; Arcadocypriot: , Apeilōn; Aeolic: , Aploun; ) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The ideal of the kouros (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of music, truth and prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu.","Apollo\n\nAs the patron of Delphi (Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius, yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over colonists, and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the Muses (Apollon Musegetes) and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. Hermes created the lyre for him, and the instrument became a common attribute of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called paeans.","Apollo\n\nIn Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as Apollo Helios he became identified among Greeks with Helios, Titan god of the sun, and his sister Artemis similarly equated with Selene, Titan goddess of the moon. In Latin texts, on the other hand, Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with Sol among the Augustan poets of the 1st century, not even in the conjurations of Aeneas and Latinus in Aeneid XII (161–215). Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE.","Apollo\n\nEtymology","Apollo\n\nThe name of Apollo itself—though not Paean, a possible name of a precursor god to or epithet of him—is generally considered to be absent from the Linear B (Mycenean Greek) texts although it is possible that the name is in fact attested in the lacunose form ]pe-rjo-[ (Linear B: ]-[) on the KN E 842 tablet.","Apollo\n\nThe etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling ( in Classical Attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form Apellon (), is more archaic, derived from an earlier . It probably is a cognate to the Doric month Apellaios (), and the offerings apellaia () at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai (). \nAccording to some scholars the words are derived from the Doric word apella (), which originally meant \"wall,\" \"fence for animals\" and later \"assembly within the limits of the square.\"The word usually appears in plural: Hesychius: (apellai), (\"folds\"), (\"assemblies\"), (\"elections\"): Nilsson, Vol. I, p. 556 Apella () is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta, corresponding to the ecclesia (). R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun apellai and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *Apalyun.","Apollo\n\nSeveral instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb (apollymi), \"to destroy\". Plato in Cratylus connects the name with (apolysis), \"redemption\", with (apolousis), \"purification\", and with ([h]aploun), \"simple\", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, , and finally with (aeiballon), \"ever-shooting\". Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric (apella), which means \"assembly\", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation (sekos), \"fold\", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. In the Ancient Macedonian language (pella) means \"stone,\" and some toponyms may be derived from this word: (Pella, the capital of Ancient Macedonia) and (Pellēnē/Pallene).","Apollo\n\nA number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name, The Hittite form Apaliunas (d) is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter, perhaps related to Hurrian (and certainly the Etruscan) Aplu, a god of plague, in turn likely from Akkadian Aplu Enlil meaning simply \"the son of Enlil\", a title that was given to the god Nergal, who was linked to Shamash, Babylonian god of the sun. \nThe role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of Apollo Smintheus (\"mouse Apollo\") by Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks (the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is of course apotropaic, meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague).","Apollo\n\nThe Hittite testimony reflects an early form ', which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot with Doric .","Apollo\n\nA Luwian etymology suggested for Apaliunas makes Apollo \"The One of Entrapment\", perhaps in the sense of \"Hunter\".","Apollo\n\nGreco-Roman epithets","Apollo\n\nApollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of epithets applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature, chief among them Phoebus ( ; , Phoibos, literally \"bright\"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo's role as the god of light.","Apollo\n\nAs sun-god and god of light, Apollo was also known by the epithets Aegletes ( ; Αἰγλήτης, Aiglētēs, from , \"light of the sun\"), Helius ( ; , Helios, literally \"sun\"), Phanaeus ( ; , Phanaios, literally \"giving or bringing light\"), and Lyceus ( ; , Lykeios, from Proto-Greek *, \"light\"). The meaning of the epithet \"Lyceus\" later became associated with Apollo's mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia () and who was identified with the wolf (), earning him the epithets Lycegenes ( ; , Lukēgenēs, literally \"born of a wolf\" or \"born of Lycia\") and Lycoctonus ( ; , Lykoktonos, from , \"wolf\", and , \"to kill\"). As god of the sun, Apollo was called Sol ( , literally \"sun\" in Latin) by the Romans.","Apollo\n\nIn association with his birthplace, Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos, Apollo was called Cynthius ( ; , Kunthios, literally \"Cynthian\"), Cynthogenes ( ; , Kynthogenēs, literally \"born of Cynthus\"), and Delius ( ; Δήλιος, Delios, literally \"Delian\"). As Artemis's twin, Apollo had the epithet Didymaeus ( ; , Didymaios, from δίδυμος, \"twin\").","Apollo\n\nApollo was worshipped as Actiacus ( ; , Aktiakos, literally \"Actian\"), Delphinius ( ; , Delphinios, literally \"Delphic\"), and Pythius ( ; , Puthios, from Πυθώ, Pythō, the area around Delphi), after Actium () and Delphi (Δελφοί) respectively, two of his principal places of worship. An etiology in the Homeric hymns associated the epithet \"Delphinius\" with dolphins. He was worshipped as Acraephius ( ; , Akraiphios, literally \"Acraephian\") or Acraephiaeus ( ; , Akraiphiaios, literally \"Acraephian\") in the Boeotian town of Acraephia (), reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus; and as Smintheus ( ; , Smintheus, \"Sminthian\"—that is, \"of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe\"). near the Troad town of Hamaxitus. The epithet \"Smintheus\" has historically been confused with , \"mouse\", in association with Apollo's role as a god of disease. For this he was also known as Parnopius ( ; , Parnopios, from , \"locust\") and to the Romans as Culicarius ( ; from Latin culicārius, \"of midges\").","Apollo\n\nIn Apollo's role as a healer, his appellations included Acesius ( ; , Akesios, from , \"healing\"), Acestor ( ; , Akestōr, literally \"healer\"), Paean ( ; , Paiān, from , \"to touch\"), and Iatrus ( ; , Iātros, literally \"physician\"). Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora. The Romans referred to Apollo as Medicus ( ; literally \"physician\" in Latin) in this respect. A temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus at Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona.","Apollo\n\nAs a protector and founder, Apollo had the epithets Alexicacus ( ; , Alexikakos, literally \"warding off evil\"), Apotropaeus ( ; , Apotropaios, from , \"to avert\"), and Epicurius ( ; , Epikourios, from , \"to aid\"), and Archegetes ( ; , Arkhēgetēs, literally \"founder\"), Clarius ( ; , Klārios, from Doric , \"allotted lot\"), and Genetor ( ; , Genetōr, literally \"ancestor\"). To the Romans, he was known in this capacity as Averruncus ( ; from Latin āverruncare, \"to avert\"). He was also called Agyieus ( ; , Aguīeus, from , \"street\") for his role in protecting roads and homes; and Nomius ( ; , Nomios, literally \"pastoral\") and Nymphegetes ( ; , Numphēgetēs, from , \"Nymph\", and , \"leader\") for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life.","Apollo\n\nIn his role as god of prophecy and truth, Apollo had the epithets Manticus ( ; , Mantikos, literally \"prophetic\"), Leschenorius ( ; , Leskhēnorios, from , \"converser\"), and Loxias ( ; , Loxias, from , \"to say\"). The epithet \"Loxias\" has historically been associated with , \"ambiguous\". In this respect, the Romans called him Coelispex ( ; from Latin coelum, \"sky\", and specere, \"to look at\"). The epithet Iatromantis ( ; , Iātromantis, from , \"physician\", and , \"prophet\") refers to both his role as a god of healing and of prophecy. As god of music and arts, Apollo had the epithet Musagetes ( ; Doric , Mousāgetās) or Musegetes ( ; , Mousēgetēs, from , \"Muse\", and , \"leader\").","Apollo\n\nAs a god of archery, Apollo was known as Aphetor ( ; , Aphētōr, from , \"to let loose\") or Aphetorus ( ; , Aphētoros, of the same origin), Argyrotoxus ( ; , Argyrotoxos, literally \"with silver bow\"), Hecaërgus ( ; , Hekaergos, literally \"far-shooting\"), and Hecebolus ( ; , Hekēbolos, literally \"far-shooting\"). The Romans referred to Apollo as Articenens ( ; \"bow-carrying\"). Apollo was called Ismenius ( ; , Ismēnios, literally \"of Ismenus\") after Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, whom he struck with an arrow.","Apollo\n\nCeltic epithets and cult titles","Apollo\n\nApollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character. * Apollo Atepomarus (\"the great horseman\" or \"possessing a great horse\"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières (Indre). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun. * Apollo Belenus ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, Northern Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. * Apollo Cunomaglus ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at Nettleton Shrub, Wiltshire. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god. * Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo. * Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus. * Apollo Moritasgus ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians. * Apollo Vindonnus ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Châtillon-sur-Seine in present-day Burgundy.","Apollo\n\nHe was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. * Apollo Virotutis ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy (Haute-Savoie) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire).","Apollo\n\nOrigins","Apollo\n\nThe cult centers of Apollo in Greece, Delphi and Delos, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis, Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of Pytho. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In archaic Greece he was the prophet, the oracular god who in older times was connected with \"healing\". In classical Greece he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil. Walter Burkert discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed \"a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component.\"","Apollo\n\nFrom his eastern origin Apollo brought the art of inspection of \"symbols and omina\" (σημεία και τέρατα : semeia kai terata), and of the observation of the omens of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from Anatolia. The ritualism belonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the legalism, the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and perceptible order. The improvement of the old Anatolian god, and his elevation to an intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the Greek people.","Apollo\n\nHealer and god-protector from evil","Apollo\n\nThe function of Apollo as a \"healer\" is connected with Paean (), the physician of the Gods in the Iliad, who seems to come from a more primitive religion. Paeοn is probably connected with the Mycenean pa-ja-wo-ne (Linear B: ), At Google Books. but this is not certain. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease. Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song \"paean\" (). The magicians were also called \"seer-doctors\" (), and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.","Apollo\n\nIn the Iliad, Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the terrible Vedic god of disease Rudra. He sends a terrible plague () to the Achaeans. The god who sends a disease can also prevent from it; therefore, when it stops, they make a purifying ceremony and offer him a hecatomb to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases, they pray and with a song they call their own god, the beautiful Paean.","Apollo\n\nSome common epithets of Apollo as a healer are \"paion\" (, literally \"healer\" or \"helper\") \"epikourios\" (, \"help\"), \"oulios\" (, \"healed wound\", also a \"scar\" ) and \"loimios\" (, \"plague\"). In classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called \"apotropaios\" (, \"divert\", \"deter\", \"avert\") and \"alexikakos\" (from v. + n. , \"defend from evil\"). In later writers, the word, usually spelled \"Paean\", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing.","Apollo\n\nHomer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph.\nSuch songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to Dionysus, to Apollo Helios, to Apollo's son Asclepius the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won.","Apollo\n\nDorian origin","Apollo\n\nThe connection with Dorians and their initiation festival apellai is reinforced by the month Apellaios in northwest Greek calendars, but it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word \"pella\" (Pella), stone. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi (Omphalos). The \"Homeric hymn\" represents Apollo as a Northern intruder. His arrival must have occurred during the \"Dark Ages\" that followed the destruction of the Mycenaean civilization, and his conflict with Gaia (Mother Earth) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent Python.","Apollo\n\nThe earth deity had power over the ghostly world, and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle. The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated. A female dragon named Delphyne (, \"womb\"), who is obviously connected with Delphi and Apollo Delphinios, and a male serpent Typhon (, \"to smoke\"), the adversary of Zeus in the Titanomachy, who the narrators confused with Python. Python was the good daemon (ἀγαθὸς δαίμων) of the temple as it appears in Minoan religion, but she was represented as a dragon, as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East.","Apollo\n\nApollo and his sister Artemis can bring death with their arrows. The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings, or magicians is common in Germanic and Norse mythology. In Greek mythology Artemis was the leader (, \"hegemon\") of the nymphs, who had similar functions with the Nordic Elves. The \"elf-shot\" originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves, but it was later attested denoting stone arrow-heads which were used by witches to harm people, and also for healing rituals.","Apollo\n\nThe Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called \"The Archer\", and the bow is also an attribute of Shiva. Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them, and his alternative Shiba is a healer physician god. However the Indo-European component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult.","Apollo\n\nMinoan origin","Apollo\n\nIt seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the Mycenaean ages. In historical times, the priests of Delphi were called Labryaden, \"the double-axe men\", which indicates Minoan origin. The double-axe, labrys, was the holy symbol of the Cretan labyrinth. The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. Apollo Delphinios was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands, and his name indicates his connection with Delphi and the holy serpent Delphyne (\"womb\"). Apollo's sister Artemis, who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with Britomartis (Diktynna), the Minoan \"Mistress of the animals\". In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the \"Mister of the animals\", a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute. His original name is unknown, but it seems that he was absorbed by the more popular Apollo, who stood by the virgin \"Mistress of the Animals\", becoming her brother.","Apollo\n\nThe old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood, and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple. This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries, according to the local tradition. In that regard, the mythical seeress Sibyl of Anatolian origin, with her ecstatic art, looks unrelated to the oracle itself. However, the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves, which seem to be confirmed by recent studies.","Apollo\n\nPlato describes the priestesses of Delphi and Dodona as frenzied women, obsessed by \"mania\" (, \"frenzy\"), a Greek word he connected with mantis (, \"prophet\"). Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the Near East as Mari in the second millennium BC. Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC, there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages. It is more probable that this art was introduced later from Anatolia and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece.","Apollo\n\nAnatolian origin","Apollo\n\nA non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship. The name of Apollo's mother Leto has Lydian origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of Asia Minor. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from Anatolia, which is the origin of Sibyl, and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old Assyro-Babylonian texts, and these rituals were spread into the empire of the Hittites. In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain \"purification\".","Apollo\n\nA similar story is mentioned by Plutarch. He writes that the Cretan seer Epimenides purified Athens after the pollution brought by the Alcmeonidae, and that the seer's expertise in sacrifices and reform of funeral practices were of great help to Solon in his reform of the Athenian state. The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the shamanic religions of Asia, and proves, together with the Homeric hymn, that Crete had a resisting religion up to historical times. It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece, and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to Anatolia.","Apollo\n\nHomer pictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans, during the Trojan War. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to Appaliunas, a tutelary god of Wilusa (Troy) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete. The stones found in front of the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols of Apollo. The Greeks gave to him the name agyieus as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil, and his symbol was a tapered stone or column. However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon, all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (sibutu) indicates a Babylonian origin.","Apollo\n\nThe Late Bronze Age (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) Hittite and Hurrian Aplu was a god of plague, invoked during plague years. Here we have an apotropaic situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning the son of, was a title given to the god Nergal, who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun Shamash. Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god () who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods. In Iliad, his priest prays to Apollo Smintheus, the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats. All these functions, including the function of the healer-god Paean, who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo.","Apollo\n\nOracular cult","Apollo\n\nUnusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. Apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period, and the frequency of theophoric names such as Apollodorus or Apollonios and cities named Apollonia testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at Didyma and Clarus pronounced the so-called \"theological oracles\", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity. \"In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. Julian the Apostate (359 - 61) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed.\"","Apollo\n\nOracular shrines","Apollo\n\nApollo had a famous oracle in Delphi, and other notable ones in Clarus and Branchidae. His oracular shrine in Abae in Phocis, where he bore the toponymic epithet Abaeus (, Apollon Abaios), was important enough to be consulted by Croesus. His oracular shrines include:\n* Abae in Phocis. * Bassae in the Peloponnese. * At Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a pneuma, from which the priests drank. * In Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War. * At Khyrse, in Troad, the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus. * In Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. * In Delphi, the Pythia became filled with the pneuma of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton.","Apollo\n\n* In Didyma, an oracle on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by Branchus, son or lover of Apollo. * In Hierapolis Bambyce, Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise De Dea Syria, the sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image. * At Patara, in Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman. * In Segesta in Sicily.","Apollo\n\nOracles were also given by sons of Apollo.\n* In Oropus, north of Athens, the oracle Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring.\n* in Labadea, 20 mi east of Delphi, Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.","Apollo\n\nTemples of Apollo","Apollo\n\nA lot of temples dedicated to Apollo were built in Greece and in the Greek colonies, and they show the spread of the cult of Apollo, and the evolution of the Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form, and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in Crete, don't belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectangle wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered divine, and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of Doric order. The Greeks used standard types, because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve the esthetic perfection. From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were narrow to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed, some mathematical relations became necessary, in order to keep the original forms.","Apollo\n\nThis probably influenced the theory of numbers of Pythagoras, who believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics.","Apollo\n\nThe Doric order dominated during the 6th and the 5th century B.C, but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which couldn’t be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the Ionic order, but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the Corinthian order gradually during the Hellenistic age, and under Rome.","Apollo\n\nThe most important temples are:","Apollo\n\nGreek temples","Apollo\n\n*Thebes, Greece: The oldest temple probably dedicated to Apollo Ismenius was built in the 9th century B.C It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The Doric temple was built in the early 7th century B.C, but only some small parts have been found A festival called Daphnephoria was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches ( daphnai), and at the head of the procession, walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called \"daphnephoros\". *Eretria: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived to the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of Apollo Daphnephoros, \"Apollo, laurel-bearer\", or \"carrying off Daphne\", is dated to 800 BC. The temple was curvilinear hecatombedon (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurer branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century B.C, with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 BC, with the stylobate measuring 21,00 X 43,00 m. The number of pteron column was 6 x 14. *Dreros (Crete).","Apollo\n\nThe temple of Apollo Delphinios dates from the 7th century B.C, or probably from the middle of the 8th century BC. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of Delphi. `The dimensions of the plan are 10,70 X 24,00 m, and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the Minoan type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the Doric columns. *Gortyn (Crete). A temple of Pythian Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. The plan measured 19,00 X 16,70 m, and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was single door on the east side. *Thermon (West Greece): The Doric temple of Apollo Thermios, was built in the middle of the 7th century BC. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century B.C, on which a peristyle was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 X 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 X 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones.","Apollo\n\n*Napes (Lesbos): An Aeolic temple probably of Apollo Napaios was built in the 7th century BC. Some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called Aeolic, and it seems that they were borrowed from the East.D.S Robertson(1945):A handbook of Greek and Roman architecture, Cambridge University Press pp. 324-329 \n*Cyrene, Libya: The oldest Doric temple of Apollo was built in c. 600 BC. The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 X 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone. *Naukratis: An Ionic temple was a built in the early 6th century BC. Only some fragments have been found, and the earlier made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the Ionic order.","Apollo\n\n*Corinth: A Doric temple was built in the 6th century BC. The temple's stylobate measures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar with the Temple of Alcmeonidae at Delphi. The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the Doric order","Apollo\n\n*Syracuse, Sicily: A Doric temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century BC. The temple's stylobate measures 21.47 X 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch. *Selinus (Sicily):The Doric Temple C dates from 550 BC, and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple's stylobate measures 10.48 X 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at Syracuse. *Delphi: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The \"Temple of Alcmeonidae\" was built in c. 513 BC. and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple's stylobate measures 21.65 X 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15. A fest similar with Apollo's fest at Thebes, Greece was celebrated every nine years.","Apollo\n\nA boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (dopnephoros). The maidens participated with joyful songs. *Chios: An Ionic temple of Apollo Phanaios was built at the end of the 6th century BC. Only some small parts have been found, but the capitals had floral ornament. *Abae (Phocis). The temple was destroyed by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in 480 BCE, and later by the Boeotians. It was rebuilt by Hadrian. The oracle was in use from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion. *Delos: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century B.C, with a plan measuring 10,00 X 15,60 m. The Doric Great temple of Apollo, was built in c. 475 BC. The temple's stylobate measures 13.72 X 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used. *Ambracia: A Doric peripteral temple dedicated to Apollo Pythios Sotir was built in 500 B.C, and It is lying at the centre of the Greek city Arta.","Apollo\n\nOnly some parts have been found, and it seems that the temple was built on earlier sanctuaries dedicated to Apollo. The temple measures 20,75 X 44,00 m at the stylobate. The foundation which supported the statue of the god, still exists.","Apollo\n\n*Bassae (Peloponnesus):A temple dedicated to Apollo Epikourios (\"Apollo the helper\"), was built in 430 B.C and it was designed by Iktinos.It combined Doric and Ionic elements, and the earliest use of column with a Corinthian capital in the middle. The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the stylobate measuring 14.5 X 38.3 metres containing a Doric peristyle of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air.","Apollo\n\n*Didyma (near Miletus): The gigantic Ionic temple of Apollo Didymaios started around 540 BC. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 BC. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 X 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate. *Clarus (near ancient Colophon): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost. The Doric temple of Apollo Clarius was probably built in the 3rd century B.C, and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor Hadrian but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century B.C. *Hamaxitus (Troad): In Iliad, Chryses the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related with the god’s ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of Apollo Smintheus was constructed at 150–125 BC, but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century B.C.","Apollo\n\nThe temple measures 40,00 X23,00 m at the stylobate, and the number of pteron columns was 8 X 14.","Apollo\n\nEtruscan and Roman temples","Apollo\n\n*Veii (Etruria): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century B.C., and indicates the spread of Apollo’s culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called Tuscan , and a triple cella 18,50 m wide. \n*Falerii Veteres (Etruria): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th-3rd century B.C. Parts of a teraccotta capital, and a teraccotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric. A cult of Apollo Soranus is attested by one inscription found near Falerii.","Apollo\n\n*Pompeii, (Italy): The cult of Apollo, was widespread in the region of Campania, since the 6th century B.C. The temple was built in 120 B.V, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century BC. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in A.D 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles, which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a Tuscan prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 Ionic columns was placed in such a way, that the emphasis was given to the front side. * Rome: The temple of Apollo Sosianus and the temple of Apollo Medicus . The first temple building dates to 431 BC, and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 BC. It was rebuilt by Gaius Sosius, probably in 34 B.C. Only three columns with Corinthian capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century BC. *Rome:The temple of Apollo Palatinus was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city. It was dedicated by Augustus on 28 B.C.","Apollo\n\nThe façade of the original temple was Ionic, and it was constructed from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance, and a statue of Apollo in the cella. *Melite (modern Mdina, Malta): A Temple of Apollo was built in the city in the 2nd century AD. Its remains were discovered in the 18th century, and many of its architectural fragments were dispersed among private collections or reworked into new sculptures. Parts of the temple's podium were rediscovered in 2002.","Apollo\n\nMythology","Apollo\n\nBirth","Apollo\n\nWhen Zeus' wife Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on \"terra firma\". In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island. She gave birth there and was accepted by the people, offering them her promise that her son would be always favourable toward the city. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo.","Apollo\n\nIt is also stated that Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards (8 m) long, of amber. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day (, hebdomagenes) of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition—or of the month Bysios—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.","Apollo\n\nYouth","Apollo\n\nFour days after his birth, Apollo killed the chthonic dragon Python, which lived in Delphi beside the Castalian Spring. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophecies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. To protect his mother, Apollo begged Hephaestus for a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of Gaia.","Apollo\n\nHera then sent the giant Tityos to rape Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to Tartarus. There, he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of 9 acre, where a pair of vultures feasted daily on his liver.","Apollo\n\nTrojan War","Apollo\n\nApollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the Trojan War in retribution for Agamemnon's insult to Chryses, a priest of Apollo whose daughter Chryseis had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the Iliad.","Apollo\n\nIn the Iliad, when Diomedes injured Aeneas, Apollo rescued him. First, Aphrodite tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy.","Apollo\n\nApollo aided Paris in the killing of Achilles by guiding the arrow of his bow into Achilles' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering Troilus, the god's own son by Hecuba, on the very altar of the god's own temple.","Apollo\n\nAdmetus","Apollo\n\nWhen Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting Hippolytus from the dead (transgressing Themis by stealing Hades's subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the Cyclopes, who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to Tartarus forever for this, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labor, due to the intercession of his mother, Leto. During this time he served as shepherd for King Admetus of Pherae in Thessaly. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.","Apollo\n\nApollo helped Admetus win Alcestis, the daughter of King Pelias and later convinced the Fates to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but Heracles managed to \"persuade\" Thanatos, the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.","Apollo\n\nNiobe","Apollo\n\nNiobe, the queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared (Chloris, usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge.","Apollo\n\nA devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylos in Asia Minor and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.","Apollo\n\nConsorts and children","Apollo\n\nLove affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology. Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination.","Apollo\n\nFemale lovers","Apollo\n\nDaphne was a nymph, daughter of the river god Peneus, who had scorned Apollo. The myth explains the connection of Apollo with δάφνη (daphnē), the laurel whose leaves his priestess employed at Delphi. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a weapon more suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Cupid shoots a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prays to her father, Peneus, for help, and he changes her into the laurel tree, sacred to Apollo.","Apollo\n\nArtemis Daphnaia, who had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi in Antiquity, on the slopes of Mount Cnacadion near the Spartan frontier, had her own sacred laurel trees. At Eretria the identity of an excavated 7th- and 6th-century temple to Apollo Daphnephoros, \"Apollo, laurel-bearer\", or \"carrying off Daphne\", a \"place where the citizens are to take the oath\", is identified in inscriptions.","Apollo\n\nLeucothea was daughter of Orchamus and sister of Clytia. She fell in love with Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.","Apollo\n\nMarpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.","Apollo\n\nCastalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the spring at Delphi, at the base of Mt. Parnassos, which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. In the last oracle is mentioned that the \"water which could speak\", has been lost for ever.","Apollo\n\nBy Cyrene, Apollo had a son named Aristaeus, who became the patron god of cattle, fruit trees, hunting, husbandry and bee-keeping. He was also a culture-hero and taught humanity dairy skills, the use of nets and traps in hunting, and how to cultivate olives.","Apollo\n\nHecuba, was the wife of King Priam of Troy, and Apollo had a son with her named Troilus. An oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by Achilleus.","Apollo\n\nCassandra, was daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus' half-sister. Apollo fell in love with Cassandra and promised her the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gave her the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her.","Apollo\n\nCoronis, was daughter of Phlegyas, King of the Lapiths. Pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with Ischys, son of Elatus. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result, he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the centaur Chiron to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.","Apollo\n\nIn Euripides' play Ion, Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa, wife of Xuthus. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess.","Apollo\n\nAcantha, was the spirit of the acanthus tree, and Apollo had one of his other liaisons with her. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb.","Apollo\n\nAccording to the Biblioteca, the \"library\" of mythology mis-attributed to Apollodorus, he fathered the Corybantes on the Muse Thalia.","Apollo\n\nConsorts and children: extended list","Apollo\n\n# Acacallis\n## Amphithemis (Garamas) \n## Naxos, eponym of the island Naxos \n## Phylacides\n## Phylander \n# Acantha\n# Aethusa\n## Eleuther\n# Aganippe\n## Chios \n# Alciope \n## Linus (possibly)\n# Amphissa / Isse, daughter of Macareus\n# Anchiale / Acacallis\n## Oaxes \n# Areia, daughter of Cleochus / Acacallis / Deione\n## Miletus\n# Astycome, nymph\n## Eumolpus (possibly) \n# Arsinoe, daughter of Leucippus\n## Asclepius (possibly)\n## Eriopis\n# Babylo\n## Arabus \n# Bolina\n# Calliope, Muse\n## Orpheus (possibly)\n## Linus (possibly)\n## Ialemus\n# Cassandra\n# Castalia\n# Celaeno, daughter of Hyamus / Melaina / Thyia\n## Delphus\n# Chione / Philonis / Leuconoe\n## Philammon\n# Chrysorthe\n## Coronus\n# Chrysothemis\n## Parthenos\n# Coronis\n## Asclepius\n# Coryceia\n## Lycorus (Lycoreus)\n# Creusa\n## Ion\n# Cyrene\n## Aristaeus\n## Idmon (possibly)\n## Autuchus \n# Danais, Cretan nymph\n## The Curetes \n# Daphne\n# Dia, daughter of Lycaon\n## Dryops\n# Dryope\n## Amphissus\n# Euboea (daughter of Macareus of Locris)\n## Agreus\n# Evadne, daughter of Poseidon\n## Iamus\n# Gryne\n# Hecate\n## Scylla (possibly) \n# Hecuba\n## Troilus\n## Hector (possibly) \n# Hestia (wooed her unsuccessfully)\n# Hypermnestra, wife of Oicles\n## Amphiaraus (possibly)\n# Hypsipyle \n# Hyria (Thyria)\n## Cycnus\n# Lycia, nymph or daughter of Xanthus\n## Eicadius \n## Patarus \n# Manto\n## Mopsus\n# Marpessa\n# Melia\n## Ismenus \n## Tenerus \n# Ocyrhoe\n# Othreis\n## Phager\n# Parnethia, nymph\n## Cynnes \n# Parthenope\n## Lycomedes\n# Phthia\n## Dorus\n## Laodocus\n## Polypoetes\n# Prothoe \n# Procleia\n## Tenes (possibly)\n# Psamathe\n## Linus\n# Rhoeo\n## Anius\n# Rhodoessa, nymph\n## Ceos, eponym of the island Ceos \n# Rhodope\n## Cicon, eponym of the tribe Cicones \n# Sinope\n## Syrus\n# Stilbe\n## Centaurus\n## Lapithes\n## Aineus\n# Syllis / Hyllis\n## Zeuxippus\n# Thaleia, Muse / Rhetia, nymph\n## The Corybantes\n# Themisto, daughter of Zabius of Hyperborea \n## Galeotes\n## Telmessus (?)\n# Thero\n## Chaeron\n# Urania, Muse\n## Linus (possibly)\n# Urea, daughter of Poseidon\n## Ileus (Oileus?)\n# Wife of Erginus\n## Trophonius (possibly)\n# Unknown consorts\n## Acraepheus, eponym of the city Acraephia \n## Chariclo (possibly) \n## Erymanthus\n## Marathus, eponym of Marathon \n## Megarus \n## Melaneus\n## Oncius \n## Phemonoe\n## Pisus, founder of Pisa in Etruria \n## Younger Muses\n### Cephisso\n### Apollonis\n### Borysthenis","Apollo\n\nMale lovers","Apollo\n\nHyacinth or Hyacinthus was one of Apollo's male lovers. He was a Spartan prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair was practicing throwing the discus when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous Zephyrus and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief: out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a flower named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection , meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta.","Apollo\n\nAnother male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of Heracles. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the Cypress named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.","Apollo\n\nOther male lovers of Apollo include:\n* Admetus \n* Atymnius, otherwise known as a beloved of Sarpedon\n* Branchus (alternately, a son of Apollo)\n* Carnus\n* Clarus \n* Hippolytus of Sicyon (not the same as Hippolytus, the son of Theseus) \n* Hymenaios \n* Iapis\n* Leucates, who threw himself off a rock when Apollo attempted to carry him off \n* Phorbas (probably the son of Triopas) \n* Potnieus","Apollo\n\nApollo's lyre","Apollo\n\nHermes was born on Mount Cyllene in Arcadia. The story is told in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes. His mother, Maia, had been secretly impregnated by Zeus. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep.","Apollo\n\nHermes ran to Thessaly, where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a tortoise and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first lyre.","Apollo\n\nApollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became a master of the lyre.","Apollo\n\nApollo in the Oresteia","Apollo\n\nIn Aeschylus' Oresteia trilogy, Clytemnestra kills her husband, King Agamemnon because he had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia to proceed forward with the Trojan war, and Cassandra, a prophetess of Apollo. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon's son, Orestes, is to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the Erinyes (Furies, female personifications of vengeance).","Apollo\n\nApollo and the Furies argue about whether the matricide was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo.","Apollo\n\nOther stories","Apollo\n\nApollo killed the Aloadae when they attempted to storm Mt. Olympus.","Apollo\n\nCallimachus sang that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the Hyperboreans during the winter months.","Apollo\n\nApollo turned Cephissus into a sea monster.","Apollo\n\nAnother contender for the birthplace of Apollo is the Cretan islands of Paximadia.","Apollo\n\nMusical contests","Apollo\n\nPan","Apollo\n\nOnce Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the kithara, to a trial of skill. Tmolus, the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a donkey.","Apollo\n\nMarsyas","Apollo\n\nApollo has ominous aspects aside from his plague-bringing, death-dealing arrows: Marsyas was a satyr who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an aulos on the ground, tossed away after being invented by Athena because it made her cheeks puffy. The contest was judged by the Muses.","Apollo\n\nAfter they each performed, both were deemed equal until Apollo decreed they play and sing at the same time. As Apollo played the lyre, this was easy to do. Marsyas could not do this, as he only knew how to use the flute and could not sing at the same time. Apollo was declared the winner because of this. Apollo flayed Marsyas alive in a cave near Celaenae in Phrygia for his hubris to challenge a god. He then nailed Marsyas' shaggy skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas' blood turned into the river Marsyas.","Apollo\n\nAnother variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive.","Apollo\n\nCinyras","Apollo\n\nApollo also had a lyre-playing contest with Cinyras, his son, who committed suicide when he lost.","Apollo\n\nRoman Apollo","Apollo\n\nThe Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as Phoebus. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus.","Apollo\n\nOn the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the \"Apollinare\". During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE, the Ludi Apollinares (\"Apollonian Games\") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius. In the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.","Apollo\n\nAfter the battle of Actium, which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple to the god on the Palatine hill. Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and Diana formed the culmination of the Secular Games, held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.","Apollo\n\nFestivals","Apollo\n\nThe chief Apollonian festivals were the Boedromia, Carneia, Carpiae, Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Metageitnia, Pyanepsia, Pythia and Thargelia.","Apollo\n\nAttributes and symbols","Apollo\n\nApollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow. Other attributes of his included the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre), the plectrum and the sword. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in Apollo's honor every four years at Delphi. The bay laurel plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games.","Apollo\n\nThe palm tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, cicadas (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows, snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and griffins, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin.","Apollo\n\nAs god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: Hittite cuneiform texts mention a Minor Asian god called Appaliunas or Apalunas in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo's title of Lykegenes can simply be read as \"born in Lycia\", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a folk etymology).","Apollo\n\nIn literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the Borghese Vase.","Apollo\n\nApollo is often associated with the Golden Mean. This is the Greek ideal of moderation and a virtue that opposes gluttony.","Apollo\n\nApollo in the arts","Apollo\n\nApollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the Renaissance. The earliest Greek word for a statue is \"delight\" (, agalma), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought.","Apollo\n\nThe naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world.","Apollo\n\nThe evolution of the Greek sculpture can be observed in his depictions from the almost static formal Kouros type in early archaic period, to the representation of motion in a relative harmonious whole in late archaic period. In classical Greece the emphasis is not given to the illusive imaginative reality represented by the ideal forms, but to the analogies and the interaction of the members in the whole, a method created by Polykleitos. Finally Praxiteles seems to be released from any art and religious conformities, and his masterpieces are a mixture of naturalism with stylization.","Apollo\n\nArt and Greek philosophy","Apollo\n\nThe evolution of the Greek art seems to go parallel with the Greek philosophical conceptions, which changed from the natural-philosophy of Thales to the metaphysical theory of Pythagoras. Thales searched for a simple material-form directly perceptible by the senses, behind the appearances of things, and his theory is also related to the older animism. This was paralleled in sculpture by the absolute representation of vigorous life, through unnaturally simplified forms.","Apollo\n\nPythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation. The forms on earth, are imperfect imitations (, eikones, \"images\") of the celestial world of numbers. His ideas had a great influence on post-Archaic art, and the Greek architects and sculptors were always trying to find the mathematical relation, that would lead to the esthetic perfection. (canon).","Apollo\n\nIn classical Greece, Anaxagoras asserted that a divine reason (mind) gave order to the seeds of the universe, and Plato extended the Greek belief of ideal forms to his metaphysical theory of forms (ideai, \"ideas\"). The forms on earth are imperfect duplicates of the intellectual celestial ideas. The Greek words oida (, \"(I) know\") and eidos (, \"species\") have the same root as the word idea (), indicating how the Greek mind moved from the gift of the senses, to the principles beyond the senses. The artists in Plato's time moved away from his theories and art tends to be a mixture of naturalism with stylization. The Greek sculptors considered the senses more important, and the proportions were used to unite the sensible with the intellectual.","Apollo\n\nArchaic sculpture","Apollo\n\nKouros (male youth) is the modern term given to those representations of standing male youths which first appear in the archaic period in Greece. This type served certain religious needs and was first proposed for what was previously thought to be depictions of Apollo. The first statues are certainly still and formal. The formality of their stance seems to be related with the Egyptian precedent, but it was accepted for a good reason. The sculptors had a clear idea of what a young man is, and embodied the archaic smile of good manners, the firm and springy step, the balance of the body, dignity, and youthful happiness. When they tried to depict the most abiding qualities of men, it was because men had common roots with the unchanging gods. The adoption of a standard recognizable type for a long time, is probably because nature gives preference in survival of a type which has long be adopted by the climatic conditions, and also due to the general Greek belief that nature expresses itself in ideal forms that can be imagined and represented. These forms expressed immortality. Apollo was the immortal god of ideal balance and order.","Apollo\n\nHis shrine in Delphi, that he shared in winter with Dionysius had the inscriptions: (gnōthi seautón\n\"know thyself\") and (mēdén ágan, \"nothing in excess\"), and (eggýa pára d'atē, \"make a pledge and mischief is nigh\").","Apollo\n\nIn the first large-scale depictions during the early archaic period (640–580 BC), the artists tried to draw one's attention to look into the interior of the face and the body which were not represented as lifeless masses, but as being full of life. The Greeks maintained, until late in their civilization, an almost animistic idea that the statues are in some sense alive. This embodies the belief that the image was somehow the god or man himself. A fine example is the statue of the Sacred gate Kouros which was found at the cemetery of Dipylon in Athens (Dipylon Kouros). The statue is the \"thing in itself\", and his slender face with the deep eyes express an intellectual eternity. According to the Greek tradition the Dipylon master was named Daedalus, and in his statues the limbs were freed from the body, giving the impression that the statues could move. It is considered that he created also the New York kouros, which is the oldest fully preserved statue of Kouros type, and seems to be the incarnation of the god himself.","Apollo\n\nThe animistic idea as the representation of the imaginative reality, is sanctified in the Homeric poems and in Greek myths, in stories of the god Hephaestus (Phaistos) and the mythic Daedalus (the builder of the labyrinth) that made images which moved of their own accord. This kind of art goes back to the Minoan period, when its main theme was the representation of motion in a specific moment. These free-standing statues were usually marble, but also the form rendered in limestone, bronze, ivory and terracotta.","Apollo\n\nThe earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo, may be two figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of Apollo Ptoios, Boeotia alone. The last stage in the development of the Kouros type is the late archaic period (520–485 BC), in which the Greek sculpture attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used to create a relative harmonious whole. Ranking from the very few bronzes survived to us is the masterpiece bronze Piraeus Apollo. It was found in Piraeus, the harbour of Athens. The statue originally held the bow in its left hand, and a cup of pouring libation in its right hand. It probably comes from north-eastern Peloponnesus. The emphasis is given in anatomy, and it is one of the first attempts to represent a kind of motion, and beauty relative to proportions, which appear mostly in post-Archaic art. The statue throws some light on an artistic centre which, with an independently developed harder, simpler, and heavier style, restricts Ionian influence in Athens.","Apollo\n\nFinally, this is the germ from which the art of Polykleitos was to grow two or three generations later.","Apollo\n\nClassical sculpture","Apollo\n\nIn the next century which is the beginning of the Classical period, it was considered that beauty in visible things as in everything else, consisted of symmetry and proportions. The artists tried also to represent motion in a specific moment (Myron), which may be considered as the reappearance of the dormant Minoan element. Anatomy and geometry are fused in one, and each does something to the other. The Greek sculptors tried to clarify it by looking for mathematical proportions, just as they sought some reality behind appearances. Polykleitos in his Canon wrote that beauty consists in the proportion not of the elements (materials), but of the parts, that is the interrelation of parts with one another and with the whole. It seems that he was influenced by the theories of Pythagoras. The famous Apollo of Mantua and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type, in which the god holds the cithara in his left arm.","Apollo\n\nThe type is represented by neo-Attic Imperial Roman copies of the late 1st or early 2nd century, modelled upon a supposed Greek bronze original made in the second quarter of the 5th century BCE, in a style similar to works of Polykleitos but more archaic. The Apollo held the cythara against his extended left arm, of which in the Louvre example, a fragment of one twisting scrolling horn upright remains against his biceps.","Apollo\n\nThough the proportions were always important in Greek art, the appeal of the Greek sculptures eludes any explanation by proportion alone. The statues of Apollo were thought to incarnate his living presence, and these representations of illusive imaginative reality had deep roots in the Minoan period, and in the beliefs of the first Greek speaking people who entered the region during the bronze-age. Just as the Greeks saw the mountains, forests, sea and rivers as inhabited by concrete beings, so nature in all of its manifestations possesses clear form, and the form of a work of art. Spiritual life is incorporated in matter, when it is given artistic form. Just as in the arts the Greeks sought some reality behind appearances, so in mathematics they sought permanent principles which could be applied wherever the conditions were the same. Artists and sculptors tried to find this ideal order in relation with mathematics, but they believed that this ideal order revealed itself not so much to the dispassionate intellect, as to the whole sentient self. Things as we see them, and as they really are, are one, that each stresses the nature of the other in a single unity.","Apollo\n\nPediments and friezes","Apollo\n\nIn the archaic pediments and friezes of the temples, the artists had a problem to fit a group of figures into an isosceles triangle with acute angles at the base.","Apollo\n\nThe Siphnian Treasury in Delphi was one of the first Greek buildings utilizing the solution to put the dominating form in the middle, and to complete the descending scale of height with other figures sitting or kneeling. The pediment shows the story of Heracles stealing Apollo's tripod that was strongly associated with his oracular inspiration. Their two figures hold the centre. In the pediment of the temple of Zeus in Olympia, the single figure of Apollo is dominating the scene.","Apollo\n\nThese representations rely on presenting scenes directly to the eye for their own visible sake. They care for the schematic arrangements of bodies in space, but only as parts in a larger whole. While each scene has its own character and completeness it must fit into the general sequence to which it belongs. In these archaic pediments the sculptors use empty intervals, to suggest a passage to and fro a busy battlefield. The artists seem to have been dominated by geometrical pattern and order, and this was improved when classical art brought a greater freedom and economy.","Apollo\n\nHellenistic Greece-Rome","Apollo\n\nApollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a kithara (as Apollo Citharoedus) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the Apollo Lykeios and Apollo Sauroctonos types). The Apollo Belvedere is a marble sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans, from the Renaissance through the 19th century. The marble is a Hellenistic or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor Leochares, made between 350 and 325 BCE.","Apollo\n\nThe life-size so-called \"Adonis\" found in 1780 on the site of a villa suburbana near the Via Labicana in the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from El Djem, Roman Thysdrus, he is identifiable as Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire.","Apollo\n\nAnother haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse. The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict Alexander the Great. Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed.","Apollo\n\nModern reception","Apollo\n\nApollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a \"Hymn of Apollo\" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky's Apollon musagète (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band Rush released an album with songs \"Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom\"/\"Dionysus: Bringer of Love\".","Apollo\n\nIn discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the Apollonian and Dionysian impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. Friedrich Nietzsche argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. Carl Jung's Apollo archetype represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance.","Apollo\n\nIn spaceflight, the NASA program for landing astronauts on the Moon was named Apollo.","Apollo\n\nGenealogy","Priam\n\nIn Greek mythology, Priam (; Príamos,) was the king of Troy during the Trojan War and youngest son of Laomedon.","Priam\n\nEtymology","Priam\n\nModern scholars derive his name from the Luwian name Pariya-muwas, which meant “exceptionally courageous” and was attested as the name of a man from Zazlippa, in Kizzuwatna. A similar form is attested transcribed in Greek as Paramoas near Kaisareia in Cappadocia.","Priam\n\nNotable is also Piyama-Radu, a warlike man whose name figures prominently in the Hittite archives, possibly bearing a related name.","Priam\n\nLife","Priam\n\nPriam was originally called Podarces and he kept himself from being killed by Heracles by giving him a golden veil embroidered by his sister, Hesione. After this, Podarces changed his name to Priam. This is a folk etymology based on πριατός priatos, \"ransomed\" from πρίασθαι priasthai, \"to buy.\"","Priam\n\nIn Iliad Book 3, Priam tells Helen of Troy that he once helped King Mygdon of Phrygia defend against the Amazons.","Priam\n\nWhen Hector is killed by Achilles, the Greek warrior treats the body with disrespect and refuses to give it back. Zeus sends the god Hermes to escort King Priam, Hector’s father and the ruler of Troy, into the Greek camp. Priam tearfully pleads with Achilles to take pity on a father bereft of his son and return Hector’s body. He invokes the memory of Achilles’ own father, Peleus. Priam begs Achilles to pity him, saying \"I have endured what no one on earth has ever done before — I put my lips to the hands of the man who killed my son.\" Deeply moved, Achilles relents and returns Hector’s corpse to the Trojans. Both sides agree to a temporary truce, and Achilles gives Priam leave to hold a proper funeral for Hector, complete with funeral games. He promises that no Greek will engage in combat for nine days, but on the twelfth day of peace, the mighty war between the Greeks and the Trojans would resume.","Priam\n\nPriam is killed during the Sack of Troy by Achilles' son Neoptolemus (also known as Pyrrhus). His death is graphically related in Book II of Virgil's Aeneid. In Virgil's description, Neoptolemus first kills Priam's son Polites in front of his father as he seeks sanctuary on the altar of Zeus. Priam rebukes Neoptolemus, throwing a spear at him, harmlessly hitting his shield. Neoptolemus then drags Priam to the altar and there kills him too.","Priam\n\nIt has been suggested by Hittite sources, specifically the Manapa-Tarhunta letter, that there is historical basis for the archetype of King Priam. The letter describes one Piyama-Radu as a troublesome rebel who overthrew a Hittite client king and thereafter established his own rule over the city of Troy (mentioned as Wilusa in Hittite). There is also mention of an Alaksandu, suggested to be Paris Alexander (King Priam's son from the Iliad), a later ruler of the city of Wilusa who established peace between Wilusa and Hatti (see the Alaksandu treaty).","Priam\n\nMarriage and issue","Priam\n\nSee List of children of Priam\nPriam had many wives; his first was Arisbe, who had given birth to his son Aesacus, who met his death before the Trojan War. Priam later divorced her in favor of Hecuba (or Hecebe), daughter of the Phrygian king Dymas. By his various wives and concubines Priam was the father of fifty sons and many daughters. Hector was Priam's eldest son by Hecuba, and heir to the Trojan throne. Paris (also known as Alexander), another son, was the cause of the Trojan War. Other children of Priam and Hecuba include the prophetic Helenus and Cassandra; eldest daughter Ilione; Deiphobus; Troilus; Polites; Creusa, wife of Aeneas; Laodice, wife of Helicaon; Polyxena, who was slaughtered on the grave of Achilles; and Polydorus, his youngest son.","Priam\n\nFamily tree"],"string":"[\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nGreek mythology is the body of myths and teachings that belong to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. It was a part of the religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars refer to and study the myths in an attempt to shed light on the religious and political institutions of Ancient Greece and its civilization, and to gain understanding of the nature of myth-making itself.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nGreek mythology is explicitly embodied in a large collection of narratives, and implicitly in Greek representational arts, such as vase-paintings and votive gifts. Greek myth attempts to explain the origins of the world, and details the lives and adventures of a wide variety of gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines and mythological creatures. These accounts initially were disseminated in an oral-poetic tradition; today the Greek myths are known primarily from Greek literature.\\nThe oldest known Greek literary sources, Homer's epic poems Iliad and Odyssey, focus on the Trojan War and its aftermath. Two poems by Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the Theogony and the Works and Days, contain accounts of the genesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the succession of human ages, the origin of human woes, and the origin of sacrificial practices. Myths are also preserved in the Homeric Hymns, in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle, in lyric poems, in the works of the tragedians and comedians of the fifth century BC, in writings of scholars and poets of the Hellenistic Age, and in texts from the time of the Roman Empire by writers such as Plutarch and Pausanias.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nArchaeological findings provide a principal source of detail about Greek mythology, with gods and heroes featured prominently in the decoration of many artifacts. Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle as well as the adventures of Heracles. In the succeeding Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence. Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture, arts, and literature of Western civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language. Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and relevance in the themes.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nSources\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nGreek mythology is known today primarily from Greek literature and representations on visual media dating from the Geometric period from c. 900–800 BC onward. In fact, literary and archaeological sources integrate, sometimes mutually supportive and sometimes in conflict; however, in many cases, the existence of this corpus of data is a strong indication that many elements of Greek mythology have strong factual and historical roots.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nLiterary sources\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nMythical narration plays an important role in nearly every genre of Greek literature. Nevertheless, the only general mythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiquity was the Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus. This work attempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic legends. Apollodorus of Athens lived from c. 180–125 BC and wrote on many of these topics. His writings may have formed the basis for the collection; however the \\\"Library\\\" discusses events that occurred long after his death, hence the name Pseudo-Apollodorus.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nAmong the earliest literary sources are Homer's two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Other poets completed the \\\"epic cycle\\\", but these later and lesser poems now are lost almost entirely. Despite their traditional name, the \\\"Homeric Hymns\\\" have no direct connection with Homer. They are choral hymns from the earlier part of the so-called Lyric age. Hesiod, a possible contemporary with Homer, offers in his Theogony (Origin of the Gods) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths, dealing with the creation of the world; the origin of the gods, Titans, and Giants; as well as elaborate genealogies, folktales, and etiological myths. Hesiod's Works and Days, a didactic poem about farming life, also includes the myths of Prometheus, Pandora, and the Five Ages. The poet gives advice on the best way to succeed in a dangerous world, rendered yet more dangerous by its gods.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nLyrical poets often took their subjects from myth, but their treatment became gradually less narrative and more allusive. Greek lyric poets, including Pindar, Bacchylides and Simonides, and bucolic poets such as Theocritus and Bion, relate individual mythological incidents. Additionally, myth was central to classical Athenian drama. The tragic playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides took most of their plots from myths of the age of heroes and the Trojan War. Many of the great tragic stories (e.g. Agamemnon and his children, Oedipus, Jason, Medea, etc.) took on their classic form in these tragedies. The comic playwright Aristophanes also used myths, in The Birds and The Frogs.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nHistorians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, and geographers Pausanias and Strabo, who traveled throughout the Greek world and noted the stories they heard, supplied numerous local myths and legends, often giving little-known alternative versions. Herodotus in particular, searched the various traditions presented him and found the historical or mythological roots in the confrontation between Greece and the East. Herodotus attempted to reconcile origins and the blending of differing cultural concepts.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe poetry of the Hellenistic and Roman ages was primarily composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise. Nevertheless, it contains many important details that would otherwise be lost. This category includes the works of:\\n# The Roman poets Ovid, Statius, Valerius Flaccus, Seneca and Virgil with Servius's commentary.\\n# The Greek poets of the Late Antique period: Nonnus, Antoninus Liberalis, and Quintus Smyrnaeus.\\n# The Greek poets of the Hellenistic period: Apollonius of Rhodes, Callimachus, Pseudo-Eratosthenes, and Parthenius.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nProse writers from the same periods who make reference to myths include Apuleius, Petronius, Lollianus, and Heliodorus. Two other important non-poetical sources are the Fabulae and Astronomica of the Roman writer styled as Pseudo-Hyginus, the Imagines of Philostratus the Elder and Philostratus the Younger, and the Descriptions of Callistratus.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nFinally, a number of Byzantine Greek writers provide important details of myth, much derived from earlier now lost Greek works. These preservers of myth include Arnobius, Hesychius, the author of the Suda, John Tzetzes, and Eustathius. They often treat mythology from a Christian moralizing perspective.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nArchaeological sources\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe discovery of the Mycenaean civilization by the German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the nineteenth century, and the discovery of the Minoan civilization in Crete by the British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in the twentieth century, helped to explain many existing questions about Homer's epics and provided archaeological evidence for many of the mythological details about gods and heroes. Unfortunately, the evidence about myths and rituals at Mycenaean and Minoan sites is entirely monumental, as the Linear B script (an ancient form of Greek found in both Crete and mainland Greece) was used mainly to record inventories, although certain names of gods and heroes have been tentatively identified.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nGeometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle, as well as the adventures of Heracles. These visual representations of myths are important for two reasons. Firstly, many Greek myths are attested on vases earlier than in literary sources: of the twelve labors of Heracles, for example, only the Cerberus adventure occurs in a contemporary literary text. Secondly, visual sources sometimes represent myths or mythical scenes that are not attested in any extant literary source. In some cases, the first known representation of a myth in geometric art predates its first known representation in late archaic poetry, by several centuries. In the Archaic (c. 750–c. 500 BC), Classical (c. 480–323 BC), and Hellenistic (323–146 BC) periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nSurvey of mythic history\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nGreek mythology has changed over time to accommodate the evolution of their culture, of which mythology, both overtly and in its unspoken assumptions, is an index of the changes. In Greek mythology's surviving literary forms, as found mostly at the end of the progressive changes, it is inherently political, as Gilbert Cuthbertson has argued.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were an agricultural people who, using Animism, assigned a spirit to every aspect of nature. Eventually, these vague spirits assumed human forms and entered the local mythology as gods. When tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula invaded, they brought with them a new pantheon of gods, based on conquest, force, prowess in battle, and violent heroism. Other older gods of the agricultural world fused with those of the more powerful invaders or else faded into insignificance.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nAfter the middle of the Archaic period, myths about relationships between male gods and male heroes became more and more frequent, indicating the parallel development of pedagogic pederasty (eros paidikos, ), thought to have been introduced around 630 BC. By the end of the fifth century BC, poets had assigned at least one eromenos, an adolescent boy who was their sexual companion, to every important god except Ares and to many legendary figures. Previously existing myths, such as those of Achilles and Patroclus, also then were cast in a pederastic light. Alexandrian poets at first, then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire, often readapted stories of Greek mythological characters in this fashion.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe achievement of epic poetry was to create story-cycles and, as a result, to develop a new sense of mythological chronology. Thus Greek mythology unfolds as a phase in the development of the world and of humans. While self-contradictions in these stories make an absolute timeline impossible, an approximate chronology may be discerned. The resulting mythological \\\"history of the world\\\" may be divided into three or four broader periods:\\n# The myths of origin or age of gods (Theogonies, \\\"births of gods\\\"): myths about the origins of the world, the gods, and the human race.\\n# The age when gods and mortals mingled freely: stories of the early interactions between gods, demigods, and mortals.\\n# The age of heroes (heroic age), where divine activity was more limited. The last and greatest of the heroic legends is the story of the Trojan War and after (which is regarded by some researchers as a separate fourth period).\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nWhile the age of gods often has been of more interest to contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes, establishing a chronology and record of human accomplishments after the questions of how the world came into being were explained. For example, the heroic Iliad and Odyssey dwarfed the divine-focused Theogony and Homeric Hymns in both size and popularity. Under the influence of Homer the \\\"hero cult\\\" leads to a restructuring in spiritual life, expressed in the separation of the realm of the gods from the realm of the dead (heroes), of the Chthonic from the Olympian. In the Works and Days, Hesiod makes use of a scheme of Four Ages of Man (or Races): Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Iron. These races or ages are separate creations of the gods, the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronos, the subsequent races the creation of Zeus. The presence of evil was explained by the myth of Pandora, when all of the best of human capabilities, save hope, had been spilled out of her overturned jar. In Metamorphoses, Ovid follows Hesiod's concept of the four ages.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nOrigins of the world and the gods\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\n\\\"Myths of origin\\\" or \\\"creation myths\\\" represent an attempt to explain the beginnings of the universe in human language. The most widely accepted version at the time, although a philosophical account of the beginning of things, is reported by Hesiod, in his Theogony. He begins with Chaos, a yawning nothingness. Out of the void emerged Gaia (the Earth) and some other primary divine beings: Eros (Love), the Abyss (the Tartarus), and the Erebus. Without male assistance, Gaia gave birth to Uranus (the Sky) who then fertilized her. From that union were born first the Titans—six males: Coeus, Crius, Cronus, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Oceanus; and six females: Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Rhea, Theia, Themis, and Tethys. After Cronus was born, Gaia and Uranus decreed no more Titans were to be born. They were followed by the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires or Hundred-Handed Ones, who were both thrown into Tartarus by Uranus. This made Gaia furious. Cronus (\\\"the wily, youngest and most terrible of Gaia's children\\\"), was convinced by Gaia to castrate his father. He did this, and became the ruler of the Titans with his sister-wife Rhea as his consort, and the other Titans became his court.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nA motif of father-against-son conflict was repeated when Cronus was confronted by his son, Zeus. Because Cronus had betrayed his father, he feared that his offspring would do the same, and so each time Rhea gave birth, he snatched up the child and ate it. Rhea hated this and tricked him by hiding Zeus and wrapping a stone in a baby's blanket, which Cronus ate. When Zeus was full grown, he fed Cronus a drugged drink which caused him to vomit, throwing up Rhea's other children and the stone, which had been sitting in Cronus's stomach all along. Zeus then challenged Cronus to war for the kingship of the gods. At last, with the help of the Cyclopes (whom Zeus freed from Tartarus), Zeus and his siblings were victorious, while Cronus and the Titans were hurled down to imprisonment in Tartarus.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nZeus was plagued by the same concern and, after a prophecy that the offspring of his first wife, Metis, would give birth to a god \\\"greater than he\\\"—Zeus swallowed her. She was already pregnant with Athena, however, and she burst forth from his head—fully-grown and dressed for war.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the theogonies to be the prototypical poetic genre—the prototypical mythos—and imputed almost magical powers to it. Orpheus, the archetypal poet, also was the archetypal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas and storms in Apollonius' Argonautica, and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to Hades. When Hermes invents the lyre in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the first thing he does is sing about the birth of the gods. Hesiod's Theogony is not only the fullest surviving account of the gods, but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet's function, with its long preliminary invocation to the Muses. Theogony also was the subject of many lost poems, including those attributed to Orpheus, Musaeus, Epimenides, Abaris, and other legendary seers, which were used in private ritual purifications and mystery-rites. There are indications that Plato was familiar with some version of the Orphic theogony. A silence would have been expected about religious rites and beliefs, however, and that nature of the culture would not have been reported by members of the society while the beliefs were held.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nAfter they ceased to become religious beliefs, few would have known the rites and rituals. Allusions often existed, however, to aspects that were quite public.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nImages existed on pottery and religious artwork that were interpreted and more likely, misinterpreted in many diverse myths and tales. A few fragments of these works survive in quotations by Neoplatonist philosophers and recently unearthed papyrus scraps. One of these scraps, the Derveni Papyrus now proves that at least in the fifth century BC a theogonic-cosmogonic poem of Orpheus was in existence.W. Burkert, Greek Religion, 236* G. Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus, 147\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe first philosophical cosmologists reacted against, or sometimes built upon, popular mythical conceptions that had existed in the Greek world for some time. Some of these popular conceptions can be gleaned from the poetry of Homer and Hesiod. In Homer, the Earth was viewed as a flat disk afloat on the river of Oceanus and overlooked by a hemispherical sky with sun, moon, and stars. The Sun (Helios) traversed the heavens as a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. Sun, earth, heaven, rivers, and winds could be addressed in prayers and called to witness oaths. Natural fissures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades and his predecessors, home of the dead.* K. Algra, The Beginnings of Cosmology, 45 Influences from other cultures always afforded new themes.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nGreek pantheon\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nAccording to Classical-era mythology, after the overthrow of the Titans, the new pantheon of gods and goddesses was confirmed. Among the principal Greek gods were the Olympians, residing on Mount Olympus under the eye of Zeus. (The limitation of their number to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea.) Besides the Olympians, the Greeks worshipped various gods of the countryside, the satyr-god Pan, Nymphs (spirits of rivers), Naiads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads (who were spirits of the trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, Satyrs, and others. In addition, there were the dark powers of the underworld, such as the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives. In order to honor the Ancient Greek pantheon, poets composed the Homeric Hymns (a group of thirty-three songs). Gregory Nagy regards \\\"the larger Homeric Hymns as simple preludes (compared with Theogony), each of which invokes one god\\\".\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe gods of Greek mythology are described as having essentially corporeal but ideal bodies. According to Walter Burkert, the defining characteristic of Greek anthropomorphism is that \\\"the Greek gods are persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts\\\". Regardless of their underlying forms, the Ancient Greek gods have many fantastic abilities; most significantly, the gods are not affected by disease, and can be wounded only under highly unusual circumstances. The Greeks considered immortality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods; this immortality, as well as unfading youth, was insured by the constant use of nectar and ambrosia, by which the divine blood was renewed in their veins.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nEach god descends from his or her own genealogy, pursues differing interests, has a certain area of expertise, and is governed by a unique personality; however, these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants, which do not always agree with one another. When these gods are called upon in poetry, prayer or cult, they are referred to by a combination of their name and epithets, that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves (e.g., Apollo Musagetes is \\\"Apollo, [as] leader of the Muses\\\"). Alternatively the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nMost gods were associated with specific aspects of life. For example, Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty, Ares was the god of war, Hades the ruler of the underworld, and Athena the goddess of wisdom and courage. Some gods, such as Apollo and Dionysus, revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions, while others, such as Hestia (literally \\\"hearth\\\") and Helios (literally \\\"sun\\\"), were little more than personifications. The most impressive temples tended to be dedicated to a limited number of gods, who were the focus of large pan-Hellenic cults. It was, however, common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to minor gods. Many cities also honored the more well-known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere. During the heroic age, the cult of heroes (or demi-gods) supplemented that of the gods.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nAge of gods and mortals\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nBridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and mortals moved together. These were the early days of the world when the groups mingled more freely than they did later. Most of these tales were later told by Ovid's Metamorphoses and they are often divided into two thematic groups: tales of love, and tales of punishment.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nTales of love often involve incest, or the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god, resulting in heroic offspring. The stories generally suggest that relationships between gods and mortals are something to avoid; even consenting relationships rarely have happy endings. In a few cases, a female divinity mates with a mortal man, as in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, where the goddess lies with Anchises to produce Aeneas.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe second type (tales of punishment) involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact, as when Prometheus steals fire from the gods, when Tantalus steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus' table and gives it to his own subjects—revealing to them the secrets of the gods, when Prometheus or Lycaon invents sacrifice, when Demeter teaches agriculture and the Mysteries to Triptolemus, or when Marsyas invents the aulos and enters into a musical contest with Apollo. Ian Morris considers Prometheus' adventures as \\\"a place between the history of the gods and that of man\\\". An anonymous papyrus fragment, dated to the third century, vividly portrays Dionysus' punishment of the king of Thrace, Lycurgus, whose recognition of the new god came too late, resulting in horrific penalties that extended into the afterlife. The story of the arrival of Dionysus to establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of an Aeschylean trilogy. In another tragedy, Euripides' The Bacchae, the king of Thebes, Pentheus, is punished by Dionysus, because he disrespected the god and spied on his Maenads, the female worshippers of the god.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nIn another story, based on an old folktale-motif, and echoing a similar theme, Demeter was searching for her daughter, Persephone, having taken the form of an old woman called Doso, and received a hospitable welcome from Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. As a gift to Celeus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to make his son Demophon a god, but she was unable to complete the ritual because his mother Metanira walked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright, which angered Demeter, who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nHeroic age\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe age in which the heroes lived is known as the heroic age. The epic and genealogical poetry created cycles of stories clustered around particular heroes or events and established the family relationships between the heroes of different stories; they thus arranged the stories in sequence. According to Ken Dowden, \\\"There is even a saga effect: We can follow the fates of some families in successive generations\\\".\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nAfter the rise of the hero cult, gods and heroes constitute the sacral sphere and are invoked together in oaths and prayers which are addressed to them. Burkert notes that \\\"the roster of heroes, again in contrast to the gods, is never given fixed and final form. Great gods are no longer born, but new heroes can always be raised up from the army of the dead.\\\" Another important difference between the hero cult and the cult of gods is that the hero becomes the centre of local group identity.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe monumental events of Heracles are regarded as the dawn of the age of heroes. To the Heroic Age are also ascribed three great events: the Argonautic expedition, the Theban Cycle and the Trojan War.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nHeracles and the Heracleidae\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nSome scholars believe that behind Heracles' complicated mythology there was probably a real man, perhaps a chieftain-vassal of the kingdom of Argos. Some scholars suggest the story of Heracles is an allegory for the sun's yearly passage through the twelve constellations of the zodiac. Others point to earlier myths from other cultures, showing the story of Heracles as a local adaptation of hero myths already well established. Traditionally, Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene, granddaughter of Perseus. His fantastic solitary exploits, with their many folk-tale themes, provided much material for popular legend. According to Burkert, \\\"He is portrayed as a sacrificer, mentioned as a founder of altars, and imagined as a voracious eater himself; it is in this role that he appears in comedy, while his tragic end provided much material for tragedy — Heracles is regarded by Thalia Papadopoulou as \\\"a play of great significance in examination of other Euripidean dramas\\\". In art and literature Heracles was represented as an enormously strong man of moderate height; his characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also the club. Vase paintings demonstrate the unparalleled popularity of Heracles, his fight with the lion being depicted many hundreds of times.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nHeracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythology and cult, and the exclamation \\\"mehercule\\\" became as familiar to the Romans as \\\"Herakleis\\\" was to the Greeks. In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders, although others also prayed to him for his characteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nHeracles attained the highest social prestige through his appointment as official ancestor of the Dorian kings. This probably served as a legitimation for the Dorian migrations into the Peloponnese. Hyllus, the eponymous hero of one Dorian phyle, became the son of Heracles and one of the Heracleidae or Heraclids (the numerous descendants of Heracles, especially the descendants of Hyllus — other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus). These Heraclids conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae, Sparta and Argos, claiming, according to legend, a right to rule them through their ancestor. Their rise to dominance is frequently called the \\\"Dorian invasion\\\". The Lydian and later the Macedonian kings, as rulers of the same rank, also became Heracleidae.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nOther members of this earliest generation of heroes such as Perseus, Deucalion, Theseus and Bellerophon, have many traits in common with Heracles. Like him, their exploits are solitary, fantastic and border on fairy tale, as they slay monsters such as the Chimera and Medusa. Bellerophon's adventures are commonplace types, similar to the adventures of Heracles and Theseus. Sending a hero to his presumed death is also a recurrent theme of this early heroic tradition, used in the cases of Perseus and Bellerophon.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nArgonauts\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe only surviving Hellenistic epic, the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes (epic poet, scholar, and director of the Library of Alexandria) tells the myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to retrieve the Golden Fleece from the mythical land of Colchis. In the Argonautica, Jason is impelled on his quest by king Pelias, who receives a prophecy that a man with one sandal would be his nemesis. Jason loses a sandal in a river, arrives at the court of Pelias, and the epic is set in motion. Nearly every member of the next generation of heroes, as well as Heracles, went with Jason in the ship Argo to fetch the Golden Fleece. This generation also included Theseus, who went to Crete to slay the Minotaur; Atalanta, the female heroine, and Meleager, who once had an epic cycle of his own to rival the Iliad and Odyssey. Pindar, Apollonius and the Bibliotheca endeavor to give full lists of the Argonauts.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nAlthough Apollonius wrote his poem in the 3rd century BC, the composition of the story of the Argonauts is earlier than Odyssey, which shows familiarity with the exploits of Jason (the wandering of Odysseus may have been partly founded on it). In ancient times the expedition was regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening up of the Black Sea to Greek commerce and colonization. It was also extremely popular, forming a cycle to which a number of local legends became attached. The story of Medea, in particular, caught the imagination of the tragic poets.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nHouse of Atreus and Theban Cycle\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nIn between the Argo and the Trojan War, there was a generation known chiefly for its horrific crimes. This includes the doings of Atreus and Thyestes at Argos. Behind the myth of the house of Atreus (one of the two principal heroic dynasties with the house of Labdacus) lies the problem of the devolution of power and of the mode of accession to sovereignty. The twins Atreus and Thyestes with their descendants played the leading role in the tragedy of the devolution of power in Mycenae.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe Theban Cycle deals with events associated especially with Cadmus, the city's founder, and later with the doings of Laius and Oedipus at Thebes; a series of stories that lead to the eventual pillage of that city at the hands of the Seven Against Thebes and Epigoni. (It is not known whether the Seven Against Thebes figured in early epic.) As far as Oedipus is concerned, early epic accounts seem to have him continuing to rule at Thebes after the revelation that Iokaste was his mother, and subsequently marrying a second wife who becomes the mother of his children — markedly different from the tale known to us through tragedy (e.g. Sophocles' Oedipus the King) and later mythological accounts.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nTrojan War and aftermath\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nGreek mythology culminates in the Trojan War, fought between Greece and Troy, and its aftermath. In Homer's works, such as the Iliad, the chief stories have already taken shape and substance, and individual themes were elaborated later, especially in Greek drama. The Trojan War also elicited great interest in the Roman culture because of the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero whose journey from Troy led to the founding of the city that would one day become Rome, as recounted in Virgil's Aeneid (Book II of Virgil's Aeneid contains the best-known account of the sack of Troy). Finally there are two pseudo-chronicles written in Latin that passed under the names of Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe Trojan War cycle, a collection of epic poems, starts with the events leading up to the war: Eris and the golden apple of Kallisti, the Judgement of Paris, the abduction of Helen, the sacrifice of Iphigenia at Aulis. To recover Helen, the Greeks launched a great expedition under the overall command of Menelaus' brother, Agamemnon, king of Argos or Mycenae, but the Trojans refused to return Helen. The Iliad, which is set in the tenth year of the war, tells of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, who was the finest Greek warrior, and the consequent deaths in battle of Achilles' beloved comrade Patroclus and Priam's eldest son, Hector. After Hector's death the Trojans were joined by two exotic allies, Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, king of the Ethiopians and son of the dawn-goddess Eos. Achilles killed both of these, but Paris then managed to kill Achilles with an arrow in the heel. Achilles' heel was the only part of his body which was not invulnerable to damage by human weaponry. Before they could take Troy, the Greeks had to steal from the citadel the wooden image of Pallas Athena (the Palladium).\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nFinally, with Athena's help, they built the Trojan Horse. Despite the warnings of Priam's daughter Cassandra, the Trojans were persuaded by Sinon, a Greek who feigned desertion, to take the horse inside the walls of Troy as an offering to Athena; the priest Laocoon, who tried to have the horse destroyed, was killed by sea-serpents. At night the Greek fleet returned, and the Greeks from the horse opened the gates of Troy. In the total sack that followed, Priam and his remaining sons were slaughtered; the Trojan women passed into slavery in various cities of Greece. The adventurous homeward voyages of the Greek leaders (including the wanderings of Odysseus and Aeneas (the Aeneid), and the murder of Agamemnon) were told in two epics, the Returns (the lost Nostoi) and Homer's Odyssey. The Trojan cycle also includes the adventures of the children of the Trojan generation (e.g., Orestes and Telemachus).\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe Trojan War provided a variety of themes and became a main source of inspiration for Ancient Greek artists (e.g. metopes on the Parthenon depicting the sack of Troy); this artistic preference for themes deriving from the Trojan Cycle indicates its importance to the Ancient Greek civilization. The same mythological cycle also inspired a series of posterior European literary writings. For instance, Trojan Medieval European writers, unacquainted with Homer at first hand, found in the Troy legend a rich source of heroic and romantic storytelling and a convenient framework into which to fit their own courtly and chivalric ideals. Twelfth-century authors, such as Benoît de Sainte-Maure (Roman de Troie [Romance of Troy, 1154–60]) and Joseph of Exeter (De Bello Troiano [On the Trojan War, 1183]) describe the war while rewriting the standard version they found in Dictys and Dares. They thus follow Horace's advice and Virgil's example: they rewrite a poem of Troy instead of telling something completely new.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nSome of the more famous heroes noted for their inclusion in the Trojan War were:\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nOn the Trojan side:\\n* Aeneas\\n* Hector\\n* Paris\\nOn the Greek side:\\n* Ajax (there were two Ajaxes)\\n* Achilles\\n* King Agamemnon\\n* Menelaus\\n* Odysseus\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nGreek and Roman conceptions of myth\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nMythology was at the heart of everyday life in Ancient Greece. Greeks regarded mythology as a part of their history. They used myth to explain natural phenomena, cultural variations, traditional enmities and friendships. It was a source of pride to be able to trace the descent of one's leaders from a mythological hero or a god. Few ever doubted that there was truth behind the account of the Trojan War in the Iliad and Odyssey. According to Victor Davis Hanson, a military historian, columnist, political essayist and former classics professor, and John Heath, a classics professor, the profound knowledge of the Homeric epos was deemed by the Greeks the basis of their acculturation. Homer was the \\\"education of Greece\\\" (Ἑλλάδος παίδευσις), and his poetry \\\"the Book\\\".\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nPhilosophy and myth\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nAfter the rise of philosophy, history, prose and rationalism in the late 5th century BC, the fate of myth became uncertain, and mythological genealogies gave place to a conception of history which tried to exclude the supernatural (such as the Thucydidean history). While poets and dramatists were reworking the myths, Greek historians and philosophers were beginning to criticize them.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nA few radical philosophers like Xenophanes of Colophon were already beginning to label the poets' tales as blasphemous lies in the 6th century BC; Xenophanes had complained that Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods \\\"all that is shameful and disgraceful among men; they steal, commit adultery, and deceive one another\\\". This line of thought found its most sweeping expression in Plato's Republic and Laws. Plato created his own allegorical myths (such as the vision of Er in the Republic), attacked the traditional tales of the gods' tricks, thefts and adulteries as immoral, and objected to their central role in literature. Plato's criticism was the first serious challenge to the Homeric mythological tradition, referring to the myths as \\\"old wives' chatter\\\". For his part Aristotle criticized the Pre-socratic quasi-mythical philosophical approach and underscored that \\\"Hesiod and the theological writers were concerned only with what seemed plausible to themselves, and had no respect for us ... But it is not worth taking seriously writers who show off in the mythical style; as for those who do proceed by proving their assertions, we must cross-examine them\\\".\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nNevertheless, even Plato did not manage to wean himself and his society from the influence of myth; his own characterization for Socrates is based on the traditional Homeric and tragic patterns, used by the philosopher to praise the righteous life of his teacher:\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nHanson and Heath estimate that Plato's rejection of the Homeric tradition was not favorably received by the grassroots Greek civilization. The old myths were kept alive in local cults; they continued to influence poetry and to form the main subject of painting and sculpture.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nMore sportingly, the 5th century BC tragedian Euripides often played with the old traditions, mocking them, and through the voice of his characters injecting notes of doubt. Yet the subjects of his plays were taken, without exception, from myth. Many of these plays were written in answer to a predecessor's version of the same or similar myth. Euripides mainly impugns the myths about the gods and begins his critique with an objection similar to the one previously expressed by Xenocrates: the gods, as traditionally represented, are far too crassly anthropomorphic.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nHellenistic and Roman rationalism\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nDuring the Hellenistic period, mythology took on the prestige of elite knowledge that marks its possessors as belonging to a certain class. At the same time, the skeptical turn of the Classical age became even more pronounced. Greek mythographer Euhemerus established the tradition of seeking an actual historical basis for mythical beings and events. Although his original work (Sacred Scriptures) is lost, much is known about it from what is recorded by Diodorus and Lactantius.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nRationalizing hermeneutics of myth became even more popular under the Roman Empire, thanks to the physicalist theories of Stoic and Epicurean philosophy. Stoics presented explanations of the gods and heroes as physical phenomena, while the Euhemerists rationalized them as historical figures. At the same time, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists promoted the moral significations of the mythological tradition, often based on Greek etymologies. Through his Epicurean message, Lucretius had sought to expel superstitious fears from the minds of his fellow-citizens. Livy, too, is skeptical about the mythological tradition and claims that he does not intend to pass judgement on such legends (fabulae). The challenge for Romans with a strong and apologetic sense of religious tradition was to defend that tradition while conceding that it was often a breeding-ground for superstition. The antiquarian Varro, who regarded religion as a human institution with great importance for the preservation of good in society, devoted rigorous study to the origins of religious cults. In his Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum (which has not survived, but Augustine's City of God indicates its general approach) Varro argues that whereas the superstitious man fears the gods, the truly religious person venerates them as parents.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nAccording to Varro, there have been three accounts of deities in the Roman society: the mythical account created by poets for theatre and entertainment, the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city, and the natural account created by the philosophers. The best state is, adds Varro, where the civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher's.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nRoman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal and allegorical acceptance of myth, declaring roundly that myths have no place in philosophy. Cicero is also generally disdainful of myth, but, like Varro, he is emphatic in his support for the state religion and its institutions. It is difficult to know how far down the social scale this rationalism extended. Cicero asserts that no one (not even old women and boys) is so foolish as to believe in the terrors of Hades or the existence of Scyllas, centaurs or other composite creatures, but, on the other hand, the orator elsewhere complains of the superstitious and credulous character of the people. De Natura Deorum is the most comprehensive summary of Cicero's line of thought.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nSyncretizing trends\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nIn Ancient Roman times, a new Roman mythology was born through syncretization of numerous Greek and other foreign gods. This occurred because the Romans had little mythology of their own and inheritance of the Greek mythological tradition caused the major Roman gods to adopt characteristics of their Greek equivalents. The gods Zeus and Jupiter are an example of this mythological overlap. In addition to the combination of the two mythological traditions, the association of the Romans with eastern religions led to further syncretizations. For instance, the cult of Sun was introduced in Rome after Aurelian's successful campaigns in Syria. The Asiatic divinities Mithras (that is to say, the Sun) and Ba'al were combined with Apollo and Helios into one Sol Invictus, with conglomerated rites and compound attributes. Apollo might be increasingly identified in religion with Helios or even Dionysus, but texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments. The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice. The worship of Sol as special protector of the emperors and of the empire remained the chief imperial religion until it was replaced by Christianity.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe surviving 2nd-century collection of Orphic Hymns (second century AD) and the Saturnalia of Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius (fifth century) are influenced by the theories of rationalism and the syncretizing trends as well. The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre-classical poetic compositions, attributed to Orpheus, himself the subject of a renowned myth. In reality, these poems were probably composed by several different poets, and contain a rich set of clues about prehistoric European mythology. The stated purpose of the Saturnalia is to transmit the Hellenic culture Macrobius has derived from his reading, even though much of his treatment of gods is colored by Egyptian and North African mythology and theology (which also affect the interpretation of Virgil). In Saturnalia reappear mythographical comments influenced by the Euhemerists, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nModern interpretations\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the eighteenth century against \\\"the traditional attitude of Christian animosity\\\", in which the Christian reinterpretation of myth as a \\\"lie\\\" or fable had been retained. In Germany, by about 1795, there was a growing interest in Homer and Greek mythology. In Göttingen, Johann Matthias Gesner began to revive Greek studies, while his successor, Christian Gottlob Heyne, worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and laid the foundations for mythological research both in Germany and elsewhere.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nComparative and psychoanalytic approaches\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe development of comparative philology in the 19th century, together with ethnological discoveries in the 20th century, established the science of myth. Since the Romantics, all study of myth has been comparative. Wilhelm Mannhardt, James Frazer, and Stith Thompson employed the comparative approach to collect and classify the themes of folklore and mythology. In 1871 Edward Burnett Tylor published his Primitive Culture, in which he applied the comparative method and tried to explain the origin and evolution of religion.D. Allen, Structure and Creativity in Religion, 9* Robert A. Segal, Theorizing about Myth, 16 Tylor's procedure of drawing together material culture, ritual and myth of widely separated cultures influenced both Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell. Max Müller applied the new science of comparative mythology to the study of myth, in which he detected the distorted remains of Aryan nature worship. Bronisław Malinowski emphasized the ways myth fulfills common social functions. Claude Lévi-Strauss and other structuralists have compared the formal relations and patterns in myths throughout the world.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nSigmund Freud introduced a transhistorical and biological conception of man and a view of myth as an expression of repressed ideas. Dream interpretation is the basis of Freudian myth interpretation and Freud's concept of dreamwork recognizes the importance of contextual relationships for the interpretation of any individual element in a dream. This suggestion would find an important point of rapprochment between the structuralist and psychoanalytic approaches to myth in Freud's thought. Carl Jung extended the transhistorical, psychological approach with his theory of the \\\"collective unconscious\\\" and the archetypes (inherited \\\"archaic\\\" patterns), often encoded in myth, that arise out of it. According to Jung, \\\"myth-forming structural elements must be present in the unconscious psyche\\\". Comparing Jung's methodology with Joseph Campbell's theory, Robert A. Segal concludes that \\\"to interpret a myth Campbell simply identifies the archetypes in it. An interpretation of the Odyssey, for example, would show how Odysseus's life conforms to a heroic pattern. Jung, by contrast, considers the identification of archetypes merely the first step in the interpretation of a myth\\\".\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nKarl Kerényi, one of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology, gave up his early views of myth, in order to apply Jung's theories of archetypes to Greek myth.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nOrigin theories\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nMax Müller attempted to understand an Indo-European religious form by tracing it back to its Indo-European (or, in Müller's time, \\\"Aryan\\\") \\\"original\\\" manifestation. In 1891, he claimed that \\\"the most important discovery which has been made during the nineteenth century with respect to the ancient history of mankind ... was this sample equation: Sanskrit Dyaus-pitar Greek Zeus \\n Latin Jupiter = Old Norse Tyr\\\". The question of Greek mythology's place in Indo-European studies has generated much scholarship since Müller's time. For example, philologist Georges Dumézil draws a comparison between the Greek Uranus and the Sanskrit Varuna, although there is no hint that he believes them to be originally connected. In other cases, close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage, yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove, as in the case of the Greek Moirai and the Norns of Norse mythology.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nArchaeology and mythography, on the other hand, have revealed that the Greeks were also inspired by some of the civilizations of Asia Minor and the Near East. Adonis seems to be the Greek counterpart — more clearly in cult than in myth — of a Near Eastern \\\"dying god\\\". Cybele is rooted in Anatolian culture while much of Aphrodite's iconography may spring from Semitic goddesses. There are also possible parallels between the earliest divine generations (Chaos and its children) and Tiamat in the Enuma Elish.L. Edmunds, Approaches to Greek Myth, 184* Robert A. Segal, A Greek Eternal Child, 64 According to Meyer Reinhold, \\\"near Eastern theogonic concepts, involving divine succession through violence and generational conflicts for power, found their way ... into Greek mythology\\\". In addition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, some scholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythology to the pre-Hellenic societies: Crete, Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes and Orchomenus. Historians of religion were fascinated by a number of apparently ancient configurations of myth connected with Crete (the god as bull, Zeus and Europa, Pasiphaë who yields to the bull and gives birth to the Minotaur etc.) Martin P.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nNilsson concluded that all great classical Greek myths were tied to Mycenaen centres and were anchored in prehistoric times. Nevertheless, according to Burkert, the iconography of the Cretan Palace Period has provided almost no confirmation for these theories.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nMotifs in Western art and literature\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nThe widespread adoption of Christianity did not curb the popularity of the myths. With the rediscovery of classical antiquity in the Renaissance, the poetry of Ovid became a major influence on the imagination of poets, dramatists, musicians and artists.* L. Burn, Greek Myths, 75 From the early years of Renaissance, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, portrayed the Pagan subjects of Greek mythology alongside more conventional Christian themes. Through the medium of Latin and the works of Ovid, Greek myth influenced medieval and Renaissance poets such as Petrarch, Boccaccio and Dante in Italy.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nIn Northern Europe, Greek mythology never took the same hold of the visual arts, but its effect was very obvious on literature. The English imagination was fired by Greek mythology starting with Chaucer and John Milton and continuing through Shakespeare to Robert Bridges in the 20th century. Racine in France and Goethe in Germany revived Greek drama, reworking the ancient myths. Although during the Enlightenment of the 18th century reaction against Greek myth spread throughout Europe, the myths continued to provide an important source of raw material for dramatists, including those who wrote the libretti for many of Handel's and Mozart's operas. By the end of the 18th century, Romanticism initiated a surge of enthusiasm for all things Greek, including Greek mythology. In Britain, new translations of Greek tragedies and Homer inspired contemporary poets (such as Alfred Lord Tennyson, Keats, Byron and Shelley) and painters (such as Lord Leighton and Lawrence Alma-Tadema). Christoph Gluck, Richard Strauss, Jacques Offenbach and many others set Greek mythological themes to music. American authors of the 19th century, such as Thomas Bulfinch and Nathaniel Hawthorne, held that the study of the classical myths was essential to the understanding of English and American literature.\",\n \"Greek mythology\\n\\nIn more recent times, classical themes have been reinterpreted by dramatists Jean Anouilh, Jean Cocteau, and Jean Giraudoux in France, Eugene O'Neill in America, and T. S. Eliot in Britain and by novelists such as James Joyce and André Gide.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: , Apollōn ( ); Doric: , Apellōn; Arcadocypriot: , Apeilōn; Aeolic: , Aploun; ) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The ideal of the kouros (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of music, truth and prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAs the patron of Delphi (Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius, yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over colonists, and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the Muses (Apollon Musegetes) and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. Hermes created the lyre for him, and the instrument became a common attribute of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called paeans.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as Apollo Helios he became identified among Greeks with Helios, Titan god of the sun, and his sister Artemis similarly equated with Selene, Titan goddess of the moon. In Latin texts, on the other hand, Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with Sol among the Augustan poets of the 1st century, not even in the conjurations of Aeneas and Latinus in Aeneid XII (161–215). Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe name of Apollo itself—though not Paean, a possible name of a precursor god to or epithet of him—is generally considered to be absent from the Linear B (Mycenean Greek) texts although it is possible that the name is in fact attested in the lacunose form ]pe-rjo-[ (Linear B: ]-[) on the KN E 842 tablet.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling ( in Classical Attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form Apellon (), is more archaic, derived from an earlier . It probably is a cognate to the Doric month Apellaios (), and the offerings apellaia () at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai (). \\nAccording to some scholars the words are derived from the Doric word apella (), which originally meant \\\"wall,\\\" \\\"fence for animals\\\" and later \\\"assembly within the limits of the square.\\\"The word usually appears in plural: Hesychius: (apellai), (\\\"folds\\\"), (\\\"assemblies\\\"), (\\\"elections\\\"): Nilsson, Vol. I, p. 556 Apella () is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta, corresponding to the ecclesia (). R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun apellai and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *Apalyun.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nSeveral instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb (apollymi), \\\"to destroy\\\". Plato in Cratylus connects the name with (apolysis), \\\"redemption\\\", with (apolousis), \\\"purification\\\", and with ([h]aploun), \\\"simple\\\", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, , and finally with (aeiballon), \\\"ever-shooting\\\". Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric (apella), which means \\\"assembly\\\", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation (sekos), \\\"fold\\\", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. In the Ancient Macedonian language (pella) means \\\"stone,\\\" and some toponyms may be derived from this word: (Pella, the capital of Ancient Macedonia) and (Pellēnē/Pallene).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name, The Hittite form Apaliunas (d) is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter, perhaps related to Hurrian (and certainly the Etruscan) Aplu, a god of plague, in turn likely from Akkadian Aplu Enlil meaning simply \\\"the son of Enlil\\\", a title that was given to the god Nergal, who was linked to Shamash, Babylonian god of the sun. \\nThe role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of Apollo Smintheus (\\\"mouse Apollo\\\") by Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks (the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is of course apotropaic, meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe Hittite testimony reflects an early form ', which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot with Doric .\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA Luwian etymology suggested for Apaliunas makes Apollo \\\"The One of Entrapment\\\", perhaps in the sense of \\\"Hunter\\\".\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nGreco-Roman epithets\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of epithets applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature, chief among them Phoebus ( ; , Phoibos, literally \\\"bright\\\"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo's role as the god of light.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAs sun-god and god of light, Apollo was also known by the epithets Aegletes ( ; Αἰγλήτης, Aiglētēs, from , \\\"light of the sun\\\"), Helius ( ; , Helios, literally \\\"sun\\\"), Phanaeus ( ; , Phanaios, literally \\\"giving or bringing light\\\"), and Lyceus ( ; , Lykeios, from Proto-Greek *, \\\"light\\\"). The meaning of the epithet \\\"Lyceus\\\" later became associated with Apollo's mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia () and who was identified with the wolf (), earning him the epithets Lycegenes ( ; , Lukēgenēs, literally \\\"born of a wolf\\\" or \\\"born of Lycia\\\") and Lycoctonus ( ; , Lykoktonos, from , \\\"wolf\\\", and , \\\"to kill\\\"). As god of the sun, Apollo was called Sol ( , literally \\\"sun\\\" in Latin) by the Romans.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn association with his birthplace, Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos, Apollo was called Cynthius ( ; , Kunthios, literally \\\"Cynthian\\\"), Cynthogenes ( ; , Kynthogenēs, literally \\\"born of Cynthus\\\"), and Delius ( ; Δήλιος, Delios, literally \\\"Delian\\\"). As Artemis's twin, Apollo had the epithet Didymaeus ( ; , Didymaios, from δίδυμος, \\\"twin\\\").\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo was worshipped as Actiacus ( ; , Aktiakos, literally \\\"Actian\\\"), Delphinius ( ; , Delphinios, literally \\\"Delphic\\\"), and Pythius ( ; , Puthios, from Πυθώ, Pythō, the area around Delphi), after Actium () and Delphi (Δελφοί) respectively, two of his principal places of worship. An etiology in the Homeric hymns associated the epithet \\\"Delphinius\\\" with dolphins. He was worshipped as Acraephius ( ; , Akraiphios, literally \\\"Acraephian\\\") or Acraephiaeus ( ; , Akraiphiaios, literally \\\"Acraephian\\\") in the Boeotian town of Acraephia (), reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus; and as Smintheus ( ; , Smintheus, \\\"Sminthian\\\"—that is, \\\"of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe\\\"). near the Troad town of Hamaxitus. The epithet \\\"Smintheus\\\" has historically been confused with , \\\"mouse\\\", in association with Apollo's role as a god of disease. For this he was also known as Parnopius ( ; , Parnopios, from , \\\"locust\\\") and to the Romans as Culicarius ( ; from Latin culicārius, \\\"of midges\\\").\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn Apollo's role as a healer, his appellations included Acesius ( ; , Akesios, from , \\\"healing\\\"), Acestor ( ; , Akestōr, literally \\\"healer\\\"), Paean ( ; , Paiān, from , \\\"to touch\\\"), and Iatrus ( ; , Iātros, literally \\\"physician\\\"). Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora. The Romans referred to Apollo as Medicus ( ; literally \\\"physician\\\" in Latin) in this respect. A temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus at Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAs a protector and founder, Apollo had the epithets Alexicacus ( ; , Alexikakos, literally \\\"warding off evil\\\"), Apotropaeus ( ; , Apotropaios, from , \\\"to avert\\\"), and Epicurius ( ; , Epikourios, from , \\\"to aid\\\"), and Archegetes ( ; , Arkhēgetēs, literally \\\"founder\\\"), Clarius ( ; , Klārios, from Doric , \\\"allotted lot\\\"), and Genetor ( ; , Genetōr, literally \\\"ancestor\\\"). To the Romans, he was known in this capacity as Averruncus ( ; from Latin āverruncare, \\\"to avert\\\"). He was also called Agyieus ( ; , Aguīeus, from , \\\"street\\\") for his role in protecting roads and homes; and Nomius ( ; , Nomios, literally \\\"pastoral\\\") and Nymphegetes ( ; , Numphēgetēs, from , \\\"Nymph\\\", and , \\\"leader\\\") for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn his role as god of prophecy and truth, Apollo had the epithets Manticus ( ; , Mantikos, literally \\\"prophetic\\\"), Leschenorius ( ; , Leskhēnorios, from , \\\"converser\\\"), and Loxias ( ; , Loxias, from , \\\"to say\\\"). The epithet \\\"Loxias\\\" has historically been associated with , \\\"ambiguous\\\". In this respect, the Romans called him Coelispex ( ; from Latin coelum, \\\"sky\\\", and specere, \\\"to look at\\\"). The epithet Iatromantis ( ; , Iātromantis, from , \\\"physician\\\", and , \\\"prophet\\\") refers to both his role as a god of healing and of prophecy. As god of music and arts, Apollo had the epithet Musagetes ( ; Doric , Mousāgetās) or Musegetes ( ; , Mousēgetēs, from , \\\"Muse\\\", and , \\\"leader\\\").\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAs a god of archery, Apollo was known as Aphetor ( ; , Aphētōr, from , \\\"to let loose\\\") or Aphetorus ( ; , Aphētoros, of the same origin), Argyrotoxus ( ; , Argyrotoxos, literally \\\"with silver bow\\\"), Hecaërgus ( ; , Hekaergos, literally \\\"far-shooting\\\"), and Hecebolus ( ; , Hekēbolos, literally \\\"far-shooting\\\"). The Romans referred to Apollo as Articenens ( ; \\\"bow-carrying\\\"). Apollo was called Ismenius ( ; , Ismēnios, literally \\\"of Ismenus\\\") after Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, whom he struck with an arrow.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nCeltic epithets and cult titles\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character. * Apollo Atepomarus (\\\"the great horseman\\\" or \\\"possessing a great horse\\\"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières (Indre). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun. * Apollo Belenus ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, Northern Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. * Apollo Cunomaglus ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at Nettleton Shrub, Wiltshire. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god. * Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo. * Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus. * Apollo Moritasgus ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians. * Apollo Vindonnus ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Châtillon-sur-Seine in present-day Burgundy.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHe was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. * Apollo Virotutis ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy (Haute-Savoie) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOrigins\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe cult centers of Apollo in Greece, Delphi and Delos, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis, Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of Pytho. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In archaic Greece he was the prophet, the oracular god who in older times was connected with \\\"healing\\\". In classical Greece he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil. Walter Burkert discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed \\\"a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component.\\\"\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nFrom his eastern origin Apollo brought the art of inspection of \\\"symbols and omina\\\" (σημεία και τέρατα : semeia kai terata), and of the observation of the omens of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from Anatolia. The ritualism belonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the legalism, the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and perceptible order. The improvement of the old Anatolian god, and his elevation to an intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the Greek people.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHealer and god-protector from evil\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe function of Apollo as a \\\"healer\\\" is connected with Paean (), the physician of the Gods in the Iliad, who seems to come from a more primitive religion. Paeοn is probably connected with the Mycenean pa-ja-wo-ne (Linear B: ), At Google Books. but this is not certain. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease. Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song \\\"paean\\\" (). The magicians were also called \\\"seer-doctors\\\" (), and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn the Iliad, Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the terrible Vedic god of disease Rudra. He sends a terrible plague () to the Achaeans. The god who sends a disease can also prevent from it; therefore, when it stops, they make a purifying ceremony and offer him a hecatomb to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases, they pray and with a song they call their own god, the beautiful Paean.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nSome common epithets of Apollo as a healer are \\\"paion\\\" (, literally \\\"healer\\\" or \\\"helper\\\") \\\"epikourios\\\" (, \\\"help\\\"), \\\"oulios\\\" (, \\\"healed wound\\\", also a \\\"scar\\\" ) and \\\"loimios\\\" (, \\\"plague\\\"). In classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called \\\"apotropaios\\\" (, \\\"divert\\\", \\\"deter\\\", \\\"avert\\\") and \\\"alexikakos\\\" (from v. + n. , \\\"defend from evil\\\"). In later writers, the word, usually spelled \\\"Paean\\\", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHomer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph.\\nSuch songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to Dionysus, to Apollo Helios, to Apollo's son Asclepius the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nDorian origin\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe connection with Dorians and their initiation festival apellai is reinforced by the month Apellaios in northwest Greek calendars, but it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word \\\"pella\\\" (Pella), stone. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi (Omphalos). The \\\"Homeric hymn\\\" represents Apollo as a Northern intruder. His arrival must have occurred during the \\\"Dark Ages\\\" that followed the destruction of the Mycenaean civilization, and his conflict with Gaia (Mother Earth) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent Python.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe earth deity had power over the ghostly world, and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle. The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated. A female dragon named Delphyne (, \\\"womb\\\"), who is obviously connected with Delphi and Apollo Delphinios, and a male serpent Typhon (, \\\"to smoke\\\"), the adversary of Zeus in the Titanomachy, who the narrators confused with Python. Python was the good daemon (ἀγαθὸς δαίμων) of the temple as it appears in Minoan religion, but she was represented as a dragon, as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo and his sister Artemis can bring death with their arrows. The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings, or magicians is common in Germanic and Norse mythology. In Greek mythology Artemis was the leader (, \\\"hegemon\\\") of the nymphs, who had similar functions with the Nordic Elves. The \\\"elf-shot\\\" originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves, but it was later attested denoting stone arrow-heads which were used by witches to harm people, and also for healing rituals.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called \\\"The Archer\\\", and the bow is also an attribute of Shiva. Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them, and his alternative Shiba is a healer physician god. However the Indo-European component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nMinoan origin\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIt seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the Mycenaean ages. In historical times, the priests of Delphi were called Labryaden, \\\"the double-axe men\\\", which indicates Minoan origin. The double-axe, labrys, was the holy symbol of the Cretan labyrinth. The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. Apollo Delphinios was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands, and his name indicates his connection with Delphi and the holy serpent Delphyne (\\\"womb\\\"). Apollo's sister Artemis, who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with Britomartis (Diktynna), the Minoan \\\"Mistress of the animals\\\". In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the \\\"Mister of the animals\\\", a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute. His original name is unknown, but it seems that he was absorbed by the more popular Apollo, who stood by the virgin \\\"Mistress of the Animals\\\", becoming her brother.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood, and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple. This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries, according to the local tradition. In that regard, the mythical seeress Sibyl of Anatolian origin, with her ecstatic art, looks unrelated to the oracle itself. However, the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves, which seem to be confirmed by recent studies.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nPlato describes the priestesses of Delphi and Dodona as frenzied women, obsessed by \\\"mania\\\" (, \\\"frenzy\\\"), a Greek word he connected with mantis (, \\\"prophet\\\"). Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the Near East as Mari in the second millennium BC. Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC, there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages. It is more probable that this art was introduced later from Anatolia and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAnatolian origin\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship. The name of Apollo's mother Leto has Lydian origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of Asia Minor. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from Anatolia, which is the origin of Sibyl, and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old Assyro-Babylonian texts, and these rituals were spread into the empire of the Hittites. In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain \\\"purification\\\".\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA similar story is mentioned by Plutarch. He writes that the Cretan seer Epimenides purified Athens after the pollution brought by the Alcmeonidae, and that the seer's expertise in sacrifices and reform of funeral practices were of great help to Solon in his reform of the Athenian state. The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the shamanic religions of Asia, and proves, together with the Homeric hymn, that Crete had a resisting religion up to historical times. It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece, and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to Anatolia.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHomer pictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans, during the Trojan War. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to Appaliunas, a tutelary god of Wilusa (Troy) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete. The stones found in front of the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols of Apollo. The Greeks gave to him the name agyieus as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil, and his symbol was a tapered stone or column. However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon, all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (sibutu) indicates a Babylonian origin.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe Late Bronze Age (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) Hittite and Hurrian Aplu was a god of plague, invoked during plague years. Here we have an apotropaic situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning the son of, was a title given to the god Nergal, who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun Shamash. Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god () who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods. In Iliad, his priest prays to Apollo Smintheus, the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats. All these functions, including the function of the healer-god Paean, who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOracular cult\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nUnusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. Apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period, and the frequency of theophoric names such as Apollodorus or Apollonios and cities named Apollonia testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at Didyma and Clarus pronounced the so-called \\\"theological oracles\\\", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity. \\\"In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. Julian the Apostate (359 - 61) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed.\\\"\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOracular shrines\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo had a famous oracle in Delphi, and other notable ones in Clarus and Branchidae. His oracular shrine in Abae in Phocis, where he bore the toponymic epithet Abaeus (, Apollon Abaios), was important enough to be consulted by Croesus. His oracular shrines include:\\n* Abae in Phocis. * Bassae in the Peloponnese. * At Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a pneuma, from which the priests drank. * In Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War. * At Khyrse, in Troad, the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus. * In Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. * In Delphi, the Pythia became filled with the pneuma of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n* In Didyma, an oracle on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by Branchus, son or lover of Apollo. * In Hierapolis Bambyce, Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise De Dea Syria, the sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image. * At Patara, in Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman. * In Segesta in Sicily.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOracles were also given by sons of Apollo.\\n* In Oropus, north of Athens, the oracle Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring.\\n* in Labadea, 20 mi east of Delphi, Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nTemples of Apollo\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA lot of temples dedicated to Apollo were built in Greece and in the Greek colonies, and they show the spread of the cult of Apollo, and the evolution of the Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form, and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in Crete, don't belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectangle wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered divine, and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of Doric order. The Greeks used standard types, because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve the esthetic perfection. From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were narrow to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed, some mathematical relations became necessary, in order to keep the original forms.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThis probably influenced the theory of numbers of Pythagoras, who believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe Doric order dominated during the 6th and the 5th century B.C, but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which couldn’t be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the Ionic order, but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the Corinthian order gradually during the Hellenistic age, and under Rome.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe most important temples are:\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nGreek temples\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Thebes, Greece: The oldest temple probably dedicated to Apollo Ismenius was built in the 9th century B.C It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The Doric temple was built in the early 7th century B.C, but only some small parts have been found A festival called Daphnephoria was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches ( daphnai), and at the head of the procession, walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called \\\"daphnephoros\\\". *Eretria: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived to the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of Apollo Daphnephoros, \\\"Apollo, laurel-bearer\\\", or \\\"carrying off Daphne\\\", is dated to 800 BC. The temple was curvilinear hecatombedon (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurer branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century B.C, with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 BC, with the stylobate measuring 21,00 X 43,00 m. The number of pteron column was 6 x 14. *Dreros (Crete).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe temple of Apollo Delphinios dates from the 7th century B.C, or probably from the middle of the 8th century BC. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of Delphi. `The dimensions of the plan are 10,70 X 24,00 m, and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the Minoan type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the Doric columns. *Gortyn (Crete). A temple of Pythian Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. The plan measured 19,00 X 16,70 m, and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was single door on the east side. *Thermon (West Greece): The Doric temple of Apollo Thermios, was built in the middle of the 7th century BC. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century B.C, on which a peristyle was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 X 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 X 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Napes (Lesbos): An Aeolic temple probably of Apollo Napaios was built in the 7th century BC. Some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called Aeolic, and it seems that they were borrowed from the East.D.S Robertson(1945):A handbook of Greek and Roman architecture, Cambridge University Press pp. 324-329 \\n*Cyrene, Libya: The oldest Doric temple of Apollo was built in c. 600 BC. The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 X 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone. *Naukratis: An Ionic temple was a built in the early 6th century BC. Only some fragments have been found, and the earlier made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the Ionic order.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Corinth: A Doric temple was built in the 6th century BC. The temple's stylobate measures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar with the Temple of Alcmeonidae at Delphi. The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the Doric order\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Syracuse, Sicily: A Doric temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century BC. The temple's stylobate measures 21.47 X 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch. *Selinus (Sicily):The Doric Temple C dates from 550 BC, and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple's stylobate measures 10.48 X 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at Syracuse. *Delphi: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The \\\"Temple of Alcmeonidae\\\" was built in c. 513 BC. and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple's stylobate measures 21.65 X 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15. A fest similar with Apollo's fest at Thebes, Greece was celebrated every nine years.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (dopnephoros). The maidens participated with joyful songs. *Chios: An Ionic temple of Apollo Phanaios was built at the end of the 6th century BC. Only some small parts have been found, but the capitals had floral ornament. *Abae (Phocis). The temple was destroyed by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in 480 BCE, and later by the Boeotians. It was rebuilt by Hadrian. The oracle was in use from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion. *Delos: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century B.C, with a plan measuring 10,00 X 15,60 m. The Doric Great temple of Apollo, was built in c. 475 BC. The temple's stylobate measures 13.72 X 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used. *Ambracia: A Doric peripteral temple dedicated to Apollo Pythios Sotir was built in 500 B.C, and It is lying at the centre of the Greek city Arta.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOnly some parts have been found, and it seems that the temple was built on earlier sanctuaries dedicated to Apollo. The temple measures 20,75 X 44,00 m at the stylobate. The foundation which supported the statue of the god, still exists.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Bassae (Peloponnesus):A temple dedicated to Apollo Epikourios (\\\"Apollo the helper\\\"), was built in 430 B.C and it was designed by Iktinos.It combined Doric and Ionic elements, and the earliest use of column with a Corinthian capital in the middle. The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the stylobate measuring 14.5 X 38.3 metres containing a Doric peristyle of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Didyma (near Miletus): The gigantic Ionic temple of Apollo Didymaios started around 540 BC. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 BC. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 X 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate. *Clarus (near ancient Colophon): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost. The Doric temple of Apollo Clarius was probably built in the 3rd century B.C, and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor Hadrian but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century B.C. *Hamaxitus (Troad): In Iliad, Chryses the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related with the god’s ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of Apollo Smintheus was constructed at 150–125 BC, but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century B.C.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe temple measures 40,00 X23,00 m at the stylobate, and the number of pteron columns was 8 X 14.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nEtruscan and Roman temples\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Veii (Etruria): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century B.C., and indicates the spread of Apollo’s culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called Tuscan , and a triple cella 18,50 m wide. \\n*Falerii Veteres (Etruria): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th-3rd century B.C. Parts of a teraccotta capital, and a teraccotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric. A cult of Apollo Soranus is attested by one inscription found near Falerii.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Pompeii, (Italy): The cult of Apollo, was widespread in the region of Campania, since the 6th century B.C. The temple was built in 120 B.V, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century BC. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in A.D 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles, which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a Tuscan prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 Ionic columns was placed in such a way, that the emphasis was given to the front side. * Rome: The temple of Apollo Sosianus and the temple of Apollo Medicus . The first temple building dates to 431 BC, and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 BC. It was rebuilt by Gaius Sosius, probably in 34 B.C. Only three columns with Corinthian capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century BC. *Rome:The temple of Apollo Palatinus was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city. It was dedicated by Augustus on 28 B.C.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe façade of the original temple was Ionic, and it was constructed from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance, and a statue of Apollo in the cella. *Melite (modern Mdina, Malta): A Temple of Apollo was built in the city in the 2nd century AD. Its remains were discovered in the 18th century, and many of its architectural fragments were dispersed among private collections or reworked into new sculptures. Parts of the temple's podium were rediscovered in 2002.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nMythology\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nBirth\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nWhen Zeus' wife Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on \\\"terra firma\\\". In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island. She gave birth there and was accepted by the people, offering them her promise that her son would be always favourable toward the city. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIt is also stated that Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards (8 m) long, of amber. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day (, hebdomagenes) of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition—or of the month Bysios—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nYouth\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nFour days after his birth, Apollo killed the chthonic dragon Python, which lived in Delphi beside the Castalian Spring. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophecies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. To protect his mother, Apollo begged Hephaestus for a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of Gaia.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHera then sent the giant Tityos to rape Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to Tartarus. There, he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of 9 acre, where a pair of vultures feasted daily on his liver.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nTrojan War\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the Trojan War in retribution for Agamemnon's insult to Chryses, a priest of Apollo whose daughter Chryseis had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the Iliad.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn the Iliad, when Diomedes injured Aeneas, Apollo rescued him. First, Aphrodite tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo aided Paris in the killing of Achilles by guiding the arrow of his bow into Achilles' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering Troilus, the god's own son by Hecuba, on the very altar of the god's own temple.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAdmetus\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nWhen Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting Hippolytus from the dead (transgressing Themis by stealing Hades's subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the Cyclopes, who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to Tartarus forever for this, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labor, due to the intercession of his mother, Leto. During this time he served as shepherd for King Admetus of Pherae in Thessaly. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo helped Admetus win Alcestis, the daughter of King Pelias and later convinced the Fates to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but Heracles managed to \\\"persuade\\\" Thanatos, the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nNiobe\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nNiobe, the queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared (Chloris, usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylos in Asia Minor and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nConsorts and children\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nLove affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology. Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nFemale lovers\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nDaphne was a nymph, daughter of the river god Peneus, who had scorned Apollo. The myth explains the connection of Apollo with δάφνη (daphnē), the laurel whose leaves his priestess employed at Delphi. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a weapon more suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Cupid shoots a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prays to her father, Peneus, for help, and he changes her into the laurel tree, sacred to Apollo.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nArtemis Daphnaia, who had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi in Antiquity, on the slopes of Mount Cnacadion near the Spartan frontier, had her own sacred laurel trees. At Eretria the identity of an excavated 7th- and 6th-century temple to Apollo Daphnephoros, \\\"Apollo, laurel-bearer\\\", or \\\"carrying off Daphne\\\", a \\\"place where the citizens are to take the oath\\\", is identified in inscriptions.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nLeucothea was daughter of Orchamus and sister of Clytia. She fell in love with Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nMarpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nCastalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the spring at Delphi, at the base of Mt. Parnassos, which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. In the last oracle is mentioned that the \\\"water which could speak\\\", has been lost for ever.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nBy Cyrene, Apollo had a son named Aristaeus, who became the patron god of cattle, fruit trees, hunting, husbandry and bee-keeping. He was also a culture-hero and taught humanity dairy skills, the use of nets and traps in hunting, and how to cultivate olives.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHecuba, was the wife of King Priam of Troy, and Apollo had a son with her named Troilus. An oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by Achilleus.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nCassandra, was daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus' half-sister. Apollo fell in love with Cassandra and promised her the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gave her the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nCoronis, was daughter of Phlegyas, King of the Lapiths. Pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with Ischys, son of Elatus. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result, he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the centaur Chiron to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn Euripides' play Ion, Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa, wife of Xuthus. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAcantha, was the spirit of the acanthus tree, and Apollo had one of his other liaisons with her. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAccording to the Biblioteca, the \\\"library\\\" of mythology mis-attributed to Apollodorus, he fathered the Corybantes on the Muse Thalia.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nConsorts and children: extended list\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n# Acacallis\\n## Amphithemis (Garamas) \\n## Naxos, eponym of the island Naxos \\n## Phylacides\\n## Phylander \\n# Acantha\\n# Aethusa\\n## Eleuther\\n# Aganippe\\n## Chios \\n# Alciope \\n## Linus (possibly)\\n# Amphissa / Isse, daughter of Macareus\\n# Anchiale / Acacallis\\n## Oaxes \\n# Areia, daughter of Cleochus / Acacallis / Deione\\n## Miletus\\n# Astycome, nymph\\n## Eumolpus (possibly) \\n# Arsinoe, daughter of Leucippus\\n## Asclepius (possibly)\\n## Eriopis\\n# Babylo\\n## Arabus \\n# Bolina\\n# Calliope, Muse\\n## Orpheus (possibly)\\n## Linus (possibly)\\n## Ialemus\\n# Cassandra\\n# Castalia\\n# Celaeno, daughter of Hyamus / Melaina / Thyia\\n## Delphus\\n# Chione / Philonis / Leuconoe\\n## Philammon\\n# Chrysorthe\\n## Coronus\\n# Chrysothemis\\n## Parthenos\\n# Coronis\\n## Asclepius\\n# Coryceia\\n## Lycorus (Lycoreus)\\n# Creusa\\n## Ion\\n# Cyrene\\n## Aristaeus\\n## Idmon (possibly)\\n## Autuchus \\n# Danais, Cretan nymph\\n## The Curetes \\n# Daphne\\n# Dia, daughter of Lycaon\\n## Dryops\\n# Dryope\\n## Amphissus\\n# Euboea (daughter of Macareus of Locris)\\n## Agreus\\n# Evadne, daughter of Poseidon\\n## Iamus\\n# Gryne\\n# Hecate\\n## Scylla (possibly) \\n# Hecuba\\n## Troilus\\n## Hector (possibly) \\n# Hestia (wooed her unsuccessfully)\\n# Hypermnestra, wife of Oicles\\n## Amphiaraus (possibly)\\n# Hypsipyle \\n# Hyria (Thyria)\\n## Cycnus\\n# Lycia, nymph or daughter of Xanthus\\n## Eicadius \\n## Patarus \\n# Manto\\n## Mopsus\\n# Marpessa\\n# Melia\\n## Ismenus \\n## Tenerus \\n# Ocyrhoe\\n# Othreis\\n## Phager\\n# Parnethia, nymph\\n## Cynnes \\n# Parthenope\\n## Lycomedes\\n# Phthia\\n## Dorus\\n## Laodocus\\n## Polypoetes\\n# Prothoe \\n# Procleia\\n## Tenes (possibly)\\n# Psamathe\\n## Linus\\n# Rhoeo\\n## Anius\\n# Rhodoessa, nymph\\n## Ceos, eponym of the island Ceos \\n# Rhodope\\n## Cicon, eponym of the tribe Cicones \\n# Sinope\\n## Syrus\\n# Stilbe\\n## Centaurus\\n## Lapithes\\n## Aineus\\n# Syllis / Hyllis\\n## Zeuxippus\\n# Thaleia, Muse / Rhetia, nymph\\n## The Corybantes\\n# Themisto, daughter of Zabius of Hyperborea \\n## Galeotes\\n## Telmessus (?)\\n# Thero\\n## Chaeron\\n# Urania, Muse\\n## Linus (possibly)\\n# Urea, daughter of Poseidon\\n## Ileus (Oileus?)\\n# Wife of Erginus\\n## Trophonius (possibly)\\n# Unknown consorts\\n## Acraepheus, eponym of the city Acraephia \\n## Chariclo (possibly) \\n## Erymanthus\\n## Marathus, eponym of Marathon \\n## Megarus \\n## Melaneus\\n## Oncius \\n## Phemonoe\\n## Pisus, founder of Pisa in Etruria \\n## Younger Muses\\n### Cephisso\\n### Apollonis\\n### Borysthenis\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nMale lovers\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHyacinth or Hyacinthus was one of Apollo's male lovers. He was a Spartan prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair was practicing throwing the discus when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous Zephyrus and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief: out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a flower named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection , meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAnother male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of Heracles. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the Cypress named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOther male lovers of Apollo include:\\n* Admetus \\n* Atymnius, otherwise known as a beloved of Sarpedon\\n* Branchus (alternately, a son of Apollo)\\n* Carnus\\n* Clarus \\n* Hippolytus of Sicyon (not the same as Hippolytus, the son of Theseus) \\n* Hymenaios \\n* Iapis\\n* Leucates, who threw himself off a rock when Apollo attempted to carry him off \\n* Phorbas (probably the son of Triopas) \\n* Potnieus\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo's lyre\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHermes was born on Mount Cyllene in Arcadia. The story is told in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes. His mother, Maia, had been secretly impregnated by Zeus. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHermes ran to Thessaly, where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a tortoise and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first lyre.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became a master of the lyre.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo in the Oresteia\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn Aeschylus' Oresteia trilogy, Clytemnestra kills her husband, King Agamemnon because he had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia to proceed forward with the Trojan war, and Cassandra, a prophetess of Apollo. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon's son, Orestes, is to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the Erinyes (Furies, female personifications of vengeance).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo and the Furies argue about whether the matricide was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOther stories\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo killed the Aloadae when they attempted to storm Mt. Olympus.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nCallimachus sang that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the Hyperboreans during the winter months.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo turned Cephissus into a sea monster.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAnother contender for the birthplace of Apollo is the Cretan islands of Paximadia.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nMusical contests\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nPan\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOnce Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the kithara, to a trial of skill. Tmolus, the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a donkey.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nMarsyas\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo has ominous aspects aside from his plague-bringing, death-dealing arrows: Marsyas was a satyr who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an aulos on the ground, tossed away after being invented by Athena because it made her cheeks puffy. The contest was judged by the Muses.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAfter they each performed, both were deemed equal until Apollo decreed they play and sing at the same time. As Apollo played the lyre, this was easy to do. Marsyas could not do this, as he only knew how to use the flute and could not sing at the same time. Apollo was declared the winner because of this. Apollo flayed Marsyas alive in a cave near Celaenae in Phrygia for his hubris to challenge a god. He then nailed Marsyas' shaggy skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas' blood turned into the river Marsyas.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAnother variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nCinyras\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo also had a lyre-playing contest with Cinyras, his son, who committed suicide when he lost.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nRoman Apollo\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as Phoebus. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOn the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the \\\"Apollinare\\\". During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE, the Ludi Apollinares (\\\"Apollonian Games\\\") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius. In the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAfter the battle of Actium, which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple to the god on the Palatine hill. Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and Diana formed the culmination of the Secular Games, held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nFestivals\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe chief Apollonian festivals were the Boedromia, Carneia, Carpiae, Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Metageitnia, Pyanepsia, Pythia and Thargelia.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAttributes and symbols\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow. Other attributes of his included the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre), the plectrum and the sword. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in Apollo's honor every four years at Delphi. The bay laurel plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe palm tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, cicadas (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows, snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and griffins, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAs god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: Hittite cuneiform texts mention a Minor Asian god called Appaliunas or Apalunas in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo's title of Lykegenes can simply be read as \\\"born in Lycia\\\", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a folk etymology).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the Borghese Vase.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo is often associated with the Golden Mean. This is the Greek ideal of moderation and a virtue that opposes gluttony.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo in the arts\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the Renaissance. The earliest Greek word for a statue is \\\"delight\\\" (, agalma), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe evolution of the Greek sculpture can be observed in his depictions from the almost static formal Kouros type in early archaic period, to the representation of motion in a relative harmonious whole in late archaic period. In classical Greece the emphasis is not given to the illusive imaginative reality represented by the ideal forms, but to the analogies and the interaction of the members in the whole, a method created by Polykleitos. Finally Praxiteles seems to be released from any art and religious conformities, and his masterpieces are a mixture of naturalism with stylization.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nArt and Greek philosophy\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe evolution of the Greek art seems to go parallel with the Greek philosophical conceptions, which changed from the natural-philosophy of Thales to the metaphysical theory of Pythagoras. Thales searched for a simple material-form directly perceptible by the senses, behind the appearances of things, and his theory is also related to the older animism. This was paralleled in sculpture by the absolute representation of vigorous life, through unnaturally simplified forms.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nPythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation. The forms on earth, are imperfect imitations (, eikones, \\\"images\\\") of the celestial world of numbers. His ideas had a great influence on post-Archaic art, and the Greek architects and sculptors were always trying to find the mathematical relation, that would lead to the esthetic perfection. (canon).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn classical Greece, Anaxagoras asserted that a divine reason (mind) gave order to the seeds of the universe, and Plato extended the Greek belief of ideal forms to his metaphysical theory of forms (ideai, \\\"ideas\\\"). The forms on earth are imperfect duplicates of the intellectual celestial ideas. The Greek words oida (, \\\"(I) know\\\") and eidos (, \\\"species\\\") have the same root as the word idea (), indicating how the Greek mind moved from the gift of the senses, to the principles beyond the senses. The artists in Plato's time moved away from his theories and art tends to be a mixture of naturalism with stylization. The Greek sculptors considered the senses more important, and the proportions were used to unite the sensible with the intellectual.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nArchaic sculpture\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nKouros (male youth) is the modern term given to those representations of standing male youths which first appear in the archaic period in Greece. This type served certain religious needs and was first proposed for what was previously thought to be depictions of Apollo. The first statues are certainly still and formal. The formality of their stance seems to be related with the Egyptian precedent, but it was accepted for a good reason. The sculptors had a clear idea of what a young man is, and embodied the archaic smile of good manners, the firm and springy step, the balance of the body, dignity, and youthful happiness. When they tried to depict the most abiding qualities of men, it was because men had common roots with the unchanging gods. The adoption of a standard recognizable type for a long time, is probably because nature gives preference in survival of a type which has long be adopted by the climatic conditions, and also due to the general Greek belief that nature expresses itself in ideal forms that can be imagined and represented. These forms expressed immortality. Apollo was the immortal god of ideal balance and order.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHis shrine in Delphi, that he shared in winter with Dionysius had the inscriptions: (gnōthi seautón\\n\\\"know thyself\\\") and (mēdén ágan, \\\"nothing in excess\\\"), and (eggýa pára d'atē, \\\"make a pledge and mischief is nigh\\\").\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn the first large-scale depictions during the early archaic period (640–580 BC), the artists tried to draw one's attention to look into the interior of the face and the body which were not represented as lifeless masses, but as being full of life. The Greeks maintained, until late in their civilization, an almost animistic idea that the statues are in some sense alive. This embodies the belief that the image was somehow the god or man himself. A fine example is the statue of the Sacred gate Kouros which was found at the cemetery of Dipylon in Athens (Dipylon Kouros). The statue is the \\\"thing in itself\\\", and his slender face with the deep eyes express an intellectual eternity. According to the Greek tradition the Dipylon master was named Daedalus, and in his statues the limbs were freed from the body, giving the impression that the statues could move. It is considered that he created also the New York kouros, which is the oldest fully preserved statue of Kouros type, and seems to be the incarnation of the god himself.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe animistic idea as the representation of the imaginative reality, is sanctified in the Homeric poems and in Greek myths, in stories of the god Hephaestus (Phaistos) and the mythic Daedalus (the builder of the labyrinth) that made images which moved of their own accord. This kind of art goes back to the Minoan period, when its main theme was the representation of motion in a specific moment. These free-standing statues were usually marble, but also the form rendered in limestone, bronze, ivory and terracotta.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo, may be two figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of Apollo Ptoios, Boeotia alone. The last stage in the development of the Kouros type is the late archaic period (520–485 BC), in which the Greek sculpture attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used to create a relative harmonious whole. Ranking from the very few bronzes survived to us is the masterpiece bronze Piraeus Apollo. It was found in Piraeus, the harbour of Athens. The statue originally held the bow in its left hand, and a cup of pouring libation in its right hand. It probably comes from north-eastern Peloponnesus. The emphasis is given in anatomy, and it is one of the first attempts to represent a kind of motion, and beauty relative to proportions, which appear mostly in post-Archaic art. The statue throws some light on an artistic centre which, with an independently developed harder, simpler, and heavier style, restricts Ionian influence in Athens.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nFinally, this is the germ from which the art of Polykleitos was to grow two or three generations later.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nClassical sculpture\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn the next century which is the beginning of the Classical period, it was considered that beauty in visible things as in everything else, consisted of symmetry and proportions. The artists tried also to represent motion in a specific moment (Myron), which may be considered as the reappearance of the dormant Minoan element. Anatomy and geometry are fused in one, and each does something to the other. The Greek sculptors tried to clarify it by looking for mathematical proportions, just as they sought some reality behind appearances. Polykleitos in his Canon wrote that beauty consists in the proportion not of the elements (materials), but of the parts, that is the interrelation of parts with one another and with the whole. It seems that he was influenced by the theories of Pythagoras. The famous Apollo of Mantua and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type, in which the god holds the cithara in his left arm.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe type is represented by neo-Attic Imperial Roman copies of the late 1st or early 2nd century, modelled upon a supposed Greek bronze original made in the second quarter of the 5th century BCE, in a style similar to works of Polykleitos but more archaic. The Apollo held the cythara against his extended left arm, of which in the Louvre example, a fragment of one twisting scrolling horn upright remains against his biceps.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThough the proportions were always important in Greek art, the appeal of the Greek sculptures eludes any explanation by proportion alone. The statues of Apollo were thought to incarnate his living presence, and these representations of illusive imaginative reality had deep roots in the Minoan period, and in the beliefs of the first Greek speaking people who entered the region during the bronze-age. Just as the Greeks saw the mountains, forests, sea and rivers as inhabited by concrete beings, so nature in all of its manifestations possesses clear form, and the form of a work of art. Spiritual life is incorporated in matter, when it is given artistic form. Just as in the arts the Greeks sought some reality behind appearances, so in mathematics they sought permanent principles which could be applied wherever the conditions were the same. Artists and sculptors tried to find this ideal order in relation with mathematics, but they believed that this ideal order revealed itself not so much to the dispassionate intellect, as to the whole sentient self. Things as we see them, and as they really are, are one, that each stresses the nature of the other in a single unity.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nPediments and friezes\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn the archaic pediments and friezes of the temples, the artists had a problem to fit a group of figures into an isosceles triangle with acute angles at the base.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe Siphnian Treasury in Delphi was one of the first Greek buildings utilizing the solution to put the dominating form in the middle, and to complete the descending scale of height with other figures sitting or kneeling. The pediment shows the story of Heracles stealing Apollo's tripod that was strongly associated with his oracular inspiration. Their two figures hold the centre. In the pediment of the temple of Zeus in Olympia, the single figure of Apollo is dominating the scene.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThese representations rely on presenting scenes directly to the eye for their own visible sake. They care for the schematic arrangements of bodies in space, but only as parts in a larger whole. While each scene has its own character and completeness it must fit into the general sequence to which it belongs. In these archaic pediments the sculptors use empty intervals, to suggest a passage to and fro a busy battlefield. The artists seem to have been dominated by geometrical pattern and order, and this was improved when classical art brought a greater freedom and economy.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHellenistic Greece-Rome\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a kithara (as Apollo Citharoedus) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the Apollo Lykeios and Apollo Sauroctonos types). The Apollo Belvedere is a marble sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans, from the Renaissance through the 19th century. The marble is a Hellenistic or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor Leochares, made between 350 and 325 BCE.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe life-size so-called \\\"Adonis\\\" found in 1780 on the site of a villa suburbana near the Via Labicana in the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from El Djem, Roman Thysdrus, he is identifiable as Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAnother haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse. The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict Alexander the Great. Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nModern reception\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a \\\"Hymn of Apollo\\\" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky's Apollon musagète (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band Rush released an album with songs \\\"Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom\\\"/\\\"Dionysus: Bringer of Love\\\".\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the Apollonian and Dionysian impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. Friedrich Nietzsche argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. Carl Jung's Apollo archetype represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn spaceflight, the NASA program for landing astronauts on the Moon was named Apollo.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nGenealogy\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nIn Greek mythology, Priam (; Príamos,) was the king of Troy during the Trojan War and youngest son of Laomedon.\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nModern scholars derive his name from the Luwian name Pariya-muwas, which meant “exceptionally courageous” and was attested as the name of a man from Zazlippa, in Kizzuwatna. A similar form is attested transcribed in Greek as Paramoas near Kaisareia in Cappadocia.\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nNotable is also Piyama-Radu, a warlike man whose name figures prominently in the Hittite archives, possibly bearing a related name.\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nLife\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nPriam was originally called Podarces and he kept himself from being killed by Heracles by giving him a golden veil embroidered by his sister, Hesione. After this, Podarces changed his name to Priam. This is a folk etymology based on πριατός priatos, \\\"ransomed\\\" from πρίασθαι priasthai, \\\"to buy.\\\"\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nIn Iliad Book 3, Priam tells Helen of Troy that he once helped King Mygdon of Phrygia defend against the Amazons.\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nWhen Hector is killed by Achilles, the Greek warrior treats the body with disrespect and refuses to give it back. Zeus sends the god Hermes to escort King Priam, Hector’s father and the ruler of Troy, into the Greek camp. Priam tearfully pleads with Achilles to take pity on a father bereft of his son and return Hector’s body. He invokes the memory of Achilles’ own father, Peleus. Priam begs Achilles to pity him, saying \\\"I have endured what no one on earth has ever done before — I put my lips to the hands of the man who killed my son.\\\" Deeply moved, Achilles relents and returns Hector’s corpse to the Trojans. Both sides agree to a temporary truce, and Achilles gives Priam leave to hold a proper funeral for Hector, complete with funeral games. He promises that no Greek will engage in combat for nine days, but on the twelfth day of peace, the mighty war between the Greeks and the Trojans would resume.\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nPriam is killed during the Sack of Troy by Achilles' son Neoptolemus (also known as Pyrrhus). His death is graphically related in Book II of Virgil's Aeneid. In Virgil's description, Neoptolemus first kills Priam's son Polites in front of his father as he seeks sanctuary on the altar of Zeus. Priam rebukes Neoptolemus, throwing a spear at him, harmlessly hitting his shield. Neoptolemus then drags Priam to the altar and there kills him too.\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nIt has been suggested by Hittite sources, specifically the Manapa-Tarhunta letter, that there is historical basis for the archetype of King Priam. The letter describes one Piyama-Radu as a troublesome rebel who overthrew a Hittite client king and thereafter established his own rule over the city of Troy (mentioned as Wilusa in Hittite). There is also mention of an Alaksandu, suggested to be Paris Alexander (King Priam's son from the Iliad), a later ruler of the city of Wilusa who established peace between Wilusa and Hatti (see the Alaksandu treaty).\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nMarriage and issue\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nSee List of children of Priam\\nPriam had many wives; his first was Arisbe, who had given birth to his son Aesacus, who met his death before the Trojan War. Priam later divorced her in favor of Hecuba (or Hecebe), daughter of the Phrygian king Dymas. By his various wives and concubines Priam was the father of fifty sons and many daughters. Hector was Priam's eldest son by Hecuba, and heir to the Trojan throne. Paris (also known as Alexander), another son, was the cause of the Trojan War. Other children of Priam and Hecuba include the prophetic Helenus and Cassandra; eldest daughter Ilione; Deiphobus; Troilus; Polites; Creusa, wife of Aeneas; Laodice, wife of Helicaon; Polyxena, who was slaughtered on the grave of Achilles; and Polydorus, his youngest son.\",\n \"Priam\\n\\nFamily tree\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137094,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2324"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What can be a South American capital, a pepper, or a Porsche?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Cayenne"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["cayena","cayenne french guiana","capital of french guiana","cayenne","cayenne france","isle de cayenne","caiena","america cayenne"],"string":"[\n \"cayena\",\n \"cayenne french guiana\",\n \"capital of french guiana\",\n \"cayenne\",\n \"cayenne france\",\n \"isle de cayenne\",\n \"caiena\",\n \"america cayenne\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Porsche\n\nDr.-Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, usually shortened to Porsche AG, is a German automobile manufacturer specializing in high-performance sports cars, SUVs and sedans. Porsche AG is headquartered in Stuttgart, and is owned by Volkswagen AG, which is itself majority-owned by Porsche Automobil Holding SE. Porsche's current lineup includes the 718 Boxster/Cayman, 911, Panamera, Macan and Cayenne.","Porsche\n\nHistory","Porsche\n\nOrigin","Porsche\n\nFerdinand Porsche founded the company called \"Dr. Ing. h. c. F. Porsche GmbH\" in 1931, with main offices at Kronenstraße 24 in the centre of Stuttgart. Initially, the company offered motor vehicle development work and consulting, but did not build any cars under its own name. One of the first assignments the new company received was from the German government to design a car for the people, that is a \"Volkswagen\". This resulted in the Volkswagen Beetle, one of the most successful car designs of all time. The Porsche 64 was developed in 1939 using many components from the Beetle.","Porsche\n\nDuring World War II, Volkswagen production turned to the military version of the Volkswagen Beetle, the Kübelwagen, 52,000 produced, and Schwimmwagen, 15,584 produced. Porsche produced several designs for heavy tanks during the war, losing out to Henschel & Son in both contracts that ultimately led to the Tiger I and the Tiger II. However, not all this work was wasted, as the chassis Porsche designed for the Tiger I was used as the base for the Elefant tank destroyer. Porsche also developed the Maus super-heavy tank in the closing stages of the war, producing two prototypes.","Porsche\n\nAt the end of World War II in 1945, the Volkswagen factory at KdF-Stadt fell to the British. Ferdinand lost his position as Chairman of the Board of Management of Volkswagen, and Ivan Hirst, a British Army Major, was put in charge of the factory (in Wolfsburg, the Volkswagen company magazine dubbed him \"The British Major who saved Volkswagen\"). On 15 December of that year, Ferdinand was arrested for war crimes, but not tried. During his 20-month imprisonment, Ferdinand Porsche's son, Ferry Porsche, decided to build his own car, because he could not find an existing one that he wanted to buy. He also had to steer the company through some of its most difficult days until his father's release in August 1947. The first models of what was to become the 356 were built in a small sawmill in Gmünd, Austria. The prototype car was shown to German auto dealers, and when pre-orders reached a set threshold, production (with Aluminium body) was begun by Porsche Konstruktionen GesmbH founded by Ferry and Louise. Many regard the 356 as the first Porsche simply because it was the first model sold by the fledgling company along with Porsche 360.","Porsche\n\nAfter the production of 356 was taken over by the father's Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche GmbH in Stuttgart in 1950, Porsche commissioned a Zuffenhausen-based company, Reutter Karosserie, which had previously collaborated with the firm on Volkswagen Beetle prototypes, to produce the 356's steel body. In 1952, Porsche constructed an assembly plant (Werk 2) across the street from Reutter Karosserie; the main road in front of Werk 1, the oldest Porsche building, is now known as Porschestrasse. The 356 was road certified in 1948.","Porsche\n\nCompany logo","Porsche\n\nPorsche logotype.png|Porsche logo\nWappen Volksstaat Württemberg (Farbe).svg|Weimar-era Württemberg coat of arms\nCoat of arms of Stuttgart.svg|Coat of arms of Stuttgart","Porsche\n\nPorsche's company logo was based on the coat of arms of the Free People's State of Württemberg of former Weimar Germany, which had Stuttgart as its capital (the same arms were used by Württemberg-Hohenzollern from 1945-1952, while Stuttgart during these years was the capital of adjacent Württemberg-Baden). The arms of Stuttgart was placed in the middle as an inescutcheon, since the cars were made in Stuttgart. The heraldic symbols were combined with the texts \"Porsche\" and \"Stuttgart\", which shows that it is not a coat of arms since heraldic achievements never spell out the name of the armiger nor the armigers home town in the shield.","Porsche\n\nWürttemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern became part of the present land of Baden-Württemberg in 1952 after the political consolidation of West Germany in 1949, and the old design of the arms of Württemberg now only lives on in the Porsche logo. On 30 January 1951, not long before the creation of Baden-Württemberg, Ferdinand Porsche died from complications following a stroke.","Porsche\n\nDevelopments","Porsche\n\nIn post-war Germany, parts were generally in short supply, so the 356 automobile used components from the Volkswagen Beetle, including the engine case from its internal combustion engine, transmission, and several parts used in the suspension. The 356, however, had several evolutionary stages, A, B, and C, while in production, and most Volkswagen sourced parts were replaced by Porsche-made parts. Beginning in 1954 the 356s engines started utilizing engine cases designed specifically for the 356. The sleek bodywork was designed by Erwin Komenda who also had designed the body of the Beetle. Porsche's signature designs have, from the beginning, featured air-cooled rear-engine configurations (like the Beetle), rare for other car manufacturers, but producing automobiles that are very well balanced.","Porsche\n\nIn 1964, after a fair amount of success in motor-racing with various models including the 550 Spyder, and with the 356 needing a major re-design, the company launched the Porsche 911: another air-cooled, rear-engined sports car, this time with a six-cylinder \"boxer\" engine. The team to lay out the body shell design was led by Ferry Porsche's eldest son, Ferdinand Alexander Porsche (F. A.). The design phase for the 911 caused internal problems with Erwin Komenda, who led the body design department until then. F. A. Porsche complained Komenda made unauthorized changes to the design. Company leader Ferry Porsche took his son's drawings to neighboring chassis manufacturer Reuter. Reuter's workshop was later acquired by Porsche (so-called Werk 2). Afterward Reuter became a seat manufacturer, today known as Keiper-Recaro.","Porsche\n\nThe design office gave sequential numbers to every project (See Porsche type numbers), but the designated 901 nomenclature contravened Peugeot's trademarks on all 'x0x' names, so it was adjusted to 911. Racing models adhered to the \"correct\" numbering sequence: 904, 906, 908. The 911 has become Porsche's most well-known and iconic model – successful on the race-track, in rallies, and in terms of road car sales. Far more than any other model, the Porsche brand is defined by the 911. It remains in production; however, after several generations of revision, current-model 911s share only the basic mechanical configuration of a rear-engined, six-cylinder coupé, and basic styling cues with the original car. A cost-reduced model with the same body, but with 356-derived four-cylinder engine, was sold as the 912.","Porsche\n\nIn 1972, the company's legal form was changed from Kommanditgesellschaft (KG), or limited partnership, to Aktiengesellschaft (AG), or public limited company, because Ferry Porsche came to believe the scale of the company outgrew a \"family operation\", after learning about Soichiro Honda's \"no family members in the company\" policy at Honda. This led to the establishment of an Executive Board with members from outside the Porsche family, and a Supervisory Board consisting largely of family members. With this change, most family members in the operation of the company including F. A. Porsche and Ferdinand Piëch departed from the company.","Porsche\n\nF. A. Porsche founded his own design company, Porsche Design, which is renowned for exclusive sunglasses, watches, furniture, and many other luxury articles. Louise's son and Ferry's nephew Ferdinand Piëch, who was responsible for mechanical development of Porsche's production and racing cars (including the very successful 911, 908 and 917 models), formed his own engineering bureau, and developed a five-cylinder-inline diesel engine for Mercedes-Benz. A short time later he moved to Audi (used to be a division, then a subsidiary, of Volkswagen), and pursued his career through the entire company, ultimately becoming the Chairman of Volkswagen Group.","Porsche\n\nThe first Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Porsche AG was Dr. Ernst Fuhrmann, who had been working in the company's engine development division. Fuhrmann was responsible for the so-called Fuhrmann-engine, used in the 356 Carrera models as well as the 550 Spyder, having four overhead camshafts instead of a central camshaft with pushrods, as in the Volkswagen-derived serial engines. He planned to cease the 911 during the 1970s, and replace it with the V8-front engined grand sportswagon 928. As we know today, the 911 outlived the 928 by far. Fuhrmann was replaced in the early 1980s by Peter W. Schutz, an American manager and self-proclaimed 911 aficionado. He was then replaced in 1988 by the former manager of German computer company Nixdorf Computer AG, Arno Bohn, who made some costly miscalculations that led to his dismissal soon after, along with that of the development director, Dr. Ulrich Bez, who was formerly responsible for BMW's Z1 model, and is today the CEO of Aston Martin.","Porsche\n\nIn 1990, Porsche drew up a memorandum of understanding with Toyota to learn and benefit from Japanese lean manufacturing methods. In 2004 it was reported that Toyota was assisting Porsche with hybrid technology.","Porsche\n\nFollowing the dismissal of Bohn, Heinz Branitzki, a longtime Porsche employee, was appointed as interim CEO. Branitzki served in that position until Wendelin Wiedeking became CEO in 1993. Wiedeking took over the chairmanship of the board at a time when Porsche appeared vulnerable to a takeover by a larger company. During his long tenure, Wiedeking transformed Porsche into a very efficient and profitable company.","Porsche\n\nFerdinand Porsche's nephew, Ferdinand Piëch, was chairman and CEO of the Volkswagen Group from 1993 to 2002, and is chairman of the Volkswagen AG Supervisory Board since. With 12.8 percent of the Porsche SE voting shares, he also remains the second largest individual shareholder of Porsche SE after his cousin, F. A. Porsche, (13.6 percent).","Porsche\n\nPorsche's 2002 introduction of the Cayenne also marked the unveiling of a new production facility in Leipzig, Saxony, which once accounted for nearly half of Porsche's annual output. In 2004, production of the 456 kW Carrera GT commenced in Leipzig, and at EUR 450,000 ($440,000 in the United States) it was the most expensive production model Porsche ever built.","Porsche\n\nIn mid-2006, after years of the Boxster (and later the Cayenne) as the best selling Porsche in North America, the 911 regained its position as Porsche's best-seller in the region. The Cayenne and 911 have cycled as the top-selling model since. In Germany, the 911 outsells the Boxster/Cayman and Cayenne.","Porsche\n\nIn May 2011, Porsche Cars North America announced plans to spend $80–$100 million, but will receive about $15 million in economic incentives to move their North American headquarters from Sandy Springs, a suburb of Atlanta, to Aerotropolis, Atlanta, a new mixed-use development on the site of the old Ford Hapeville plant adjacent to Atlanta's airport. Designed by architectural firm HOK, the headquarters will include a new office building and test track. The facility will be known by its new address, One Porsche Drive.","Porsche\n\nRelationship with Volkswagen","Porsche\n\nThe company has always had a close relationship with, initially, the Volkswagen (VW) marque, and later, the Volkswagen Group (which also owns Audi AG), because the first Volkswagen Beetle was designed by Ferdinand Porsche.","Porsche\n\nThe two companies collaborated in 1969 to make the VW-Porsche 914 and 914-6, whereby the 914-6 had a Porsche engine, and the 914 had a Volkswagen engine, in 1976 with the Porsche 912E (USA only) and the Porsche 924, which used many Audi components, and was built at Audi's Neckarsulm factory. Porsche 944s were also built there, although they used far fewer Volkswagen components. The Cayenne, introduced in 2002, shares its chassis with the Volkswagen Touareg and the Audi Q7, which is built at the Volkswagen Group factory in Bratislava, Slovakia.","Porsche\n\nCorporate restructuring","Porsche\n\nPorsche SE was created in June 2007 by renaming the old Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, and became a holding company for the families' stake in Porsche Zwischenholding GmbH (50.1%) (which in turn held 100% of the old Porsche AG) and Volkswagen AG (50.7%). At the same time, the new Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG (Porsche AG) was created for the car manufacturing business.","Porsche\n\nIn August 2009, Porsche SE and Volkswagen AG reached an agreement that the car manufacturing operations of the two companies would merge in 2011, to form an \"Integrated Automotive Group\". The management of Volkswagen AG agreed to 50.76% of Volkswagen AG being owned by Porsche SE in return for Volkswagen AG management taking Porsche SE management positions (in order for Volkswagen management to remain in control), and for Volkswagen AG acquiring ownership of Porsche AG.","Porsche\n\nAs of the end of 2013, the 50.76% control interest in VW AG is the predominant investment by Porsche SE, and Volkswagen AG in turn controls brands and companies such as Volkswagen, Audi, SEAT, Škoda, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, Porsche AG, Ducati, VW Commercial Vehicles, Scania, MAN, as well as Volkswagen Financial Services.","Porsche\n\nDr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG (which stands for Doktor Ingenieur honoris causa Ferdinand Porsche Aktiengesellschaft), as a 100% subsidiary of VW AG, is responsible for the actual production and manufacture of the Porsche automobile line. The company currently produces Porsche 911, Boxster and Cayman sports cars, the Cayenne and Macan sport utility vehicles, the four-door Panamera, and the 918 Spyder super car.","Porsche\n\nSubsidiaries","Porsche\n\nPorsche AG has a 29% share in German engineering and design consultancy Bertrandt AG and 81.8% of Mieschke Hofmann und Partner.","Porsche\n\nWholly owned subsidiaries of Porsche AG include Porsche Consulting GmbH.","Porsche\n\nProduction and sales","Porsche\n\nThe headquarters and main factory are located in Zuffenhausen, a district in Stuttgart, but the Cayenne and Panamera models are manufactured in Leipzig, Germany, and parts for the SUV are also assembled in the Volkswagen Touareg factory in Bratislava, Slovakia. Boxster and Cayman production was outsourced to Valmet Automotive in Finland from 1997 to 2011, and in 2012 production moved to Germany.","Porsche\n\nIn 2008, Porsche reported selling a total of 98,652 cars, 13,524 (13.7%) as domestic German sales, and 85,128 (86.3%) internationally.","Porsche\n\nThe company has been highly successful in recent times, and indeed claims to have the highest profit per unit sold of any car company in the world. Table of profits (in millions of euros) and number of cars produced. Figures from 2008/9 onwards were not reported as part of Porsche SE.","Porsche\n\nProduction composition","Porsche\n\nOf the 165,808 cars produced in the 2013 financial year, 29,751 (17.9%) were 911 models, 28,996 (17.5%) were Boxster and Cayman cars, 81,916 (49.4%) were Cayennes, 24,798 (15.0%) were Panameras. There were 312 Macan and 35 918 Spyder models also reported. The production figures of sports cars were quite similar to the 2001/2 totals when 33,061 Porsche 911 and 21,989 Boxsters were produced.","Porsche\n\nNorth American sales","Porsche\n\nModels","Porsche\n\nThe current Porsche model range includes sports cars from the Boxster roadster to their most famous product, the 911. The Cayman is a coupé otherwise similar to the Boxster. The Cayenne is Porsche's mid-size luxury sport utility vehicle (SUV). A high performance luxury saloon/sedan, the Panamera, was launched in 2009.","Porsche\n\nNote: models in bold are current models","Porsche\n\nConsumer models","Porsche\n\nPorsche Cayman S - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (cropped).jpg|Porsche Cayman\n2013 Porsche Boxster -- 2012 NYIAS.JPG|Porsche Boxster\nPorsche Panamera 970, facelift, front view.jpg|Porsche Panamera\n2014 Porsche Cayenne (92A MY14) GTS wagon (2015-08-07) 01.jpg|Porsche Cayenne\n2014 Porsche Macan (MY15) S wagon (2015-08-24).JPG|2014 Porsche Macan","Porsche\n\n*356\n*911 4-seat coupe, targa and cabriolet\n*911 GT1 Straßenversion\n*912\n*914\n*918 Spyder\n*924\n*928 4-seat grand tourer\n*930\n*944\n*959\n*968\n*964\n*993\n*996\n*997\n*991\n*Boxster (986,987,981) 2-seat roadster (Base, S, GTS, Spyder)\n*Carrera GT\n*Cayman (987,981) 2-seat coupe (Base, S, R, GTS, GT4)\n*Cayenne SUV\n*Macan SUV Crossover\n*Panamera 4-seat sports sedan","Porsche\n\nRacing models","Porsche\n\n*64\n*360 Cisitalia\n*550 Spyder\n*718\n*787\n*804\n*904\n*906\n*907\n*908\n*909 Bergspyder\n*910\n*917\n*918 RSR\n*919 hybrid\n*934\n*935\n*936\n*956\n*961\n*962\n*Porsche-March 89P\n*WSC-95 / LMP1-98\n*LMP2000 (never raced)\n*RS Spyder (9R6)","Porsche\n\nPrototypes and concept cars","Porsche\n\n*Porsche 114\n*Porsche 356/1\n*Porsche 695 (911 prototype)\n*Porsche 901 (911 prototype)\n*Porsche 916 (flat-6 914)\n*Porsche 942\n*Porsche 959 Prototype\n*Porsche 969\n*Porsche 989\n*Porsche Boxster concept\n*Porsche C88\n*Porsche Panamericana\n*Porsche Mission E, all-electric 4-door","Porsche\n\nTractors","Porsche\n\n*Porsche Type 110\n*Porsche AP Series\n*Porsche Junior (14 hp)\n*Porsche Standard (25 hp)\n*Porsche Super (38 hp)\n*Porsche Master (50 hp)\n*Porsche 312\n*Porsche 108F\n*Porsche R22","Porsche\n\nHybrid and electric vehicles","Porsche\n\nIn 2010 Porsche launched the Cayenne S Hybrid and announced the Panamera S Hybrid, and launched the Porsche 918 hypercar in 2014, which also features a hybrid system. Also a plug-in hybrid model called the Panamera S E-Hybrid was released in October 2013 in the United States, and during the fourth quarter of 2013 in several European countries.","Porsche\n\nPorsche developed a prototype electric Porsche Boxster called the Boxster E in 2011 and a hybrid version of the 911 called the GT3 R Hybrid, developed with Williams Grand Prix Engineering in 2010.","Porsche\n\nIn July 2014 Porsche announced the launch by the end of 2014 of the Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid a plug-in hybrid, which will displaced the Cayenne S Hybrid from the line up. The S E-Hybrid will be the first plug-in hybrid in the premium SUV segment and will allow Porsche to become the first automaker with three production plug-in hybrid models.","Porsche\n\nAircraft engines","Porsche\n\nSee Porsche PFM 3200.","Porsche\n\nMotorsport","Porsche\n\nPorsche is the most successful brand in motorsport, scoring a total of more than 28,000 victories, including a record 16 constructor wins at the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Porsche is currently the world's largest race car manufacturer. In 2006, Porsche built 195 race cars for various international motor sports events. In 2007, Porsche is expected to construct no fewer than 275 dedicated race cars (7 RS Spyder LMP2 prototypes, 37 GT2 spec 911 GT3-RSRs, and 231 911 GT3 Cup vehicles).","Porsche\n\nPronunciation of \"Porsche\"","Porsche\n\nIn keeping with the family name of founder Ferdinand Porsche, the company's name is pronounced in German, which corresponds to in English, homophonous with the feminine name Portia. However, in English it is often pronounced as a single syllable —without a final. In German orthography, word-final is not silent but is instead an unstressed schwa.","Porsche\n\nReputation","Porsche\n\nIn a survey conducted by the Luxury Institute in New York, Porsche was awarded the title of \"the most prestigious automobile brand\". 500 households with a gross annual income of at least $200,000 and a net worth of at least $720,000 participated.","Porsche\n\nPorsche won the J.D. Power and Associates Initial Quality Study (IQS) in 2006, 2009, 2010, and 2014.","Porsche\n\nReliability","Porsche\n\nA Canadian study in 2011 revealed that 97.4 percent of Porsches from the last 25 years are still on the road.","Porsche\n\nIn 2014, the Cayman and Boxster made the Consumer Reports list for most reliable vehicles on the road.","Porsche\n\nPorsche's 911 has been officially named by the Technischer Überwachungsverein (Technical Inspection Association) as Germany's most reliable car.","Porsche\n\nSUV reception","Porsche\n\nAccording to CNBC, even an at-the-time questionable foray into the SUV market with the Cayenne in 2003, could not damage Porsche credibility. In 2009, The Times journalist Andrew Frankel says on one level, it is the world's best 4x4, on another, it is the cynical exploitation of a glorious brand that risks long-term damage to that brand's very identity in the pursuit of easy money with his verdict being \"Great car, if only it wasn't a Porsche\".","Porsche\n\nIn 2015, US News ranked the Macan as the best luxury compact SUV in its class."],"string":"[\n \"Porsche\\n\\nDr.-Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, usually shortened to Porsche AG, is a German automobile manufacturer specializing in high-performance sports cars, SUVs and sedans. Porsche AG is headquartered in Stuttgart, and is owned by Volkswagen AG, which is itself majority-owned by Porsche Automobil Holding SE. Porsche's current lineup includes the 718 Boxster/Cayman, 911, Panamera, Macan and Cayenne.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nOrigin\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nFerdinand Porsche founded the company called \\\"Dr. Ing. h. c. F. Porsche GmbH\\\" in 1931, with main offices at Kronenstraße 24 in the centre of Stuttgart. Initially, the company offered motor vehicle development work and consulting, but did not build any cars under its own name. One of the first assignments the new company received was from the German government to design a car for the people, that is a \\\"Volkswagen\\\". This resulted in the Volkswagen Beetle, one of the most successful car designs of all time. The Porsche 64 was developed in 1939 using many components from the Beetle.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nDuring World War II, Volkswagen production turned to the military version of the Volkswagen Beetle, the Kübelwagen, 52,000 produced, and Schwimmwagen, 15,584 produced. Porsche produced several designs for heavy tanks during the war, losing out to Henschel & Son in both contracts that ultimately led to the Tiger I and the Tiger II. However, not all this work was wasted, as the chassis Porsche designed for the Tiger I was used as the base for the Elefant tank destroyer. Porsche also developed the Maus super-heavy tank in the closing stages of the war, producing two prototypes.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nAt the end of World War II in 1945, the Volkswagen factory at KdF-Stadt fell to the British. Ferdinand lost his position as Chairman of the Board of Management of Volkswagen, and Ivan Hirst, a British Army Major, was put in charge of the factory (in Wolfsburg, the Volkswagen company magazine dubbed him \\\"The British Major who saved Volkswagen\\\"). On 15 December of that year, Ferdinand was arrested for war crimes, but not tried. During his 20-month imprisonment, Ferdinand Porsche's son, Ferry Porsche, decided to build his own car, because he could not find an existing one that he wanted to buy. He also had to steer the company through some of its most difficult days until his father's release in August 1947. The first models of what was to become the 356 were built in a small sawmill in Gmünd, Austria. The prototype car was shown to German auto dealers, and when pre-orders reached a set threshold, production (with Aluminium body) was begun by Porsche Konstruktionen GesmbH founded by Ferry and Louise. Many regard the 356 as the first Porsche simply because it was the first model sold by the fledgling company along with Porsche 360.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nAfter the production of 356 was taken over by the father's Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche GmbH in Stuttgart in 1950, Porsche commissioned a Zuffenhausen-based company, Reutter Karosserie, which had previously collaborated with the firm on Volkswagen Beetle prototypes, to produce the 356's steel body. In 1952, Porsche constructed an assembly plant (Werk 2) across the street from Reutter Karosserie; the main road in front of Werk 1, the oldest Porsche building, is now known as Porschestrasse. The 356 was road certified in 1948.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nCompany logo\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nPorsche logotype.png|Porsche logo\\nWappen Volksstaat Württemberg (Farbe).svg|Weimar-era Württemberg coat of arms\\nCoat of arms of Stuttgart.svg|Coat of arms of Stuttgart\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nPorsche's company logo was based on the coat of arms of the Free People's State of Württemberg of former Weimar Germany, which had Stuttgart as its capital (the same arms were used by Württemberg-Hohenzollern from 1945-1952, while Stuttgart during these years was the capital of adjacent Württemberg-Baden). The arms of Stuttgart was placed in the middle as an inescutcheon, since the cars were made in Stuttgart. The heraldic symbols were combined with the texts \\\"Porsche\\\" and \\\"Stuttgart\\\", which shows that it is not a coat of arms since heraldic achievements never spell out the name of the armiger nor the armigers home town in the shield.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nWürttemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern became part of the present land of Baden-Württemberg in 1952 after the political consolidation of West Germany in 1949, and the old design of the arms of Württemberg now only lives on in the Porsche logo. On 30 January 1951, not long before the creation of Baden-Württemberg, Ferdinand Porsche died from complications following a stroke.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nDevelopments\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn post-war Germany, parts were generally in short supply, so the 356 automobile used components from the Volkswagen Beetle, including the engine case from its internal combustion engine, transmission, and several parts used in the suspension. The 356, however, had several evolutionary stages, A, B, and C, while in production, and most Volkswagen sourced parts were replaced by Porsche-made parts. Beginning in 1954 the 356s engines started utilizing engine cases designed specifically for the 356. The sleek bodywork was designed by Erwin Komenda who also had designed the body of the Beetle. Porsche's signature designs have, from the beginning, featured air-cooled rear-engine configurations (like the Beetle), rare for other car manufacturers, but producing automobiles that are very well balanced.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn 1964, after a fair amount of success in motor-racing with various models including the 550 Spyder, and with the 356 needing a major re-design, the company launched the Porsche 911: another air-cooled, rear-engined sports car, this time with a six-cylinder \\\"boxer\\\" engine. The team to lay out the body shell design was led by Ferry Porsche's eldest son, Ferdinand Alexander Porsche (F. A.). The design phase for the 911 caused internal problems with Erwin Komenda, who led the body design department until then. F. A. Porsche complained Komenda made unauthorized changes to the design. Company leader Ferry Porsche took his son's drawings to neighboring chassis manufacturer Reuter. Reuter's workshop was later acquired by Porsche (so-called Werk 2). Afterward Reuter became a seat manufacturer, today known as Keiper-Recaro.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nThe design office gave sequential numbers to every project (See Porsche type numbers), but the designated 901 nomenclature contravened Peugeot's trademarks on all 'x0x' names, so it was adjusted to 911. Racing models adhered to the \\\"correct\\\" numbering sequence: 904, 906, 908. The 911 has become Porsche's most well-known and iconic model – successful on the race-track, in rallies, and in terms of road car sales. Far more than any other model, the Porsche brand is defined by the 911. It remains in production; however, after several generations of revision, current-model 911s share only the basic mechanical configuration of a rear-engined, six-cylinder coupé, and basic styling cues with the original car. A cost-reduced model with the same body, but with 356-derived four-cylinder engine, was sold as the 912.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn 1972, the company's legal form was changed from Kommanditgesellschaft (KG), or limited partnership, to Aktiengesellschaft (AG), or public limited company, because Ferry Porsche came to believe the scale of the company outgrew a \\\"family operation\\\", after learning about Soichiro Honda's \\\"no family members in the company\\\" policy at Honda. This led to the establishment of an Executive Board with members from outside the Porsche family, and a Supervisory Board consisting largely of family members. With this change, most family members in the operation of the company including F. A. Porsche and Ferdinand Piëch departed from the company.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nF. A. Porsche founded his own design company, Porsche Design, which is renowned for exclusive sunglasses, watches, furniture, and many other luxury articles. Louise's son and Ferry's nephew Ferdinand Piëch, who was responsible for mechanical development of Porsche's production and racing cars (including the very successful 911, 908 and 917 models), formed his own engineering bureau, and developed a five-cylinder-inline diesel engine for Mercedes-Benz. A short time later he moved to Audi (used to be a division, then a subsidiary, of Volkswagen), and pursued his career through the entire company, ultimately becoming the Chairman of Volkswagen Group.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nThe first Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Porsche AG was Dr. Ernst Fuhrmann, who had been working in the company's engine development division. Fuhrmann was responsible for the so-called Fuhrmann-engine, used in the 356 Carrera models as well as the 550 Spyder, having four overhead camshafts instead of a central camshaft with pushrods, as in the Volkswagen-derived serial engines. He planned to cease the 911 during the 1970s, and replace it with the V8-front engined grand sportswagon 928. As we know today, the 911 outlived the 928 by far. Fuhrmann was replaced in the early 1980s by Peter W. Schutz, an American manager and self-proclaimed 911 aficionado. He was then replaced in 1988 by the former manager of German computer company Nixdorf Computer AG, Arno Bohn, who made some costly miscalculations that led to his dismissal soon after, along with that of the development director, Dr. Ulrich Bez, who was formerly responsible for BMW's Z1 model, and is today the CEO of Aston Martin.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn 1990, Porsche drew up a memorandum of understanding with Toyota to learn and benefit from Japanese lean manufacturing methods. In 2004 it was reported that Toyota was assisting Porsche with hybrid technology.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nFollowing the dismissal of Bohn, Heinz Branitzki, a longtime Porsche employee, was appointed as interim CEO. Branitzki served in that position until Wendelin Wiedeking became CEO in 1993. Wiedeking took over the chairmanship of the board at a time when Porsche appeared vulnerable to a takeover by a larger company. During his long tenure, Wiedeking transformed Porsche into a very efficient and profitable company.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nFerdinand Porsche's nephew, Ferdinand Piëch, was chairman and CEO of the Volkswagen Group from 1993 to 2002, and is chairman of the Volkswagen AG Supervisory Board since. With 12.8 percent of the Porsche SE voting shares, he also remains the second largest individual shareholder of Porsche SE after his cousin, F. A. Porsche, (13.6 percent).\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nPorsche's 2002 introduction of the Cayenne also marked the unveiling of a new production facility in Leipzig, Saxony, which once accounted for nearly half of Porsche's annual output. In 2004, production of the 456 kW Carrera GT commenced in Leipzig, and at EUR 450,000 ($440,000 in the United States) it was the most expensive production model Porsche ever built.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn mid-2006, after years of the Boxster (and later the Cayenne) as the best selling Porsche in North America, the 911 regained its position as Porsche's best-seller in the region. The Cayenne and 911 have cycled as the top-selling model since. In Germany, the 911 outsells the Boxster/Cayman and Cayenne.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn May 2011, Porsche Cars North America announced plans to spend $80–$100 million, but will receive about $15 million in economic incentives to move their North American headquarters from Sandy Springs, a suburb of Atlanta, to Aerotropolis, Atlanta, a new mixed-use development on the site of the old Ford Hapeville plant adjacent to Atlanta's airport. Designed by architectural firm HOK, the headquarters will include a new office building and test track. The facility will be known by its new address, One Porsche Drive.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nRelationship with Volkswagen\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nThe company has always had a close relationship with, initially, the Volkswagen (VW) marque, and later, the Volkswagen Group (which also owns Audi AG), because the first Volkswagen Beetle was designed by Ferdinand Porsche.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nThe two companies collaborated in 1969 to make the VW-Porsche 914 and 914-6, whereby the 914-6 had a Porsche engine, and the 914 had a Volkswagen engine, in 1976 with the Porsche 912E (USA only) and the Porsche 924, which used many Audi components, and was built at Audi's Neckarsulm factory. Porsche 944s were also built there, although they used far fewer Volkswagen components. The Cayenne, introduced in 2002, shares its chassis with the Volkswagen Touareg and the Audi Q7, which is built at the Volkswagen Group factory in Bratislava, Slovakia.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nCorporate restructuring\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nPorsche SE was created in June 2007 by renaming the old Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, and became a holding company for the families' stake in Porsche Zwischenholding GmbH (50.1%) (which in turn held 100% of the old Porsche AG) and Volkswagen AG (50.7%). At the same time, the new Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG (Porsche AG) was created for the car manufacturing business.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn August 2009, Porsche SE and Volkswagen AG reached an agreement that the car manufacturing operations of the two companies would merge in 2011, to form an \\\"Integrated Automotive Group\\\". The management of Volkswagen AG agreed to 50.76% of Volkswagen AG being owned by Porsche SE in return for Volkswagen AG management taking Porsche SE management positions (in order for Volkswagen management to remain in control), and for Volkswagen AG acquiring ownership of Porsche AG.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nAs of the end of 2013, the 50.76% control interest in VW AG is the predominant investment by Porsche SE, and Volkswagen AG in turn controls brands and companies such as Volkswagen, Audi, SEAT, Škoda, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, Porsche AG, Ducati, VW Commercial Vehicles, Scania, MAN, as well as Volkswagen Financial Services.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nDr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG (which stands for Doktor Ingenieur honoris causa Ferdinand Porsche Aktiengesellschaft), as a 100% subsidiary of VW AG, is responsible for the actual production and manufacture of the Porsche automobile line. The company currently produces Porsche 911, Boxster and Cayman sports cars, the Cayenne and Macan sport utility vehicles, the four-door Panamera, and the 918 Spyder super car.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nSubsidiaries\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nPorsche AG has a 29% share in German engineering and design consultancy Bertrandt AG and 81.8% of Mieschke Hofmann und Partner.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nWholly owned subsidiaries of Porsche AG include Porsche Consulting GmbH.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nProduction and sales\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nThe headquarters and main factory are located in Zuffenhausen, a district in Stuttgart, but the Cayenne and Panamera models are manufactured in Leipzig, Germany, and parts for the SUV are also assembled in the Volkswagen Touareg factory in Bratislava, Slovakia. Boxster and Cayman production was outsourced to Valmet Automotive in Finland from 1997 to 2011, and in 2012 production moved to Germany.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn 2008, Porsche reported selling a total of 98,652 cars, 13,524 (13.7%) as domestic German sales, and 85,128 (86.3%) internationally.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nThe company has been highly successful in recent times, and indeed claims to have the highest profit per unit sold of any car company in the world. Table of profits (in millions of euros) and number of cars produced. Figures from 2008/9 onwards were not reported as part of Porsche SE.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nProduction composition\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nOf the 165,808 cars produced in the 2013 financial year, 29,751 (17.9%) were 911 models, 28,996 (17.5%) were Boxster and Cayman cars, 81,916 (49.4%) were Cayennes, 24,798 (15.0%) were Panameras. There were 312 Macan and 35 918 Spyder models also reported. The production figures of sports cars were quite similar to the 2001/2 totals when 33,061 Porsche 911 and 21,989 Boxsters were produced.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nNorth American sales\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nModels\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nThe current Porsche model range includes sports cars from the Boxster roadster to their most famous product, the 911. The Cayman is a coupé otherwise similar to the Boxster. The Cayenne is Porsche's mid-size luxury sport utility vehicle (SUV). A high performance luxury saloon/sedan, the Panamera, was launched in 2009.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nNote: models in bold are current models\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nConsumer models\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nPorsche Cayman S - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (cropped).jpg|Porsche Cayman\\n2013 Porsche Boxster -- 2012 NYIAS.JPG|Porsche Boxster\\nPorsche Panamera 970, facelift, front view.jpg|Porsche Panamera\\n2014 Porsche Cayenne (92A MY14) GTS wagon (2015-08-07) 01.jpg|Porsche Cayenne\\n2014 Porsche Macan (MY15) S wagon (2015-08-24).JPG|2014 Porsche Macan\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\n*356\\n*911 4-seat coupe, targa and cabriolet\\n*911 GT1 Straßenversion\\n*912\\n*914\\n*918 Spyder\\n*924\\n*928 4-seat grand tourer\\n*930\\n*944\\n*959\\n*968\\n*964\\n*993\\n*996\\n*997\\n*991\\n*Boxster (986,987,981) 2-seat roadster (Base, S, GTS, Spyder)\\n*Carrera GT\\n*Cayman (987,981) 2-seat coupe (Base, S, R, GTS, GT4)\\n*Cayenne SUV\\n*Macan SUV Crossover\\n*Panamera 4-seat sports sedan\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nRacing models\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\n*64\\n*360 Cisitalia\\n*550 Spyder\\n*718\\n*787\\n*804\\n*904\\n*906\\n*907\\n*908\\n*909 Bergspyder\\n*910\\n*917\\n*918 RSR\\n*919 hybrid\\n*934\\n*935\\n*936\\n*956\\n*961\\n*962\\n*Porsche-March 89P\\n*WSC-95 / LMP1-98\\n*LMP2000 (never raced)\\n*RS Spyder (9R6)\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nPrototypes and concept cars\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\n*Porsche 114\\n*Porsche 356/1\\n*Porsche 695 (911 prototype)\\n*Porsche 901 (911 prototype)\\n*Porsche 916 (flat-6 914)\\n*Porsche 942\\n*Porsche 959 Prototype\\n*Porsche 969\\n*Porsche 989\\n*Porsche Boxster concept\\n*Porsche C88\\n*Porsche Panamericana\\n*Porsche Mission E, all-electric 4-door\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nTractors\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\n*Porsche Type 110\\n*Porsche AP Series\\n*Porsche Junior (14 hp)\\n*Porsche Standard (25 hp)\\n*Porsche Super (38 hp)\\n*Porsche Master (50 hp)\\n*Porsche 312\\n*Porsche 108F\\n*Porsche R22\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nHybrid and electric vehicles\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn 2010 Porsche launched the Cayenne S Hybrid and announced the Panamera S Hybrid, and launched the Porsche 918 hypercar in 2014, which also features a hybrid system. Also a plug-in hybrid model called the Panamera S E-Hybrid was released in October 2013 in the United States, and during the fourth quarter of 2013 in several European countries.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nPorsche developed a prototype electric Porsche Boxster called the Boxster E in 2011 and a hybrid version of the 911 called the GT3 R Hybrid, developed with Williams Grand Prix Engineering in 2010.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn July 2014 Porsche announced the launch by the end of 2014 of the Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid a plug-in hybrid, which will displaced the Cayenne S Hybrid from the line up. The S E-Hybrid will be the first plug-in hybrid in the premium SUV segment and will allow Porsche to become the first automaker with three production plug-in hybrid models.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nAircraft engines\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nSee Porsche PFM 3200.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nMotorsport\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nPorsche is the most successful brand in motorsport, scoring a total of more than 28,000 victories, including a record 16 constructor wins at the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Porsche is currently the world's largest race car manufacturer. In 2006, Porsche built 195 race cars for various international motor sports events. In 2007, Porsche is expected to construct no fewer than 275 dedicated race cars (7 RS Spyder LMP2 prototypes, 37 GT2 spec 911 GT3-RSRs, and 231 911 GT3 Cup vehicles).\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nPronunciation of \\\"Porsche\\\"\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn keeping with the family name of founder Ferdinand Porsche, the company's name is pronounced in German, which corresponds to in English, homophonous with the feminine name Portia. However, in English it is often pronounced as a single syllable —without a final. In German orthography, word-final is not silent but is instead an unstressed schwa.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nReputation\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn a survey conducted by the Luxury Institute in New York, Porsche was awarded the title of \\\"the most prestigious automobile brand\\\". 500 households with a gross annual income of at least $200,000 and a net worth of at least $720,000 participated.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nPorsche won the J.D. Power and Associates Initial Quality Study (IQS) in 2006, 2009, 2010, and 2014.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nReliability\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nA Canadian study in 2011 revealed that 97.4 percent of Porsches from the last 25 years are still on the road.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn 2014, the Cayman and Boxster made the Consumer Reports list for most reliable vehicles on the road.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nPorsche's 911 has been officially named by the Technischer Überwachungsverein (Technical Inspection Association) as Germany's most reliable car.\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nSUV reception\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nAccording to CNBC, even an at-the-time questionable foray into the SUV market with the Cayenne in 2003, could not damage Porsche credibility. In 2009, The Times journalist Andrew Frankel says on one level, it is the world's best 4x4, on another, it is the cynical exploitation of a glorious brand that risks long-term damage to that brand's very identity in the pursuit of easy money with his verdict being \\\"Great car, if only it wasn't a Porsche\\\".\",\n \"Porsche\\n\\nIn 2015, US News ranked the Macan as the best luxury compact SUV in its class.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137095,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2325"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"July 18, 1925 saw the publication of the first volume of the book whose title translates as My Struggle or My Battle, written by what 20th century total asshat?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Adolf Hitler"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["hitler s medical health","adlof hitler","adolf hiedler","hitler adolf","hitleradolf","adolpf hitler","history of adolf hitler","hitleradolph","adolphhitler","adolf hitler s health","adoff hitler","hitlar","adolf hiler","adolph hiedler","adolf hitle","aldof hilter","adolph hiter","hitler s","hitler","adolf hister","adolf hittler","nazi leader","adolfhitler","adolf hitler s medical health","hitler adolph","hitler s health","herr hitler","adolfus hitler","adolph hitler","adolph schicklegruber","adolf hilter","adolf hitler s medical condition","health of adolf hitler","hitlerian","adolph schicklgruber","adolph hitler s medical health","adolph hitler s health","adolph schickelgruber","adolf schicklgruber","day of potsdam","adolf hitlier","adolf hitler","hitlers medical health","hittler","hitlers","herr wolf","hitlet","adolf schickelgruber","adolf schicklegruber","adolph hittler"],"string":"[\n \"hitler s medical health\",\n \"adlof hitler\",\n \"adolf hiedler\",\n \"hitler adolf\",\n \"hitleradolf\",\n \"adolpf hitler\",\n \"history of adolf hitler\",\n \"hitleradolph\",\n \"adolphhitler\",\n \"adolf hitler s health\",\n \"adoff hitler\",\n \"hitlar\",\n \"adolf hiler\",\n \"adolph hiedler\",\n \"adolf hitle\",\n \"aldof hilter\",\n \"adolph hiter\",\n \"hitler s\",\n \"hitler\",\n \"adolf hister\",\n \"adolf hittler\",\n \"nazi leader\",\n \"adolfhitler\",\n \"adolf hitler s medical health\",\n \"hitler adolph\",\n \"hitler s health\",\n \"herr hitler\",\n \"adolfus hitler\",\n \"adolph hitler\",\n \"adolph schicklegruber\",\n \"adolf hilter\",\n \"adolf hitler s medical condition\",\n \"health of adolf hitler\",\n \"hitlerian\",\n \"adolph schicklgruber\",\n \"adolph hitler s medical health\",\n \"adolph hitler s health\",\n \"adolph schickelgruber\",\n \"adolf schicklgruber\",\n \"day of potsdam\",\n \"adolf hitlier\",\n \"adolf hitler\",\n \"hitlers medical health\",\n \"hittler\",\n \"hitlers\",\n \"herr wolf\",\n \"hitlet\",\n \"adolf schickelgruber\",\n \"adolf schicklegruber\",\n \"adolph hittler\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Mein Kampf\n\nMein Kampf (, \"My Struggle\") is an autobiography by the National Socialist leader Adolf Hitler, in which he outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany. Volume 1 of Mein Kampf was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926. The book was edited by Hitler's deputy Rudolf Hess.","Mein Kampf\n\nHitler began dictating the book to Hess while imprisoned for what he considered to be \"political crimes\" following his failed Putsch in Munich in November 1923. Although Hitler received many visitors initially, he soon devoted himself entirely to the book. As he continued, Hitler realized that it would have to be a two-volume work, with the first volume scheduled for release in early 1925. The governor of Landsberg noted at the time that \"he [Hitler] hopes the book will run into many editions, thus enabling him to fulfill his financial obligations and to defray the expenses incurred at the time of his trial.\" In 2016, following the expiry of the copyright held by the Bavarian state government, Mein Kampf was republished in Germany for the first time since 1945.","Mein Kampf\n\nTitle","Mein Kampf\n\nHitler originally wanted to call his forthcoming book Viereinhalb Jahre (des Kampfes) gegen Lüge, Dummheit und Feigheit, or Four and a Half Years (of Struggle) Against Lies, Stupidity and Cowardice. Max Amann, head of the Franz Eher Verlag and Hitler's publisher, is said to have suggested the much shorter \"Mein Kampf\" or \"My Struggle\".","Mein Kampf\n\nContents","Mein Kampf\n\nThe arrangement of chapters is as follows: \n*Volume One: A Reckoning\n**Chapter 1: In the House of my Parents\n**Chapter 2: Years of Study and Suffering in Vienna\n**Chapter 3: General Political Considerations Based on my Vienna Period\n**Chapter 4: Munich\n**Chapter 5: The World War\n**Chapter 6: War Propaganda\n**Chapter 7: The Revolution\n**Chapter 8: The Beginning of my Political Activity\n**Chapter 9: The \"German Workers' Party\"\n**Chapter 10: Causes of the Collapse\n**Chapter 11: Nation and Race\n**Chapter 12: The First Period of Development of the National Socialist German Workers' Party\n*Volume Two: The National Socialist Movement\n**Chapter 1: Philosophy and Party\n**Chapter 2: The State\n**Chapter 3: Subjects and Citizens\n**Chapter 4: Personality and the Conception of the Völkisch State\n**Chapter 5: Philosophy and Organization\n**Chapter 6: The Struggle of the Early Period – the Significance of the Spoken Word\n**Chapter 7: The Struggle with the Red Front\n**Chapter 8: The Strong Man Is Mightiest Alone\n**Chapter 9: Basic Ideas Regarding the Meaning and Organization of the Sturmabteilung\n**Chapter 10: Federalism as a Mask\n**Chapter 11: Propaganda and Organization\n**Chapter 12: The Trade-Union Question\n**Chapter 13: German Alliance Policy After the War\n**Chapter 14: Eastern Orientation or Eastern Policy\n**Chapter 15: The Right of Emergency Defense\n*Conclusion\n*Index","Mein Kampf\n\nAnalysis","Mein Kampf\n\nIn Mein Kampf, Hitler used the main thesis of \"the Jewish peril\", which posits a Jewish conspiracy to gain world leadership. The narrative describes the process by which he became increasingly antisemitic and militaristic, especially during his years in Vienna. He speaks of not having met a Jew until he arrived in Vienna, and that at first his attitude was liberal and tolerant. When he first encountered the anti-semitic press, he says, he dismissed it as unworthy of serious consideration. Later he accepted the same anti-semitic views, which became crucial in his program of national reconstruction of Germany.","Mein Kampf\n\nMein Kampf has also been studied as a work on political theory. For example, Hitler announces his hatred of what he believed to be the world's two evils: Communism and Judaism.","Mein Kampf\n\nDuring his work, Hitler blamed Germany's chief woes on the parliament of the Weimar Republic, the Jews, and Social Democrats, as well as Marxists, though he believed that Marxists, Social Democrats, and the parliament were all working for Jewish interests. He announced that he wanted to completely destroy the parliamentary system, believing it to be corrupt in principle, as those who reach power are inherent opportunists.","Mein Kampf\n\nAntisemitism","Mein Kampf\n\nWhile historians diverge on the exact date Hitler decided to forcibly emigrate the Jewish people to Madagascar, few place the decision before the mid-1930s. First published in 1925, Mein Kampf shows the ideas that crafted Hitler's personal grievances and ambitions for creating a New Order.","Mein Kampf\n\nHistorian Ian Kershaw points out that several passages in Mein Kampf are undeniably of a genocidal nature. Hitler wrote \"the nationalization of our masses will succeed only when, aside from all the positive struggle for the soul of our people, their international poisoners are exterminated\" and in another passage he suggested that \"If at the beginning of the war and during the war twelve or fifteen thousand of these Hebrew corrupters of the nation had been subjected to poison gas, such as had to be endured in the field by hundreds of thousands of our very best German workers of all classes and professions, then the sacrifice of millions at the front would not have been in vain.\"","Mein Kampf\n\nThe racial laws to which Hitler referred resonate directly with his ideas in Mein Kampf. In his first edition of Mein Kampf, Hitler stated that the destruction of the weak and sick is far more humane than their protection. Apart from his allusion to humane treatment, Hitler saw a purpose in destroying \"the weak\" in order to provide the proper space and purity for the \"strong\".","Mein Kampf\n\nLebensraum","Mein Kampf\n\nIn the chapter \"Eastern Orientation or Eastern Policy\", Hitler argued that the Germans needed Lebensraum in the East, a \"historic destiny\" that would properly nurture the German people. Hitler believed that \"the organization of a Russian state formation was not the result of the political abilities of the Slavs in Russia, but only a wonderful example of the state-forming efficacity of the German element in an inferior race.\"","Mein Kampf\n\nIn Mein Kampf Hitler openly stated the future German expansion in the East:","Mein Kampf\n\nHitler's later invasions of Czechoslovakia and Poland, and his attack against the Soviet Union directly resonated from his desire for Lebensraum as spelled out in Mein Kampf.","Mein Kampf\n\nPopularity","Mein Kampf\n\nAlthough Hitler originally wrote this book mostly for the followers of National Socialism, it grew in popularity. He accumulated a tax debt of 405,500 Reichsmark (very roughly in 2015 GBP£1.1 million, €1.4 million, US$1.5 million) from the sale of about 240,000 copies before he became chancellor in 1933 (at which time his debt was waived).","Mein Kampf\n\nAfter Hitler rose to power, the book gained a large amount of popularity. (Two other books written by party members, Gottfried Feder's Breaking The Interest Slavery and Alfred Rosenberg's The Myth of the Twentieth Century, have since lapsed into comparative literary obscurity, and no translation of Feder's book from the original German is known.) The book was in high demand in libraries and often reviewed and quoted in other publications. Hitler had made about 1.2 million Reichsmarks from the income of his book in 1933, when the average annual income of a teacher was about 4,800 Marks. During Hitler's years in power, the book was given free to every newlywed couple and every soldier fighting at the front. By 1939 the book had sold 5.2 million copies in eleven languages. By the end of the war, about 10 million copies of the book had been sold or distributed in Germany.","Mein Kampf\n\nAfter becoming chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hitler began to distance himself from the book and dismissed it as \"fantasies behind bars\" that were little more than a series of articles for the Völkischer Beobachter and later told Hans Frank that \"If I had had any idea in 1924 that I would have become Reich chancellor, I never would have written the book.\"","Mein Kampf\n\nThere are currently six e-book versions of Mein Kampf available for sale. In 2014, two of these versions reached the 12th and 15th spots on the iTunes Politics and Current Events section. The same year a digital version of the book reached number one on the Amazon Propaganda and Political Psychology chart.","Mein Kampf\n\nContemporary observations","Mein Kampf\n\nMein Kampf, in essence, lays out the ideological program Hitler established for the German revolution, by identifying the Jews and \"Bolsheviks\" as racially and ideologically inferior and threatening, and \"Aryans\" and National Socialists as racially superior and politically progressive. Hitler's revolutionary goals included expulsion of the Jews from Greater Germany and the unification of German peoples into one Greater Germany. Hitler desired to restore German lands to their greatest historical extent, real or imagined.","Mein Kampf\n\nDue to its racist content and the historical effect of Nazism upon Europe during World War II and the Holocaust, it is considered a highly controversial book. Criticism has not come solely from opponents of Nazism. Italian Fascist dictator and Nazi ally Benito Mussolini was also critical of the book, saying that it was \"a boring tome that I have never been able to read\" and remarked that Hitler's beliefs, as expressed in the book, were \"little more than commonplace clichés\".","Mein Kampf\n\nThe German journalist Konrad Heiden, an early critic of the Nazi Party, observed that the content of Mein Kampf is essentially a political argument with other members of the Nazi Party who had appeared to be Hitler's friends, but whom he was actually denouncing in the book's content – sometimes by not even including references to them.","Mein Kampf\n\nThe American literary theorist and philosopher Kenneth Burke wrote a 1939 rhetorical analysis of the work, The Rhetoric of Hitler's \"Battle\", which revealed its underlying message of aggressive intent.","Mein Kampf\n\nIn March 1940, British writer George Orwell reviewed a then-recently published uncensored translation of Mein Kampf for the New English Weekly. Orwell suggested that the force of Hitler's personality shone through the often \"clumsy\" writing, capturing the magnetic allure of Hitler for many Germans. In essence, Orwell notes, Hitler offers only visions of endless struggle and conflict in the creation of \"a horrible brainless empire\" that \"stretch[es] to Afghanistan or thereabouts\". He wrote, \"Whereas Socialism, and even capitalism in a more grudging way, have said to people 'I offer you a good time,' Hitler has said to them, 'I offer you struggle, danger, and death,' and as a result a whole nation flings itself at his feet.\" Orwell's review was written in the aftermath of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, when Hitler made peace with Russia after more than a decade of vitriolic rhetoric and threats between the two nations; with the pact in place, Orwell believed, England was now facing a risk of Nazi attack and the UK must not underestimate the appeal of Hitler's ideas.","Mein Kampf\n\nIn his 1943 book The Menace of the Herd, Austrian scholar Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn described Hitler's ideas in Mein Kampf and elsewhere as \"a veritable reductio ad absurdum of 'progressive' thought\" and betraying \"a curious lack of original thought\" that shows Hitler offered no innovative or original ideas but was merely \"a virtuoso of commonplaces which he may or may not repeat in the guise of a 'new discovery.'\" Hitler's stated aim, Kuehnelt-Leddihn writes, is to quash individualism in furtherance of political goals:","Mein Kampf\n\nIn his The Second World War, published in several volumes in the late 1940s and early 1950s, Winston Churchill wrote that he felt that after Hitler's ascension to power, no other book than Mein Kampf deserved more intensive scrutiny.","Mein Kampf\n\nGerman publication history","Mein Kampf\n\nWhile Hitler was in power (1933–1945), Mein Kampf came to be available in three common editions. The first, the Volksausgabe or People's Edition, featured the original cover on the dust jacket and was navy blue underneath with a gold swastika eagle embossed on the cover. The Hochzeitsausgabe, or Wedding Edition, in a slipcase with the seal of the province embossed in gold onto a parchment-like cover was given free to marrying couples. In 1940, the Tornister-Ausgabe was released. This edition was a compact, but unabridged, version in a red cover and was released by the post office, available to be sent to loved ones fighting at the front. These three editions combined both volumes into the same book.","Mein Kampf\n\nA special edition was published in 1939 in honour of Hitler's 50th birthday. This edition was known as the Jubiläumsausgabe, or Anniversary Issue. It came in both dark blue and bright red boards with a gold sword on the cover. This work contained both volumes one and two. It was considered a deluxe version, relative to the smaller and more common Volksausgabe.","Mein Kampf\n\nThe book could also be purchased as a two-volume set during Hitler's rule, and was available in soft cover and hardcover. The soft cover edition contained the original cover (as pictured at the top of this article). The hardcover edition had a leather spine with cloth-covered boards. The cover and spine contained an image of three brown oak leaves.","Mein Kampf\n\nEnglish translations","Mein Kampf\n\nDugdale abridgement","Mein Kampf\n\nThe first English translation was an abridgement by Edgar Dugdale who started work on it in 1931, at the prompting of his wife, Blanche. When he learned that the London publishing firm of Hurst & Blackett had secured the rights to publish an abridgement in the United Kingdom, he offered it for free in April 1933. However, a local Nazi Party representative insisted that the translation be further abridged before publication, so it was held back until 13 October 1933, although excerpts were allowed to run in The Times in late July. It was published by Hurst & Blackett as part of \"The Paternoster Library\".","Mein Kampf\n\nIn America, Houghton Mifflin secured the rights to the Dugdale abridgement on 29 July 1933. The only differences between the American and British versions are that the title was translated My Struggle in the UK and My Battle in America; and that Dugdale is credited as translator in the US edition, while the British version withheld his name. Both Dugdale and his wife were active in the Zionist movement; Blanche was the niece of Lord Balfour, and they wished to avoid publicity.","Mein Kampf\n\nReynal and Hitchcock translation","Mein Kampf\n\nHoughton and Mifflin licensed Reynal & Hitchcock the rights to publish a full unexpurgated translation in 1938. The book was translated from the two volumes of the first German edition (1925 and 1927), with notations appended noting any changes made in later editions, which were deemed \"not as extensive as popularly supposed.\"\"Introduction,\" Mein Kampf. New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1940; pg. viii. The translation, made by a committee from the New School for Social Research headed by Dr. Alvin Johnson, was said to have been made with a view to readability rather than in an effort to rigidly reproduce Hitler's sometimes idiosyncratic German form.","Mein Kampf\n\nThe text was heavily annotated for an American audience with biographical and historical details derived largely from German sources. As the translators deemed the book \"a propagandistic essay of a violent partisan\", which \"often warps historical truth and sometimes ignores it completely,\" the tone of many of these annotations reflected a conscious attempt to provide \"factual information that constitutes an extensive critique of the original.\" The book appeared for sale on 28 February 1939.","Mein Kampf\n\nMurphy translation","Mein Kampf\n\nOne of the earlier complete English translations of Mein Kampf was by James Murphy in 1939. It was the only English translation approved by Nazi Germany. The version published by Hutchison & Co. in association with Hurst & Blackett, Ltd (London) in 1939 of the combined volumes I and II is profusely illustrated with many full page drawings and photographs. The opening line, \"It has turned out fortunate for me to-day that destiny appointed Braunau-on-the-Inn to be my birthplace,\" is characteristic of Hitler's sense of destiny that began to develop in the early 1920s. Hurst & Blackett ceased publishing the Murphy translation in 1942 when the original plates were destroyed by German bombing, but it is still published and available in facsimile editions and also on the Internet. An audio reading of volume one is also available online.","Mein Kampf\n\nStackpole translation and controversy","Mein Kampf\n\nThe small Pennsylvania firm of Stackpole and Sons released its own unexpurgated translation by William Soskin on the same day as Houghton Mifflin, amid much legal wrangling. The Second Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in Houghton Mifflin's favour that June and ordered Stackpole to stop selling their version, but litigation followed for a few more years until the case was finally resolved in September 1941.","Mein Kampf\n\nAmong other things, Stackpole argued that Hitler could not have legally transferred his right to a copyright in the United States to Eher Verlag in 1925, because he was not a citizen of any country. Houghton Mifflin v. Stackpole was a minor landmark in American copyright law, definitively establishing that stateless persons have the same copyright status in the United States that any other foreigner would. In the three months that Stackpole's version was available it sold 12,000 copies.","Mein Kampf\n\nCranston translation and controversy","Mein Kampf\n\nHoughton Mifflin's abridged English translation left out some of Hitler's more anti-Semitic and militaristic statements. This motivated Alan Cranston, an American reporter for United Press International in Germany (and later a U.S. Senator from California), to publish his own abridged and annotated translation. Cranston believed this version more accurately reflected the contents of the book and Hitler's intentions. In 1939, Cranston was sued by Hitler's publisher for copyright infringement, and a Connecticut judge ruled in Hitler's favour. By the time the publication of Cranston's version was stopped, 500,000 copies had already been sold. Today, the profits and proceeds are given to various charities.","Mein Kampf\n\nManheim translation","Mein Kampf\n\nHoughton Mifflin published a translation by Ralph Manheim in 1943. They did this to avoid having to share their profits with Reynal & Hitchcock, and to increase sales by offering a more readable translation. The Manheim translation was first published in the United Kingdom by Hurst & Blackett in 1969 amid some controversy.","Mein Kampf\n\nExcerpts","Mein Kampf\n\nIn addition to the above translations and abridgments, the following collections of excerpts were available in English before the start of the war:","Mein Kampf\n\nOfficial Nazi translation","Mein Kampf\n\nA previously unknown English translation was released in 2008, which was prepared by the official Nazi printing office, the Franz Eher Verlag. In 1939, the Nazi propaganda ministry hired James Murphy to create an English version of Mein Kampf, which they hoped to use to promote Nazi goals in English-speaking countries. While Murphy was in Germany, he became less enchanted with Nazi ideology and made some statements that the Propaganda Ministry disliked. As a result, they asked him to leave Germany immediately. He was not able to take any of his notes but later sent his wife back to obtain his partial translation. These notes were later used to create the Murphy translation.","Mein Kampf\n\nThe Nazi government did not abandon their English translation efforts. They used their own staff to create a new and official translation and it was published in very small numbers in Germany. At least one copy found its way to a British/American POW camp. It is the only official English translation produced by the Nazi government and printed on Nazi printing presses. This copy is known as the \"Stalag\" edition.","Mein Kampf\n\nSales and royalties","Mein Kampf\n\nSales of Dugdale abridgment in the United Kingdom.","Mein Kampf\n\n*In 1938, 8,000 copies were sold in the United States.","Mein Kampf\n\nSales of the Houghton Mifflin Dugdale translation in the United States.","Mein Kampf\n\nThe first printing of the U.S. Dugdale edition, the October 1933 with 7,603 copies, of which 290 were given away as complimentary gifts.","Mein Kampf\n\nThe royalty on the first printing in the U.S. was 15% or $3,206.45 total. Curtis Brown, literary agent, took 20%, or $641.20 total, and the IRS took $384.75, leaving Eher Verlag $2,180.37 or RM 5668.","Mein Kampf\n\nThe January 1937 second printing was c. 4,000 copies.","Mein Kampf\n\nThere were three separate printings from August 1938 to March 1939, totaling 14,000; sales totals by 31 March 1939 were 10,345.","Mein Kampf\n\nThe Murphy and Houghton Mifflin translations were the only ones published by the authorised publishers while Hitler was still alive, and not at war with the U.K. and the U.S.","Mein Kampf\n\nThere was some resistance from Eher Verlag to Hurst and Blackett's Murphy translation, as they had not been granted the rights to a full translation. However, they allowed it de facto permission by not lodging a formal protest, and on 5 May 1939, even inquired about royalties. The British publishers responded on the 12th that the information they requested was \"not yet available\" and the point would be moot within a few months, on 3 September 1939, when all royalties were halted due to the state of war existing between Britain and Germany.","Mein Kampf\n\nRoyalties were likewise held up in the United States due to the litigation between Houghton Mifflin and Stackpole. Because the matter was only settled in September 1941, only a few months before a state of war existed between Germany and the U.S., all Eher Verlag ever got was a $2,500 advance from Reynal and Hitchcock. It got none from the unauthorised Stackpole edition or the 1943 Manheim edition.","Mein Kampf\n\nCurrent availability","Mein Kampf\n\nAt the time of his suicide, Hitler's official place of residence was in Munich, which led to his entire estate, including all rights to Mein Kampf, changing to the ownership of the state of Bavaria. The government of Bavaria, in agreement with the federal government of Germany, refused to allow any copying or printing of the book in Germany. It also opposed copying and printing in other countries, but with less success. As per German copyright law, the entire text entered the public domain on 1 January 2016, 70 years after the author's death.","Mein Kampf\n\nOwning and buying the book in Germany is not an offence. Trading in old copies is lawful as well, unless it is done in such a fashion as to \"promote hatred or war.\" In particular, the unmodified edition is not covered by §86 StGB that forbids dissemination of means of propaganda of unconstitutional organisations, since it is a \"pre-constitutional work\" and as such cannot be opposed to the free and democratic basic order, according to a 1979 decision of the Federal Court of Justice of Germany. Most German libraries carry heavily commented and excerpted versions of Mein Kampf. In 2008, Stephan Kramer, secretary-general of the Central Council of Jews in Germany, not only recommended lifting the ban, but volunteered the help of his organization in editing and annotating the text, saying that it is time for the book to be made available to all online.","Mein Kampf\n\nA variety of restrictions or special circumstances apply in other countries.","Mein Kampf\n\nIndia","Mein Kampf\n\nMein Kampf has been a popular book in India since its first publication there in 1928. It has gone through hundreds of editions and sold over a hundred thousand copies.","Mein Kampf\n\nRussia","Mein Kampf\n\nIn the Russian Federation, Mein Kampf has been published at least three times since 1992; the Russian text is also available on websites. In 2006 the Public Chamber of Russia proposed banning the book. In 2009 St. Petersburg's branch of the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs requested to remove an annotated and hyper-linked Russian translation of the book from a historiography web site. On 13 April 2010, it was announced that Mein Kampf is outlawed on grounds of extremism promotion.","Mein Kampf\n\nSweden","Mein Kampf\n\nMein Kampf has been reprinted several times since 1945; in 1970, 1992, 2002 and 2010. In 1992 the Government of Bavaria tried to stop the publication of the book, and the case went to the Supreme Court of Sweden which ruled in favour of the publisher, stating that the book is protected by copyright, but that the copyright holder is unidentified (and not the State of Bavaria) and that the original Swedish publisher from 1934 had gone out of business. It therefore refused the Government of Bavaria's claim. \nThe only translation changes came in the 1970 edition, but they were only linguistic, based on a new Swedish standard.","Mein Kampf\n\nTurkey","Mein Kampf\n\nMein Kampf was widely available and growing in popularity in Turkey, even to the point where it became a bestseller, selling up to 100,000 copies in just two months in 2005. Analysts and commentators believe the popularity of the book to be related to a rise in nationalism, anti-U.S. and antisemitic sentiment \"because of what is happening in the Middle East, the Israeli-Palestinian problem and the war in Iraq\". Doğu Ergil, a political scientist at Ankara University, said both left-wingers, the far-right and Islamists, had found common ground—\"not on a common agenda for the future, but on their anxieties, fears and hate\".","Mein Kampf\n\nUnited States","Mein Kampf\n\nIn the United States, Mein Kampf can be found at many community libraries and can be bought, sold and traded in bookshops. The U.S. government seized the copyright in September 1942 during the Second World War under the Trading with the Enemy Act and in 1979, Houghton Mifflin, the U.S. publisher of the book, bought the rights from the government pursuant to . More than 15,000 copies are sold a year. In 2016, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt was having trouble giving away the profits from sales of its version of Mein Kampf.","Mein Kampf\n\nOnline availability","Mein Kampf\n\nIn 1999, the Simon Wiesenthal Center documented that major Internet booksellers such as Amazon.com and Barnesandnoble.com sell Mein Kampf to Germany. After a public outcry, both companies agreed to stop those sales to addresses in Germany. The book is currently available through both companies online. It is also available in various languages, including German, at the Internet Archive. The Murphy translation of the book is freely available on Project Gutenberg Australia. Since the January 2016 republication of the book in Germany, the book can be ordered at Amazon's German website.","Mein Kampf\n\n2016 republication in Germany","Mein Kampf\n\nOn 3 February 2010, the Institute of Contemporary History (IfZ) in Munich announced plans to republish an annotated version of the text, for educational purposes in schools and universities, in 2015, when the copyright currently held by the Bavarian state government expires (2016). The book had last been published in Germany in 1945. A group of German historians argued that a republication was necessary to get an authoritative annotated edition by the time the copyright runs out, which might open the way for neo-Nazi groups to publish their own versions. \"Once Bavaria's copyright expires, there is the danger of charlatans and neo-Nazis appropriating this infamous book for themselves,\" Wolfgang Heubisch said. The Bavarian government opposed the plan, citing respect for victims of the Holocaust. Its Finance Ministry said that permits for reprints would not be issued, at home or abroad. This would also apply to a new annotated edition. The republished book might be banned as Nazi propaganda. Even after expiration of the copyright, the Bavarian government emphasised that \"the dissemination of Nazi ideologies will remain prohibited in Germany and is punishable under the penal code\".","Mein Kampf\n\nOn 12 December 2013 the Bavarian government cancelled its financial support for an annotated edition. The Institute of Contemporary History (IfZ) in Munich, which is preparing the translation, announced that it intended to proceed with publication after the copyright expired. The IfZ scheduled an edition of Mein Kampf for release in 2016.","Mein Kampf\n\nRichard Verber, vice-president of the Board of Deputies of British Jews, stated in 2015 that the board trusted the academic and educational value of republishing. “We would, of course, be very wary of any attempt to glorify Hitler or to belittle the Holocaust in any way,” Verber declared to The Observer. “But this is not that. I do understand how some Jewish groups could be upset and nervous, but it seems it is being done from a historical point of view and to put it in context.”","Mein Kampf\n\nAn annotated edition of Mein Kampf was published in Germany in January 2016 and sold out within hours on Amazon's German site. The book's publication led to public debate in Germany, and divided reactions from Jewish groups, with some supporting, and others opposing, the decision to publish. German officials had previously said they would limit public access to the text amid fears that its republication could stir neo-Nazi sentiment. Some bookstores stated that they would not stock the book. Dussmann, a Berlin bookstore, stated that one copy was available on the shelves in the history section, but that it would not be advertised and more copies would be available only on order.","Mein Kampf\n\nSequel","Mein Kampf\n\nAfter the party's poor showing in the 1928 elections, Hitler believed that the reason for his loss was the public's misunderstanding of his ideas. He then retired to Munich to dictate a sequel to Mein Kampf to expand on its ideas, with more focus on foreign policy.","Mein Kampf\n\nOnly two copies of the 200-page manuscript were originally made, and only one of these was ever made public. The document was neither edited nor published during the Nazi era and remains known as Zweites Buch, or \"Second Book\". To keep the document strictly secret, in 1935 Hitler ordered that it be placed in a safe in an air raid shelter. It remained there until being discovered by an American officer in 1945.","Mein Kampf\n\nThe authenticity of the document found in 1945 has been verified by Josef Berg (former employee of the Nazi publishing house Eher Verlag) and Telford Taylor (former Brigadier General U.S.A.R. and Chief Counsel at the Nuremberg war-crimes trials).","Mein Kampf\n\nIn 1958, the Zweites Buch was found in the archives of the United States by American historian Gerhard Weinberg. Unable to find an American publisher, Weinberg turned to his mentor – Hans Rothfels at the Institute of Contemporary History in Munich, and his associate Martin Broszat – who published Zweites Buch in 1961. A pirated edition was published in English in New York in 1962. The first authoritative English edition was not published until 2003 (Hitler's Second Book: The Unpublished Sequel to Mein Kampf, ISBN 1-929631-16-2)."],"string":"[\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nMein Kampf (, \\\"My Struggle\\\") is an autobiography by the National Socialist leader Adolf Hitler, in which he outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany. Volume 1 of Mein Kampf was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926. The book was edited by Hitler's deputy Rudolf Hess.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nHitler began dictating the book to Hess while imprisoned for what he considered to be \\\"political crimes\\\" following his failed Putsch in Munich in November 1923. Although Hitler received many visitors initially, he soon devoted himself entirely to the book. As he continued, Hitler realized that it would have to be a two-volume work, with the first volume scheduled for release in early 1925. The governor of Landsberg noted at the time that \\\"he [Hitler] hopes the book will run into many editions, thus enabling him to fulfill his financial obligations and to defray the expenses incurred at the time of his trial.\\\" In 2016, following the expiry of the copyright held by the Bavarian state government, Mein Kampf was republished in Germany for the first time since 1945.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nTitle\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nHitler originally wanted to call his forthcoming book Viereinhalb Jahre (des Kampfes) gegen Lüge, Dummheit und Feigheit, or Four and a Half Years (of Struggle) Against Lies, Stupidity and Cowardice. Max Amann, head of the Franz Eher Verlag and Hitler's publisher, is said to have suggested the much shorter \\\"Mein Kampf\\\" or \\\"My Struggle\\\".\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nContents\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe arrangement of chapters is as follows: \\n*Volume One: A Reckoning\\n**Chapter 1: In the House of my Parents\\n**Chapter 2: Years of Study and Suffering in Vienna\\n**Chapter 3: General Political Considerations Based on my Vienna Period\\n**Chapter 4: Munich\\n**Chapter 5: The World War\\n**Chapter 6: War Propaganda\\n**Chapter 7: The Revolution\\n**Chapter 8: The Beginning of my Political Activity\\n**Chapter 9: The \\\"German Workers' Party\\\"\\n**Chapter 10: Causes of the Collapse\\n**Chapter 11: Nation and Race\\n**Chapter 12: The First Period of Development of the National Socialist German Workers' Party\\n*Volume Two: The National Socialist Movement\\n**Chapter 1: Philosophy and Party\\n**Chapter 2: The State\\n**Chapter 3: Subjects and Citizens\\n**Chapter 4: Personality and the Conception of the Völkisch State\\n**Chapter 5: Philosophy and Organization\\n**Chapter 6: The Struggle of the Early Period – the Significance of the Spoken Word\\n**Chapter 7: The Struggle with the Red Front\\n**Chapter 8: The Strong Man Is Mightiest Alone\\n**Chapter 9: Basic Ideas Regarding the Meaning and Organization of the Sturmabteilung\\n**Chapter 10: Federalism as a Mask\\n**Chapter 11: Propaganda and Organization\\n**Chapter 12: The Trade-Union Question\\n**Chapter 13: German Alliance Policy After the War\\n**Chapter 14: Eastern Orientation or Eastern Policy\\n**Chapter 15: The Right of Emergency Defense\\n*Conclusion\\n*Index\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nAnalysis\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIn Mein Kampf, Hitler used the main thesis of \\\"the Jewish peril\\\", which posits a Jewish conspiracy to gain world leadership. The narrative describes the process by which he became increasingly antisemitic and militaristic, especially during his years in Vienna. He speaks of not having met a Jew until he arrived in Vienna, and that at first his attitude was liberal and tolerant. When he first encountered the anti-semitic press, he says, he dismissed it as unworthy of serious consideration. Later he accepted the same anti-semitic views, which became crucial in his program of national reconstruction of Germany.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nMein Kampf has also been studied as a work on political theory. For example, Hitler announces his hatred of what he believed to be the world's two evils: Communism and Judaism.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nDuring his work, Hitler blamed Germany's chief woes on the parliament of the Weimar Republic, the Jews, and Social Democrats, as well as Marxists, though he believed that Marxists, Social Democrats, and the parliament were all working for Jewish interests. He announced that he wanted to completely destroy the parliamentary system, believing it to be corrupt in principle, as those who reach power are inherent opportunists.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nAntisemitism\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nWhile historians diverge on the exact date Hitler decided to forcibly emigrate the Jewish people to Madagascar, few place the decision before the mid-1930s. First published in 1925, Mein Kampf shows the ideas that crafted Hitler's personal grievances and ambitions for creating a New Order.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nHistorian Ian Kershaw points out that several passages in Mein Kampf are undeniably of a genocidal nature. Hitler wrote \\\"the nationalization of our masses will succeed only when, aside from all the positive struggle for the soul of our people, their international poisoners are exterminated\\\" and in another passage he suggested that \\\"If at the beginning of the war and during the war twelve or fifteen thousand of these Hebrew corrupters of the nation had been subjected to poison gas, such as had to be endured in the field by hundreds of thousands of our very best German workers of all classes and professions, then the sacrifice of millions at the front would not have been in vain.\\\"\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe racial laws to which Hitler referred resonate directly with his ideas in Mein Kampf. In his first edition of Mein Kampf, Hitler stated that the destruction of the weak and sick is far more humane than their protection. Apart from his allusion to humane treatment, Hitler saw a purpose in destroying \\\"the weak\\\" in order to provide the proper space and purity for the \\\"strong\\\".\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nLebensraum\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIn the chapter \\\"Eastern Orientation or Eastern Policy\\\", Hitler argued that the Germans needed Lebensraum in the East, a \\\"historic destiny\\\" that would properly nurture the German people. Hitler believed that \\\"the organization of a Russian state formation was not the result of the political abilities of the Slavs in Russia, but only a wonderful example of the state-forming efficacity of the German element in an inferior race.\\\"\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIn Mein Kampf Hitler openly stated the future German expansion in the East:\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nHitler's later invasions of Czechoslovakia and Poland, and his attack against the Soviet Union directly resonated from his desire for Lebensraum as spelled out in Mein Kampf.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nPopularity\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nAlthough Hitler originally wrote this book mostly for the followers of National Socialism, it grew in popularity. He accumulated a tax debt of 405,500 Reichsmark (very roughly in 2015 GBP£1.1 million, €1.4 million, US$1.5 million) from the sale of about 240,000 copies before he became chancellor in 1933 (at which time his debt was waived).\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nAfter Hitler rose to power, the book gained a large amount of popularity. (Two other books written by party members, Gottfried Feder's Breaking The Interest Slavery and Alfred Rosenberg's The Myth of the Twentieth Century, have since lapsed into comparative literary obscurity, and no translation of Feder's book from the original German is known.) The book was in high demand in libraries and often reviewed and quoted in other publications. Hitler had made about 1.2 million Reichsmarks from the income of his book in 1933, when the average annual income of a teacher was about 4,800 Marks. During Hitler's years in power, the book was given free to every newlywed couple and every soldier fighting at the front. By 1939 the book had sold 5.2 million copies in eleven languages. By the end of the war, about 10 million copies of the book had been sold or distributed in Germany.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nAfter becoming chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hitler began to distance himself from the book and dismissed it as \\\"fantasies behind bars\\\" that were little more than a series of articles for the Völkischer Beobachter and later told Hans Frank that \\\"If I had had any idea in 1924 that I would have become Reich chancellor, I never would have written the book.\\\"\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThere are currently six e-book versions of Mein Kampf available for sale. In 2014, two of these versions reached the 12th and 15th spots on the iTunes Politics and Current Events section. The same year a digital version of the book reached number one on the Amazon Propaganda and Political Psychology chart.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nContemporary observations\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nMein Kampf, in essence, lays out the ideological program Hitler established for the German revolution, by identifying the Jews and \\\"Bolsheviks\\\" as racially and ideologically inferior and threatening, and \\\"Aryans\\\" and National Socialists as racially superior and politically progressive. Hitler's revolutionary goals included expulsion of the Jews from Greater Germany and the unification of German peoples into one Greater Germany. Hitler desired to restore German lands to their greatest historical extent, real or imagined.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nDue to its racist content and the historical effect of Nazism upon Europe during World War II and the Holocaust, it is considered a highly controversial book. Criticism has not come solely from opponents of Nazism. Italian Fascist dictator and Nazi ally Benito Mussolini was also critical of the book, saying that it was \\\"a boring tome that I have never been able to read\\\" and remarked that Hitler's beliefs, as expressed in the book, were \\\"little more than commonplace clichés\\\".\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe German journalist Konrad Heiden, an early critic of the Nazi Party, observed that the content of Mein Kampf is essentially a political argument with other members of the Nazi Party who had appeared to be Hitler's friends, but whom he was actually denouncing in the book's content – sometimes by not even including references to them.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe American literary theorist and philosopher Kenneth Burke wrote a 1939 rhetorical analysis of the work, The Rhetoric of Hitler's \\\"Battle\\\", which revealed its underlying message of aggressive intent.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIn March 1940, British writer George Orwell reviewed a then-recently published uncensored translation of Mein Kampf for the New English Weekly. Orwell suggested that the force of Hitler's personality shone through the often \\\"clumsy\\\" writing, capturing the magnetic allure of Hitler for many Germans. In essence, Orwell notes, Hitler offers only visions of endless struggle and conflict in the creation of \\\"a horrible brainless empire\\\" that \\\"stretch[es] to Afghanistan or thereabouts\\\". He wrote, \\\"Whereas Socialism, and even capitalism in a more grudging way, have said to people 'I offer you a good time,' Hitler has said to them, 'I offer you struggle, danger, and death,' and as a result a whole nation flings itself at his feet.\\\" Orwell's review was written in the aftermath of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, when Hitler made peace with Russia after more than a decade of vitriolic rhetoric and threats between the two nations; with the pact in place, Orwell believed, England was now facing a risk of Nazi attack and the UK must not underestimate the appeal of Hitler's ideas.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIn his 1943 book The Menace of the Herd, Austrian scholar Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn described Hitler's ideas in Mein Kampf and elsewhere as \\\"a veritable reductio ad absurdum of 'progressive' thought\\\" and betraying \\\"a curious lack of original thought\\\" that shows Hitler offered no innovative or original ideas but was merely \\\"a virtuoso of commonplaces which he may or may not repeat in the guise of a 'new discovery.'\\\" Hitler's stated aim, Kuehnelt-Leddihn writes, is to quash individualism in furtherance of political goals:\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIn his The Second World War, published in several volumes in the late 1940s and early 1950s, Winston Churchill wrote that he felt that after Hitler's ascension to power, no other book than Mein Kampf deserved more intensive scrutiny.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nGerman publication history\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nWhile Hitler was in power (1933–1945), Mein Kampf came to be available in three common editions. The first, the Volksausgabe or People's Edition, featured the original cover on the dust jacket and was navy blue underneath with a gold swastika eagle embossed on the cover. The Hochzeitsausgabe, or Wedding Edition, in a slipcase with the seal of the province embossed in gold onto a parchment-like cover was given free to marrying couples. In 1940, the Tornister-Ausgabe was released. This edition was a compact, but unabridged, version in a red cover and was released by the post office, available to be sent to loved ones fighting at the front. These three editions combined both volumes into the same book.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nA special edition was published in 1939 in honour of Hitler's 50th birthday. This edition was known as the Jubiläumsausgabe, or Anniversary Issue. It came in both dark blue and bright red boards with a gold sword on the cover. This work contained both volumes one and two. It was considered a deluxe version, relative to the smaller and more common Volksausgabe.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe book could also be purchased as a two-volume set during Hitler's rule, and was available in soft cover and hardcover. The soft cover edition contained the original cover (as pictured at the top of this article). The hardcover edition had a leather spine with cloth-covered boards. The cover and spine contained an image of three brown oak leaves.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nEnglish translations\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nDugdale abridgement\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe first English translation was an abridgement by Edgar Dugdale who started work on it in 1931, at the prompting of his wife, Blanche. When he learned that the London publishing firm of Hurst & Blackett had secured the rights to publish an abridgement in the United Kingdom, he offered it for free in April 1933. However, a local Nazi Party representative insisted that the translation be further abridged before publication, so it was held back until 13 October 1933, although excerpts were allowed to run in The Times in late July. It was published by Hurst & Blackett as part of \\\"The Paternoster Library\\\".\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIn America, Houghton Mifflin secured the rights to the Dugdale abridgement on 29 July 1933. The only differences between the American and British versions are that the title was translated My Struggle in the UK and My Battle in America; and that Dugdale is credited as translator in the US edition, while the British version withheld his name. Both Dugdale and his wife were active in the Zionist movement; Blanche was the niece of Lord Balfour, and they wished to avoid publicity.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nReynal and Hitchcock translation\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nHoughton and Mifflin licensed Reynal & Hitchcock the rights to publish a full unexpurgated translation in 1938. The book was translated from the two volumes of the first German edition (1925 and 1927), with notations appended noting any changes made in later editions, which were deemed \\\"not as extensive as popularly supposed.\\\"\\\"Introduction,\\\" Mein Kampf. New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1940; pg. viii. The translation, made by a committee from the New School for Social Research headed by Dr. Alvin Johnson, was said to have been made with a view to readability rather than in an effort to rigidly reproduce Hitler's sometimes idiosyncratic German form.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe text was heavily annotated for an American audience with biographical and historical details derived largely from German sources. As the translators deemed the book \\\"a propagandistic essay of a violent partisan\\\", which \\\"often warps historical truth and sometimes ignores it completely,\\\" the tone of many of these annotations reflected a conscious attempt to provide \\\"factual information that constitutes an extensive critique of the original.\\\" The book appeared for sale on 28 February 1939.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nMurphy translation\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nOne of the earlier complete English translations of Mein Kampf was by James Murphy in 1939. It was the only English translation approved by Nazi Germany. The version published by Hutchison & Co. in association with Hurst & Blackett, Ltd (London) in 1939 of the combined volumes I and II is profusely illustrated with many full page drawings and photographs. The opening line, \\\"It has turned out fortunate for me to-day that destiny appointed Braunau-on-the-Inn to be my birthplace,\\\" is characteristic of Hitler's sense of destiny that began to develop in the early 1920s. Hurst & Blackett ceased publishing the Murphy translation in 1942 when the original plates were destroyed by German bombing, but it is still published and available in facsimile editions and also on the Internet. An audio reading of volume one is also available online.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nStackpole translation and controversy\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe small Pennsylvania firm of Stackpole and Sons released its own unexpurgated translation by William Soskin on the same day as Houghton Mifflin, amid much legal wrangling. The Second Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in Houghton Mifflin's favour that June and ordered Stackpole to stop selling their version, but litigation followed for a few more years until the case was finally resolved in September 1941.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nAmong other things, Stackpole argued that Hitler could not have legally transferred his right to a copyright in the United States to Eher Verlag in 1925, because he was not a citizen of any country. Houghton Mifflin v. Stackpole was a minor landmark in American copyright law, definitively establishing that stateless persons have the same copyright status in the United States that any other foreigner would. In the three months that Stackpole's version was available it sold 12,000 copies.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nCranston translation and controversy\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nHoughton Mifflin's abridged English translation left out some of Hitler's more anti-Semitic and militaristic statements. This motivated Alan Cranston, an American reporter for United Press International in Germany (and later a U.S. Senator from California), to publish his own abridged and annotated translation. Cranston believed this version more accurately reflected the contents of the book and Hitler's intentions. In 1939, Cranston was sued by Hitler's publisher for copyright infringement, and a Connecticut judge ruled in Hitler's favour. By the time the publication of Cranston's version was stopped, 500,000 copies had already been sold. Today, the profits and proceeds are given to various charities.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nManheim translation\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nHoughton Mifflin published a translation by Ralph Manheim in 1943. They did this to avoid having to share their profits with Reynal & Hitchcock, and to increase sales by offering a more readable translation. The Manheim translation was first published in the United Kingdom by Hurst & Blackett in 1969 amid some controversy.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nExcerpts\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIn addition to the above translations and abridgments, the following collections of excerpts were available in English before the start of the war:\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nOfficial Nazi translation\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nA previously unknown English translation was released in 2008, which was prepared by the official Nazi printing office, the Franz Eher Verlag. In 1939, the Nazi propaganda ministry hired James Murphy to create an English version of Mein Kampf, which they hoped to use to promote Nazi goals in English-speaking countries. While Murphy was in Germany, he became less enchanted with Nazi ideology and made some statements that the Propaganda Ministry disliked. As a result, they asked him to leave Germany immediately. He was not able to take any of his notes but later sent his wife back to obtain his partial translation. These notes were later used to create the Murphy translation.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe Nazi government did not abandon their English translation efforts. They used their own staff to create a new and official translation and it was published in very small numbers in Germany. At least one copy found its way to a British/American POW camp. It is the only official English translation produced by the Nazi government and printed on Nazi printing presses. This copy is known as the \\\"Stalag\\\" edition.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nSales and royalties\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nSales of Dugdale abridgment in the United Kingdom.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\n*In 1938, 8,000 copies were sold in the United States.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nSales of the Houghton Mifflin Dugdale translation in the United States.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe first printing of the U.S. Dugdale edition, the October 1933 with 7,603 copies, of which 290 were given away as complimentary gifts.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe royalty on the first printing in the U.S. was 15% or $3,206.45 total. Curtis Brown, literary agent, took 20%, or $641.20 total, and the IRS took $384.75, leaving Eher Verlag $2,180.37 or RM 5668.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe January 1937 second printing was c. 4,000 copies.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThere were three separate printings from August 1938 to March 1939, totaling 14,000; sales totals by 31 March 1939 were 10,345.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe Murphy and Houghton Mifflin translations were the only ones published by the authorised publishers while Hitler was still alive, and not at war with the U.K. and the U.S.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThere was some resistance from Eher Verlag to Hurst and Blackett's Murphy translation, as they had not been granted the rights to a full translation. However, they allowed it de facto permission by not lodging a formal protest, and on 5 May 1939, even inquired about royalties. The British publishers responded on the 12th that the information they requested was \\\"not yet available\\\" and the point would be moot within a few months, on 3 September 1939, when all royalties were halted due to the state of war existing between Britain and Germany.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nRoyalties were likewise held up in the United States due to the litigation between Houghton Mifflin and Stackpole. Because the matter was only settled in September 1941, only a few months before a state of war existed between Germany and the U.S., all Eher Verlag ever got was a $2,500 advance from Reynal and Hitchcock. It got none from the unauthorised Stackpole edition or the 1943 Manheim edition.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nCurrent availability\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nAt the time of his suicide, Hitler's official place of residence was in Munich, which led to his entire estate, including all rights to Mein Kampf, changing to the ownership of the state of Bavaria. The government of Bavaria, in agreement with the federal government of Germany, refused to allow any copying or printing of the book in Germany. It also opposed copying and printing in other countries, but with less success. As per German copyright law, the entire text entered the public domain on 1 January 2016, 70 years after the author's death.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nOwning and buying the book in Germany is not an offence. Trading in old copies is lawful as well, unless it is done in such a fashion as to \\\"promote hatred or war.\\\" In particular, the unmodified edition is not covered by §86 StGB that forbids dissemination of means of propaganda of unconstitutional organisations, since it is a \\\"pre-constitutional work\\\" and as such cannot be opposed to the free and democratic basic order, according to a 1979 decision of the Federal Court of Justice of Germany. Most German libraries carry heavily commented and excerpted versions of Mein Kampf. In 2008, Stephan Kramer, secretary-general of the Central Council of Jews in Germany, not only recommended lifting the ban, but volunteered the help of his organization in editing and annotating the text, saying that it is time for the book to be made available to all online.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nA variety of restrictions or special circumstances apply in other countries.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIndia\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nMein Kampf has been a popular book in India since its first publication there in 1928. It has gone through hundreds of editions and sold over a hundred thousand copies.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nRussia\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIn the Russian Federation, Mein Kampf has been published at least three times since 1992; the Russian text is also available on websites. In 2006 the Public Chamber of Russia proposed banning the book. In 2009 St. Petersburg's branch of the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs requested to remove an annotated and hyper-linked Russian translation of the book from a historiography web site. On 13 April 2010, it was announced that Mein Kampf is outlawed on grounds of extremism promotion.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nSweden\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nMein Kampf has been reprinted several times since 1945; in 1970, 1992, 2002 and 2010. In 1992 the Government of Bavaria tried to stop the publication of the book, and the case went to the Supreme Court of Sweden which ruled in favour of the publisher, stating that the book is protected by copyright, but that the copyright holder is unidentified (and not the State of Bavaria) and that the original Swedish publisher from 1934 had gone out of business. It therefore refused the Government of Bavaria's claim. \\nThe only translation changes came in the 1970 edition, but they were only linguistic, based on a new Swedish standard.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nTurkey\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nMein Kampf was widely available and growing in popularity in Turkey, even to the point where it became a bestseller, selling up to 100,000 copies in just two months in 2005. Analysts and commentators believe the popularity of the book to be related to a rise in nationalism, anti-U.S. and antisemitic sentiment \\\"because of what is happening in the Middle East, the Israeli-Palestinian problem and the war in Iraq\\\". Doğu Ergil, a political scientist at Ankara University, said both left-wingers, the far-right and Islamists, had found common ground—\\\"not on a common agenda for the future, but on their anxieties, fears and hate\\\".\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nUnited States\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIn the United States, Mein Kampf can be found at many community libraries and can be bought, sold and traded in bookshops. The U.S. government seized the copyright in September 1942 during the Second World War under the Trading with the Enemy Act and in 1979, Houghton Mifflin, the U.S. publisher of the book, bought the rights from the government pursuant to . More than 15,000 copies are sold a year. In 2016, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt was having trouble giving away the profits from sales of its version of Mein Kampf.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nOnline availability\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIn 1999, the Simon Wiesenthal Center documented that major Internet booksellers such as Amazon.com and Barnesandnoble.com sell Mein Kampf to Germany. After a public outcry, both companies agreed to stop those sales to addresses in Germany. The book is currently available through both companies online. It is also available in various languages, including German, at the Internet Archive. The Murphy translation of the book is freely available on Project Gutenberg Australia. Since the January 2016 republication of the book in Germany, the book can be ordered at Amazon's German website.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\n2016 republication in Germany\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nOn 3 February 2010, the Institute of Contemporary History (IfZ) in Munich announced plans to republish an annotated version of the text, for educational purposes in schools and universities, in 2015, when the copyright currently held by the Bavarian state government expires (2016). The book had last been published in Germany in 1945. A group of German historians argued that a republication was necessary to get an authoritative annotated edition by the time the copyright runs out, which might open the way for neo-Nazi groups to publish their own versions. \\\"Once Bavaria's copyright expires, there is the danger of charlatans and neo-Nazis appropriating this infamous book for themselves,\\\" Wolfgang Heubisch said. The Bavarian government opposed the plan, citing respect for victims of the Holocaust. Its Finance Ministry said that permits for reprints would not be issued, at home or abroad. This would also apply to a new annotated edition. The republished book might be banned as Nazi propaganda. Even after expiration of the copyright, the Bavarian government emphasised that \\\"the dissemination of Nazi ideologies will remain prohibited in Germany and is punishable under the penal code\\\".\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nOn 12 December 2013 the Bavarian government cancelled its financial support for an annotated edition. The Institute of Contemporary History (IfZ) in Munich, which is preparing the translation, announced that it intended to proceed with publication after the copyright expired. The IfZ scheduled an edition of Mein Kampf for release in 2016.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nRichard Verber, vice-president of the Board of Deputies of British Jews, stated in 2015 that the board trusted the academic and educational value of republishing. “We would, of course, be very wary of any attempt to glorify Hitler or to belittle the Holocaust in any way,” Verber declared to The Observer. “But this is not that. I do understand how some Jewish groups could be upset and nervous, but it seems it is being done from a historical point of view and to put it in context.”\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nAn annotated edition of Mein Kampf was published in Germany in January 2016 and sold out within hours on Amazon's German site. The book's publication led to public debate in Germany, and divided reactions from Jewish groups, with some supporting, and others opposing, the decision to publish. German officials had previously said they would limit public access to the text amid fears that its republication could stir neo-Nazi sentiment. Some bookstores stated that they would not stock the book. Dussmann, a Berlin bookstore, stated that one copy was available on the shelves in the history section, but that it would not be advertised and more copies would be available only on order.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nSequel\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nAfter the party's poor showing in the 1928 elections, Hitler believed that the reason for his loss was the public's misunderstanding of his ideas. He then retired to Munich to dictate a sequel to Mein Kampf to expand on its ideas, with more focus on foreign policy.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nOnly two copies of the 200-page manuscript were originally made, and only one of these was ever made public. The document was neither edited nor published during the Nazi era and remains known as Zweites Buch, or \\\"Second Book\\\". To keep the document strictly secret, in 1935 Hitler ordered that it be placed in a safe in an air raid shelter. It remained there until being discovered by an American officer in 1945.\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nThe authenticity of the document found in 1945 has been verified by Josef Berg (former employee of the Nazi publishing house Eher Verlag) and Telford Taylor (former Brigadier General U.S.A.R. and Chief Counsel at the Nuremberg war-crimes trials).\",\n \"Mein Kampf\\n\\nIn 1958, the Zweites Buch was found in the archives of the United States by American historian Gerhard Weinberg. Unable to find an American publisher, Weinberg turned to his mentor – Hans Rothfels at the Institute of Contemporary History in Munich, and his associate Martin Broszat – who published Zweites Buch in 1961. A pirated edition was published in English in New York in 1962. The first authoritative English edition was not published until 2003 (Hitler's Second Book: The Unpublished Sequel to Mein Kampf, ISBN 1-929631-16-2).\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137096,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2326"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Produced by the The Herman Goelitz Candy Company, Jelly Bellys, a favorite of Ronald Reagan, are what type of candy?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Jelly Beans"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["candy bean","jellybean","jellybeans","candy beans","jelly beans","jelly bean"],"string":"[\n \"candy bean\",\n \"jellybean\",\n \"jellybeans\",\n \"candy beans\",\n \"jelly beans\",\n \"jelly bean\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Jelly Belly\n\nJelly Belly Candy Company, formerly known as Herman Goelitz Candy Company and Goelitz Confectionery Company, manufactures Jelly Belly jelly beans and other candy. The company is based in Fairfield, California, with a second manufacturing facility in North Chicago, Illinois and a distribution center in Pleasant Prairie, Wisconsin. In October 2008 the company opened a manufacturing plant in Rayong, Thailand where it produces confectionery for the international market.","Jelly Belly\n\nHistory","Jelly Belly\n\n1898–1910","Jelly Belly\n\nJelly Belly Candy Company, manufacturer of Jelly Belly jelly beans and a wide range of confections, is a family owned and operated business now in its sixth generation of candy making. The family traces its roots to Gustav Goelitz, who came to the United States in 1866. He built a successful confectionery business: Gustav Goelitz Candy, in Belleville, Illinois. Gustav Goelitz's younger brothers, Albert and George, emigrated to America a few years later joining the family business. The Goelitz name developed a reputation for quality confections as the brothers expanded operations and by 1898 were specializing in candy corn and other mellocreme candies (also called butter cream), a new type of candy. The second generation of candy makers moved to North Chicago opening the Goelitz Confectionery Company plant in 1913.","Jelly Belly\n\n1911–1979","Jelly Belly\n\nHerman Goelitz, second generation candy maker, moved to the west coast to start his own business, Herman Goelitz Candy Company. The company eventually settled in Oakland, California in 1924. In 1960 Herman Rowland, Sr., fourth generation candy maker, joined the Oakland, California family business. The family decided to expand the company products making jelly beans, Chocolate Dutch Mints, America’s first gummi bears, and jells. “One of those new products was a small and very flavorful Mini Jelly Bean [developed in 1965].” The Mini Jelly Bean center was flavored with natural flavoring, an innovative idea, instead of just the outer shell.","Jelly Belly\n\nRonald Reagan was introduced to the Mini Jelly Beans in 1966. “The then California governor had quit smoking years before and turned to popping candy as a…substitute.” Reagan wrote to Herman Rowland, Sr. while governor, “It’s gotten to the point…where we can hardly start a meeting or make a decision without passing around a jar of jelly beans. We owe you a special measure of thanks for helping keep our state government running smoothly.”","Jelly Belly\n\nIn 1976 David Klein, a candy and nut distributor, collaborated with Herman Rowland to create a jelly bean using natural purees. Using the Mini Jelly Bean concept “...the Jelly Belly innovation was to flavor the chewy insides as well…” David Klein sold the first Jelly Belly jelly beans in an ice cream parlor, Fosselman's, in Alhambra, California in 1976. The first flavors were Very Cherry, Tangerine, Lemon, Green Apple, Grape, Licorice, Root Beer, and Cream Soda. It was David Klein's idea \"...to sell them as separate flavors instead of a variety pack and he came up with the name ‘Jelly Belly’ [instead of] ‘Goelitz Mini Jelly Beans.’ ”","Jelly Belly\n\n1980–Present","Jelly Belly\n\nMarinus van Dam, product developer and plant manager for the company, oversaw the development of the Jelly Belly jelly beans. By the 1980s many flavors of the Jelly Belly jelly bean had been developed. In 1983 the character Mr. Jelly Belly was developed to promote the product. Prior to the development of the character David Klein called himself \"Mr. Jelly Belly\" to promote the product. \"In 1980, David Klein sold the Jelly Belly trademark to Rowland for $4.8 million, paid in monthly installments over 20 years, which Klein split with a partner.\" The trademark Jelly Belly was filed by Jelly Belly Candy Company on December 8, 1980 and was registered on August 3, 1982.","Jelly Belly\n\nIn 1980 the word got out that Ronald Reagan ate jelly beans and \"...those jelly beans were made by our...company.\" This broke open the demand for Jelly Belly jelly beans. To keep up with the demand extra shifts were added, but orders were backlogged for more than a year. The company supplied President Ronald Reagan with Jelly Belly jelly beans during his eight years of presidency. \"We were thrilled by press reports that President Reagan gave jars of Jelly Belly jelly beans to visiting dignitaries.\" Reagan made them the first jelly beans in space, sending them on the Space Shuttle Challenger during the STS-7 mission in 1983, as a surprise for the astronauts.","Jelly Belly\n\nToday the company produces more than 100 different gourmet confections.","Jelly Belly\n\nProducts","Jelly Belly\n\nJelly Belly jelly beans","Jelly Belly\n\nOfficial 50 flavors","Jelly Belly\n\nThere are 50 official flavors of Jelly Belly jelly beans:","Jelly Belly\n\nOther Flavors","Jelly Belly\n\nOther flavors outside the official 50 flavors are the newest Jelly Belly jelly bean flavors and may become official flavors. Rookie flavors change as new flavors are introduced.","Jelly Belly\n\n*7 Up\n*Grape Crush\n*Orange Crush\n*Tabasco\n*Birthday Cake\n*Strawberry Banana Smoothie\n*Draft Beer\n*Champagne\n*Pancakes & Maple Syrup","Jelly Belly\n\nSugar-Free Jelly Belly jelly beans","Jelly Belly\n\nJelly Belly Candy Company also produces Sugar-Free Jelly Belly jelly beans, sweetened with Splenda and maltitol:\n*Buttered Popcorn\n*Cherry\n*Green Apple\n*Juicy Pear\n*Lemon\n*Licorice\n*Pineapple\n*Sizzling Cinnamon\n*Strawberry\n*Tangerine","Jelly Belly\n\nInternational Flavors","Jelly Belly\n\nJelly Belly Candy Company creates specialized Jelly Belly jelly bean flavours for the international market.","Jelly Belly\n\n* Chili Mango: This flavour is inspired by the flavours of Southeast Asia and Latin America made with real cayenne pepper, paprika and mango juice, a combination of sweet and spice. It is also an official flavor of the 50 Jelly Belly jelly bean flavor list in the United States.\n* Green Tea: A familiar tea in Japanese and Chinese cultures green tea has grown in popularity across the globe.\n* Lychee: A fruit found in the tropical Pacific Islands and across Asia.","Jelly Belly\n\nBelly Flops","Jelly Belly\n\nBelly Flops are \"irregular Jelly Belly jelly beans.\" Some are misshapen, others are conjoined, and they do not have the name stamped on them. Sometimes the colors do not match the flavors of the beans.","Jelly Belly\n\nJewel Collection","Jelly Belly\n\nJelly Belly Candy Company unveiled the Jelly Belly jewel collection on National Jelly Bean Day, April 22, 2013. The Jelly Belly jewel collection features Jelly Belly jelly beans with an iridescent sheen. The original seven flavors for the Jelly Belly jewel collection are listed below. \n*Berry Blue\n*Blueberry\n*Bubble Gum\n*Cream Soda\n*Orange\n*Sour Apple\n*Very Cherry","Jelly Belly\n\nThe jewel collection has expanded including such flavors as\n* Grape Soda\n* Sour Lemon\n* Ginger Ale","Jelly Belly\n\nBeanBoozled","Jelly Belly\n\nBeanBoozled jelly beans have flavors that mimic the flavor and corresponding color of a conventional Jelly Belly jelly bean. The first edition introduced in 2008 included the flavors of Skunk Spray, Rotten Egg, Ear Wax, Booger, Baby Wipes, Pencil Shavings, Toothpaste, Vomit, Moldy Cheese, and Black Pepper. The second edition in 2009 added the flavors of Canned Dog Food and Centipede. The flavor Vomit was renamed Barf. The flavors of Ear Wax and Black Pepper were dropped. The third edition released in 2013 added the flavors of Stinky Socks and Lawn Clippings. The flavors of Pencil Shavings and Centipede were dropped. In 2016, the fourth edition has two new flavors, Dead Fish (Strawberry Banana Smoothie) and Spoiled Milk (Coconut). The flavor Baby Wipes was dropped and replaced by Spoiled Milk (Coconut), and the flavor of Skunk Spray was dropped.\nHere are the weird flavors that compare each regular flavor:\n*Barf or Peach\n*Booger or Juicy Pear\n*Canned Dog Food or Chocolate Pudding\n*Dead Fish or Strawberry Banana Smoothie\n*Lawn Clippings or Lime\n*Moldy Cheese or Caramel Corn\n*Rotten Egg or Buttered Popcorn\n*Spoiled Milk or Coconut\n*Stinky Socks or Tutti-Frutti\n*Toothpaste or Berry Blue","Jelly Belly\n\nSport Beans","Jelly Belly\n\nSport Beans are formulated jelly beans for sports performance. They provide carbohydrates for fuel, electrolytes for fluid balance, and vitamins to protect muscles. \"Juicy Pear and Green Apple join Sport Beans flavors of Lemon Lime, Orange, Berry and Fruit Punch and the Extreme Sport Beans, a caffeinated variety, available in Pomegranate, Watermelon, and Cherry.\"","Jelly Belly\n\nOrganic Jelly Beans","Jelly Belly\n\nThe company's first line of organic jelly beans and fruit snacks was introduced the winter of 2015. The product is USDA certified with non-GMO ingredients. The flavors and colors are from natural sources. The organic jelly beans come in 10 assorted flavors: apple, berry, blueberry, cherry, coconut, lemon, orange, pear, peach, and strawberry. The five sour organic jelly bean flavors include apple, cherry, lemon, orange, and berry. The organic fruit snacks featuring rainforest animals includes six flavors: apple, berry, cherry, lemon, orange, and strawberry.","Jelly Belly\n\nConfections","Jelly Belly\n\nCandy Corn","Jelly Belly\n\nThe company began making candy corn around 1898. \"The company has the longest history of making candy corn of any in the industry.\" Candy corn is a type of mellocreme candy. Jelly Belly Candy Company creates seasonal candy corns: Cupid Corn, Giant Corn, Reindeer Corn, and Bunny Corn.","Jelly Belly\n\nDiscontinued","Jelly Belly\n\nThere have been many discontinued Jelly Belly jelly bean flavors over the years. Below are some of the discontinued flavors.","Jelly Belly\n\n*Apricot\n*Blackberry Brandy\n*Café Latte \n*Champagne Punch\n*Chocolate Banana\n*Chocolate Mint\n*Caramel Apple\n*Cinnamon Apple\n*Eton Mess\n*Grape Jelly\n*Guarana\n*Honey\n*Ice Blue Mint\n*Irish Creme\n*Jalapeño\n*Mai Tai\n*Mandarin Chocolate\n*Papaya\n*Peanut Butter\n*Guava\n*Passion Fruit\n*Sakura","Jelly Belly\n\nRetired BeanBoozled Flavors","Jelly Belly\n\n*Black Pepper (Plum)\n*Centipede (Strawberry Jam)\n*Earwax (Cafe Latte)\n*Pencil Shavings (Top Banana)\n*Baby Wipes (Coconut)\n*Skunk Spray (Licorice)","Jelly Belly\n\nJBz","Jelly Belly\n\nJBz were a candy manufactured by the Jelly Belly Candy Company starting in 2003. Meant to capture the popularity of both Jelly Belly jelly beans and M&M's candies, JBz were chocolate candies covered with Jelly Belly-flavored shells. Some 20+ flavors were used for JBz, but they never caught on and were discontinued in 2009.","Jelly Belly\n\nAmong the flavors used for JBz shells were Raspberry, Coconut, Strawberry Cheesecake, Juicy Pear, Apricot, Cappuccino, Very Cherry, Ice Blue Mint, Cotton Candy, Top Banana, Honey Graham Cracker, Orange Juice, Licorice, Green Apple, Sizzling Cinnamon, Grape, Blueberry, Buttered Popcorn, Toasted Marshmallow and Tutti Fruitti. A \"chocolate lovers\" assortment was also made that included Chocolate Cappuccino, Chocolate Caramel, Chocolate Coconut, Chocolate Fudge Brownie and Chocolate Vanilla.","Jelly Belly\n\nLicensed Product","Jelly Belly\n\nBertie Bott's Every Flavour Beans","Jelly Belly\n\nBertie Bott's Every Flavour Beans were based on a product featured in the Harry Potter book series. They consist of a mixture of the original Jelly Belly jelly bean flavors, as well as some unique, less pleasant ones. The brand is sold under license from Warner Brothers Consumer Products. The Harry Potter series also produced other candy products like chocolate frogs and jelly slugs.","Jelly Belly\n\nAccording to the Harry Potter Lexicon, flavors may include sardine, black pepper, grass, horseradish, vomit, booger, earwax, dirt, earthworm, spaghetti, spinach, soap, sausage, pickle, bacon, and rotten egg.","Jelly Belly\n\nThe current weird flavors of Bertie Bott's Every Flavour Beans include black pepper, booger, dirt, earthworm, earwax, grass, rotten egg, sausage, soap, and vomit.","Jelly Belly\n\nCold Stone Creamery","Jelly Belly\n\nCold Stone Creamery Signature Creation Jelly Belly jelly beans are inspired by popular flavors of ice cream including: Mint Mint Chocolate Chocolate Chip, Our Strawberry Blonde, Apple Pie A La Mode, Chocolate Devolution, and Birthday Cake Remix which is a rookie flavor.","Jelly Belly\n\nDisney","Jelly Belly\n\nThe Disney line includes such popular characters as Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, Minnie Mouse, Anna, Queen Elsa, Olaf, Lightning McQueen, and characters from Star Wars.","Jelly Belly\n\nSoda Pop Shoppe","Jelly Belly\n\nThe six soda pop flavors are : 7UP, A&W Cream Soda, A&W Root Beer, Dr. Pepper, Grape Crush and Orange Crush.","Jelly Belly\n\nSunkist","Jelly Belly\n\nJelly Belly Candy Company makes Sunkist candy products under license from Sunkist Growers, Inc. The Sunkist Fruit Gems include five flavors: pink grapefruit, raspberry, orange, lemon and lime flavor (blueberry flavor was retired). Sunkist Orange Slices are an orange flavored pectin candy. Sunkist Jelly Belly jelly beans citrus flavors include lemon, orange, pink grapefruit, lime, and tangerine.","Jelly Belly\n\nJelly Belly Gourmet Soda","Jelly Belly\n\nJelly Belly Gourmet Soda is a gourmet soda line that was introduced by WIT beverages in October 2009. The soda is made with cane sugar and contains 120 calories per bottle. The line has ten flavors including: Lemon Drop, Sour Cherry, French Vanilla, Blueberry, Green Apple, Crushed Pineapple, Tangerine, Juicy Pear, Strawberry, and Very Cherry.","Jelly Belly\n\nTabasco","Jelly Belly\n\nJelly Belly Tabasco jelly beans are produced under licence from the McIlhenny Company, the makers of Tabasco sauce. These beans are flavored using the hot sauce itself, and come in bags or in bottles shaped like that of Tabasco sauce.","Jelly Belly\n\nOrthodox Union Kosher Certified","Jelly Belly\n\nAll confections including chocolates, mellocremes, sour candies, Jelly Belly jelly beans, and other candies manufactured by Jelly Belly Candy Company are certified OU/OUD Kosher. The company \"...switched from another kosher certification to make...all its products OU Kosher.\"","Jelly Belly\n\nFacilities","Jelly Belly\n\nThe company operates two manufacturing plants in Fairfield, California, and in North Chicago, Illinois. A third facility is a distribution center in Pleasant Prairie, Wisconsin, which offers public tours. In October 2008 the company commenced production of Jelly Belly jelly beans and other confections at its new factory in Rayong, Thailand, producing product for the international market.","Jelly Belly\n\nThe Jelly Belly Factory in Fairfield, California and distribution center in Pleasant Prairie, Wisconsin offer daily tours. The Fairfield, California tour was named one of the best factory tours for kids by FamilyFun Magazine in 2014. The self-guided free tour in Fairfield, California takes visitors along an elevated tour lane giving a bird's-eye view of the candy manufacturing process featuring informational videos and interactive exhibits. Jelly Belly Bean Art is featured on the tour, art made entirely of Jelly Belly jelly beans. The free tour in Pleasant Prairie, Wisconsin features a train ride making stops at a variety of stations showing the company's candy making legacy.","Jelly Belly\n\nJelly Belly Candy Company Factory Tour and Visitor Center, Fairfield, CA Images","Jelly Belly\n\nFile:JellyBellyPortraitRonaldReagan.JPG|Portrait of Ronald Reagan made of Jelly Belly jelly beans, on display.","Jelly Belly\n\nFile:JellyBellyFactoryEntranceInside.JPG|The stairs where the factory tour begins.\nFile:JellyBellyfactorydecorations.JPG|Some of the decorations on display."],"string":"[\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJelly Belly Candy Company, formerly known as Herman Goelitz Candy Company and Goelitz Confectionery Company, manufactures Jelly Belly jelly beans and other candy. The company is based in Fairfield, California, with a second manufacturing facility in North Chicago, Illinois and a distribution center in Pleasant Prairie, Wisconsin. In October 2008 the company opened a manufacturing plant in Rayong, Thailand where it produces confectionery for the international market.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\n1898–1910\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJelly Belly Candy Company, manufacturer of Jelly Belly jelly beans and a wide range of confections, is a family owned and operated business now in its sixth generation of candy making. The family traces its roots to Gustav Goelitz, who came to the United States in 1866. He built a successful confectionery business: Gustav Goelitz Candy, in Belleville, Illinois. Gustav Goelitz's younger brothers, Albert and George, emigrated to America a few years later joining the family business. The Goelitz name developed a reputation for quality confections as the brothers expanded operations and by 1898 were specializing in candy corn and other mellocreme candies (also called butter cream), a new type of candy. The second generation of candy makers moved to North Chicago opening the Goelitz Confectionery Company plant in 1913.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\n1911–1979\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nHerman Goelitz, second generation candy maker, moved to the west coast to start his own business, Herman Goelitz Candy Company. The company eventually settled in Oakland, California in 1924. In 1960 Herman Rowland, Sr., fourth generation candy maker, joined the Oakland, California family business. The family decided to expand the company products making jelly beans, Chocolate Dutch Mints, America’s first gummi bears, and jells. “One of those new products was a small and very flavorful Mini Jelly Bean [developed in 1965].” The Mini Jelly Bean center was flavored with natural flavoring, an innovative idea, instead of just the outer shell.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nRonald Reagan was introduced to the Mini Jelly Beans in 1966. “The then California governor had quit smoking years before and turned to popping candy as a…substitute.” Reagan wrote to Herman Rowland, Sr. while governor, “It’s gotten to the point…where we can hardly start a meeting or make a decision without passing around a jar of jelly beans. We owe you a special measure of thanks for helping keep our state government running smoothly.”\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nIn 1976 David Klein, a candy and nut distributor, collaborated with Herman Rowland to create a jelly bean using natural purees. Using the Mini Jelly Bean concept “...the Jelly Belly innovation was to flavor the chewy insides as well…” David Klein sold the first Jelly Belly jelly beans in an ice cream parlor, Fosselman's, in Alhambra, California in 1976. The first flavors were Very Cherry, Tangerine, Lemon, Green Apple, Grape, Licorice, Root Beer, and Cream Soda. It was David Klein's idea \\\"...to sell them as separate flavors instead of a variety pack and he came up with the name ‘Jelly Belly’ [instead of] ‘Goelitz Mini Jelly Beans.’ ”\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\n1980–Present\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nMarinus van Dam, product developer and plant manager for the company, oversaw the development of the Jelly Belly jelly beans. By the 1980s many flavors of the Jelly Belly jelly bean had been developed. In 1983 the character Mr. Jelly Belly was developed to promote the product. Prior to the development of the character David Klein called himself \\\"Mr. Jelly Belly\\\" to promote the product. \\\"In 1980, David Klein sold the Jelly Belly trademark to Rowland for $4.8 million, paid in monthly installments over 20 years, which Klein split with a partner.\\\" The trademark Jelly Belly was filed by Jelly Belly Candy Company on December 8, 1980 and was registered on August 3, 1982.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nIn 1980 the word got out that Ronald Reagan ate jelly beans and \\\"...those jelly beans were made by our...company.\\\" This broke open the demand for Jelly Belly jelly beans. To keep up with the demand extra shifts were added, but orders were backlogged for more than a year. The company supplied President Ronald Reagan with Jelly Belly jelly beans during his eight years of presidency. \\\"We were thrilled by press reports that President Reagan gave jars of Jelly Belly jelly beans to visiting dignitaries.\\\" Reagan made them the first jelly beans in space, sending them on the Space Shuttle Challenger during the STS-7 mission in 1983, as a surprise for the astronauts.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nToday the company produces more than 100 different gourmet confections.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nProducts\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJelly Belly jelly beans\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nOfficial 50 flavors\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nThere are 50 official flavors of Jelly Belly jelly beans:\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nOther Flavors\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nOther flavors outside the official 50 flavors are the newest Jelly Belly jelly bean flavors and may become official flavors. Rookie flavors change as new flavors are introduced.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\n*7 Up\\n*Grape Crush\\n*Orange Crush\\n*Tabasco\\n*Birthday Cake\\n*Strawberry Banana Smoothie\\n*Draft Beer\\n*Champagne\\n*Pancakes & Maple Syrup\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nSugar-Free Jelly Belly jelly beans\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJelly Belly Candy Company also produces Sugar-Free Jelly Belly jelly beans, sweetened with Splenda and maltitol:\\n*Buttered Popcorn\\n*Cherry\\n*Green Apple\\n*Juicy Pear\\n*Lemon\\n*Licorice\\n*Pineapple\\n*Sizzling Cinnamon\\n*Strawberry\\n*Tangerine\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nInternational Flavors\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJelly Belly Candy Company creates specialized Jelly Belly jelly bean flavours for the international market.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\n* Chili Mango: This flavour is inspired by the flavours of Southeast Asia and Latin America made with real cayenne pepper, paprika and mango juice, a combination of sweet and spice. It is also an official flavor of the 50 Jelly Belly jelly bean flavor list in the United States.\\n* Green Tea: A familiar tea in Japanese and Chinese cultures green tea has grown in popularity across the globe.\\n* Lychee: A fruit found in the tropical Pacific Islands and across Asia.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nBelly Flops\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nBelly Flops are \\\"irregular Jelly Belly jelly beans.\\\" Some are misshapen, others are conjoined, and they do not have the name stamped on them. Sometimes the colors do not match the flavors of the beans.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJewel Collection\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJelly Belly Candy Company unveiled the Jelly Belly jewel collection on National Jelly Bean Day, April 22, 2013. The Jelly Belly jewel collection features Jelly Belly jelly beans with an iridescent sheen. The original seven flavors for the Jelly Belly jewel collection are listed below. \\n*Berry Blue\\n*Blueberry\\n*Bubble Gum\\n*Cream Soda\\n*Orange\\n*Sour Apple\\n*Very Cherry\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nThe jewel collection has expanded including such flavors as\\n* Grape Soda\\n* Sour Lemon\\n* Ginger Ale\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nBeanBoozled\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nBeanBoozled jelly beans have flavors that mimic the flavor and corresponding color of a conventional Jelly Belly jelly bean. The first edition introduced in 2008 included the flavors of Skunk Spray, Rotten Egg, Ear Wax, Booger, Baby Wipes, Pencil Shavings, Toothpaste, Vomit, Moldy Cheese, and Black Pepper. The second edition in 2009 added the flavors of Canned Dog Food and Centipede. The flavor Vomit was renamed Barf. The flavors of Ear Wax and Black Pepper were dropped. The third edition released in 2013 added the flavors of Stinky Socks and Lawn Clippings. The flavors of Pencil Shavings and Centipede were dropped. In 2016, the fourth edition has two new flavors, Dead Fish (Strawberry Banana Smoothie) and Spoiled Milk (Coconut). The flavor Baby Wipes was dropped and replaced by Spoiled Milk (Coconut), and the flavor of Skunk Spray was dropped.\\nHere are the weird flavors that compare each regular flavor:\\n*Barf or Peach\\n*Booger or Juicy Pear\\n*Canned Dog Food or Chocolate Pudding\\n*Dead Fish or Strawberry Banana Smoothie\\n*Lawn Clippings or Lime\\n*Moldy Cheese or Caramel Corn\\n*Rotten Egg or Buttered Popcorn\\n*Spoiled Milk or Coconut\\n*Stinky Socks or Tutti-Frutti\\n*Toothpaste or Berry Blue\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nSport Beans\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nSport Beans are formulated jelly beans for sports performance. They provide carbohydrates for fuel, electrolytes for fluid balance, and vitamins to protect muscles. \\\"Juicy Pear and Green Apple join Sport Beans flavors of Lemon Lime, Orange, Berry and Fruit Punch and the Extreme Sport Beans, a caffeinated variety, available in Pomegranate, Watermelon, and Cherry.\\\"\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nOrganic Jelly Beans\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nThe company's first line of organic jelly beans and fruit snacks was introduced the winter of 2015. The product is USDA certified with non-GMO ingredients. The flavors and colors are from natural sources. The organic jelly beans come in 10 assorted flavors: apple, berry, blueberry, cherry, coconut, lemon, orange, pear, peach, and strawberry. The five sour organic jelly bean flavors include apple, cherry, lemon, orange, and berry. The organic fruit snacks featuring rainforest animals includes six flavors: apple, berry, cherry, lemon, orange, and strawberry.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nConfections\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nCandy Corn\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nThe company began making candy corn around 1898. \\\"The company has the longest history of making candy corn of any in the industry.\\\" Candy corn is a type of mellocreme candy. Jelly Belly Candy Company creates seasonal candy corns: Cupid Corn, Giant Corn, Reindeer Corn, and Bunny Corn.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nDiscontinued\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nThere have been many discontinued Jelly Belly jelly bean flavors over the years. Below are some of the discontinued flavors.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\n*Apricot\\n*Blackberry Brandy\\n*Café Latte \\n*Champagne Punch\\n*Chocolate Banana\\n*Chocolate Mint\\n*Caramel Apple\\n*Cinnamon Apple\\n*Eton Mess\\n*Grape Jelly\\n*Guarana\\n*Honey\\n*Ice Blue Mint\\n*Irish Creme\\n*Jalapeño\\n*Mai Tai\\n*Mandarin Chocolate\\n*Papaya\\n*Peanut Butter\\n*Guava\\n*Passion Fruit\\n*Sakura\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nRetired BeanBoozled Flavors\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\n*Black Pepper (Plum)\\n*Centipede (Strawberry Jam)\\n*Earwax (Cafe Latte)\\n*Pencil Shavings (Top Banana)\\n*Baby Wipes (Coconut)\\n*Skunk Spray (Licorice)\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJBz\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJBz were a candy manufactured by the Jelly Belly Candy Company starting in 2003. Meant to capture the popularity of both Jelly Belly jelly beans and M&M's candies, JBz were chocolate candies covered with Jelly Belly-flavored shells. Some 20+ flavors were used for JBz, but they never caught on and were discontinued in 2009.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nAmong the flavors used for JBz shells were Raspberry, Coconut, Strawberry Cheesecake, Juicy Pear, Apricot, Cappuccino, Very Cherry, Ice Blue Mint, Cotton Candy, Top Banana, Honey Graham Cracker, Orange Juice, Licorice, Green Apple, Sizzling Cinnamon, Grape, Blueberry, Buttered Popcorn, Toasted Marshmallow and Tutti Fruitti. A \\\"chocolate lovers\\\" assortment was also made that included Chocolate Cappuccino, Chocolate Caramel, Chocolate Coconut, Chocolate Fudge Brownie and Chocolate Vanilla.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nLicensed Product\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nBertie Bott's Every Flavour Beans\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nBertie Bott's Every Flavour Beans were based on a product featured in the Harry Potter book series. They consist of a mixture of the original Jelly Belly jelly bean flavors, as well as some unique, less pleasant ones. The brand is sold under license from Warner Brothers Consumer Products. The Harry Potter series also produced other candy products like chocolate frogs and jelly slugs.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nAccording to the Harry Potter Lexicon, flavors may include sardine, black pepper, grass, horseradish, vomit, booger, earwax, dirt, earthworm, spaghetti, spinach, soap, sausage, pickle, bacon, and rotten egg.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nThe current weird flavors of Bertie Bott's Every Flavour Beans include black pepper, booger, dirt, earthworm, earwax, grass, rotten egg, sausage, soap, and vomit.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nCold Stone Creamery\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nCold Stone Creamery Signature Creation Jelly Belly jelly beans are inspired by popular flavors of ice cream including: Mint Mint Chocolate Chocolate Chip, Our Strawberry Blonde, Apple Pie A La Mode, Chocolate Devolution, and Birthday Cake Remix which is a rookie flavor.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nDisney\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nThe Disney line includes such popular characters as Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, Minnie Mouse, Anna, Queen Elsa, Olaf, Lightning McQueen, and characters from Star Wars.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nSoda Pop Shoppe\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nThe six soda pop flavors are : 7UP, A&W Cream Soda, A&W Root Beer, Dr. Pepper, Grape Crush and Orange Crush.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nSunkist\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJelly Belly Candy Company makes Sunkist candy products under license from Sunkist Growers, Inc. The Sunkist Fruit Gems include five flavors: pink grapefruit, raspberry, orange, lemon and lime flavor (blueberry flavor was retired). Sunkist Orange Slices are an orange flavored pectin candy. Sunkist Jelly Belly jelly beans citrus flavors include lemon, orange, pink grapefruit, lime, and tangerine.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJelly Belly Gourmet Soda\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJelly Belly Gourmet Soda is a gourmet soda line that was introduced by WIT beverages in October 2009. The soda is made with cane sugar and contains 120 calories per bottle. The line has ten flavors including: Lemon Drop, Sour Cherry, French Vanilla, Blueberry, Green Apple, Crushed Pineapple, Tangerine, Juicy Pear, Strawberry, and Very Cherry.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nTabasco\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJelly Belly Tabasco jelly beans are produced under licence from the McIlhenny Company, the makers of Tabasco sauce. These beans are flavored using the hot sauce itself, and come in bags or in bottles shaped like that of Tabasco sauce.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nOrthodox Union Kosher Certified\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nAll confections including chocolates, mellocremes, sour candies, Jelly Belly jelly beans, and other candies manufactured by Jelly Belly Candy Company are certified OU/OUD Kosher. The company \\\"...switched from another kosher certification to make...all its products OU Kosher.\\\"\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nFacilities\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nThe company operates two manufacturing plants in Fairfield, California, and in North Chicago, Illinois. A third facility is a distribution center in Pleasant Prairie, Wisconsin, which offers public tours. In October 2008 the company commenced production of Jelly Belly jelly beans and other confections at its new factory in Rayong, Thailand, producing product for the international market.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nThe Jelly Belly Factory in Fairfield, California and distribution center in Pleasant Prairie, Wisconsin offer daily tours. The Fairfield, California tour was named one of the best factory tours for kids by FamilyFun Magazine in 2014. The self-guided free tour in Fairfield, California takes visitors along an elevated tour lane giving a bird's-eye view of the candy manufacturing process featuring informational videos and interactive exhibits. Jelly Belly Bean Art is featured on the tour, art made entirely of Jelly Belly jelly beans. The free tour in Pleasant Prairie, Wisconsin features a train ride making stops at a variety of stations showing the company's candy making legacy.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nJelly Belly Candy Company Factory Tour and Visitor Center, Fairfield, CA Images\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nFile:JellyBellyPortraitRonaldReagan.JPG|Portrait of Ronald Reagan made of Jelly Belly jelly beans, on display.\",\n \"Jelly Belly\\n\\nFile:JellyBellyFactoryEntranceInside.JPG|The stairs where the factory tour begins.\\nFile:JellyBellyfactorydecorations.JPG|Some of the decorations on display.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137097,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2327"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What was the number of the mobile hospital unit on TVs M*A*S*H?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"4077th"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["m s h series","m s h tv","mash television program","m s h television program","there is nothing like nurse","mash television","mash tv show","mash tv series","mash tv","m s h television","m s h tv show","m s h show","m s h television series","m s h tv series"],"string":"[\n \"m s h series\",\n \"m s h tv\",\n \"mash television program\",\n \"m s h television program\",\n \"there is nothing like nurse\",\n \"mash television\",\n \"mash tv show\",\n \"mash tv series\",\n \"mash tv\",\n \"m s h television\",\n \"m s h tv show\",\n \"m s h show\",\n \"m s h television series\",\n \"m s h tv series\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nM*A*S*H is an American television series developed by Larry Gelbart, adapted from the 1970 feature film MASH (which was itself based on the 1968 novel MASH: A Novel About Three Army Doctors, by Richard Hooker). The series, which was produced in association with 20th Century Fox Television for CBS, follows a team of doctors and support staff stationed at the \"4077th Mobile Army Surgical Hospital\" in Uijeongbu, South Korea during the Korean War. The show's title sequence features an instrumental-only version of \"Suicide Is Painless\", the theme song from the original film. The show was created after an attempt to film the original book's sequel, M*A*S*H Goes to Maine, failed. The television series is the best-known version of the M*A*S*H works, and one of the highest-rated shows in U.S. television history.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThe series premiered in the U.S. on September 17, 1972, and ended on February 28, 1983, with the finale, \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\", becoming the most-watched and highest-rated single television episode in U.S. television history at the time, with a record-breaking 125 million viewers (60.2 rating and 77 share), according to the New York Times. It had struggled in its first season and was at risk of being cancelled. Season two of M*A*S*H placed it in a better time slot (airing after the popular All in the Family); the show became one of the top 10 programs of the year and stayed in the top 20 programs for the rest of its run. It is still broadcast in syndication on various television stations. The series, which depicted events occurring during a three-year military conflict, spanned 256 episodes and lasted 11 seasons. The Korean conflict lasted 1,128 days, meaning each episode of the series would have averaged almost four and a half days of real time. Many of the stories in the early seasons are based on tales told by real MASH surgeons who were interviewed by the production team.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nLike the movie, the series was as much an allegory about the Vietnam War (still in progress when the show began) as it was about the Korean War.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThe episodes \"Abyssinia, Henry\" and \"The Interview\" were ranked number 20 and number 80, respectively, on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time in 1997. In 2002, M*A*S*H was ranked number 25 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked it as the fifth-best written TV series ever and TV Guide ranked it as the eighth-greatest show of all time.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nSynopsis","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nM*A*S*H aired weekly on CBS, with most episodes being a half-hour in length. The series is usually categorized as a situation comedy, though it is also described as a \"dark comedy\" or a \"dramedy\" because of the dramatic subject material often presented. The show was an ensemble piece revolving around key personnel in a United States Army Mobile Army Surgical Hospital (MASH) in the Korean War (1950–1953). (The asterisks in the name are not part of military nomenclature and were creatively introduced in the novel and used in only the posters for the movie version, not the actual movie.) The \"4077th MASH\" was one of several surgical units in Korea. As the show developed, the writing took on more of a moralistic tone. Richard Hooker, who wrote the book on which the television and film versions were based, noted that Hawkeye's character was far more liberal in the show than on the page (in one of the MASH books, Hawkeye makes reference to \"kicking the bejesus out of lefties just to stay in shape\"). While the show is traditionally viewed as a comedy, many episodes were of a more serious tone.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nAiring on network primetime while the Vietnam War was still going on, the show was forced to walk the fine line of commenting on that war while at the same time not seeming to protest against it. For this reason, the show's discourse, under the cover of comedy, often questioned, mocked, and grappled with America's role in the Cold War. Episodes were both plot- and character-driven, with several episodes being narrated by one of the show's characters as the contents of a letter home. The show's tone could move from silly to sobering from one episode to the next, with dramatic tension often occurring between the civilian draftees of 4077th — Hawkeye, Trapper John, and B.J. Hunnicutt, for example — who are forced to leave their homes to tend the wounded and dying of the war, and the \"regular Army\" characters, such as Margaret Houlihan and Colonel Potter, who tend to represent ideas of patriotism and duty (though Houlihan and Potter could represent the other perspective at times, as well). Other characters, such as Col. Blake, Maj. Winchester, and Cpl.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nKlinger, help demonstrate various American civilian attitudes toward army life, while guest characters played by such actors as Eldon Quick, Herb Voland, Mary Wickes, and Tim O'Connor also help further the show's discussion of America's place as Cold War warmaker and peacemaker.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nCharacters","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nM*A*S*H maintained a relatively constant ensemble cast, with four characters — Hawkeye, Father Mulcahy, Margaret Houlihan, and Max Klinger — on the show for all 11 seasons. Several other main characters departed or joined the program midway through its run. Also, numerous guest actors and recurring characters were used. The writers found creating so many names difficult, and used names from elsewhere; for example, characters on the seventh season were named after the 1978 Los Angeles Dodgers.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n*Note: Character appearances include double-length episodes as two appearances, making 260 in total.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nRecurring characters","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n* Nurse Kealani Kellye, a recurring character in the 4077th (appearing in 164 episodes), was played by Kellye Nakahara. A warm character, she had more to say than the other nurses. She is often seen dancing with Radar, and later, Charles. The first name \"Kealani\" was never used in the series. On several occasions, David Ogden Stiers and Loretta Swit have referred to her as \"Nurse Nakahara\" and \"Lieutenant Nakahara\", respectively. * Jeff Maxwell appeared as the bumbling Pvt. Igor Straminsky in 75 episodes. In his earlier appearances, he was the camp cook's aide, complaining that, despite not cooking the food (SSG Pernelli was the cook, not revealed until season 9 as described below), he still had to listen to everyone's gripes about it. He was often the target of Hawkeye's wrath because of the terrible food, and the recipient of his \"river of liver and ocean of fish\" rant in \"Adam's Ribs\". His bumbling even gained the ire of Father Mulcahy, when he creamed the fresh corn Mulcahy grew in \"A War for All Seasons\". In at least two episodes, he was called a sergeant by Major Burns.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nIn another episode, Burns asks his name and he replies \"Maxwell,\" the actor's actual surname. Burns then replies with that name. * Roy Goldman appeared in 35 episodes as Corpsman Roy Goldman. * Odessa Cleveland appeared in 29 episodes as Lt. Ginger Bayliss, one of the nurses. * Patricia Stevens appeared in 15 episodes, primarily as Nurse Baker (also as Nurse Mitchell, Nurse Stevens, Nurse Brown and Nurse Able)\n* Rita Wilson appeared in two episodes as Nurse Lacey. * Johnny Haymer played Staff Sgt. Zelmo Zale, supply sergeant for the 4077th, in 20 episodes. He made his first appearance in the season-2 episode \"For Want of a Boot\", and his final appearance in the season-8 episode \"Good-Bye, Radar\". Zale's name is mentioned for the final time in \"Yessir, That's Our Baby\". * G. W. Bailey played the perpetually lazy Staff Sgt. Luther Rizzo, who headed the camp motor pool, in 14 episodes. * Enid Kent played Nurse Peggy Bigelow in 14 episodes. She was quite often the target of Hawkeye's flirtations. In \"They Call the Wind Korea\", she gets injured by a falling water tower and is treated by the 4077th.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nIn \"Goodbye, Farewell, and Amen\", when various members of the 4077th announce postwar plans, she blandly recounts her days as a nurse both in World War II and in Korea and simply says, \"I've had it.\"\n* Dr. Sidney Freedman, Major, a psychiatrist, was played by Allan Arbus, who appeared 12 times. In his first appearance, his name was Dr. Milton Freedman, but was subsequently changed. Dr. Freedman played a major role in the two-hour final episode. * Colonel Flagg, a paranoid and jingoistic counterintelligence officer prone to using aliases, was played by Edward Winter. He appeared six times (and the actor appeared once as a very similar intelligence officer named Halloran). * Marcia Strassman played nurse Margie Cutler six times during the show's first season. Her last appearance was in the episode \"Ceasefire\". * Herb Voland appeared seven times as Henry Blake's commander, Brigadier General Crandall Clayton. * G. Wood appeared three times as Brigadier General Hammond, the same role he played in the movie. * Robert Gooden appeared three times as Private Lorenzo Boone. * Robert F. Simon appeared three times as Major General Mitchell.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n* Loudon Wainwright III appeared three times as Captain Calvin Spalding, who was usually seen playing his guitar and singing. * Eldon Quick appeared three times as two nearly identical characters, Capt. Sloan and Capt. Pratt, officers who were dedicated to paperwork and bureaucracy. * Sergeant (later Pvt) Jack Scully, played by Joshua Bryant, appeared in three episodes as a love interest of Margaret Houlihan. * Pat Morita appeared twice as Capt. Sam Pak of the Republic of Korea Army. * Karen Philipp (singer with Sergio Mendes & Brasil '66, 1967–70) appeared twice as Lt. Maria 'Dish' Schneider during the first season. * Sorrell Booke appeared twice as Brigadier General Bradley Barker. Booke was an actual Korean War veteran. * Robert Symonds appeared twice as Col/Lt Col. Horace Baldwin. * Robert Alda, Alan Alda's father, appeared twice as Maj. Borelli, a visiting surgeon. * Catherine Bergstrom appeared twice as Peg Hunnicutt, B.J.'s wife, back in the U.S. * Lt. Col. Donald Penobscot appeared twice (played by two different actors), In \"Margaret's Marriage\" (#5.24), Penobscot was played by Beeson Carrol, and was her fiancé at the time (they were married during the episode).","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nIn \"The M*A*S*H* Olympics\" (#6.10), he appears as her husband, he takes part in a M*A*S*H Olympics; he is played by Mike Henry. * Staff Sgt. \"Sparky\" Pryor, a friend of Radar and Klinger, was the telephone operator usually called by the 4077th MASH. He was seen only once, played by Dennis Fimple, in Tuttle (season 1, episode 15), but was sometimes faintly heard on the phone when he yelled. * Sal Viscuso and Todd Susman played the camp's anonymous public address system announcer throughout the series. This character (who is never seen on camera) broke the fourth wall only twice, in the episodes \"Pilot (M*A*S*H)\" (1.1) and \"Welcome to Korea\" (4.1), both times while introducing the regular cast members. Both Viscuso and Susman appeared onscreen as other characters in at least one episode each. *Eileen Saki appeared in seven episodes as Rosie, the owner and head bartender at Rosie's Bar, which was frequented by the regular characters. Her first appearance on the show, however, was as the madam of a brothel which was occupying a much-needed hut in the episode \"Bug Out\".","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nRosie had previously been played by Shizuko Hoshi (in \"Mad Dogs and Servicemen\") and Frances Fong (in \"Bug Out\" and \"Fallen Idol\") before Saki assumed the role. * Timothy Brown appeared as Capt. Oliver Harmon 'Spearchucker' Jones in six season-1 episodes as a captain who lived with Pierce, Burns, and McIntyre in the \"Swamp\". * Val Bisoglio appeared in three episodes as Staff Sergeant Salvatore Pernelli, the actual mess cook for the 4077th. His first appearance was in season 9's \"The Life You Save\", followed by two appearances in season 10, \"Twas the Day After Christmas\" and \"A Holy Mess\". * Nurse Shari appeared in 15 episodes during the last four seasons, played by Shari Saba. * John Orchard played Ugly John, an anesthesiologist, and later \"Muldoon\" in \"Rosie's Pub\".","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nCharacter timeline","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nImageSize = width:1000 height:auto barincrement:25\nPlotArea = left:220 bottom:80 top:10 right:10\nAlignbars = justify\nPeriod = from:1 till:12\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:y","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nColors =\n id:regular value:blue legend:Regular\n id:recurring value:green legend:Recurring\n id:background value:red legend:Background\n id:lines value:black\n id:bars value:gray(0.95)","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nLegend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:3","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nBackgroundColors = bars:bars\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:1 start:1\nScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nBarData=\n bar:Pierce text:\"Benjamin Franklin 'Hawkeye' Pierce\"\n bar:Houlihan text:\"Margaret 'Hot Lips' Houlihan\"\n bar:Klinger text:\"Maxwell Q. Klinger\"\n bar:Mulcahy text:\"John Patrick Francis Mulcahy\"\n bar:McIntyre text:\"John Francis Xavier 'Trapper John' McIntyre\"\n bar:Blake text:\"Henry Braymore Blake\"\n bar:Burns text:\"Franklin Marion 'Frank' Burns\"\n bar:Radar text:\"Walter Eugene 'Radar' O’Reilly\"\n bar:Jones\t text:\"Oliver Harmon 'Spearchucker' Jones\"\n bar:Hunnicutt text:\"B. J. Hunnicutt\"\n bar:Potter\t text:\"Sherman Tecumseh Potter\"\n bar:Winchester text:\"Charles Emerson Winchester III\"\n bar:Kellye\t text:\"Nurse Kellye\"\n bar:Straminsky text:\"Igor Straminsky\"\n bar:Rizzo\t text:\"Luther Rizzo\"","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nPlotData=\n width:10 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4)\n bar:Pierce from:1 till:end color:regular\n bar:Houlihan from:1 till:end color:regular\n bar:Klinger from:1 till:4 color:recurring\n bar:Klinger from:4 till:end color:regular\n bar:Mulcahy from:1 till:5 color:recurring\n bar:Mulcahy from:5 till:end color:regular\n bar:McIntyre from:1 till:4 color:regular\n bar:Blake from:1 till:4 color:regular\n bar:Burns from:1 till:6 color:regular\n bar:Radar from:1 till:8.2 color:regular\n bar:Jones\t from:1\t till:1.45 color:recurring\n bar:Hunnicutt from:4 till:end color:regular\n bar:Potter from:4.08 till:end color:regular\n bar:Winchester from:6 till:end color:regular\n bar:Kellye from:1 till:3.5 color:background\n bar:Kellye from:3.5 till:end color:recurring\n bar:Straminsky from:2 till:end color:recurring\n bar:Rizzo\t from:8.45 till:end color:recurring","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nActors with multiple roles","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nSeveral guest stars made appearances as multiple characters:\n*Hamilton Camp appeared twice, first as the insane Cpl. \"Boots\" Miller in \"Major Topper\" (episode 6.25), and again as a film distributor named Frankenheimer in \"The Moon is Not Blue\" (11.8). *Dennis Dugan appeared twice, as O.R. orderly Pvt. McShane in 3.20, \"Love and Marriage\", and again in 11.11, \"Strange Bedfellows\", as Col. Potter's philandering son-in-law, Robert \"Bob\" Wilson. *Gary Burghoff was the only actor to ever appear simultaneously on the show with himself. He played Radar O'Reilly throughout the show, and in episode 4.15 \"Mail Call... Again\", he watched a home movie sent to him in Korea in which he played his own mother. Father Mulcahy remarks, \"Radar certainly bears a striking resemblance to his mother!\"\n*Tim O'Connor appeared as wounded artillery officer Col. Spiker in \"Of Moose and Men\" (4.12), and as visiting surgeon Norm Traeger in \"Operation Friendship\" (9.10). Both characters were noticeably at odds with Hawkeye. *Dick O'Neill appeared three times (each time in a different U.S. service branch): as Navy Rear Admiral Cox, as Army Brigadier General Prescott, and as Marine Colonel Pitts. *Harry Morgan played both the 4077th's second beloved C.O. (Col. Sherman T.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nPotter) and the mentally unstable Major Gen. Bartford Hamilton Steele in the show's third season, in the episode \"The General Flipped at Dawn\". This last character was a reprise of his role as Major Pott in the 1966 movie, What Did You Do in the War, Daddy? *Soon-Tek Oh appeared five times: twice as a North Korean POW (in 4.7, \"The Bus\", and 8.10, \"The Yalu Brick Road\"); once as a North Korean doctor (5.10, \"The Korean Surgeon\"); once as O.R. orderly Mr. Kwang (3.20, \"Love and Marriage\"); and once as a South Korean interpreter who poses as a North Korean POW (11.3, \"Foreign Affairs\"). *Philip Ahn appeared three times: episodes 4.19 (\"Hawkeye\"), 5.13 (\"Exorcism\"), and 6.9 (\"Change Day\"). Like Soon-Tek Oh, Ahn was one of the few Korean actors to play a Korean on M*A*S*H; most of the other \"Korean\" characters were played by either Japanese, Chinese, or Vietnamese ethnic actors. Ironically, Ahn played Japanese villains in World War II movies and Chinese characters on Bonanza and Kung Fu. *Robert Karnes appeared twice: once as a colonel in 4.1 (\"Welcome to Korea\") and as a general in 6.4 (\"Last Laugh\").","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n*Clyde Kusatsu appeared four times: twice as a Korean bartender in the Officers' Club, once as a Chinese-American soldier, and once as a Japanese-American surgeon. *Robert Ito played a hood who works for the black market in 1.2, \"To Market, To Market\", and a North Korean soldier disguised as a South Korean looking for supplies, in 5.10, \"The Korean Surgeon\". *Keye Luke appeared three times. In “Patent 4077” (6.17), he played Mr. Shin, a local jewelry maker hired by the surgeons to make a new surgical clamp; in “A Night at Rosie’s” (7.24), he played Cho Kim, who ran a crooked craps game in the back room at Rosie’s Bar; and in “Death Takes a Holiday” (9.5), he played the headmaster of a local orphanage. *Mako appeared four times, once as a Chinese doctor (3.2, \"Rainbow Bridge\"), once as a South Korean doctor (5.11, \"Hawkeye Get Your Gun\"), once as a South Korean officer (8.3, \"Guerilla My Dreams\"), and once as a North Korean soldier (9.1, \"The Best of Enemies\"). *Jerry Fujikawa appeared as crooked Korean matchmaker Dr.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nPak in \"Love and Marriage\", as Trapper John's tailor in 3.3, \"Officer of the Day\", as an acupuncturist named Wu in 8.24, \"Back Pay\", as the Uijeongbu chief of police in \"Rally Round the Flagg, Boys\", and as \"Whiplash Wang\" in \"Deal Me Out\". *John Orchard starred as Australian anesthetist Ugly John in the first season, and later appeared in 8.13 as disgruntled and drunken Australian MP Muldoon, who has an arrangement with Rosie the barkeeper: he takes bribes (in the form of liquor in his \"coffee\" mug) to \"look the other way.\" Orchard was actually English, so adopted an Australian accent and some Australian colloquialisms for his persona. He also normally wore an Australian-style \"slouch\" hat. *Richard Lee Sung appeared 10 times as a local Korean who often had merchandise (and in one case, real estate) he wished to sell to the hospital staff; he once sold a backwards-running watch to Major Burns and he also tried to help Corporal Klinger lose his money in a game of craps in A Night at Rosie's. *Jack Soo, known for his role as Barney Millers Sgt.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nNick Yemana, appeared twice, once as black-market boss Charlie Lee, with whom Hawkeye and Trapper made a trade for supplies in \"To Market, To Market\" (1.2), and in \"Payday\" (3.22) as a peddler who sold Frank two sets of pearls: one real, the other fake. *Ted Gehring appeared twice: in 2.12, as moronic Supply Officer Major Morris, who refuses to let the MASH doctors have a badly needed incubator, and in 7.6, as corrupt supply NCO Sgt. Rhoden. *Eldon Quick appeared three times, once as a finance officer and twice as Captain Sloan. *Edward Winter appeared as an intelligence officer named \"Halloran\" in 2.13, and in six episodes as Colonel Flagg (although Halloran may have been one of Flagg's numerous and often mid-episode-changing aliases). Given a comment he makes to Sidney Freedman about the two playing poker together (a reference to Winter's appearance as Halloran) this seems to be likely. *Shizuko Hoshi appeared four times: once as \"Rosie\" of \"Rosie's Bar\" in episode 3.13, \"Mad Dogs and Servicemen\"; and three times as the mother in different Korean families in \"Hawkeye\" (4.18), \"B.J. Papa San\" (7.16), and \"Private Finance\" (8.8).","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n* John Fujioka, who played the uncredited role of a Japanese golf pro in the movie, appeared three times in the series. The first time was in \"Dear Ma\" (1975) as Colonel Kim, the second time was in \"The Tooth Shall Set You Free\" (1982) as Duc Phon Jong, and the last time, he played a peasant in \"Picture This\" (1982). * Stuart Margolin appeared twice, first as psychiatrist Capt. Phillip Sherman in season 1's \"Bananas, Crackers and Nuts\" (1.07), and again as plastic surgeon Major Stanley \"Stosh\" Robbins in season 2's \"Operation Noselift\" (2.18). * Oliver Clark appeared twice. In \"38 Across\" (5.16), he played the part of Hawkeye's crossword-loving friend Lt. Tippy Brooks. In \"Mail Call Three\" (6.21), he played the part of 'the other' Captain Ben Pierce. * Jeanne Schulherr appeared in season 3's \"There Is Nothing Like a Nurse\" as Frank Burns's wife, Louise (in a home movie), and in two other season-3 episodes as an unnamed nurse. * Charles Frank appeared in season 5 as Capt.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nHathaway in \"Dear Sigmund\", a pilot who admitted to not knowing the victims of his bombings from his plane, and appeared in season 6 as Lieutenant Martinson in \"What's Up, Doc?\", a troubled Yale graduate who finds himself in the infantry and holds Maj. Winchester Hostage at gunpoint. * Kevin Hagen appeared twice. In \"Some 38th Parallels\" (4.20, 1976), he played the part of Colonel Coner, on whom Hawkeye drops garbage from an airborne helicopter. In \"Peace On Us\" (7.2, 1978), he played the part of red-haired Major Goss, sent to warn Hawkeye to stay away from the peace talks. * Yuki Shimoda appeared three times. In \"The Price\" (7.18, 1979), he played the part of Cho Pak, a farmer who was a former Korean cavalry officer who steals Col. Potter's horse Sophie only because he is dying and wants one final chance to remember his military days. In \"Yessir, That's Our Baby\" (8.15), he plays a Korean consular officer who advises Hawkeye and B.J. that to allow an abandoned Amerasian infant to live in Korea would result in dire consequences.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nAnd, in \"Oh, How We Danced\" (9.14, which aired almost two months before his death in 1981), he plays the grandfather of a child patient of the 4077th who is a skilled harmonica player. * James Carroll appeared twice, as an orderly in \"Bug Out\" and as a jeep driver who brought Major Winchester to the 4077th in \"Fade Out, Fade In\".","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nCharacter names","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n*Throughout the series, Klinger frequently introduces himself by his full name, Maxwell Q. Klinger, but never says what the Q. stands for. *B.J.'s real name is the subject of an episode's secondary plot line. Hawkeye goes to extreme lengths to learn what \"B.J.\" stands for, but all official paperwork concerning his friend indicates that B.J. really is his first name. Toward the end of the episode, B.J. (in explaining who gave him his name) says, \"My mother, Bea Hunnicut, and my father, Jay Hunnicut.\" A recurring joke in that episode is that upon being asked what B.J. stands for, B.J. merely replies, \"Anything you want.\"\n*Frank Burns had four different middle names during his time on the show: W. (on the punching bag in \"Requiem for a Lightweight\"), D., X., and Marion. *Radar's first name is stated as Walter, and once (in \"Fade Out, Fade In\"), he introduces himself by his full name to Charles Emerson Winchester III as \"Walter Eugene O'Reilly\". The book says his name is J. Robespierre, and his first name is not revealed in the film.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n*In the finale (\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\"), Father Mulcahy tells Klinger that his full name is Francis John Patrick Mulcahy, in case Klinger might want to name any of his children after him. Also, in the eighth-season episode \"Nurse Doctor\", he gives his full name as Francis John Patrick Mulcahy. Yet, in all other episodes, his name was John Patrick Francis Mulcahy, and he just wanted others to call him by his confirmation name, Francis.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nNotable actors and actor information","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n*Antony Alda, Alan Alda's half-brother, appeared in one episode (\"Lend a Hand\") as Corporal Jarvis alongside both his brother and father (Robert). *Robert Alda, Alan Alda's father, had guest appearances in two episodes, \"The Consultant\" and \"Lend a Hand\", the latter written by Alda himself. According to Alda, \"Lend a Hand\" was his way of reconciling with his father. He was always giving suggestions to Robert for their vaudeville act, and in \"Lend a Hand\", Robert's character was always giving Hawkeye suggestions. It was Robert's idea for the doctors to cooperate as \"Dr. Right\" and \"Dr. Left\" at the end of that episode, signifying both a reconciliation of their characters, and in real life, as well. *While most of the characters from the movie carried over to the series, only four actors appeared in both: Gary Burghoff (Radar O'Reilly) and G. Wood (General Hammond) reprised their movie roles in the series, though Wood appeared in only three episodes. Timothy Brown (credited as \"Tim Brown\") played \"Cpl. Judson\" in the movie and \"Spearchucker Jones\" in the series. Corey Fischer played Capt. Bandini in the film and was the guitar-playing dentist \"Cardozo\" in the episode \"Five O'Clock Charlie\".","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n*Two of the cast members, Jamie Farr (Klinger) and Alan Alda (Hawkeye Pierce), served in the U.S. Army in Korea in the 1950s after the Korean War, Alda as a junior officer, Farr as enlisted. The dog tags Farr wears on the show are his actual dog tags. Farr served as part of a USO tour with Red Skelton. Furthermore, Wayne Rogers served as a Naval Reserve officer in the mid-1950s after the end of Korean War, and Mike Farrell (B.J. Hunnicut) served in the U.S. Marine Corps as a younger man from 1957-1960. *Gary Burghoff's left hand is slightly deformed, with three smaller than normal fingers and slight syndactyly between the fourth and fifth digits, and he took great pains to hide or de-emphasize it during filming. He did this by always holding something (like a clipboard) or keeping that hand in his pocket. Burghoff later commented that his (Radar's) deformity would have made it impossible for him to be involved in active service. The deformity can be clearly seen at the very beginning of the pilot episode, when he is holding the football just before announcing the arrival of choppers.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nIt is also visible at the end of \"Images\" (season 6, episode 9), when he is trying to lift weights. *Most of the M*A*S*H main cast guest-starred on Murder, She Wrote (with the exceptions of Alan Alda, McLean Stevenson, and Gary Burghoff). Wayne Rogers made five appearances as roguish private investigator Charlie Garrat. David Ogden Stiers appeared three times as a Civil War-infused college lecturer and once as a classical music radio host. G.W. Bailey appeared twice as a New York City police officer. Larry Linville made two appearances as a police officer who was sure that Jessica was in the CIA. Harry Morgan appeared once in a cleverly cut episode that mixed with the 1949 film Strange Bargain in which Morgan had starred. William Christopher made an appearance as a murderous bird watcher. Jamie Farr appeared in two episodes, once as a hopeful new publisher for Jessica Fletcher, and again with Loretta Swit (she played a modern artist framed for murder). Mike Farrell appeared as a Senate hopeful. *Through the series, several actresses play characters named Nurse Able or Nurse Baker, with widely varying personalities/roles. The characters' names were based on the old military phonetic alphabet.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n*Sorrell Booke guest-starred as Brigadier General Barker in the episodes \"Requiem for a Lightweight\" and \"Chief Surgeon Who?\". Booke was a Korean War veteran who achieved greater fame as Boss Hogg in the Dukes of Hazzard television series. *Ron Howard guest-starred as Marine Private Walter Peterson in the episode \"Sometimes You Hear the Bullet\". He is discovered to be underage and using his brother Wendell's identification, having come to Korea to impress his girlfriend. Hawkeye first gives the young soldier some sage advice about women, and then essentially lets him decide for himself whether he wants to go back to the States or stay in Korea. After losing his best friend Tommy Gillis, Hawkeye immediately reports the young soldier to the MPs, sending him back to America and to safety - with the Purple Heart Frank Burns put in for after his back pain. *Leslie Nielsen guest-starred as Colonel Buzz Brighton in the episode \"The Ringbanger\". Because of his high casualty record, Hawkeye and Trapper try to get him sent back to America by convincing him that he is insane. *Sal Viscuso is often credited as the sole PA announcer for the television series and even the film.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThough he did serve as the voice of the PA announcer for a time, Todd Susman had the longest tenure. Neither actor's voice was heard in the film. Both actors appeared as other characters in various episodes. *Art LaFleur appeared in one episode in season 9 (\"Father’s Day\") as an MP looking for the person(s) responsible for a stolen side of beef. *Patrick Swayze appeared in one episode (\"Blood Brothers\") as Gary Sturgis, an injured soldier with a broken arm who is diagnosed with leukemia. *John Ritter was in one episode (\"Deal Me Out\") early in his career, as a \"shellshocked\" soldier.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n*Football player Alex Karras was in one episode (\"Springtime\") serving as Hawkeye's bodyguard after the doctor saves his life. * Bruno Kirby (When Harry Met Sally, City Slickers) played Boone in the first episode. He can be seen tossing a football with Radar, and later helping to carry a drugged-out Major Frank Burns to a bed in post-op. * Richard Herd appears in the season-9 episode called \"Back Pay\". * Laurence Fishburne (CSI, The Matrix) appeared in the season-10 episode \"The Tooth Shall Set You Free\", in which Hawkeye and B.J. encounter a racist commander who is sending his African-American soldiers into dangerous duty. He also appeared in an episode of Trapper John, M.D. (the year before appearing on M*A*S*H). His Matrix costar, Joe Pantoliano, also appeared both on M*A*S*H and Trapper John, M.D. He appeared in the M*A*S*H episode \"Identity Crisis\" (also season 10), about a soldier (Pantoliano) who had stolen a fallen friend's identity, as well as his discharge papers, to get out of the fighting. *Pat Morita, who was famous for his role as Matsuo \"Arnold\" Takahashi on Happy Days and as Mr.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nMiyagi in the Karate Kid franchise, played Captain Sam Pak in season two's episode \"Deal Me Out\" (also with John Ritter) and again in season two's \"The Chosen People\". * Shelley Long played in the 1980 episode \"Bottle Fatigue\", as one of Hawkeye's would-be lady friends. She later played alongside Ted Danson in the hit television comedy Cheers as Diane Chambers. * George Wendt played in the 1982 episode \"Trick or Treatment\" as Private La Roche, a Marine treated by Charles Winchester because he had a pool ball stuck in his mouth. He later played alongside Ted Danson and Shelley Long in Cheers. * Pat Hingle played in the 1980 episode \"April Fools\" as Colonel Daniel Webster Tucker. * Ed Begley, Jr., played in the 1979 episode \"Too Many Cooks\" as Private Paul Conway, a clumsy infantry soldier who turns out to be a gifted chef. * Blythe Danner played a nurse transferred to the 4077th, who happened to be Hawkeye's old college sweetheart, in the season-4 episode \"The More I See You\". Her presence stirs up old feelings between the two of them. * Teri Garr played a nurse in the - episode \"The Sniper\".","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n* Susan Saint James guest-starred in the season-8 episode \"War Co-Respondent\". * Andrew Dice Clay played drunken Marine Cpl. Hrabosky in the season-11 episode \"Trick or Treatment\". * George Lindsey played Captain Roy Dupree in the season-6 episode \"Temporary Duty\". Lindsey had previously appeared on The Andy Griffith Show as Goober Pyle. * George Morgan played Father Mulcahy in the pilot episode, but was immediately replaced for all other episodes by William Christopher.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nChanges","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nCharacter developments","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nSpearchucker Jones","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nDuring the first season, Hawkeye's, Trapper's, and Frank's bunkmate was an African-American character called Spearchucker Jones, played by actor Timothy Brown. (Brown appeared in the film version as a corporal, while neurosurgeon Dr. Oliver Harmon \"Spearchucker\" Jones was played by former NFL player Fred Williamson.) The character disappeared after the episode \"Germ Warfare\" because, at the time, no record existed of African-American doctors serving in Korea during the Korean War. According to the memoirs of Harold Secor, a doctor working at the 8055th MASH unit, on which M*A*S*H is based, at least one African-American doctor did serve in Korea during the Korean War.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nFather Francis Mulcahy","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nChaplain of the 4077 unit, Father Mulcahy plays the piano and likes to feel needed. He is a fairly good amateur boxer and poker player, and at one stage takes up jogging. A recurring storyline throughout the series has him visiting and bringing supplies to local orphanages. An episode in season 7, \"Dear Sis\", is filmed from his point of view, as he struggles with feeling useless at the 4077th. William Christopher plays Mulcahy, replacing actor George Morgan, who played Father Mulcahy in the pilot episode. Dago Red, Mulcahy's nickname from the book and film, was shortened to \"Red\" for television and used by Trapper John in the pilot episode and by Hawkeye in \"Dear Dad\" and was dropped. Starting in season 4, Colonel Potter started calling Mulcahy \"padre\", and that nickname kept for the rest of the series, even mentioning it once in the series finale \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\". Mulcahy was promoted to captain in the episode \"Captain's Outrageous\" after several attempts in previous seasons. Before the promotion, he was a first lieutenant.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nHenry Blake","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nBy season 3 (1974–1975), McLean Stevenson had begun chafing at what he considered to be a supporting role to Alan Alda and Wayne Rogers. Midway through the season, he informed the producers that he wanted to leave M*A*S*H. With ample time to prepare a \"Goodbye, Henry\" show, it was decided that Henry Blake would be discharged and sent home for the season-3 finale, which aired on Tuesday, March 18, 1975. In the final scene of his last episode (\"Abyssinia, Henry\"), Radar tearfully reports that Henry's plane has been shot down over the Sea of Japan, and no survivors were found among the wreckage. This part of the script was kept secret from the cast. The producers wanted the reaction to be as much as a surprise as possible. Originally, the episode was written with Henry making it home, but the writers wanted to show that it was war and people may not make it home.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nTrapper John McIntyre","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nWayne Rogers (Trapper John McIntyre) was planning to return for season 4, but abruptly withdrew over a disagreement about his contract. Rogers had a dislike of having a supporting role for Alda, and had been threatening to leave since season 1. His departure was unexpected and, unlike that of McLean Stevenson, no onscreen farewell was used. Rogers felt his character was never given any real importance and that all the focus was on Alda's character, Hawkeye Pierce.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nRogers's replacement, Mike Farrell, was hastily recruited during the 1975 summer production hiatus. In the season's first episode, \"Welcome to Korea\", Hawkeye is informed by Radar that Trapper was discharged while Hawkeye was on leave, and B.J. Hunnicutt is Trapper's replacement. Trapper was described by Radar as being so jubilant over his release that \"he got drunk for two days, took off all his clothes, and ran naked through the mess tent with no clothes on.\" He made Radar promise to give Hawkeye a kiss as a final farewell message.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nActor Pernell Roberts later played a middle-aged Trapper in the seven-year run of Trapper John, M.D.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nSherman T. Potter","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nIn the third episode of the fourth season, \"Change of Command\", Col. Sherman T. Potter arrives at the unit to assume command, replacing Frank Burns, who had taken over as commander after Blake's departure (season 3, episode 24). Harry Morgan, who played Potter, had previously guest-starred in the first episode of season 3, \"The General Flipped at Dawn\", as General Hamilton Steele.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nColonel Potter is a regular Army man, having served in both World War I and World War II, first in the cavalry and later as a doctor. He is passionate about horses, and keeps an old US Cavalry issue McClellan saddle in his office, which is later put to use when he acquires a horse, when Radar gives one to him for his wedding anniversary, after B.J. and Hawkeye are unable to catch it. This horse, which remained with Col. Potter until the end of the series, was referred to as a colt (Potter remarks, \"He can't be more than four years old\") in its first appearance, after which it is named \"Sophie\" and referred to as a mare. In his spare time, Potter also enjoys painting.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nMargaret Houlihan","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nWhen Margaret Houlihan became engaged to a fellow officer, Lt. Col. Donald Penobscot, she had a falling-out with Frank; she became much friendlier toward Hawkeye and B.J., and her subordinate nurses. She later married Penobscot, but the union did not last long. The \"Hot Lips\" nickname was rarely used to describe her after about the midway point in the series. Loretta Swit wanted to leave the series in the eighth season to pursue other acting roles (most notably the part of Christine Cagney on Cagney & Lacey), but the producers refused to let her out of her contract. Swit originated the Cagney role in the made-for-TV movie that served as that pilot of the series.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nFrank Burns","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nLarry Linville noted that his \"Frank Burns\" character was easier to make light of after head comedy writer Larry Gelbart departed after season 4 and Frank and Margaret parted ways in season 5. After season 4, Linville realized that he had taken Frank Burns as far as he could, and he decided that since he had signed a five-year contract, he would leave the series after season 5. During the first episode of season 6, \"Fade Out, Fade In\", Burns (off camera) suffers a nervous breakdown due to Margaret's marriage and is held for psychiatric evaluation. Hawkeye offered a toast to Frank's departure, pausing only a moment, then stating \"Goodbye, Ferret Face.\" In an unexpected twist, Burns is transferred to an Indiana Veterans Administration hospital, near his home in Fort Wayne, and is promoted to lieutenant colonel — in a sense, Frank's parting shot at Hawkeye.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nUnlike McLean Stevenson and Wayne Rogers, Linville had no regrets about leaving the series, saying, \"I felt I had done everything possible with the character.\" Linville was not alone when he left; Executive Producer Gene Reynolds left after the production of season 5, and Burt Metcalfe and star Alan Alda took over the producing responsibilities. During season 6, Alda and Metcalfe even consulted Reynolds once a week, mainly to obtain help with their jobs as executive producers. These two men remained as executive producers for the remaining six seasons, as Reynolds was credited as a creative consultant along with Alan Alda.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nCharles Emerson Winchester III","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nCharles Emerson Winchester III (David Ogden Stiers) was brought in as an antagonist of sorts to the other surgeons, but his relationship with them was not as acrimonious, although he was a more able foil. Unlike Frank Burns, Winchester did not care for the Army. His resentment stemmed, in part, from the fact that he was transferred from Tokyo General Hospital to the 4077th due, in part, to a cribbage debt owed to him by his commanding officer, Lt. Col. Horace Baldwin. What set him apart from Burns as an antagonist for Hawkeye and B.J. was that Winchester was clearly an excellent, technically superior surgeon, although his work sometimes suffered from his excessive perfectionism when rapid \"meatball surgery\" was called for. As with many new MASH surgeons, Winchester took some time to wrap his head around the fact that faster, less precise work saved lives that more elegant, slower work might cost.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nWinchester was respected by the others professionally, but at the same time, as a Boston blue blood, he was also snobbish, as when he stated in the scrub room, \"I do one thing at a time, I do it very well, and then I move on,\" which drove much of his conflict with the other characters. Still, the show's writers occasionally allowed Winchester's humanity to shine through, such as in his dealings with a young concert pianist who had partially lost the use of his right hand, the protection of a stuttering soldier from the bullying of other soldiers (it is revealed later that Winchester's sister stutters), his keeping a vigil with Hawkeye when Hawkeye's father went into surgery back in the States (\"Sons and Bowlers\"), his willingness to be officer of the day for Hawkeye when Hawkeye was offered three days in Seoul, giving blood to a patient even though he already donated blood five days earlier, or his continuing a family tradition of anonymously giving Christmas treats to an orphanage.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nWinchester subjects himself to condemnation after realizing that \"it is sadly inappropriate to offer dessert to a child who has had no meal.\" Isolating himself, he is saved by Klinger's own gift of understanding. Klinger scrapes together a Christmas dinner for Charles, with the provision that the source of the gift remain anonymous (Klinger had overheard Winchester's argument with the manager of the orphanage). For the final moment of the episode (\"Death Takes a Holiday\"), the two are simply friends as Charles says, \"Thank you, Max,\" and Klinger replies, \"Merry Christmas, Charles.\" As well, in the series finale \"Goodbye, Farewell, and Amen\", Charles comes across a group of Chinese musicians who surrender to him. When Charles takes them back to the camp as prisoners of war and later listens to his record of Mozart's Quintet in A major for Clarinet and Strings, K. 581, the musicians attempt to play the piece of music. Charles, ever the perfectionist, cannot stand to hear them play the piece incorrectly (and is impressed that they can even attempt to play the music after only hearing it once) and spends the next week conducting them on how to play the piece properly.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nDuring this time, Charles is forced to use the little patience that he rarely shows. When the Chinese musicians are taken off to a prisoner of war camp in a prisoner exchange to Charles' dismay and protest, their final goodbye to Charles is the Mozart piece played correctly. Later, one of the musicians returns to the camp mortally wounded on a Jeep. When Charles inquires as to where the other musicians are, it's revealed that the truck the musicians were on was ambushed and that there were no other survivors. In a combination of shock and disbelief, Charles returns to The Swamp to listen to the Mozart record, but removes the record and smashes it in anger. Later still on the final night that everyone at the M*A*S*H is together, Charles says that before the war, music was a stress reliever to him, but because of the Chinese musicians and their fate, music will forever be a reminder of the horrors of war.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nRadar O'Reilly","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nGary Burghoff (Walter \"Radar\" O'Reilly), one of only two cast members of the original 1970 film to play the same character in the TV series, had been growing restless in his role since at least season 4. With each successive year, he appeared in fewer episodes; and by season 7, Radar is in barely half of the shows. Burghoff planned to leave at the end of the seventh season (in 1979), but was convinced by producers Alda and Metcalfe to wait until the beginning of season 8, when they filmed a two-part farewell episode, \"Good Bye, Radar\" (originally intended to be the seventh season's finale), as well as a few short scenes that were inserted into episodes preceding it (Radar is shown having a horrible R & R in Tokyo). The final nod to Radar came in the penultimate episode of the series, \"As Time Goes By\", when his iconic teddy bear (though it was a different bear than was used throughout the show) was included in a time capsule of the 4077th initiated by Margaret, which Hawkeye says is a symbol of those who \"came as boys and went home as men.\"","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nMax Klinger","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nMax Klinger also grew away from the cross-dressing reputation that overshadowed him. He dropped his section 8 pursuit when taking over for Radar as company clerk. Both Jamie Farr and the producers felt that there was more to Klinger than a chiffon dress, and tried to develop the character more fully. In the role of company clerk, Klinger's personality turned more to the \"wheeler-dealer\" aspects developed in the streets of (Farr's actual hometown) Toledo, Ohio, using those skills to aid the 4077th. Farr stayed throughout the rest of the series. Klinger was later promoted from corporal to sergeant (he and Father Mulcahy were the only two characters to be promoted on-screen in the entire series, Frank Burns received his promotion off-screen after having left the series). In the final episode, Klinger is, ironically, the only character who announces that he is staying in Korea. He wants to help his wife, Soon Lee, find her parents. (He and Soon Lee marry at the end of the episode). When Klinger announces that he is staying in Korea, Hawkeye says, \"You don't have to act crazy now.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nWe're all getting out!\" However, in the short-lived spin-off, AfterMASH, it becomes clear that soon after the end of the war, Klinger, with new wife Soon Lee (Rosalind Chao) returned to the United States. After Soon Lee was subjected to discrimination in Toledo the Klingers moved to River Bend, Missouri and Max got a job like that he had as the 4077th's company clerk for Chief of Staff Dr. Sherman Potter, now head of the General Pershing VA Hospital there.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nChange in tone","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nWhile the series remained popular through these changes, it eventually began to run out of creative steam. Korean War doctors regularly contacted producers with experiences that they thought might make for a good storyline, only to learn the idea had previously been used. Harry Morgan admitted that he felt \"the cracks were starting to show\" by season 9 (1980–1981). Alda wished to make season 10 (1981-1982) M*A*S*Hs last, but was persuaded by CBS to produce a slightly shortened 11th season, coupled with a farewell movie finale, because CBS refused to let the show go away so easily. In the end, season 11 had 15 episodes (although six had been filmed during season 10 and held over) and a 2-1/2 hour movie, which was treated as five episodes and were filmed before the nine remaining episodes. The final episode ever produced was the penultimate episode \"As Time Goes By\". The series finale movie, titled \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\", became the most-watched television broadcast in history, tallying a total of 125 million viewers.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nProduction","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nSet location","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThe 4077th consisted of two separate sets. An outdoor set in the mountains near Malibu, California (Calabasas, Los Angeles County, California) was used for most exterior and tent scenes for every season. This was the same set used to shoot the movie. The indoor set, on a sound stage at Fox Studios in Century City, was used for the indoor scenes for the run of the series. Later, after the indoor set was renovated to permit many of the \"outdoor\" scenes to be filmed there, both sets were used for exterior shooting as script requirements dictated (e.g., night scenes were far easier to film on the sound stage, but scenes at the chopper pad required using the ranch).","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nJust as the series was wrapping production, a brush fire destroyed most of the outdoor set on October 9, 1982. The fire was written into the final episode as a forest fire caused by enemy incendiary bombs that forced the 4077th to bug out.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThe Malibu location is today known as Malibu Creek State Park. Formerly called the Century Ranch and owned by 20th Century Fox Studios until the 1980s, the site today is returning to a natural state, and is marked by a rusted Jeep and an ambulance used in the show. Through the 1990s, the area was occasionally used for television commercial production.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nOn February 23, 2008, series stars Mike Farrell, Loretta Swit and William Christopher (along with producers Gene Reynolds and Burt Metcalfe and M*A*S*H director Charles S. Dubin) reunited at the set to celebrate its partial restoration. The rebuilt signpost is now displayed on weekends, along with tent markers and maps and photos of the set. The state park is open to the public. It was also the location where the film How Green Was My Valley (1941) and the Planet of the Apes television series (1974) were filmed, among other productions.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nSmithsonian exhibit","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThe exhibit M*A*S*H: Binding Up the Wounds was at the National Museum of American History from July 30, 1983 through February 3, 1985. The exhibit was extremely popular drawing more than 17,000 in a single week, a record for any Smithsonian display.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nOn exhibit were The Swamp and Operating Room sets, one of the show’s 14 Emmy Awards, early drafts of the pilot script, costumes from the show and other memorabilia. Sets were decorated with props from the show including the iconic signpost, Hawkeye's still and Major Winchester's Webcor tape recorder and phonograph. The exhibit also encouraged visitors to compare the show to real Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals of the Korean and the Vietnam Wars.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nRadar's teddy bear was originally found at the ranch set was never on display at the Smithsonian. Following completion of production, the prop was kept by the show's set designer. It was sold several times including to Burghoff himself. It was sold at auction on July 29, 2005 for $11,800, it sold again on March 27, 2015 for $14,307.50 after 19 bids.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nContent","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nM*A*S*H was the first American network series to use the phrase \"son of a bitch\" (in the 8th-season episode \"Guerilla My Dreams\"), and brief partial nudity occurred in the series (notably Gary Burghoff's buttocks in \"The Sniper\" and Hawkeye in one of the \"Dear Dad\" episodes). A different innovation was the show's producers' not wanting a laugh track, as the network did. They compromised by omitting laughter entirely in the operating room. The DVD releases of the series allow viewers to select an audio version with no laugh track.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nIn his blog, writer Ken Levine revealed that on one occasion, when the cast offered too many nitpicking \"notes\" on a script, his writing partner and he changed the script to a \"cold show\"—one set during the frigid Korean winter. The cast then had to stand around barrel fires in parkas at the Malibu ranch when the temperatures neared 100 F. Levine says, \"This happened maybe twice, and we never got a ticky-tack note again.\"","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nJackie Cooper wrote that Alan Alda, whom Cooper directed in several episodes during the first two seasons, concealed a lot of hostility beneath the surface, and the two of them barely spoke to each other by the time Cooper’s tenure on the show ended.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nCharacter information","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThroughout the run of the series, any \"generic\" nurses (those who had a line or two, but were minor supporting characters otherwise) were generally given the names \"Nurse Able\", \"Nurse Baker\", or \"Nurse Charlie\". During the Korean War, the letters A, B, and C in the phonetic alphabet were Able, Baker, and Charlie (since then, the standard has been updated; A and B are now Alpha and Bravo). In later seasons, it became more common for a real character name to be created, especially as several of the nurse actresses became semiregulars. For example, Kellye Nakahara played both \"Able\" and \"Charlie\" characters in season 3 before becoming the semiregular \"Nurse Kellye\"; however, Judy Farrell (at the time, Mike Farrell's wife) played Nurse Able in eight episodes, including the series finale.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nBy the time the series ended, three of the regulars had been promoted. Klinger (Jamie Farr) went from corporal to sergeant, and Father Mulcahy (William Christopher) from lieutenant to captain. Frank Burns (Larry Linville) was promoted from major to lieutenant colonel off screen when he was shipped back to the U.S. following Margaret's marriage. (Farr and Christopher also saw their names move from the closing credits of the show to the opening credits.) Radar O'Reilly was fraudulently \"promoted\" for a short time (through a semi-intentional machination of Hawkeye and B.J.) to second lieutenant, but discovered he disliked officers' duties and asked them to \"bust\" him back to corporal.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nMike Farrell asked that his character's daughter's name be Erin, after his real-life daughter (the character's name was originally going to be Melissa). When B.J. spoke on the telephone on-camera, Erin or his then-wife Judy were on the other end.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nCharacter injuries","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThree MASH 4077 staff members suffered fatalities on the show: Lieutenant Colonel Blake, when the plane taking him back to the States was shot down over the Sea of Japan; an ambulance driver, O'Donnell, in a traffic accident; and a nurse, Millie Carpenter, by a land mine. \"Capt. Tuttle\", an imaginary person made up by Hawkeye to provide money for Sister Teresa's orphanage, was said to have died when he jumped from a helicopter without a parachute; Hawkeye gave him an ironic eulogy.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nAmong those wounded were Hawkeye Pierce (\"Hawkeye\", \"Out of Sight, Out of Mind\", \"Comrades in Arms [Part I]\", \"Good-Bye, Radar [Part I]\", and \"Lend a Hand\"), Radar O'Reilly (\"Fallen Idol\"), B.J. Hunnicutt (\"The Abduction of Margaret Houlihan\" and \"Operation Friendship\"), Max Klinger (\"It Happened One Night\", \"Baby, It's Cold Outside\", and \"Operation Friendship\"), Father Mulcahy (\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\" and \"Bombed\"), and Sherman Potter (\"Dear Ma\"). Henry Blake was injured four times: once by a disgruntled chopper pilot (\"Cowboy\"), once by friendly fire (\"The Army-Navy Game\"), and in season 3, episode 15 (\"Bombed\"), Henry is injured when he is blown up while in the latrine. (The gag of Blake being caught in an exploding latrine is also in the episode \"Cowboy\".) Henry is also injured when the latrine catches fire. Father Mulcahy is given a concussion on two separate occasions - first in the episode \"Bombed\", where he is in the latrine stall next to Blake when it is blown up; and again in \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\" when he is knocked out by mortar fire which strikes close by him; he also suffers severe hearing loss as a result of this incident.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nFrank Burns is twice awarded Purple Hearts for spurious injuries: throwing his back out after he gave Margaret a dip and could not move - which was later covered up with a story that he slipped on the way to the showers (\"Sometimes You Hear the Bullet\", 1.17), and getting an egg-shell fragment in the eye (\"The Kids\", 4.8). Burns' Purple Heart medals were then given to more deserving people: a GI who was admitted with appendicitis and a Korean newborn infant who was hit by a bullet in utero.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nAt least three permanent 4077 personnel suffered emotional breakdowns: Hawkeye Pierce (\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\"), B.J. Hunnicutt (\"Period of Adjustment\"), and Frank Burns (\"Fade Out, Fade In\").","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nVehicles","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThe helicopters used on the series were model H-13 Sioux (military designation and nickname of the Bell 47 civilian model). As in the film, some care seems to have been taken to use the correct model of the long-lived Bell 47 series. In the opening credits and many of the episodes, Korean War-vintage H-13Ds and Es (Bell 47D-1s) were used complete with period-correct external litters. A later (1954–73) 47G occasionally made an appearance. The helicopters are similar in appearance (with the later \"G\" models having larger two-piece fuel tanks, a slightly revised cabin, and other changes) with differences noticeable only to a serious helicopter fan. In the pilot episode, a later Bell 47J (production began in 1957) was shown flying Henry Blake to Seoul, en route to a meeting with General Hammond in Tokyo. A Sud Aviation Allouette II helicopter was also shown transporting Henry Blake to the 4077th in the episode \"Henry, Please Come Home\".","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThe Jeeps used were 1953 military M38 or civil CJ2A Willys Jeeps and also World War II Ford GPWs and Willys MB's. Two episodes featured the M38A1 Jeep, one of which was stolen from a General by Radar and Hawkeye after their Jeep was stolen. Two of the ambulances were WC-54 Dodges and one was a WC-27. A WC-54 ambulance remains at the site and was burned in the Malibu fires on October 9, 1982, while a second WC-27 survives at a South El Monte museum without any markings. The bus used to transport the wounded was a 1954 Ford model. In the last season, an M43 ambulance from the Korean War era also was used in conjunction with the WC-54s and WC-27.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nFile:Mashdodge.jpg|Burned Dodge ambulance at Malibu Creek State Park\nFile:Mashjeep.jpg|Burned Jeep (most likely an M38) at Malibu Creek State Park","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nLaugh track","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nSeries creators Larry Gelbart and Gene Reynolds wanted M*A*S*H broadcast without a laugh track (\"Just like the actual Korean War\", he remarked dryly). Though CBS initially rejected the idea, a compromise was reached that allowed for omitting the laughter during operating room scenes if desired. Seasons 1–5 utilized a more invasive laugh track; a more subdued audience was employed for Seasons 6-11 when the series shifted from sitcom to comedy-drama with the departure of Gelbart and Reynolds. Several episodes (\"O.R.\", \"The Bus\", \"\"Quo Vadis, Captain Chandler?\", \"The Interview\", \"Point of View\" and \"Dreams\" among them) omitted the laugh track altogether; as did almost all of Season 11, including the 135-minute series finale, \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\". The laugh track is also omitted from some international and syndicated airings of the show; on one occasion during an airing in the UK, the laugh track was accidentally left on, and viewers expressed their displeasure, an apology from the network for the \"technical difficulty\" was later released. UK DVD critics speak poorly of the laugh track, stating \"canned laughter is intrusive at the best of times, but with a programme like M*A*S*H, it's downright unbearable.\"","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nOn all released DVDs, both in Region 1 (including the U.S. and Canada) and Region 2 (Europe, including the UK), an option is given to watch the show with or without the laugh track.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n\"They're a lie,\" said Gelbart in a 1992 interview. \"You're telling an engineer when to push a button to produce a laugh from people who don't exist. It's just so dishonest. The biggest shows when we were on the air were All in the Family and The Mary Tyler Moore Show both of which were taped before a live studio audience where laughter made sense,\" continued Gelbart. \"But our show was a film show – supposedly shot in the middle of Korea. So the question I always asked the network was, 'Who are these laughing people? Where did they come from?'\" Gelbart persuaded CBS to test the show in private screenings with and without the laugh track. The results showed no measurable difference in the audience's enjoyment. \"So you know what they said?\" Gelbart said. \"'Since there's no difference, let's leave it alone!' The people who defend laugh tracks have no sense of humor.\" Gelbart summed up the situation by saying, \"I always thought it cheapened the show. The network got their way. They were paying for dinner.\"","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nBroadcast history","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nNOTE: Dates are for first-run airings.\n*Sunday at 8:00-8:30 PM on CBS: September 17, 1972—March 25, 1973\n*Saturday at 8:30-9:00 PM on CBS: September 15, 1973—March 2, 1974\n*Tuesday at 8:30-9:00 PM on CBS: September 10, 1974—March 18, 1975\n*Friday at 8:30-9:00 PM on CBS: September 12—November 28, 1975\n*Tuesday at 9:00-9:30 PM on CBS: December 2, 1975—January 24, 1978\n*Monday at 9:00-9:30 PM on CBS: January 30, 1978—February 28, 1983","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThe show also aired in daytime reruns from September 1978-September 1979 on CBS at 3:30 pm (ET).","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nEpisodes","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nFinal episode: \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\"","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\" was the final episode of M*A*S*H. Special television sets were placed in PX parking lots, auditoriums, and dayrooms of the U.S. Army in Korea so that military personnel could watch that episode, in spite of 14 hours' time zone difference with the east coast of the U.S. The episode aired on February 28, 1983, and was 2½ hours long. The episode got a Nielsen rating of 60.2 and 77 share and according to a New York Times article from 1983, the final episode of M*A*S*H had 125 million viewers.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nWhen the M*A*S*H finale aired in 1983, 83.3 million homes in the United States had televisions, compared to almost 115 million in February 2010.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\" broke the record for the highest percentage of homes with television sets to watch a television series. Stories persist that the episode was seen by so many people that the New York City Sanitation/Public Works Department reported the plumbing systems broke down in some parts of the city from so many New Yorkers waiting until the end to use the toilet. Articles copied into Alan Alda's book The Last Days of M*A*S*H include interviews with New York City Sanitation workers citing the spike in water use on that night. According to the interviews at 11:03 pm, EST New York City public works noted the highest water usage at one given time in the City's history. They attributed this to the fact that in the three minutes after the finale ended, around 77% of the people of New York City flushed their toilets. These stories have all since been identified as part of an urban legend dating back to the days of the Amos and Andy radio program in the 1930s.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nSpinoffs and specials","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nM*A*S*H had two spin-off shows. The short-lived AfterMASH (1983–85) inherited the parent show's Monday night time slot and featured several of its characters reunited in a Midwestern hospital after the war. The more successful Trapper John, M.D. (1979–86) took place nearly three decades after the events of M*A*S*H and depicted Trapper John McIntyre as chief of surgery at a San Francisco hospital. In an unpurchased television pilot, W*A*L*T*E*R (1984), Walter \"Radar\" O’Reilly joins the St. Louis police force after his farm fails following his return to the U.S.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nA documentary special titled Making M*A*S*H, narrated by Mary Tyler Moore and taking viewers behind the production of the season 8 episodes \"Old Soldiers\" and \"Lend a Hand\", was produced for PBS in 1981. The special was later included in the syndicated rerun package, with new narration by producer Michael Hirsch.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nTwo retrospective specials were produced to commemorate the show's 20th and 30th anniversaries. Memories of M*A*S*H, hosted by Shelley Long and featuring clips from the series and interviews with cast members, was aired by CBS on November 25, 1991. A 30th Anniversary Reunion special, in which the surviving cast members and producers gathered to reminisce, aired on the Fox network on May 17, 2002. The two-hour broadcast was hosted by Mike Farrell, who also got to interact with the actor he replaced, Wayne Rogers; previously filmed interviews with McLean Stevenson and Larry Linville (who had died in 1996 and 2000, respectively) were featured, as well. The two specials are included as bonuses on the Collector's Edition DVD of \"Goodbye, Farewell, and Amen\". Also included is \"M*A*S*H: Television's Serious Sitcom\", a 2002 episode of the A&E cable channel's Biography program that detailed the history of the show.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nIn the late 1980s, the cast had a partial reunion in a series of commercials for IBM personal computers. All of the front-billed regulars (with the two exceptions of Farrell and Stevenson) appeared in the spots over time.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nReview","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nSeason ratings","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nAs a top-20 series, M*A*S*H has an average rating of 24.6.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nAwards","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nM*A*S*H was nominated for over 100 Emmy Awards during its 11-year run, winning 14:","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n*1974 — Outstanding Comedy Series – M*A*S*H; Larry Gelbart, Gene Reynolds (Producers)\n*1974 — Best Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Alan Alda\n*1974 — Best Directing in Comedy – Jackie Cooper: \"Carry On, Hawkeye\"\n*1974 — Actor of the Year, Series – Alan Alda\n*1975 — Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series – Gene Reynolds: \"O.R.\"\n*1976 — Outstanding Film Editing for Entertainment Programming – Fred W. Berger and Stanford Tischler: \"Welcome to Korea\"\n*1976 — Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series – Gene Reynolds: \"Welcome to Korea\"\n*1977 — Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series – Alan Alda: \"Dear Sigmund\"\n*1977 — Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series – Gary Burghoff\n*1979 — Outstanding Writing in a Comedy-Variety or Music Series – Alan Alda: \"Inga\"\n*1980 — Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy or Variety or Music Series – Loretta Swit\n*1980 — Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy or Variety or Music Series – Harry Morgan\n*1982 — Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Alan Alda\n*1982 — Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy or Variety or Music Series – Loretta Swit","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThe show won the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series (Musical or Comedy) in 1981. Alan Alda won the Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Television Series (Musical or Comedy) six times: in 1975, 1976, 1980, 1981, 1982, and 1983. McLean Stevenson won the award for Best Supporting Actor in a Television Series in 1974.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThe series earned the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in a Comedy Series seven times: 1973 (Gene Reynolds), 1974 (Reynolds), 1975 (Hy Averbeck), 1976 (Averbeck), 1977 (Alan Alda), 1982 (Alda), 1983 (Alda).","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThe show was honored with a Peabody Award in 1976 \"for the depth of its humor and the manner in which comedy is used to lift the spirit and, as well, to offer a profound statement on the nature of war.\" M*A*S*H was cited as \"an example of television of high purpose that reveals in universal terms a time and place with such affecting clarity.\"","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nWriters for the show received several Humanitas Prize nominations, with Larry Gelbart winning in 1976, Alan Alda winning in 1980, and the team of David Pollock and Elias Davis winning twice in 1982 and 1983.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nThe series received 28 Writers Guild of America Award nominations - 26 for Episodic Comedy and two for Episodic Drama. Seven episodes won for Episodic Comedy in 1973, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1980, and 1981.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nHome media","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\n20th Century Fox Home Entertainment has released all 11 seasons of M*A*S*H on DVD in Region 1 and Region 2.","M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nOn January 20, 2015, it was announced that the first five seasons of M*A*S*H would be available on Netflix's instant streaming service beginning February 1, 2015. This marked the first time the series was made available on an internet platform. As of July 1, 2015, all 11 seasons were available; syndicated versions of hour-long episodes were utilized for streaming, splitting these shows into two parts. In contrast to the DVD sets, the Netflix streams did not have an option for disabling the laugh track on the soundtrack. On April 1, 2016, M*A*S*H was removed from Netflix due to its contract to stream the series expiring."],"string":"[\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nM*A*S*H is an American television series developed by Larry Gelbart, adapted from the 1970 feature film MASH (which was itself based on the 1968 novel MASH: A Novel About Three Army Doctors, by Richard Hooker). The series, which was produced in association with 20th Century Fox Television for CBS, follows a team of doctors and support staff stationed at the \\\"4077th Mobile Army Surgical Hospital\\\" in Uijeongbu, South Korea during the Korean War. The show's title sequence features an instrumental-only version of \\\"Suicide Is Painless\\\", the theme song from the original film. The show was created after an attempt to film the original book's sequel, M*A*S*H Goes to Maine, failed. The television series is the best-known version of the M*A*S*H works, and one of the highest-rated shows in U.S. television history.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThe series premiered in the U.S. on September 17, 1972, and ended on February 28, 1983, with the finale, \\\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\\\", becoming the most-watched and highest-rated single television episode in U.S. television history at the time, with a record-breaking 125 million viewers (60.2 rating and 77 share), according to the New York Times. It had struggled in its first season and was at risk of being cancelled. Season two of M*A*S*H placed it in a better time slot (airing after the popular All in the Family); the show became one of the top 10 programs of the year and stayed in the top 20 programs for the rest of its run. It is still broadcast in syndication on various television stations. The series, which depicted events occurring during a three-year military conflict, spanned 256 episodes and lasted 11 seasons. The Korean conflict lasted 1,128 days, meaning each episode of the series would have averaged almost four and a half days of real time. Many of the stories in the early seasons are based on tales told by real MASH surgeons who were interviewed by the production team.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nLike the movie, the series was as much an allegory about the Vietnam War (still in progress when the show began) as it was about the Korean War.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThe episodes \\\"Abyssinia, Henry\\\" and \\\"The Interview\\\" were ranked number 20 and number 80, respectively, on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time in 1997. In 2002, M*A*S*H was ranked number 25 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked it as the fifth-best written TV series ever and TV Guide ranked it as the eighth-greatest show of all time.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nSynopsis\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nM*A*S*H aired weekly on CBS, with most episodes being a half-hour in length. The series is usually categorized as a situation comedy, though it is also described as a \\\"dark comedy\\\" or a \\\"dramedy\\\" because of the dramatic subject material often presented. The show was an ensemble piece revolving around key personnel in a United States Army Mobile Army Surgical Hospital (MASH) in the Korean War (1950–1953). (The asterisks in the name are not part of military nomenclature and were creatively introduced in the novel and used in only the posters for the movie version, not the actual movie.) The \\\"4077th MASH\\\" was one of several surgical units in Korea. As the show developed, the writing took on more of a moralistic tone. Richard Hooker, who wrote the book on which the television and film versions were based, noted that Hawkeye's character was far more liberal in the show than on the page (in one of the MASH books, Hawkeye makes reference to \\\"kicking the bejesus out of lefties just to stay in shape\\\"). While the show is traditionally viewed as a comedy, many episodes were of a more serious tone.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nAiring on network primetime while the Vietnam War was still going on, the show was forced to walk the fine line of commenting on that war while at the same time not seeming to protest against it. For this reason, the show's discourse, under the cover of comedy, often questioned, mocked, and grappled with America's role in the Cold War. Episodes were both plot- and character-driven, with several episodes being narrated by one of the show's characters as the contents of a letter home. The show's tone could move from silly to sobering from one episode to the next, with dramatic tension often occurring between the civilian draftees of 4077th — Hawkeye, Trapper John, and B.J. Hunnicutt, for example — who are forced to leave their homes to tend the wounded and dying of the war, and the \\\"regular Army\\\" characters, such as Margaret Houlihan and Colonel Potter, who tend to represent ideas of patriotism and duty (though Houlihan and Potter could represent the other perspective at times, as well). Other characters, such as Col. Blake, Maj. Winchester, and Cpl.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nKlinger, help demonstrate various American civilian attitudes toward army life, while guest characters played by such actors as Eldon Quick, Herb Voland, Mary Wickes, and Tim O'Connor also help further the show's discussion of America's place as Cold War warmaker and peacemaker.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nCharacters\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nM*A*S*H maintained a relatively constant ensemble cast, with four characters — Hawkeye, Father Mulcahy, Margaret Houlihan, and Max Klinger — on the show for all 11 seasons. Several other main characters departed or joined the program midway through its run. Also, numerous guest actors and recurring characters were used. The writers found creating so many names difficult, and used names from elsewhere; for example, characters on the seventh season were named after the 1978 Los Angeles Dodgers.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n*Note: Character appearances include double-length episodes as two appearances, making 260 in total.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nRecurring characters\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n* Nurse Kealani Kellye, a recurring character in the 4077th (appearing in 164 episodes), was played by Kellye Nakahara. A warm character, she had more to say than the other nurses. She is often seen dancing with Radar, and later, Charles. The first name \\\"Kealani\\\" was never used in the series. On several occasions, David Ogden Stiers and Loretta Swit have referred to her as \\\"Nurse Nakahara\\\" and \\\"Lieutenant Nakahara\\\", respectively. * Jeff Maxwell appeared as the bumbling Pvt. Igor Straminsky in 75 episodes. In his earlier appearances, he was the camp cook's aide, complaining that, despite not cooking the food (SSG Pernelli was the cook, not revealed until season 9 as described below), he still had to listen to everyone's gripes about it. He was often the target of Hawkeye's wrath because of the terrible food, and the recipient of his \\\"river of liver and ocean of fish\\\" rant in \\\"Adam's Ribs\\\". His bumbling even gained the ire of Father Mulcahy, when he creamed the fresh corn Mulcahy grew in \\\"A War for All Seasons\\\". In at least two episodes, he was called a sergeant by Major Burns.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nIn another episode, Burns asks his name and he replies \\\"Maxwell,\\\" the actor's actual surname. Burns then replies with that name. * Roy Goldman appeared in 35 episodes as Corpsman Roy Goldman. * Odessa Cleveland appeared in 29 episodes as Lt. Ginger Bayliss, one of the nurses. * Patricia Stevens appeared in 15 episodes, primarily as Nurse Baker (also as Nurse Mitchell, Nurse Stevens, Nurse Brown and Nurse Able)\\n* Rita Wilson appeared in two episodes as Nurse Lacey. * Johnny Haymer played Staff Sgt. Zelmo Zale, supply sergeant for the 4077th, in 20 episodes. He made his first appearance in the season-2 episode \\\"For Want of a Boot\\\", and his final appearance in the season-8 episode \\\"Good-Bye, Radar\\\". Zale's name is mentioned for the final time in \\\"Yessir, That's Our Baby\\\". * G. W. Bailey played the perpetually lazy Staff Sgt. Luther Rizzo, who headed the camp motor pool, in 14 episodes. * Enid Kent played Nurse Peggy Bigelow in 14 episodes. She was quite often the target of Hawkeye's flirtations. In \\\"They Call the Wind Korea\\\", she gets injured by a falling water tower and is treated by the 4077th.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nIn \\\"Goodbye, Farewell, and Amen\\\", when various members of the 4077th announce postwar plans, she blandly recounts her days as a nurse both in World War II and in Korea and simply says, \\\"I've had it.\\\"\\n* Dr. Sidney Freedman, Major, a psychiatrist, was played by Allan Arbus, who appeared 12 times. In his first appearance, his name was Dr. Milton Freedman, but was subsequently changed. Dr. Freedman played a major role in the two-hour final episode. * Colonel Flagg, a paranoid and jingoistic counterintelligence officer prone to using aliases, was played by Edward Winter. He appeared six times (and the actor appeared once as a very similar intelligence officer named Halloran). * Marcia Strassman played nurse Margie Cutler six times during the show's first season. Her last appearance was in the episode \\\"Ceasefire\\\". * Herb Voland appeared seven times as Henry Blake's commander, Brigadier General Crandall Clayton. * G. Wood appeared three times as Brigadier General Hammond, the same role he played in the movie. * Robert Gooden appeared three times as Private Lorenzo Boone. * Robert F. Simon appeared three times as Major General Mitchell.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n* Loudon Wainwright III appeared three times as Captain Calvin Spalding, who was usually seen playing his guitar and singing. * Eldon Quick appeared three times as two nearly identical characters, Capt. Sloan and Capt. Pratt, officers who were dedicated to paperwork and bureaucracy. * Sergeant (later Pvt) Jack Scully, played by Joshua Bryant, appeared in three episodes as a love interest of Margaret Houlihan. * Pat Morita appeared twice as Capt. Sam Pak of the Republic of Korea Army. * Karen Philipp (singer with Sergio Mendes & Brasil '66, 1967–70) appeared twice as Lt. Maria 'Dish' Schneider during the first season. * Sorrell Booke appeared twice as Brigadier General Bradley Barker. Booke was an actual Korean War veteran. * Robert Symonds appeared twice as Col/Lt Col. Horace Baldwin. * Robert Alda, Alan Alda's father, appeared twice as Maj. Borelli, a visiting surgeon. * Catherine Bergstrom appeared twice as Peg Hunnicutt, B.J.'s wife, back in the U.S. * Lt. Col. Donald Penobscot appeared twice (played by two different actors), In \\\"Margaret's Marriage\\\" (#5.24), Penobscot was played by Beeson Carrol, and was her fiancé at the time (they were married during the episode).\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nIn \\\"The M*A*S*H* Olympics\\\" (#6.10), he appears as her husband, he takes part in a M*A*S*H Olympics; he is played by Mike Henry. * Staff Sgt. \\\"Sparky\\\" Pryor, a friend of Radar and Klinger, was the telephone operator usually called by the 4077th MASH. He was seen only once, played by Dennis Fimple, in Tuttle (season 1, episode 15), but was sometimes faintly heard on the phone when he yelled. * Sal Viscuso and Todd Susman played the camp's anonymous public address system announcer throughout the series. This character (who is never seen on camera) broke the fourth wall only twice, in the episodes \\\"Pilot (M*A*S*H)\\\" (1.1) and \\\"Welcome to Korea\\\" (4.1), both times while introducing the regular cast members. Both Viscuso and Susman appeared onscreen as other characters in at least one episode each. *Eileen Saki appeared in seven episodes as Rosie, the owner and head bartender at Rosie's Bar, which was frequented by the regular characters. Her first appearance on the show, however, was as the madam of a brothel which was occupying a much-needed hut in the episode \\\"Bug Out\\\".\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nRosie had previously been played by Shizuko Hoshi (in \\\"Mad Dogs and Servicemen\\\") and Frances Fong (in \\\"Bug Out\\\" and \\\"Fallen Idol\\\") before Saki assumed the role. * Timothy Brown appeared as Capt. Oliver Harmon 'Spearchucker' Jones in six season-1 episodes as a captain who lived with Pierce, Burns, and McIntyre in the \\\"Swamp\\\". * Val Bisoglio appeared in three episodes as Staff Sergeant Salvatore Pernelli, the actual mess cook for the 4077th. His first appearance was in season 9's \\\"The Life You Save\\\", followed by two appearances in season 10, \\\"Twas the Day After Christmas\\\" and \\\"A Holy Mess\\\". * Nurse Shari appeared in 15 episodes during the last four seasons, played by Shari Saba. * John Orchard played Ugly John, an anesthesiologist, and later \\\"Muldoon\\\" in \\\"Rosie's Pub\\\".\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nCharacter timeline\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nImageSize = width:1000 height:auto barincrement:25\\nPlotArea = left:220 bottom:80 top:10 right:10\\nAlignbars = justify\\nPeriod = from:1 till:12\\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:y\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nColors =\\n id:regular value:blue legend:Regular\\n id:recurring value:green legend:Recurring\\n id:background value:red legend:Background\\n id:lines value:black\\n id:bars value:gray(0.95)\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nLegend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:3\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nBackgroundColors = bars:bars\\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:1 start:1\\nScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nBarData=\\n bar:Pierce text:\\\"Benjamin Franklin 'Hawkeye' Pierce\\\"\\n bar:Houlihan text:\\\"Margaret 'Hot Lips' Houlihan\\\"\\n bar:Klinger text:\\\"Maxwell Q. Klinger\\\"\\n bar:Mulcahy text:\\\"John Patrick Francis Mulcahy\\\"\\n bar:McIntyre text:\\\"John Francis Xavier 'Trapper John' McIntyre\\\"\\n bar:Blake text:\\\"Henry Braymore Blake\\\"\\n bar:Burns text:\\\"Franklin Marion 'Frank' Burns\\\"\\n bar:Radar text:\\\"Walter Eugene 'Radar' O’Reilly\\\"\\n bar:Jones\\t text:\\\"Oliver Harmon 'Spearchucker' Jones\\\"\\n bar:Hunnicutt text:\\\"B. J. Hunnicutt\\\"\\n bar:Potter\\t text:\\\"Sherman Tecumseh Potter\\\"\\n bar:Winchester text:\\\"Charles Emerson Winchester III\\\"\\n bar:Kellye\\t text:\\\"Nurse Kellye\\\"\\n bar:Straminsky text:\\\"Igor Straminsky\\\"\\n bar:Rizzo\\t text:\\\"Luther Rizzo\\\"\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nPlotData=\\n width:10 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4)\\n bar:Pierce from:1 till:end color:regular\\n bar:Houlihan from:1 till:end color:regular\\n bar:Klinger from:1 till:4 color:recurring\\n bar:Klinger from:4 till:end color:regular\\n bar:Mulcahy from:1 till:5 color:recurring\\n bar:Mulcahy from:5 till:end color:regular\\n bar:McIntyre from:1 till:4 color:regular\\n bar:Blake from:1 till:4 color:regular\\n bar:Burns from:1 till:6 color:regular\\n bar:Radar from:1 till:8.2 color:regular\\n bar:Jones\\t from:1\\t till:1.45 color:recurring\\n bar:Hunnicutt from:4 till:end color:regular\\n bar:Potter from:4.08 till:end color:regular\\n bar:Winchester from:6 till:end color:regular\\n bar:Kellye from:1 till:3.5 color:background\\n bar:Kellye from:3.5 till:end color:recurring\\n bar:Straminsky from:2 till:end color:recurring\\n bar:Rizzo\\t from:8.45 till:end color:recurring\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nActors with multiple roles\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nSeveral guest stars made appearances as multiple characters:\\n*Hamilton Camp appeared twice, first as the insane Cpl. \\\"Boots\\\" Miller in \\\"Major Topper\\\" (episode 6.25), and again as a film distributor named Frankenheimer in \\\"The Moon is Not Blue\\\" (11.8). *Dennis Dugan appeared twice, as O.R. orderly Pvt. McShane in 3.20, \\\"Love and Marriage\\\", and again in 11.11, \\\"Strange Bedfellows\\\", as Col. Potter's philandering son-in-law, Robert \\\"Bob\\\" Wilson. *Gary Burghoff was the only actor to ever appear simultaneously on the show with himself. He played Radar O'Reilly throughout the show, and in episode 4.15 \\\"Mail Call... Again\\\", he watched a home movie sent to him in Korea in which he played his own mother. Father Mulcahy remarks, \\\"Radar certainly bears a striking resemblance to his mother!\\\"\\n*Tim O'Connor appeared as wounded artillery officer Col. Spiker in \\\"Of Moose and Men\\\" (4.12), and as visiting surgeon Norm Traeger in \\\"Operation Friendship\\\" (9.10). Both characters were noticeably at odds with Hawkeye. *Dick O'Neill appeared three times (each time in a different U.S. service branch): as Navy Rear Admiral Cox, as Army Brigadier General Prescott, and as Marine Colonel Pitts. *Harry Morgan played both the 4077th's second beloved C.O. (Col. Sherman T.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nPotter) and the mentally unstable Major Gen. Bartford Hamilton Steele in the show's third season, in the episode \\\"The General Flipped at Dawn\\\". This last character was a reprise of his role as Major Pott in the 1966 movie, What Did You Do in the War, Daddy? *Soon-Tek Oh appeared five times: twice as a North Korean POW (in 4.7, \\\"The Bus\\\", and 8.10, \\\"The Yalu Brick Road\\\"); once as a North Korean doctor (5.10, \\\"The Korean Surgeon\\\"); once as O.R. orderly Mr. Kwang (3.20, \\\"Love and Marriage\\\"); and once as a South Korean interpreter who poses as a North Korean POW (11.3, \\\"Foreign Affairs\\\"). *Philip Ahn appeared three times: episodes 4.19 (\\\"Hawkeye\\\"), 5.13 (\\\"Exorcism\\\"), and 6.9 (\\\"Change Day\\\"). Like Soon-Tek Oh, Ahn was one of the few Korean actors to play a Korean on M*A*S*H; most of the other \\\"Korean\\\" characters were played by either Japanese, Chinese, or Vietnamese ethnic actors. Ironically, Ahn played Japanese villains in World War II movies and Chinese characters on Bonanza and Kung Fu. *Robert Karnes appeared twice: once as a colonel in 4.1 (\\\"Welcome to Korea\\\") and as a general in 6.4 (\\\"Last Laugh\\\").\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n*Clyde Kusatsu appeared four times: twice as a Korean bartender in the Officers' Club, once as a Chinese-American soldier, and once as a Japanese-American surgeon. *Robert Ito played a hood who works for the black market in 1.2, \\\"To Market, To Market\\\", and a North Korean soldier disguised as a South Korean looking for supplies, in 5.10, \\\"The Korean Surgeon\\\". *Keye Luke appeared three times. In “Patent 4077” (6.17), he played Mr. Shin, a local jewelry maker hired by the surgeons to make a new surgical clamp; in “A Night at Rosie’s” (7.24), he played Cho Kim, who ran a crooked craps game in the back room at Rosie’s Bar; and in “Death Takes a Holiday” (9.5), he played the headmaster of a local orphanage. *Mako appeared four times, once as a Chinese doctor (3.2, \\\"Rainbow Bridge\\\"), once as a South Korean doctor (5.11, \\\"Hawkeye Get Your Gun\\\"), once as a South Korean officer (8.3, \\\"Guerilla My Dreams\\\"), and once as a North Korean soldier (9.1, \\\"The Best of Enemies\\\"). *Jerry Fujikawa appeared as crooked Korean matchmaker Dr.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nPak in \\\"Love and Marriage\\\", as Trapper John's tailor in 3.3, \\\"Officer of the Day\\\", as an acupuncturist named Wu in 8.24, \\\"Back Pay\\\", as the Uijeongbu chief of police in \\\"Rally Round the Flagg, Boys\\\", and as \\\"Whiplash Wang\\\" in \\\"Deal Me Out\\\". *John Orchard starred as Australian anesthetist Ugly John in the first season, and later appeared in 8.13 as disgruntled and drunken Australian MP Muldoon, who has an arrangement with Rosie the barkeeper: he takes bribes (in the form of liquor in his \\\"coffee\\\" mug) to \\\"look the other way.\\\" Orchard was actually English, so adopted an Australian accent and some Australian colloquialisms for his persona. He also normally wore an Australian-style \\\"slouch\\\" hat. *Richard Lee Sung appeared 10 times as a local Korean who often had merchandise (and in one case, real estate) he wished to sell to the hospital staff; he once sold a backwards-running watch to Major Burns and he also tried to help Corporal Klinger lose his money in a game of craps in A Night at Rosie's. *Jack Soo, known for his role as Barney Millers Sgt.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nNick Yemana, appeared twice, once as black-market boss Charlie Lee, with whom Hawkeye and Trapper made a trade for supplies in \\\"To Market, To Market\\\" (1.2), and in \\\"Payday\\\" (3.22) as a peddler who sold Frank two sets of pearls: one real, the other fake. *Ted Gehring appeared twice: in 2.12, as moronic Supply Officer Major Morris, who refuses to let the MASH doctors have a badly needed incubator, and in 7.6, as corrupt supply NCO Sgt. Rhoden. *Eldon Quick appeared three times, once as a finance officer and twice as Captain Sloan. *Edward Winter appeared as an intelligence officer named \\\"Halloran\\\" in 2.13, and in six episodes as Colonel Flagg (although Halloran may have been one of Flagg's numerous and often mid-episode-changing aliases). Given a comment he makes to Sidney Freedman about the two playing poker together (a reference to Winter's appearance as Halloran) this seems to be likely. *Shizuko Hoshi appeared four times: once as \\\"Rosie\\\" of \\\"Rosie's Bar\\\" in episode 3.13, \\\"Mad Dogs and Servicemen\\\"; and three times as the mother in different Korean families in \\\"Hawkeye\\\" (4.18), \\\"B.J. Papa San\\\" (7.16), and \\\"Private Finance\\\" (8.8).\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n* John Fujioka, who played the uncredited role of a Japanese golf pro in the movie, appeared three times in the series. The first time was in \\\"Dear Ma\\\" (1975) as Colonel Kim, the second time was in \\\"The Tooth Shall Set You Free\\\" (1982) as Duc Phon Jong, and the last time, he played a peasant in \\\"Picture This\\\" (1982). * Stuart Margolin appeared twice, first as psychiatrist Capt. Phillip Sherman in season 1's \\\"Bananas, Crackers and Nuts\\\" (1.07), and again as plastic surgeon Major Stanley \\\"Stosh\\\" Robbins in season 2's \\\"Operation Noselift\\\" (2.18). * Oliver Clark appeared twice. In \\\"38 Across\\\" (5.16), he played the part of Hawkeye's crossword-loving friend Lt. Tippy Brooks. In \\\"Mail Call Three\\\" (6.21), he played the part of 'the other' Captain Ben Pierce. * Jeanne Schulherr appeared in season 3's \\\"There Is Nothing Like a Nurse\\\" as Frank Burns's wife, Louise (in a home movie), and in two other season-3 episodes as an unnamed nurse. * Charles Frank appeared in season 5 as Capt.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nHathaway in \\\"Dear Sigmund\\\", a pilot who admitted to not knowing the victims of his bombings from his plane, and appeared in season 6 as Lieutenant Martinson in \\\"What's Up, Doc?\\\", a troubled Yale graduate who finds himself in the infantry and holds Maj. Winchester Hostage at gunpoint. * Kevin Hagen appeared twice. In \\\"Some 38th Parallels\\\" (4.20, 1976), he played the part of Colonel Coner, on whom Hawkeye drops garbage from an airborne helicopter. In \\\"Peace On Us\\\" (7.2, 1978), he played the part of red-haired Major Goss, sent to warn Hawkeye to stay away from the peace talks. * Yuki Shimoda appeared three times. In \\\"The Price\\\" (7.18, 1979), he played the part of Cho Pak, a farmer who was a former Korean cavalry officer who steals Col. Potter's horse Sophie only because he is dying and wants one final chance to remember his military days. In \\\"Yessir, That's Our Baby\\\" (8.15), he plays a Korean consular officer who advises Hawkeye and B.J. that to allow an abandoned Amerasian infant to live in Korea would result in dire consequences.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nAnd, in \\\"Oh, How We Danced\\\" (9.14, which aired almost two months before his death in 1981), he plays the grandfather of a child patient of the 4077th who is a skilled harmonica player. * James Carroll appeared twice, as an orderly in \\\"Bug Out\\\" and as a jeep driver who brought Major Winchester to the 4077th in \\\"Fade Out, Fade In\\\".\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nCharacter names\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n*Throughout the series, Klinger frequently introduces himself by his full name, Maxwell Q. Klinger, but never says what the Q. stands for. *B.J.'s real name is the subject of an episode's secondary plot line. Hawkeye goes to extreme lengths to learn what \\\"B.J.\\\" stands for, but all official paperwork concerning his friend indicates that B.J. really is his first name. Toward the end of the episode, B.J. (in explaining who gave him his name) says, \\\"My mother, Bea Hunnicut, and my father, Jay Hunnicut.\\\" A recurring joke in that episode is that upon being asked what B.J. stands for, B.J. merely replies, \\\"Anything you want.\\\"\\n*Frank Burns had four different middle names during his time on the show: W. (on the punching bag in \\\"Requiem for a Lightweight\\\"), D., X., and Marion. *Radar's first name is stated as Walter, and once (in \\\"Fade Out, Fade In\\\"), he introduces himself by his full name to Charles Emerson Winchester III as \\\"Walter Eugene O'Reilly\\\". The book says his name is J. Robespierre, and his first name is not revealed in the film.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n*In the finale (\\\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\\\"), Father Mulcahy tells Klinger that his full name is Francis John Patrick Mulcahy, in case Klinger might want to name any of his children after him. Also, in the eighth-season episode \\\"Nurse Doctor\\\", he gives his full name as Francis John Patrick Mulcahy. Yet, in all other episodes, his name was John Patrick Francis Mulcahy, and he just wanted others to call him by his confirmation name, Francis.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nNotable actors and actor information\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n*Antony Alda, Alan Alda's half-brother, appeared in one episode (\\\"Lend a Hand\\\") as Corporal Jarvis alongside both his brother and father (Robert). *Robert Alda, Alan Alda's father, had guest appearances in two episodes, \\\"The Consultant\\\" and \\\"Lend a Hand\\\", the latter written by Alda himself. According to Alda, \\\"Lend a Hand\\\" was his way of reconciling with his father. He was always giving suggestions to Robert for their vaudeville act, and in \\\"Lend a Hand\\\", Robert's character was always giving Hawkeye suggestions. It was Robert's idea for the doctors to cooperate as \\\"Dr. Right\\\" and \\\"Dr. Left\\\" at the end of that episode, signifying both a reconciliation of their characters, and in real life, as well. *While most of the characters from the movie carried over to the series, only four actors appeared in both: Gary Burghoff (Radar O'Reilly) and G. Wood (General Hammond) reprised their movie roles in the series, though Wood appeared in only three episodes. Timothy Brown (credited as \\\"Tim Brown\\\") played \\\"Cpl. Judson\\\" in the movie and \\\"Spearchucker Jones\\\" in the series. Corey Fischer played Capt. Bandini in the film and was the guitar-playing dentist \\\"Cardozo\\\" in the episode \\\"Five O'Clock Charlie\\\".\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n*Two of the cast members, Jamie Farr (Klinger) and Alan Alda (Hawkeye Pierce), served in the U.S. Army in Korea in the 1950s after the Korean War, Alda as a junior officer, Farr as enlisted. The dog tags Farr wears on the show are his actual dog tags. Farr served as part of a USO tour with Red Skelton. Furthermore, Wayne Rogers served as a Naval Reserve officer in the mid-1950s after the end of Korean War, and Mike Farrell (B.J. Hunnicut) served in the U.S. Marine Corps as a younger man from 1957-1960. *Gary Burghoff's left hand is slightly deformed, with three smaller than normal fingers and slight syndactyly between the fourth and fifth digits, and he took great pains to hide or de-emphasize it during filming. He did this by always holding something (like a clipboard) or keeping that hand in his pocket. Burghoff later commented that his (Radar's) deformity would have made it impossible for him to be involved in active service. The deformity can be clearly seen at the very beginning of the pilot episode, when he is holding the football just before announcing the arrival of choppers.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nIt is also visible at the end of \\\"Images\\\" (season 6, episode 9), when he is trying to lift weights. *Most of the M*A*S*H main cast guest-starred on Murder, She Wrote (with the exceptions of Alan Alda, McLean Stevenson, and Gary Burghoff). Wayne Rogers made five appearances as roguish private investigator Charlie Garrat. David Ogden Stiers appeared three times as a Civil War-infused college lecturer and once as a classical music radio host. G.W. Bailey appeared twice as a New York City police officer. Larry Linville made two appearances as a police officer who was sure that Jessica was in the CIA. Harry Morgan appeared once in a cleverly cut episode that mixed with the 1949 film Strange Bargain in which Morgan had starred. William Christopher made an appearance as a murderous bird watcher. Jamie Farr appeared in two episodes, once as a hopeful new publisher for Jessica Fletcher, and again with Loretta Swit (she played a modern artist framed for murder). Mike Farrell appeared as a Senate hopeful. *Through the series, several actresses play characters named Nurse Able or Nurse Baker, with widely varying personalities/roles. The characters' names were based on the old military phonetic alphabet.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n*Sorrell Booke guest-starred as Brigadier General Barker in the episodes \\\"Requiem for a Lightweight\\\" and \\\"Chief Surgeon Who?\\\". Booke was a Korean War veteran who achieved greater fame as Boss Hogg in the Dukes of Hazzard television series. *Ron Howard guest-starred as Marine Private Walter Peterson in the episode \\\"Sometimes You Hear the Bullet\\\". He is discovered to be underage and using his brother Wendell's identification, having come to Korea to impress his girlfriend. Hawkeye first gives the young soldier some sage advice about women, and then essentially lets him decide for himself whether he wants to go back to the States or stay in Korea. After losing his best friend Tommy Gillis, Hawkeye immediately reports the young soldier to the MPs, sending him back to America and to safety - with the Purple Heart Frank Burns put in for after his back pain. *Leslie Nielsen guest-starred as Colonel Buzz Brighton in the episode \\\"The Ringbanger\\\". Because of his high casualty record, Hawkeye and Trapper try to get him sent back to America by convincing him that he is insane. *Sal Viscuso is often credited as the sole PA announcer for the television series and even the film.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThough he did serve as the voice of the PA announcer for a time, Todd Susman had the longest tenure. Neither actor's voice was heard in the film. Both actors appeared as other characters in various episodes. *Art LaFleur appeared in one episode in season 9 (\\\"Father’s Day\\\") as an MP looking for the person(s) responsible for a stolen side of beef. *Patrick Swayze appeared in one episode (\\\"Blood Brothers\\\") as Gary Sturgis, an injured soldier with a broken arm who is diagnosed with leukemia. *John Ritter was in one episode (\\\"Deal Me Out\\\") early in his career, as a \\\"shellshocked\\\" soldier.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n*Football player Alex Karras was in one episode (\\\"Springtime\\\") serving as Hawkeye's bodyguard after the doctor saves his life. * Bruno Kirby (When Harry Met Sally, City Slickers) played Boone in the first episode. He can be seen tossing a football with Radar, and later helping to carry a drugged-out Major Frank Burns to a bed in post-op. * Richard Herd appears in the season-9 episode called \\\"Back Pay\\\". * Laurence Fishburne (CSI, The Matrix) appeared in the season-10 episode \\\"The Tooth Shall Set You Free\\\", in which Hawkeye and B.J. encounter a racist commander who is sending his African-American soldiers into dangerous duty. He also appeared in an episode of Trapper John, M.D. (the year before appearing on M*A*S*H). His Matrix costar, Joe Pantoliano, also appeared both on M*A*S*H and Trapper John, M.D. He appeared in the M*A*S*H episode \\\"Identity Crisis\\\" (also season 10), about a soldier (Pantoliano) who had stolen a fallen friend's identity, as well as his discharge papers, to get out of the fighting. *Pat Morita, who was famous for his role as Matsuo \\\"Arnold\\\" Takahashi on Happy Days and as Mr.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nMiyagi in the Karate Kid franchise, played Captain Sam Pak in season two's episode \\\"Deal Me Out\\\" (also with John Ritter) and again in season two's \\\"The Chosen People\\\". * Shelley Long played in the 1980 episode \\\"Bottle Fatigue\\\", as one of Hawkeye's would-be lady friends. She later played alongside Ted Danson in the hit television comedy Cheers as Diane Chambers. * George Wendt played in the 1982 episode \\\"Trick or Treatment\\\" as Private La Roche, a Marine treated by Charles Winchester because he had a pool ball stuck in his mouth. He later played alongside Ted Danson and Shelley Long in Cheers. * Pat Hingle played in the 1980 episode \\\"April Fools\\\" as Colonel Daniel Webster Tucker. * Ed Begley, Jr., played in the 1979 episode \\\"Too Many Cooks\\\" as Private Paul Conway, a clumsy infantry soldier who turns out to be a gifted chef. * Blythe Danner played a nurse transferred to the 4077th, who happened to be Hawkeye's old college sweetheart, in the season-4 episode \\\"The More I See You\\\". Her presence stirs up old feelings between the two of them. * Teri Garr played a nurse in the - episode \\\"The Sniper\\\".\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n* Susan Saint James guest-starred in the season-8 episode \\\"War Co-Respondent\\\". * Andrew Dice Clay played drunken Marine Cpl. Hrabosky in the season-11 episode \\\"Trick or Treatment\\\". * George Lindsey played Captain Roy Dupree in the season-6 episode \\\"Temporary Duty\\\". Lindsey had previously appeared on The Andy Griffith Show as Goober Pyle. * George Morgan played Father Mulcahy in the pilot episode, but was immediately replaced for all other episodes by William Christopher.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nChanges\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nCharacter developments\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nSpearchucker Jones\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nDuring the first season, Hawkeye's, Trapper's, and Frank's bunkmate was an African-American character called Spearchucker Jones, played by actor Timothy Brown. (Brown appeared in the film version as a corporal, while neurosurgeon Dr. Oliver Harmon \\\"Spearchucker\\\" Jones was played by former NFL player Fred Williamson.) The character disappeared after the episode \\\"Germ Warfare\\\" because, at the time, no record existed of African-American doctors serving in Korea during the Korean War. According to the memoirs of Harold Secor, a doctor working at the 8055th MASH unit, on which M*A*S*H is based, at least one African-American doctor did serve in Korea during the Korean War.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nFather Francis Mulcahy\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nChaplain of the 4077 unit, Father Mulcahy plays the piano and likes to feel needed. He is a fairly good amateur boxer and poker player, and at one stage takes up jogging. A recurring storyline throughout the series has him visiting and bringing supplies to local orphanages. An episode in season 7, \\\"Dear Sis\\\", is filmed from his point of view, as he struggles with feeling useless at the 4077th. William Christopher plays Mulcahy, replacing actor George Morgan, who played Father Mulcahy in the pilot episode. Dago Red, Mulcahy's nickname from the book and film, was shortened to \\\"Red\\\" for television and used by Trapper John in the pilot episode and by Hawkeye in \\\"Dear Dad\\\" and was dropped. Starting in season 4, Colonel Potter started calling Mulcahy \\\"padre\\\", and that nickname kept for the rest of the series, even mentioning it once in the series finale \\\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\\\". Mulcahy was promoted to captain in the episode \\\"Captain's Outrageous\\\" after several attempts in previous seasons. Before the promotion, he was a first lieutenant.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nHenry Blake\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nBy season 3 (1974–1975), McLean Stevenson had begun chafing at what he considered to be a supporting role to Alan Alda and Wayne Rogers. Midway through the season, he informed the producers that he wanted to leave M*A*S*H. With ample time to prepare a \\\"Goodbye, Henry\\\" show, it was decided that Henry Blake would be discharged and sent home for the season-3 finale, which aired on Tuesday, March 18, 1975. In the final scene of his last episode (\\\"Abyssinia, Henry\\\"), Radar tearfully reports that Henry's plane has been shot down over the Sea of Japan, and no survivors were found among the wreckage. This part of the script was kept secret from the cast. The producers wanted the reaction to be as much as a surprise as possible. Originally, the episode was written with Henry making it home, but the writers wanted to show that it was war and people may not make it home.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nTrapper John McIntyre\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nWayne Rogers (Trapper John McIntyre) was planning to return for season 4, but abruptly withdrew over a disagreement about his contract. Rogers had a dislike of having a supporting role for Alda, and had been threatening to leave since season 1. His departure was unexpected and, unlike that of McLean Stevenson, no onscreen farewell was used. Rogers felt his character was never given any real importance and that all the focus was on Alda's character, Hawkeye Pierce.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nRogers's replacement, Mike Farrell, was hastily recruited during the 1975 summer production hiatus. In the season's first episode, \\\"Welcome to Korea\\\", Hawkeye is informed by Radar that Trapper was discharged while Hawkeye was on leave, and B.J. Hunnicutt is Trapper's replacement. Trapper was described by Radar as being so jubilant over his release that \\\"he got drunk for two days, took off all his clothes, and ran naked through the mess tent with no clothes on.\\\" He made Radar promise to give Hawkeye a kiss as a final farewell message.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nActor Pernell Roberts later played a middle-aged Trapper in the seven-year run of Trapper John, M.D.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nSherman T. Potter\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nIn the third episode of the fourth season, \\\"Change of Command\\\", Col. Sherman T. Potter arrives at the unit to assume command, replacing Frank Burns, who had taken over as commander after Blake's departure (season 3, episode 24). Harry Morgan, who played Potter, had previously guest-starred in the first episode of season 3, \\\"The General Flipped at Dawn\\\", as General Hamilton Steele.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nColonel Potter is a regular Army man, having served in both World War I and World War II, first in the cavalry and later as a doctor. He is passionate about horses, and keeps an old US Cavalry issue McClellan saddle in his office, which is later put to use when he acquires a horse, when Radar gives one to him for his wedding anniversary, after B.J. and Hawkeye are unable to catch it. This horse, which remained with Col. Potter until the end of the series, was referred to as a colt (Potter remarks, \\\"He can't be more than four years old\\\") in its first appearance, after which it is named \\\"Sophie\\\" and referred to as a mare. In his spare time, Potter also enjoys painting.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nMargaret Houlihan\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nWhen Margaret Houlihan became engaged to a fellow officer, Lt. Col. Donald Penobscot, she had a falling-out with Frank; she became much friendlier toward Hawkeye and B.J., and her subordinate nurses. She later married Penobscot, but the union did not last long. The \\\"Hot Lips\\\" nickname was rarely used to describe her after about the midway point in the series. Loretta Swit wanted to leave the series in the eighth season to pursue other acting roles (most notably the part of Christine Cagney on Cagney & Lacey), but the producers refused to let her out of her contract. Swit originated the Cagney role in the made-for-TV movie that served as that pilot of the series.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nFrank Burns\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nLarry Linville noted that his \\\"Frank Burns\\\" character was easier to make light of after head comedy writer Larry Gelbart departed after season 4 and Frank and Margaret parted ways in season 5. After season 4, Linville realized that he had taken Frank Burns as far as he could, and he decided that since he had signed a five-year contract, he would leave the series after season 5. During the first episode of season 6, \\\"Fade Out, Fade In\\\", Burns (off camera) suffers a nervous breakdown due to Margaret's marriage and is held for psychiatric evaluation. Hawkeye offered a toast to Frank's departure, pausing only a moment, then stating \\\"Goodbye, Ferret Face.\\\" In an unexpected twist, Burns is transferred to an Indiana Veterans Administration hospital, near his home in Fort Wayne, and is promoted to lieutenant colonel — in a sense, Frank's parting shot at Hawkeye.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nUnlike McLean Stevenson and Wayne Rogers, Linville had no regrets about leaving the series, saying, \\\"I felt I had done everything possible with the character.\\\" Linville was not alone when he left; Executive Producer Gene Reynolds left after the production of season 5, and Burt Metcalfe and star Alan Alda took over the producing responsibilities. During season 6, Alda and Metcalfe even consulted Reynolds once a week, mainly to obtain help with their jobs as executive producers. These two men remained as executive producers for the remaining six seasons, as Reynolds was credited as a creative consultant along with Alan Alda.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nCharles Emerson Winchester III\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nCharles Emerson Winchester III (David Ogden Stiers) was brought in as an antagonist of sorts to the other surgeons, but his relationship with them was not as acrimonious, although he was a more able foil. Unlike Frank Burns, Winchester did not care for the Army. His resentment stemmed, in part, from the fact that he was transferred from Tokyo General Hospital to the 4077th due, in part, to a cribbage debt owed to him by his commanding officer, Lt. Col. Horace Baldwin. What set him apart from Burns as an antagonist for Hawkeye and B.J. was that Winchester was clearly an excellent, technically superior surgeon, although his work sometimes suffered from his excessive perfectionism when rapid \\\"meatball surgery\\\" was called for. As with many new MASH surgeons, Winchester took some time to wrap his head around the fact that faster, less precise work saved lives that more elegant, slower work might cost.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nWinchester was respected by the others professionally, but at the same time, as a Boston blue blood, he was also snobbish, as when he stated in the scrub room, \\\"I do one thing at a time, I do it very well, and then I move on,\\\" which drove much of his conflict with the other characters. Still, the show's writers occasionally allowed Winchester's humanity to shine through, such as in his dealings with a young concert pianist who had partially lost the use of his right hand, the protection of a stuttering soldier from the bullying of other soldiers (it is revealed later that Winchester's sister stutters), his keeping a vigil with Hawkeye when Hawkeye's father went into surgery back in the States (\\\"Sons and Bowlers\\\"), his willingness to be officer of the day for Hawkeye when Hawkeye was offered three days in Seoul, giving blood to a patient even though he already donated blood five days earlier, or his continuing a family tradition of anonymously giving Christmas treats to an orphanage.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nWinchester subjects himself to condemnation after realizing that \\\"it is sadly inappropriate to offer dessert to a child who has had no meal.\\\" Isolating himself, he is saved by Klinger's own gift of understanding. Klinger scrapes together a Christmas dinner for Charles, with the provision that the source of the gift remain anonymous (Klinger had overheard Winchester's argument with the manager of the orphanage). For the final moment of the episode (\\\"Death Takes a Holiday\\\"), the two are simply friends as Charles says, \\\"Thank you, Max,\\\" and Klinger replies, \\\"Merry Christmas, Charles.\\\" As well, in the series finale \\\"Goodbye, Farewell, and Amen\\\", Charles comes across a group of Chinese musicians who surrender to him. When Charles takes them back to the camp as prisoners of war and later listens to his record of Mozart's Quintet in A major for Clarinet and Strings, K. 581, the musicians attempt to play the piece of music. Charles, ever the perfectionist, cannot stand to hear them play the piece incorrectly (and is impressed that they can even attempt to play the music after only hearing it once) and spends the next week conducting them on how to play the piece properly.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nDuring this time, Charles is forced to use the little patience that he rarely shows. When the Chinese musicians are taken off to a prisoner of war camp in a prisoner exchange to Charles' dismay and protest, their final goodbye to Charles is the Mozart piece played correctly. Later, one of the musicians returns to the camp mortally wounded on a Jeep. When Charles inquires as to where the other musicians are, it's revealed that the truck the musicians were on was ambushed and that there were no other survivors. In a combination of shock and disbelief, Charles returns to The Swamp to listen to the Mozart record, but removes the record and smashes it in anger. Later still on the final night that everyone at the M*A*S*H is together, Charles says that before the war, music was a stress reliever to him, but because of the Chinese musicians and their fate, music will forever be a reminder of the horrors of war.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nRadar O'Reilly\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nGary Burghoff (Walter \\\"Radar\\\" O'Reilly), one of only two cast members of the original 1970 film to play the same character in the TV series, had been growing restless in his role since at least season 4. With each successive year, he appeared in fewer episodes; and by season 7, Radar is in barely half of the shows. Burghoff planned to leave at the end of the seventh season (in 1979), but was convinced by producers Alda and Metcalfe to wait until the beginning of season 8, when they filmed a two-part farewell episode, \\\"Good Bye, Radar\\\" (originally intended to be the seventh season's finale), as well as a few short scenes that were inserted into episodes preceding it (Radar is shown having a horrible R & R in Tokyo). The final nod to Radar came in the penultimate episode of the series, \\\"As Time Goes By\\\", when his iconic teddy bear (though it was a different bear than was used throughout the show) was included in a time capsule of the 4077th initiated by Margaret, which Hawkeye says is a symbol of those who \\\"came as boys and went home as men.\\\"\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nMax Klinger\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nMax Klinger also grew away from the cross-dressing reputation that overshadowed him. He dropped his section 8 pursuit when taking over for Radar as company clerk. Both Jamie Farr and the producers felt that there was more to Klinger than a chiffon dress, and tried to develop the character more fully. In the role of company clerk, Klinger's personality turned more to the \\\"wheeler-dealer\\\" aspects developed in the streets of (Farr's actual hometown) Toledo, Ohio, using those skills to aid the 4077th. Farr stayed throughout the rest of the series. Klinger was later promoted from corporal to sergeant (he and Father Mulcahy were the only two characters to be promoted on-screen in the entire series, Frank Burns received his promotion off-screen after having left the series). In the final episode, Klinger is, ironically, the only character who announces that he is staying in Korea. He wants to help his wife, Soon Lee, find her parents. (He and Soon Lee marry at the end of the episode). When Klinger announces that he is staying in Korea, Hawkeye says, \\\"You don't have to act crazy now.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nWe're all getting out!\\\" However, in the short-lived spin-off, AfterMASH, it becomes clear that soon after the end of the war, Klinger, with new wife Soon Lee (Rosalind Chao) returned to the United States. After Soon Lee was subjected to discrimination in Toledo the Klingers moved to River Bend, Missouri and Max got a job like that he had as the 4077th's company clerk for Chief of Staff Dr. Sherman Potter, now head of the General Pershing VA Hospital there.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nChange in tone\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nWhile the series remained popular through these changes, it eventually began to run out of creative steam. Korean War doctors regularly contacted producers with experiences that they thought might make for a good storyline, only to learn the idea had previously been used. Harry Morgan admitted that he felt \\\"the cracks were starting to show\\\" by season 9 (1980–1981). Alda wished to make season 10 (1981-1982) M*A*S*Hs last, but was persuaded by CBS to produce a slightly shortened 11th season, coupled with a farewell movie finale, because CBS refused to let the show go away so easily. In the end, season 11 had 15 episodes (although six had been filmed during season 10 and held over) and a 2-1/2 hour movie, which was treated as five episodes and were filmed before the nine remaining episodes. The final episode ever produced was the penultimate episode \\\"As Time Goes By\\\". The series finale movie, titled \\\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\\\", became the most-watched television broadcast in history, tallying a total of 125 million viewers.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nProduction\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nSet location\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThe 4077th consisted of two separate sets. An outdoor set in the mountains near Malibu, California (Calabasas, Los Angeles County, California) was used for most exterior and tent scenes for every season. This was the same set used to shoot the movie. The indoor set, on a sound stage at Fox Studios in Century City, was used for the indoor scenes for the run of the series. Later, after the indoor set was renovated to permit many of the \\\"outdoor\\\" scenes to be filmed there, both sets were used for exterior shooting as script requirements dictated (e.g., night scenes were far easier to film on the sound stage, but scenes at the chopper pad required using the ranch).\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nJust as the series was wrapping production, a brush fire destroyed most of the outdoor set on October 9, 1982. The fire was written into the final episode as a forest fire caused by enemy incendiary bombs that forced the 4077th to bug out.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThe Malibu location is today known as Malibu Creek State Park. Formerly called the Century Ranch and owned by 20th Century Fox Studios until the 1980s, the site today is returning to a natural state, and is marked by a rusted Jeep and an ambulance used in the show. Through the 1990s, the area was occasionally used for television commercial production.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nOn February 23, 2008, series stars Mike Farrell, Loretta Swit and William Christopher (along with producers Gene Reynolds and Burt Metcalfe and M*A*S*H director Charles S. Dubin) reunited at the set to celebrate its partial restoration. The rebuilt signpost is now displayed on weekends, along with tent markers and maps and photos of the set. The state park is open to the public. It was also the location where the film How Green Was My Valley (1941) and the Planet of the Apes television series (1974) were filmed, among other productions.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nSmithsonian exhibit\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThe exhibit M*A*S*H: Binding Up the Wounds was at the National Museum of American History from July 30, 1983 through February 3, 1985. The exhibit was extremely popular drawing more than 17,000 in a single week, a record for any Smithsonian display.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nOn exhibit were The Swamp and Operating Room sets, one of the show’s 14 Emmy Awards, early drafts of the pilot script, costumes from the show and other memorabilia. Sets were decorated with props from the show including the iconic signpost, Hawkeye's still and Major Winchester's Webcor tape recorder and phonograph. The exhibit also encouraged visitors to compare the show to real Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals of the Korean and the Vietnam Wars.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nRadar's teddy bear was originally found at the ranch set was never on display at the Smithsonian. Following completion of production, the prop was kept by the show's set designer. It was sold several times including to Burghoff himself. It was sold at auction on July 29, 2005 for $11,800, it sold again on March 27, 2015 for $14,307.50 after 19 bids.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nContent\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nM*A*S*H was the first American network series to use the phrase \\\"son of a bitch\\\" (in the 8th-season episode \\\"Guerilla My Dreams\\\"), and brief partial nudity occurred in the series (notably Gary Burghoff's buttocks in \\\"The Sniper\\\" and Hawkeye in one of the \\\"Dear Dad\\\" episodes). A different innovation was the show's producers' not wanting a laugh track, as the network did. They compromised by omitting laughter entirely in the operating room. The DVD releases of the series allow viewers to select an audio version with no laugh track.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nIn his blog, writer Ken Levine revealed that on one occasion, when the cast offered too many nitpicking \\\"notes\\\" on a script, his writing partner and he changed the script to a \\\"cold show\\\"—one set during the frigid Korean winter. The cast then had to stand around barrel fires in parkas at the Malibu ranch when the temperatures neared 100 F. Levine says, \\\"This happened maybe twice, and we never got a ticky-tack note again.\\\"\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nJackie Cooper wrote that Alan Alda, whom Cooper directed in several episodes during the first two seasons, concealed a lot of hostility beneath the surface, and the two of them barely spoke to each other by the time Cooper’s tenure on the show ended.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nCharacter information\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThroughout the run of the series, any \\\"generic\\\" nurses (those who had a line or two, but were minor supporting characters otherwise) were generally given the names \\\"Nurse Able\\\", \\\"Nurse Baker\\\", or \\\"Nurse Charlie\\\". During the Korean War, the letters A, B, and C in the phonetic alphabet were Able, Baker, and Charlie (since then, the standard has been updated; A and B are now Alpha and Bravo). In later seasons, it became more common for a real character name to be created, especially as several of the nurse actresses became semiregulars. For example, Kellye Nakahara played both \\\"Able\\\" and \\\"Charlie\\\" characters in season 3 before becoming the semiregular \\\"Nurse Kellye\\\"; however, Judy Farrell (at the time, Mike Farrell's wife) played Nurse Able in eight episodes, including the series finale.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nBy the time the series ended, three of the regulars had been promoted. Klinger (Jamie Farr) went from corporal to sergeant, and Father Mulcahy (William Christopher) from lieutenant to captain. Frank Burns (Larry Linville) was promoted from major to lieutenant colonel off screen when he was shipped back to the U.S. following Margaret's marriage. (Farr and Christopher also saw their names move from the closing credits of the show to the opening credits.) Radar O'Reilly was fraudulently \\\"promoted\\\" for a short time (through a semi-intentional machination of Hawkeye and B.J.) to second lieutenant, but discovered he disliked officers' duties and asked them to \\\"bust\\\" him back to corporal.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nMike Farrell asked that his character's daughter's name be Erin, after his real-life daughter (the character's name was originally going to be Melissa). When B.J. spoke on the telephone on-camera, Erin or his then-wife Judy were on the other end.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nCharacter injuries\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThree MASH 4077 staff members suffered fatalities on the show: Lieutenant Colonel Blake, when the plane taking him back to the States was shot down over the Sea of Japan; an ambulance driver, O'Donnell, in a traffic accident; and a nurse, Millie Carpenter, by a land mine. \\\"Capt. Tuttle\\\", an imaginary person made up by Hawkeye to provide money for Sister Teresa's orphanage, was said to have died when he jumped from a helicopter without a parachute; Hawkeye gave him an ironic eulogy.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nAmong those wounded were Hawkeye Pierce (\\\"Hawkeye\\\", \\\"Out of Sight, Out of Mind\\\", \\\"Comrades in Arms [Part I]\\\", \\\"Good-Bye, Radar [Part I]\\\", and \\\"Lend a Hand\\\"), Radar O'Reilly (\\\"Fallen Idol\\\"), B.J. Hunnicutt (\\\"The Abduction of Margaret Houlihan\\\" and \\\"Operation Friendship\\\"), Max Klinger (\\\"It Happened One Night\\\", \\\"Baby, It's Cold Outside\\\", and \\\"Operation Friendship\\\"), Father Mulcahy (\\\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\\\" and \\\"Bombed\\\"), and Sherman Potter (\\\"Dear Ma\\\"). Henry Blake was injured four times: once by a disgruntled chopper pilot (\\\"Cowboy\\\"), once by friendly fire (\\\"The Army-Navy Game\\\"), and in season 3, episode 15 (\\\"Bombed\\\"), Henry is injured when he is blown up while in the latrine. (The gag of Blake being caught in an exploding latrine is also in the episode \\\"Cowboy\\\".) Henry is also injured when the latrine catches fire. Father Mulcahy is given a concussion on two separate occasions - first in the episode \\\"Bombed\\\", where he is in the latrine stall next to Blake when it is blown up; and again in \\\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\\\" when he is knocked out by mortar fire which strikes close by him; he also suffers severe hearing loss as a result of this incident.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nFrank Burns is twice awarded Purple Hearts for spurious injuries: throwing his back out after he gave Margaret a dip and could not move - which was later covered up with a story that he slipped on the way to the showers (\\\"Sometimes You Hear the Bullet\\\", 1.17), and getting an egg-shell fragment in the eye (\\\"The Kids\\\", 4.8). Burns' Purple Heart medals were then given to more deserving people: a GI who was admitted with appendicitis and a Korean newborn infant who was hit by a bullet in utero.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nAt least three permanent 4077 personnel suffered emotional breakdowns: Hawkeye Pierce (\\\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\\\"), B.J. Hunnicutt (\\\"Period of Adjustment\\\"), and Frank Burns (\\\"Fade Out, Fade In\\\").\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nVehicles\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThe helicopters used on the series were model H-13 Sioux (military designation and nickname of the Bell 47 civilian model). As in the film, some care seems to have been taken to use the correct model of the long-lived Bell 47 series. In the opening credits and many of the episodes, Korean War-vintage H-13Ds and Es (Bell 47D-1s) were used complete with period-correct external litters. A later (1954–73) 47G occasionally made an appearance. The helicopters are similar in appearance (with the later \\\"G\\\" models having larger two-piece fuel tanks, a slightly revised cabin, and other changes) with differences noticeable only to a serious helicopter fan. In the pilot episode, a later Bell 47J (production began in 1957) was shown flying Henry Blake to Seoul, en route to a meeting with General Hammond in Tokyo. A Sud Aviation Allouette II helicopter was also shown transporting Henry Blake to the 4077th in the episode \\\"Henry, Please Come Home\\\".\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThe Jeeps used were 1953 military M38 or civil CJ2A Willys Jeeps and also World War II Ford GPWs and Willys MB's. Two episodes featured the M38A1 Jeep, one of which was stolen from a General by Radar and Hawkeye after their Jeep was stolen. Two of the ambulances were WC-54 Dodges and one was a WC-27. A WC-54 ambulance remains at the site and was burned in the Malibu fires on October 9, 1982, while a second WC-27 survives at a South El Monte museum without any markings. The bus used to transport the wounded was a 1954 Ford model. In the last season, an M43 ambulance from the Korean War era also was used in conjunction with the WC-54s and WC-27.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nFile:Mashdodge.jpg|Burned Dodge ambulance at Malibu Creek State Park\\nFile:Mashjeep.jpg|Burned Jeep (most likely an M38) at Malibu Creek State Park\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nLaugh track\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nSeries creators Larry Gelbart and Gene Reynolds wanted M*A*S*H broadcast without a laugh track (\\\"Just like the actual Korean War\\\", he remarked dryly). Though CBS initially rejected the idea, a compromise was reached that allowed for omitting the laughter during operating room scenes if desired. Seasons 1–5 utilized a more invasive laugh track; a more subdued audience was employed for Seasons 6-11 when the series shifted from sitcom to comedy-drama with the departure of Gelbart and Reynolds. Several episodes (\\\"O.R.\\\", \\\"The Bus\\\", \\\"\\\"Quo Vadis, Captain Chandler?\\\", \\\"The Interview\\\", \\\"Point of View\\\" and \\\"Dreams\\\" among them) omitted the laugh track altogether; as did almost all of Season 11, including the 135-minute series finale, \\\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\\\". The laugh track is also omitted from some international and syndicated airings of the show; on one occasion during an airing in the UK, the laugh track was accidentally left on, and viewers expressed their displeasure, an apology from the network for the \\\"technical difficulty\\\" was later released. UK DVD critics speak poorly of the laugh track, stating \\\"canned laughter is intrusive at the best of times, but with a programme like M*A*S*H, it's downright unbearable.\\\"\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nOn all released DVDs, both in Region 1 (including the U.S. and Canada) and Region 2 (Europe, including the UK), an option is given to watch the show with or without the laugh track.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n\\\"They're a lie,\\\" said Gelbart in a 1992 interview. \\\"You're telling an engineer when to push a button to produce a laugh from people who don't exist. It's just so dishonest. The biggest shows when we were on the air were All in the Family and The Mary Tyler Moore Show both of which were taped before a live studio audience where laughter made sense,\\\" continued Gelbart. \\\"But our show was a film show – supposedly shot in the middle of Korea. So the question I always asked the network was, 'Who are these laughing people? Where did they come from?'\\\" Gelbart persuaded CBS to test the show in private screenings with and without the laugh track. The results showed no measurable difference in the audience's enjoyment. \\\"So you know what they said?\\\" Gelbart said. \\\"'Since there's no difference, let's leave it alone!' The people who defend laugh tracks have no sense of humor.\\\" Gelbart summed up the situation by saying, \\\"I always thought it cheapened the show. The network got their way. They were paying for dinner.\\\"\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nBroadcast history\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nNOTE: Dates are for first-run airings.\\n*Sunday at 8:00-8:30 PM on CBS: September 17, 1972—March 25, 1973\\n*Saturday at 8:30-9:00 PM on CBS: September 15, 1973—March 2, 1974\\n*Tuesday at 8:30-9:00 PM on CBS: September 10, 1974—March 18, 1975\\n*Friday at 8:30-9:00 PM on CBS: September 12—November 28, 1975\\n*Tuesday at 9:00-9:30 PM on CBS: December 2, 1975—January 24, 1978\\n*Monday at 9:00-9:30 PM on CBS: January 30, 1978—February 28, 1983\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThe show also aired in daytime reruns from September 1978-September 1979 on CBS at 3:30 pm (ET).\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nEpisodes\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nFinal episode: \\\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\\\"\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n\\\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\\\" was the final episode of M*A*S*H. Special television sets were placed in PX parking lots, auditoriums, and dayrooms of the U.S. Army in Korea so that military personnel could watch that episode, in spite of 14 hours' time zone difference with the east coast of the U.S. The episode aired on February 28, 1983, and was 2½ hours long. The episode got a Nielsen rating of 60.2 and 77 share and according to a New York Times article from 1983, the final episode of M*A*S*H had 125 million viewers.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nWhen the M*A*S*H finale aired in 1983, 83.3 million homes in the United States had televisions, compared to almost 115 million in February 2010.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n\\\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\\\" broke the record for the highest percentage of homes with television sets to watch a television series. Stories persist that the episode was seen by so many people that the New York City Sanitation/Public Works Department reported the plumbing systems broke down in some parts of the city from so many New Yorkers waiting until the end to use the toilet. Articles copied into Alan Alda's book The Last Days of M*A*S*H include interviews with New York City Sanitation workers citing the spike in water use on that night. According to the interviews at 11:03 pm, EST New York City public works noted the highest water usage at one given time in the City's history. They attributed this to the fact that in the three minutes after the finale ended, around 77% of the people of New York City flushed their toilets. These stories have all since been identified as part of an urban legend dating back to the days of the Amos and Andy radio program in the 1930s.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nSpinoffs and specials\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nM*A*S*H had two spin-off shows. The short-lived AfterMASH (1983–85) inherited the parent show's Monday night time slot and featured several of its characters reunited in a Midwestern hospital after the war. The more successful Trapper John, M.D. (1979–86) took place nearly three decades after the events of M*A*S*H and depicted Trapper John McIntyre as chief of surgery at a San Francisco hospital. In an unpurchased television pilot, W*A*L*T*E*R (1984), Walter \\\"Radar\\\" O’Reilly joins the St. Louis police force after his farm fails following his return to the U.S.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nA documentary special titled Making M*A*S*H, narrated by Mary Tyler Moore and taking viewers behind the production of the season 8 episodes \\\"Old Soldiers\\\" and \\\"Lend a Hand\\\", was produced for PBS in 1981. The special was later included in the syndicated rerun package, with new narration by producer Michael Hirsch.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nTwo retrospective specials were produced to commemorate the show's 20th and 30th anniversaries. Memories of M*A*S*H, hosted by Shelley Long and featuring clips from the series and interviews with cast members, was aired by CBS on November 25, 1991. A 30th Anniversary Reunion special, in which the surviving cast members and producers gathered to reminisce, aired on the Fox network on May 17, 2002. The two-hour broadcast was hosted by Mike Farrell, who also got to interact with the actor he replaced, Wayne Rogers; previously filmed interviews with McLean Stevenson and Larry Linville (who had died in 1996 and 2000, respectively) were featured, as well. The two specials are included as bonuses on the Collector's Edition DVD of \\\"Goodbye, Farewell, and Amen\\\". Also included is \\\"M*A*S*H: Television's Serious Sitcom\\\", a 2002 episode of the A&E cable channel's Biography program that detailed the history of the show.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nIn the late 1980s, the cast had a partial reunion in a series of commercials for IBM personal computers. All of the front-billed regulars (with the two exceptions of Farrell and Stevenson) appeared in the spots over time.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nReview\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nSeason ratings\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nAs a top-20 series, M*A*S*H has an average rating of 24.6.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nAwards\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nM*A*S*H was nominated for over 100 Emmy Awards during its 11-year run, winning 14:\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n*1974 — Outstanding Comedy Series – M*A*S*H; Larry Gelbart, Gene Reynolds (Producers)\\n*1974 — Best Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Alan Alda\\n*1974 — Best Directing in Comedy – Jackie Cooper: \\\"Carry On, Hawkeye\\\"\\n*1974 — Actor of the Year, Series – Alan Alda\\n*1975 — Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series – Gene Reynolds: \\\"O.R.\\\"\\n*1976 — Outstanding Film Editing for Entertainment Programming – Fred W. Berger and Stanford Tischler: \\\"Welcome to Korea\\\"\\n*1976 — Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series – Gene Reynolds: \\\"Welcome to Korea\\\"\\n*1977 — Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series – Alan Alda: \\\"Dear Sigmund\\\"\\n*1977 — Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series – Gary Burghoff\\n*1979 — Outstanding Writing in a Comedy-Variety or Music Series – Alan Alda: \\\"Inga\\\"\\n*1980 — Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy or Variety or Music Series – Loretta Swit\\n*1980 — Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy or Variety or Music Series – Harry Morgan\\n*1982 — Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Alan Alda\\n*1982 — Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy or Variety or Music Series – Loretta Swit\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThe show won the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series (Musical or Comedy) in 1981. Alan Alda won the Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Television Series (Musical or Comedy) six times: in 1975, 1976, 1980, 1981, 1982, and 1983. McLean Stevenson won the award for Best Supporting Actor in a Television Series in 1974.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThe series earned the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in a Comedy Series seven times: 1973 (Gene Reynolds), 1974 (Reynolds), 1975 (Hy Averbeck), 1976 (Averbeck), 1977 (Alan Alda), 1982 (Alda), 1983 (Alda).\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThe show was honored with a Peabody Award in 1976 \\\"for the depth of its humor and the manner in which comedy is used to lift the spirit and, as well, to offer a profound statement on the nature of war.\\\" M*A*S*H was cited as \\\"an example of television of high purpose that reveals in universal terms a time and place with such affecting clarity.\\\"\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nWriters for the show received several Humanitas Prize nominations, with Larry Gelbart winning in 1976, Alan Alda winning in 1980, and the team of David Pollock and Elias Davis winning twice in 1982 and 1983.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nThe series received 28 Writers Guild of America Award nominations - 26 for Episodic Comedy and two for Episodic Drama. Seven episodes won for Episodic Comedy in 1973, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1980, and 1981.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nHome media\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\n20th Century Fox Home Entertainment has released all 11 seasons of M*A*S*H on DVD in Region 1 and Region 2.\",\n \"M*A*S*H (TV series)\\n\\nOn January 20, 2015, it was announced that the first five seasons of M*A*S*H would be available on Netflix's instant streaming service beginning February 1, 2015. This marked the first time the series was made available on an internet platform. As of July 1, 2015, all 11 seasons were available; syndicated versions of hour-long episodes were utilized for streaming, splitting these shows into two parts. In contrast to the DVD sets, the Netflix streams did not have an option for disabling the laugh track on the soundtrack. On April 1, 2016, M*A*S*H was removed from Netflix due to its contract to stream the series expiring.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137098,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2328"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"On July 17, 1938 Douglas \"Wrong Way\" Corrigan filed a flight plan that indicated he was flying from New York to Low Angeles. True to his name, where did he end up?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Ireland"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["irlandia","erin s isle","héireann","airlann","ireland","irelanders","airlan","mikra britannia","irelander","population of ireland","west coast of ireland","scotia major","symbol of ireland","irland","auld sod","island of ireland","ireland region","irlanda","ireland ulster","ierne placename","island ireland","ireland island","ireland and ulster"],"string":"[\n \"irlandia\",\n \"erin s isle\",\n \"héireann\",\n \"airlann\",\n \"ireland\",\n \"irelanders\",\n \"airlan\",\n \"mikra britannia\",\n \"irelander\",\n \"population of ireland\",\n \"west coast of ireland\",\n \"scotia major\",\n \"symbol of ireland\",\n \"irland\",\n \"auld sod\",\n \"island of ireland\",\n \"ireland region\",\n \"irlanda\",\n \"ireland ulster\",\n \"ierne placename\",\n \"island ireland\",\n \"ireland island\",\n \"ireland and ulster\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Douglas Corrigan\n\nDouglas Corrigan (January 22, 1907 – December 9, 1995) was an American aviator born in Galveston, Texas. He was nicknamed \"Wrong Way\" in 1938. After a transcontinental flight from Long Beach, California, to New York, he flew from Floyd Bennett Field in Brooklyn, New York, to Ireland, though his flight plan was filed to return to Long Beach. He claimed his unauthorized flight was due to a navigational error, caused by heavy cloud cover that obscured landmarks and low-light conditions, causing him to misread his compass. However, he was a skilled aircraft mechanic (he was one of the builders of Charles Lindbergh's Spirit of St. Louis) and had made several modifications to his own plane, preparing it for his transatlantic flight. He had been denied permission to make a nonstop flight from New York to Ireland, and his \"navigational error\" was seen as deliberate. Nevertheless, he never publicly admitted to having flown to Ireland intentionally.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nEarly life","Douglas Corrigan\n\nThe son of a construction engineer and a teacher, he was named Clyde Groce Corrigan after his father, but legally adopted the name Douglas as an adult. Corrigan was of Irish descent. The family moved often, until his parents finally divorced and shared custody of their children. Corrigan finally settled with his mother, brother Harry, and sister Evelyn in Los Angeles. Quitting high school, he went to work in construction.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nIn October 1925, Corrigan saw people paying to be taken for short rides in a Curtiss JN-4 \"Jenny\" biplane near his home. He paid the $2.50 (equal to $ today) for his own ride. A week later, he began flying lessons, spending non-flying time watching and learning from local aircraft mechanics. After twenty lessons, he made his first solo flight on March 25, 1926.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nAircraft mechanic","Douglas Corrigan\n\nRyan Aeronautical Company operated from the airfield where Corrigan learned to fly, and hired him for their San Diego factory. Corrigan was responsible for assembling the wing and installing the fuel tanks and instrument panel of Charles Lindbergh's Spirit of St. Louis. Corrigan and his colleague Dan Burnett increased the lift of the aircraft by extending the wing longer than any previous Ryan design. Corrigan pulled the chocks from the Spirit of St Louis when Lindbergh took off from San Diego to New York to prepare for his historic flight.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nAfter Lindbergh's success, Corrigan decided to duplicate it and selected Ireland as his objective. He discussed the idea with friends and mentioned flying without permission. When Ryan Aeronautical moved to St. Louis in October 1928, Corrigan stayed in San Diego as a mechanic for the newly formed Airtech School. With more than 50 students flying each day, Corrigan could only get flight time during his lunch break.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nDuring his short flights, Corrigan performed aerobatic stunts. His favourite maneuver was the chandelle, in strings of up to a dozen, spiralling from close to the ground. The company disapproved and prohibited him from performing stunts in the company aircraft. Corrigan simply flew to a field further south where his stunts could not be seen by his employers.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nCorrigan moved from job to job as an aircraft mechanic, using his employers' planes to develop his flying skills. He gained his transport pilot's certificate in October 1929, and in 1930, started a passenger service between small East Coast towns, with his friend Steve Reich. The most lucrative part of the business turned out to be barnstorming displays promoting short recreational plane rides. Despite business success, after a few years, Corrigan decided to return to the West Coast. In 1933, he spent $310 on a used 1929 Curtiss Robin OX-5 monoplane and flew it home, where he returned to work as an aircraft mechanic and began to modify the Robin for a transatlantic flight.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nTransatlantic flier","Douglas Corrigan\n\nHaving installed an engine built from two old Wright Whirlwind J6-5 engines (affording instead of the of the original) and extra fuel tanks, Corrigan applied to the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1935, seeking permission to make a nonstop flight from New York to Ireland. The application was rejected; his plane was deemed unsound for a nonstop transatlantic trip, although it was certified to the lower standard for cross-country journeys.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nOver the next two years, Corrigan made repeated modifications and reapplications for full certification, but none succeeded. Indeed, by 1937, after extensive modifications in the face of increasing regulation, his aircraft was refused renewal of its licence because it was deemed to be too unstable for safe flight. His autobiography expresses his exasperation with official resistance and he is widely thought to have responded by deciding that year to make an unofficial crossing.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nAlthough he never admitted it, he apparently planned a late arrival at New York so that he could refill his tanks and leave for Ireland after airport officials had gone home from work. Mechanical problems extended his unapproved inbound flight to nine days, which delayed him beyond the Atlantic \"safe weather window\", and he returned to California. As a result of this trip, he named his plane Sunshine, however, federal officials notified Californian airfield officials that Sunshine was not airworthy and it was grounded for six months.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nOn 9 July 1938, Corrigan again left California for Floyd Bennett Field, Brooklyn, New York. He had repaired the engine, taking his total spent on the aircraft to about $900 (equal to $ today), gained an experimental license, and obtained permission for a transcontinental flight with conditional consent for a return trip. With the Robin cruising at 85 mi/h for maximum fuel efficiency, the outward journey took him 27 hours. Fuel efficiency became critical towards the end of the flight: a gasoline leak developed, filling the cockpit with fumes.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nUpon his unannounced arrival at Floyd Bennett Field, in the midst of Howard Hughes' preparations for takeoff on a world tour, Corrigan decided repairing the leak would take too long if he was to meet his schedule. His logged flight plan had him returning to California on July 17. Before take off, Corrigan asked the manager of Floyd Bennett Field, Kenneth P. Behr, which runway to use, and Behr told him to use any runway as long as he didn't take off to the west, in the direction of the administration building where Behr had his office. As recorded in Corrigan's autobiography, Behr wished him \"Bon Voyage\" prior to take-off, perhaps in a nod to Corrigan's intentions to fly the Atlantic. Upon take off at 5:15 in the morning with of gasoline and of oil, Corrigan headed east from the 4200 ft runway of Floyd Bennett Field and kept going. (Behr later swore publicly he had no foreknowledge of Corrigan's intentions.)","Douglas Corrigan\n\nCorrigan claimed to have noticed his \"error\" after flying for about 26 hours. This is not entirely consistent with his claim that after 10 hours, he felt his feet go cold; the cockpit floor was awash with gasoline leaking from the unrepaired tank. He used a screwdriver to punch a hole through the cockpit floor so that the fuel would drain away on the side opposite the hot exhaust pipe, reducing the risk of a midair explosion. Had he been truly unaware he was over ocean, it seems likely he would have descended at this point; instead, he claimed to have increased the engine speed by almost 20% in the hope of decreasing his flight time.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nHe landed at Baldonnel Aerodrome, County Dublin, on July 18, after a 28-hour, 13-minute flight. His provisions had been just two chocolate bars, two boxes of fig bars, and of water.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nCorrigan's plane had fuel tanks mounted on the front, allowing him to see only out of the sides. He had no radio and his compass was 20 years old. The journalist H. R. Knickerbocker, who met Corrigan in Ireland after his arrival, wrote in 1941:","Douglas Corrigan\n\nAviation officials took 600 words to list the regulations broken by his flight in a telegram (a medium that encourages brevity by charging at a rate per word). Despite the extent of Corrigan's illegality, he received only a mild punishment; his pilot's certificate was suspended for 14 days. He and his plane returned to New York on the steamship Manhattan and arrived on August 4, the last day of his suspension. His return was marked with great celebration. More people attended his Broadway ticker-tape parade than had honored Lindbergh after his triumph. He was also given a ticker tape parade in Chicago.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nHe appeared as a contestant on the July 16, 1957 episode of To Tell the Truth.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nLater life","Douglas Corrigan\n\nTo Corrigan's great disappointment, Lindbergh, his hero and the reason he had made the flight, never acknowledged the accomplishment. Corrigan wrote his autobiography, That's My Story, within months of the flight; it was published for the Christmas market on 15 December 1938. He also endorsed 'wrong-way' products including a watch that ran backwards. The following year, he starred as himself in RKO Radio Pictures' The Flying Irishman (1939), a movie biography. The $75,000 he earned was the equivalent of 30 years income at his airfield jobs.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nAccording to a letter written to a fan in 1940, Corrigan claimed to have \"no hobbies except working on airplanes or machinery\". When the United States entered World War II, he tested bombers and flew in the Ferry Command, a division of the Air Transport Command. In 1946, he gained less than 2% of the vote running for the U.S. Senate as a member of the Prohibition Party, running against Republican William F. Knowland. He then worked as a commercial pilot for a small California airline.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nCorrigan retired from aviation in 1950 and bought an 18 acre orange grove in Santa Ana, California. He lived there with his wife and three sons until his death on December 9, 1995. He knew nothing about raising oranges, and said he learned by copying his neighbors. His wife died in 1966, and Corrigan sold most of his grove for development, keeping only the ranch-style house. One of the streets in the 93-house estate is named after him. He became reclusive after one of his sons died in a private plane crash on Santa Catalina Island, California in 1972. In 1988, however, he joined in the golden anniversary celebration of his famous \"wrong way\" flight, allowing enthusiasts to retrieve the Robin from its hangar. The plane was reassembled and the engine was run successfully. Corrigan was so excited that the organizers placed guards at the plane's wings while he was at the show and considered tethering the tail to a police car to prevent him from taking off in it. Later, Corrigan became elusive about the plane's location. It was rumored he had dismantled and stored it in several locations to prevent its theft.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nAn anthology of aircraft related mysteries published in 1995 claimed that Corrigan was elected an Honorary Member of the 'Liars Club of America' at the age of 84, and that the 'honor,' (as had so many other suggestions over the years since his transatlantic flight) had been politely but firmly refused. Up to his death, Corrigan still maintained that he had flown transatlantic by accident.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nIn popular culture","Douglas Corrigan\n\nCorrigan's \"error\" caught the imagination of the depressed American public and inspired many jokes. The nickname \"'Wrong Way' Corrigan\" passed into common use (sometimes confused with the memory of 1929's \"Wrong Way\" Riegels football incident) and is still mentioned (or used as satire) when someone has the reputation for taking the wrong direction. For example: Corrigan was directly referenced in the 1938 Three Stooges short Flat Foot Stooges. Curly states, \"Hey, we're doing a Corrigan!\" after realizing they are heading in the wrong direction to get to the fire they need to extinguish. A character named \"Wrong Way Feldman\" was portrayed by Hans Conreid in two episodes of Gilligan's Island in the 1960s. Also, in the short 'Birds on a Wire', part of the last episode (1998) of Animaniacs, Pesto the Goodfeather pigeon expresses outrage by exclaiming \"Are you saying that I don't know my directions? That I'm some sort of 'Wrong Way' Corrigan?\" when he is pointed out the fact that he is confusing north with west.","Douglas Corrigan\n\nLegacy","Douglas Corrigan\n\nAmong aviation historians, Corrigan is remembered as one of the brave few who made early transoceanic flights. On his death in 1995, he was buried at Fairhaven Memorial Park in Santa Ana. His memorial is a small horizontal plaque bearing a facsimile of his signature.","Scientology\n\nScientology is a body of religious beliefs and practices created in 1954 by American author L. Ron Hubbard (1911–86). After he developed Dianetics, the Dianetics Foundation entered bankruptcy and Hubbard lost the rights to his seminal publication Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health in 1952. He then recharacterized the subject as a religion and renamed it Scientology, retaining the terminology, doctrines, the E-meter, and the practice of auditing. Within a year, he regained the rights to Dianetics and retained both subjects under the umbrella of the Church of Scientology.","Scientology\n\nHubbard's groups have encountered considerable opposition and controversy. In January 1951, the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners brought proceedings against Hubbard's Dianetics Foundation on the charge of teaching medicine without a license. Hubbard's followers engaged in a program of covert and illegal infiltration of the U.S. government.","Scientology\n\nHubbard-inspired organizations and their classification are often a point of contention. Germany classifies Scientology groups as an \"anti-constitutional sect\" (verfassungsfeindliche Sekte). In France, Scientology groups have been classified as a cult by some public authorities.","Scientology\n\nHistory of Scientology","Scientology\n\nL. Ron Hubbard","Scientology\n\nL. Ron Hubbard (1911-1986) was the only child of Harry Ross Hubbard, a United States Navy officer, and his wife Ledora. Hubbard spent three semesters at George Washington University but in September 1931, he was placed on probation. He failed to return for the fall 1932 semester.","Scientology\n\nIn July 1941, Hubbard was commissioned as a Lieutenant (junior grade) in the U.S. Naval Reserve. On May 18, 1943 the subchaser left Portland. That night, Hubbard ordered his crew to fire 35 depth charges and a number of gun rounds at what he believed were Japanese submarines. His ship sustained some minor damage and three crew were injured. Having run out of depth charges and with the presence of a submarine still unconfirmed by any other ship, Hubbard's ship was ordered back to port. The navy report concludes that \"there was no submarine in the area.\" A decade later, Hubbard's Scientology lectures incorporate his claim of having sunk a Japanese sub.","Scientology\n\nOn June 28, Hubbard ordered his crew to fire on the Coronado Islands. Hubbard apparently did not realize that the islands belonged to US-allied Mexico, nor that he had taken his vessel into Mexican territorial waters. Hubbard was reprimanded and removed from command on July 7.","Scientology\n\nAfter reassignment to a naval facility in Monterey, California, Hubbard became depressed and fell ill. Reporting stomach pains in April 1945, Hubbard spent the remainder of the war as a patient in Oak Knoll Naval Hospital in Oakland, California. According to his later Scientology teachings, Hubbard made scientific \"breakthroughs\" by use of \"endocrine experiments\" during this time period.","Scientology\n\nOn October 15, 1947, Hubbard wrote a letter to the Veteran Administration formally requesting psychiatric treatment. Wrote Hubbard: \"My last physician informed me that it might be very helpful if I were to be examined and perhaps treated psychiatrically or even by a psychoanalyst.\" He admitted, however, that he was unable to afford such treatment. Within a few years, Hubbard would assert the evil nature of psychiatry that would grow into a major theme in Scientology.","Scientology\n\nExcalibur and Babalon Working","Scientology\n\nIn April 1938, Hubbard reportedly underwent a dental procedure and reacted to the drug used in the procedure. According to his account, this triggered a revelatory near-death experience. Allegedly inspired by this experience, Hubbard composed a manuscript, which was never published, with working titles of \"The One Command\" or Excalibur. The contents of Excalibur formed the basis for some of his later publications. Arthur J. Burks, who read the work in 1938, later recalled it discussed the \"one command\": to survive. This theme would be revisited in Dianetics. Hubbard would later cite Excalibur as an early version of Dianetics.","Scientology\n\nIn August 1945 Hubbard moved into the Pasadena mansion of John \"Jack\" Whiteside Parsons, an avid occultist and Thelemite, follower of the English ceremonial magician Aleister Crowley and leader of a lodge of Crowley's magical order, Ordo Templi Orientis (OTO). Parsons and Hubbard collaborated on the \"Babalon Working\", a sex magic ritual intended to summon an incarnation of Babalon, the supreme Thelemite Goddess.","Scientology\n\nIn the late 1940s, Hubbard practiced as a hypnotist. During this period, he worked in Hollywood posing as a swami. The Church says that Hubbard's experience with hypnosis led him to create Dianetics.","Scientology\n\nDianetics","Scientology\n\nIn May 1950, Hubbard's Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science was published by pulp magazine Astounding Science Fiction. That same year, he published the book-length Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health. The publication of that book is considered by Scientologists to be the seminal event of the century. Scientologists sometimes use a \"dating system based on the initial appearance of this book. For example, 'A.D. 25' does not stand for Anno Domini, but 'After Dianetics.'\"","Scientology\n\nDianetics uses a counseling technique known as auditing in which an auditor assists a subject in conscious recall of traumatic events in the individual's past. It was originally intended to be a new psychotherapy and was not expected to become the foundation for a new religion. Hubbard variously defined Dianetics as a spiritual healing technology and an organized science of thought. The stated intent of Dianetics is to free individuals of the influence of past traumas by systematic exposure and removal of the engrams (painful memories) these events have left behind, in a process called clearing. Rutgers scholar Beryl Satter says that \"there was little that was original in Hubbard's approach\" with much of the theory having origins in popular conceptions of psychology.","Scientology\n\nSatter observes that, \"keeping with the typical 1950s distrust of emotion, Hubbard promised that Dianetic treatment would release and erase psychosomatic ills and painful emotions, thereby leaving individuals with increased powers of rationality.\" According to Gallagher and Ashcraft, in contrast to psychotherapy, Hubbard stated that Dianetics \"was more accessible to the average person, promised practitioners more immediate progress, and placed them in control of the therapy process.\" Hubbard's thought was parallel with the trend of humanist psychology at that time, which also came about in the 1950s. Passas and Castillo write that the appeal of Dianetics was based on its consistency with prevailing values. Shortly after the introduction of Dianetics, Hubbard introduced the concept of the \"thetan\" (or soul) which he claimed to have discovered. Dianetics was organized and centralized to consolidate power under Hubbard, and groups that were previously recruited were no longer permitted to organize autonomously.","Scientology\n\nTwo of Hubbard's key supporters at the time were John W. Campbell Jr., the editor of Astounding Science Fiction, and Campbell's brother-in-law, physician Joseph A. Winter. Dr. Winter, hoping to have Dianetics accepted in the medical community, submitted papers outlining the principles and methodology of Dianetic therapy to the Journal of the American Medical Association and the American Journal of Psychiatry in 1949, but these were rejected.","Scientology\n\nDianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health spent six months on the New York Times best-seller list Religious Studies Professor Paul Gutjahr called Dianetics the bestselling non-Christian religious book of the century. Publisher's Weekly gave a posthumous plaque to Hubbard to commemorate Dianetics' appearance on its list of bestsellers for one hundred weeks. A few studies that address the topic of the origins of the work and its significance to Scientology as a whole include Peter Rowley's New Gods in America, Omar V. Garrison's The Hidden Story of Scientology, and Albert I. Berger's Towards a Science of the Nuclear Mind: Science-fiction Origins of Dianetics. More complex studies include Roy Wallis's The Road to Total Freedom.","Scientology\n\nDianetics appealed to a broad range of people who used instructions from the book and applied the method to each other, becoming practitioners themselves. Dianetics soon met with criticism. Morris Fishbein, the editor of the Journal of the American Medical Association and well-known at the time as a debunker of quack medicine, dismissed Hubbard's book. An article in Newsweek stated that \"the Dianetics concept is unscientific and unworthy of discussion or review\". Hubbard asserted that Dianetics is “an organized science of thought built on definite axioms: statements of natural laws on the order of those of the physical sciences.”","Scientology\n\nHubbard became the leader of a growing Dianetics movement. He became a popular lecturer and established the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in Elizabeth, New Jersey, where he trained his first Dianetics counselors or auditors.","Scientology\n\nSome practitioners of Dianetics reported experiences which they believed had occurred in past lives, or previous incarnations. In early 1951, reincarnation became a subject of intense debate within the Dianetics community. Hubbard took the reports of past life events seriously and introduced the concept of the thetan, an immortal being analogous to the soul. This was an important factor in the transition from secular Dianetics to the religion of Scientology. Sociologists Roy Wallis and Steve Bruce suggest that Dianetics, which set each person as his or her own authority, was about to fail due to its inherent individualism, and that Hubbard started Scientology as a religion to establish himself as the overarching authority.","Scientology\n\nAlso in 1951, Hubbard incorporated the electropsychometer (E-meter for short), a kind of electrodermal activity meter, as an auditing aid. Based on a design by Volney Mathison, the device is held by Scientologists to be a useful tool in detecting changes in a person's state of mind. The global spread of Scientology at the latter half of the 1950s was culminated with the opening of churches in Johannesburg and Paris, while world headquarters transferred to England in Saint Hill, a rural estate. Hubbard lived there for the next seven years.","Scientology\n\nDianetics is different from Scientology in that Scientology is a religion while Dianetics is not. The purpose of Dianetics is the improvement of the individual, the individual or “self” being only one of eight \"dynamics.\"","Scientology\n\nChurch of Scientology","Scientology\n\nIn January 1951, the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners began proceedings against the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation for teaching medicine without a license, which eventually led to that foundation's bankruptcy. In December 1952, the Hubbard Dianetic Foundation filed for bankruptcy, and Hubbard lost control of the Dianetics trademark and copyrights to financier Don Purcell. Author Russell Miller argues that Scientology \"was a development of undeniable expedience, since it ensured that he would be able to stay in business even if the courts eventually awarded control of Dianetics and its valuable copyrights to ... Purcell\".","Scientology\n\nL. Ron Hubbard originally intended for Scientology to be considered a science, as stated in his writings. In 1952, Scientology was organized to put this intended science into practice, and in the same year, Hubbard published a new set of teachings as Scientology, a religious philosophy. In April 1953, Hubbard wrote a letter proposing that Scientology should be transformed into a religion. As membership declined and finances grew tighter, Hubbard had reversed the hostility to religion he voiced in Dianetics.Kent, Stephen A. \"The Creation of 'Religious' Scientology.\" Religious Studies and Theology 18:2, pp. 97–126. 1999. ISSN 1747-5414 His letter discussed the legal and financial benefits of religious status. Hubbard outlined plans for setting up a chain of \"Spiritual Guidance Centers\" charging customers $500 for twenty-four hours of auditing (\"That is real money ... Charge enough and we'd be swamped.\"). He wrote:","Scientology\n\nIn December 1953, Hubbard incorporated three churches – a \"Church of American Science\", a \"Church of Scientology\" and a \"Church of Spiritual Engineering\" – in Camden, New Jersey. On February 18, 1954, with Hubbard's blessing, some of his followers set up the first local Church of Scientology, the Church of Scientology of California, adopting the \"aims, purposes, principles and creed of the Church of American Science, as founded by L. Ron Hubbard.\" The movement spread quickly through the United States and to other English-speaking countries such as Britain, Ireland, South Africa and Australia. The second local Church of Scientology to be set up, after the one in California, was in Auckland, New Zealand. In 1955, Hubbard established the Founding Church of Scientology in Washington, D.C.. The group declared that the Founding Church, as written in the certificate of incorporation for the Founding Church of Scientology in the District of Columbia, was to “act as a parent church for the religious faith down as ‘Scientology’ and to act as a church for the religious worship of the faith.”","Scientology\n\nThe Church experienced further challenges. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) began an investigation concerning the claims the Church of Scientology made in connection with its E-meters. On January 4, 1963, FDA agents raided offices of the Church of Scientology, seizing hundreds of E-meters as illegal medical devices and tons of literature that they accused of making false medical claims. The original suit by the FDA to condemn the literature and E-meters did not succeed, but the Court ordered the Church to label every meter with a disclaimer that it is purely religious artifact, to post a $20,000 bond of compliance, and to pay the FDA's legal expenses.","Scientology\n\nIn the course of developing Scientology, Hubbard presented rapidly changing teachings that some have seen as often self-contradictory. According to Lindholm, for the inner cadre of Scientologists in that period, involvement depended not so much on belief in a particular doctrine but on unquestioning faith in Hubbard.","Scientology\n\nIn 1966, Hubbard purportedly stepped down as executive director of Scientology to devote himself to research and writing. The following year, he formed the ship-based Sea Organization or Sea Org which operated three ships: the Diana, the Athena, and the flagship the Apollo. One month after the establishment of the Sea Org, Hubbard announced that he had made a breakthrough discovery, the result of which were the \"OT III\" materials purporting to provide a method for overcoming factors inhibiting spiritual progress. These materials were first disseminated on the ships, and then propagated by Sea Org members reassigned to staff Advanced Organizations on land.","Scientology\n\nHubbard in hiding, death, and aftermath","Scientology\n\nIn 1972, facing criminal charges in France, Hubbard returned to the United States and began living in an apartment in Queens, New York. When faced with possible indictment in the United States, Hubbard went into hiding in April 1979. He hid first in an apartment in Hemet, California, where his only contact with the outside world was via ten trusted Messengers. He cut contact with everyone else, even his wife, whom he saw for the last time in August 1979. In February 1980 he disappeared into deep cover in the company of two trusted Messengers, Pat and Anne Broeker.","Scientology\n\nIn 1979, as a result of FBI raids during Operation Snow White, eleven senior people in the church's Guardian's Office were convicted of obstructing justice, burglary of government offices, and theft of documents and government property. In 1981, Scientology took the German government to court for the first time.","Scientology\n\nOn January 24, 1986, L. Ron Hubbard died at his ranch in Creston, California. David Miscavige emerged as the new head of the organization.","Scientology\n\nSplinter groups: Independent Scientology, Freezone, and Miscavige's RTC","Scientology\n\nWhile Scientology generally refers to Miscavige-led Church of Scientology, other groups practice Scientology. These groups, collectively known as Independent Scientologists, consist of former members of the official Church of Scientology as well as entirely new members.","Scientology\n\nIn 1950, founding member Joseph Winter cut ties with Hubbard and set up a private Dianetics practice in New York. In 1965, a longtime Church member and \"Doctor of Scientology\" Jack Horner (b. 1927), dissatisfied with the Church's \"ethics\" program, developed Dianology. Capt. Bill Robertson, a former Sea Org member, was a primary instigator of the movement in the early 1980s. The church labels these groups \"squirrels\" (Scientology jargon) and often subjects them to considerable legal and social pressure.","Scientology\n\nOn January 1, 1982, Miscavige established the Religious Technology Center (RTC). On November 11, 1982, the Free Zone was established by top Scientologists in disagreement with RTC. The Free Zone Association was founded and registered under the laws of Germany, and espouses the doctrine that the official Church of Scientology led by David Miscavige has departed from Hubbard's original philosophy.","Scientology\n\nThe Advanced Ability Center was established by Hubbard's personal auditor David Mayo after February 1983 – a time when some of Scientology's upper and middle management split with Miscavige's organization.Nordhausen & Billerbeck (2008), pp. 469–470","Scientology\n\nMore recently, high-profile defectors Mark Rathbun and Mike Rinder have championed the cause of Independent Scientologists wishing to practice Scientology outside of the Church.","Scientology\n\nBeliefs and practices","Scientology\n\nAccording to Scientology, its beliefs and practices are based on rigorous research, and its doctrines are accorded a significance equivalent to scientific laws. Scientology cosmology is, however, at odds with modern science, with claims of memories going back \"76 trillion years\": much longer than the age of the universe. Blind belief is held to be of lesser significance than the practical application of Scientologist methods. Adherents are encouraged to validate the practices through their personal experience. Hubbard put it this way: \"For a Scientologist, the final test of any knowledge he has gained is, 'did the data and the use of it in life actually improve conditions or didn't it? Hubbard defined Scientology’s aims as: “A civilization without insanity, without criminals and without war; where the world can prosper and honest beings can have rights, and where man is free to rise to greater heights, are the aims of Scientology.\"","Scientology\n\nTheological doctrine","Scientology\n\nScientology does not preach or impose a particular idea of God on Scientologists. Rather, people are expected to discover the truth through their own observations as their awareness advances.... the Church of Scientology has no set dogma concerning God that it imposes on its members. As with all its tenets, Scientology does not ask individuals to accept anything on faith alone. Rather, as one’s level of spiritual awareness increases through participation in Scientology auditing and training, one attains his own certainty of every dynamic. Accordingly, only when the Seventh Dynamic (spiritual) is reached in its entirety will one discover and come to a full understanding of the Eighth Dynamic (infinity) and one’s relationship to the Supreme Being.","Scientology\n\nReactive mind, traumatic memories, and auditing","Scientology\n\nScientology presents two major divisions of the mind. The reactive mind is thought to record all pain and emotional trauma, while the analytical mind is a rational mechanism that serves consciousness. The reactive mind stores mental images which are not readily available to the analytical (conscious) mind; these are referred to as engrams. Engrams are painful and debilitating; as they accumulate, people move further away from their true identity. To avoid this fate is Scientology's basic goal.Some engrams are taught by Hubbard to happen by accident while others are inflicted by “thetans who have gone bad and want power,” as described by the Los Angeles Times. These engrams are named Implants in the doctrine of Scientology. Hubbard said, “Implants result in all varieties of illness, apathy, degradation, neurosis and insanity and are the principal cause of these in man.”","Scientology\n\nDianetic auditing is one way by which the Scientologist may progress toward the Clear state, winning gradual freedom from the reactive mind's engrams and acquiring certainty of his or her reality as a thetan. David V. Barrett, a sociologist of religion who has written widely about the subject, says that according to Scientology, the “first major goal is to go Clear.” Clearing was described to represent “the attainment of Man’s dreams through the ages of attaining a new and higher state of existence and freedom from the endless cycle of birth, death, birth … Clear is the total erasure of the reactive mind from which stems all the anxieties and problems the individual has.”","Scientology\n\nScientology asserts that people have hidden abilities which have not yet been fully realized. It teaches that increased spiritual awareness and physical benefits are accomplished through counseling sessions referred to as auditing. Through auditing, people can solve their problems and free themselves of engrams. This restores them to their natural condition as thetans and enables them to be at cause in their daily lives, responding rationally and creatively to life events rather than reacting to them under the direction of stored engrams. Accordingly, those who study Scientology materials and receive auditing sessions advance from a status of Preclear to Clear and Operating Thetan. Scientology's utopian aim is to \"clear the planet\", that is, clear all people in the world of their engrams.","Scientology\n\nAuditing is a one-on-one session with a Scientology counselor or auditor. It is similar to confession or pastoral counseling, but the auditor records and stores all information received and does not dispense forgiveness or advice as a pastor or priest of another religion might do. Instead, the auditor's task is to help a person discover and understand the universal principles of affinity, reality, and communication (ARC). Most auditing requires an E-meter, a device that measures minute changes in electrical resistance through the body when a person holds electrodes (metal \"cans\"), and a small current is passed through them.","Scientology\n\nScientology teaches that the E-meter helps to locate spiritual difficulties. Once an area of concern has been identified, the auditor asks the individual specific questions about it to help him or her eliminate the difficulty, and uses the E-meter to confirm that the \"charge\" has been dissipated. As the individual progresses up the \"Bridge to Total Freedom\", the focus of auditing moves from simple engrams to engrams of increasing complexity and other difficulties. At the more advanced OT levels, Scientologists act as their own auditors (\"solo auditors\").","Scientology\n\nEmotional Tone Scale and survival","Scientology\n\nScientology uses an emotional classification system called the tone scale. The tone scale is a tool used in auditing; Scientologists maintain that knowing a person's place on the scale makes it easier to predict his or her actions and assists in bettering his or her condition.","Scientology\n\nScientology emphasizes the importance of survival, which it subdivides into eight classifications that are referred to as \"dynamics\". An individual's desire to survive is considered to be the first dynamic, while the second dynamic relates to procreation and family. The remaining dynamics encompass wider fields of action, involving groups, mankind, all life, the physical universe, the spirit, and infinity, often associated with the Supreme Being. The optimum solution to any problem is held to be the one that brings the greatest benefit to the greatest number of dynamics.","Scientology\n\nToxins and Purification","Scientology\n\nThe Purification Rundown is a controversial \"detoxification\" program used by the Church of Scientology as an introductory service. It features high-dose dietary supplements and extended time in a sauna (up to five hours a day for five weeks). Scientology claims it the only effective way to deal with the long-term effects of drug abuse or toxic exposure.","Scientology\n\nNarconon is a \"drug education and rehabilitation program\" founded on Hubbard's beliefs about \"toxins\" and \"purification\". Narconon is offered in the United States, Canada and a number of European countries; its Purification Program also uses high-dose vitamins and extended sauna sessions, combined with auditing and study.","Scientology\n\nIntrospection Rundown","Scientology\n\nThe Introspection Rundown is a controversial Church of Scientology auditing process that is intended to handle a psychotic episode or complete mental breakdown. Introspection is defined for the purpose of this rundown as a condition where the person is \"looking into one's own mind, feelings, reactions, etc.\" The Introspection Rundown came under public scrutiny after the death of Lisa McPherson in 1995.","Scientology\n\nRejection of psychology and psychiatry","Scientology\n\nScientology is vehemently opposed to psychiatry and psychology. Psychiatry rejected Hubbard's theories in the early 1950s and in 1951, Hubbard's wife Sara consulted doctors who recommended he \"be committed to a private sanatorium for psychiatric observation and treatment of a mental ailment known as paranoid schizophrenia.\" Thereafter, Hubbard criticized psychiatry as a \"barbaric and corrupt profession\".","Scientology\n\nHubbard taught that psychiatrists were responsible for a great many wrongs in the world, saying that psychiatry has at various times offered itself as a tool of political suppression and \"that psychiatry spawned the ideology which fired Hitler's mania, turned the Nazis into mass murderers, and created the Holocaust.\" Hubbard created the anti-psychiatry organization Citizens Commission on Human Rights (CCHR), which operates Psychiatry: An Industry of Death, an anti-psychiatry museum.","Scientology\n\nFrom 1969, CCHR has created campaigns to stand against the psychiatric treatments, electroconvulsive shock, lobotomy, and psychotropic drugs such as Ritalin and Prozac. It has also exposed abuses in the psychiatric profession.","Scientology\n\nBody and thetan","Scientology\n\nScientology beliefs revolve around the immortal soul, the thetan. Scientology teaches that the thetan is the true identity of a person – an intrinsically good, omniscient, non-material core capable of unlimited creativity.","Scientology\n\nHubbard taught that thetans brought the material universe into being largely for their own pleasure. The universe has no independent reality, but derives its apparent reality from the fact that thetans agree it exists. Thetans fell from grace when they began to identify with their creation rather than their original state of spiritual purity. Eventually they lost their memory of their true nature, along with the associated spiritual and creative powers. As a result, thetans came to think of themselves as nothing but embodied beings.","Scientology\n\nThetans are reborn time and time again in new bodies through a process called \"assumption\" which is analogous to reincarnation. Scientology posits a causal relationship between the experiences of earlier incarnations and one's present life, and with each rebirth, the effects of the MEST universe (MEST here stands for matter, energy, space, and time) on the thetan become stronger.","Scientology\n\nSpace opera and the Wall of Fire","Scientology\n\nThe Church of Scientology holds that at the higher levels of initiation (\"OT levels\"), mystical teachings are imparted that may be harmful to unprepared readers. These teachings are kept secret from members who have not reached these levels. The church says that the secrecy is warranted to keep its materials' use in context and to protect its members from being exposed to materials they are not yet prepared for.","Scientology\n\nThese are the OT levels, the levels above Clear, whose contents are guarded within Scientology. The OT level teachings include accounts of various cosmic catastrophes that befell the thetans. Hubbard described these early events collectively as \"space opera\".","Scientology\n\nIn the OT levels, Hubbard explains how to reverse the effects of past-life trauma patterns that supposedly extend millions of years into the past. Among these advanced teachings is the story of Xenu (sometimes Xemu), introduced as the tyrant ruler of the \"Galactic Confederacy\". According to this story, 75 million years ago Xenu brought billions of people to Earth in spacecraft resembling Douglas DC-8 airliners, stacked them around volcanoes and detonated hydrogen bombs in the volcanoes. The thetans then clustered together, stuck to the bodies of the living, and continue to do this today. Scientologists at advanced levels place considerable emphasis on isolating body thetans and neutralizing their ill effects.","Scientology\n\nExcerpts and descriptions of OT materials were published online by a former member in 1995 and then circulated in mainstream media. This occurred after the teachings were submitted as evidence in court cases involving Scientology, thus becoming a matter of public record. There are eight publicly known OT levels, OT I to VIII. The highest level, OT VIII, is disclosed only at sea on the Scientology cruise ship Freewinds. It has been rumored that additional OT levels, said to be based on material written by Hubbard long ago, will be released at some appropriate point in the future.","Scientology\n\nA large Church of Spiritual Technology symbol carved into the ground at Scientology's Trementina Base is visible from the air. Washington Post reporter Richard Leiby wrote, \"Former Scientologists familiar with Hubbard’s teachings on reincarnation say the symbol marks a 'return point' so loyal staff members know where they can find the founder’s works when they travel here in the future from other places in the universe.\"","Scientology\n\nEthics, suppressives, and disconnection","Scientology\n\nThe Ethics system regulates member behavior, and Ethics officers are present in every Scientology organization. Ethics officers ensure \"correct application of Scientology technology\" and deal with \"behavior adversely affecting a Scientology organization's performance\", ranging from \"Errors\" and \"Misdemeanors\" to \"Crimes\" and \"Suppressive Acts\", as those terms defined by Scientology.","Scientology\n\nScientology asserts some people are truly malevolent, and Hubbard taught 20 percent of the population were suppressive persons, which includes some hopelessly antisocial personalities who are the truly dangerous individuals in humanity: \"the Adolf Hitlers and the Genghis Khans, the unrepentant murderers and the drug lords.\" Scientology disconnection policy prohibits most contact with Suppressive Persons. The church denies that a disconnection policy exists, and quotes Hubbard's definition of disconnection as \"a self-determined decision made by an individual that he is not going to be connected to another.\"","Scientology\n\nA Scientologist who communicates with a suppressive person risks being declared a Potential Trouble Source. Defectors who turn into critics of the movement are declared suppressive persons, and the Church of Scientology has a reputation for moving aggressively against such detractors.","Scientology\n\nFair game","Scientology\n\nThe term Fair Game is used to describe policies and practices carried out against people the Church perceives as its enemies. Hubbard established the policy in the 1950s, in response to criticism both from within and outside his organization. Individuals or groups who are \"Fair Game\" are judged to be a threat to the Church and, according to the policy, can be punished and harassed using any and all means possible.","Scientology\n\nHubbard and his followers targeted many individuals as well as government officials and agencies, including a program of covert and illegal infiltration of the IRS and other U.S. government agencies during the 1970s. They also conducted private investigations, character assassination and legal action against the Church's critics in the media. The policy remains in effect and has been defended by the Church of Scientology as a core religious practice.","Scientology\n\nOrganization","Scientology\n\nThe internal structure of Scientology organizations is strongly bureaucratic with a focus on statistics-based management. Organizational operating budgets are performance-related and subject to frequent reviews.","Scientology\n\nMembership statistics","Scientology\n\nA 2001 survey found only 55,000 people in the United States who claimed to be Scientologists. Worldwide estimates of Scientology's core practicing membership ranges between 100,000 and 200,000, mostly in the U.S., Europe, South Africa and Australia. The 2008 American Religious Identification Survey found that the number of American Scientologists had dropped to 25,000. Scientology is also declining in the United Kingdom.","Scientology\n\nAlthough the Church of Scientology claims to be the fastest growing religious movement on Earth, the church's estimates of its membership numbers are reportedly significantly exaggerated.","Scientology\n\nSea Org","Scientology\n\nThe highest echelon of the Scientology hierarchy are the members the Sea Organization or Sea Org. The organization includes some 5,000 of Scientology's most dedicated adherents, who work for low pay, and sign a billion-year contract.","Scientology\n\nRehabilitation Project Force","Scientology\n\nThe Rehabilitation Project Force (RPF) is a controversial part of the Scientology \"justice\" system. When Sea Org members are found guilty of a violation, is assigned to the RPF. The RPF involves a daily regimen of five hours of auditing or studying, eight hours of work, often physical labor, such as building renovation, and at least seven hours of sleep. Douglas E. Cowan and David G. Bromley state that scholars and observers have come to radically different conclusions about the RPF and whether it is \"voluntary or coercive, therapeutic or punitive\".","Scientology\n\nOffice of Special Affairs","Scientology\n\nThe Office of Special Affairs or OSA (formerly the Guardian's Office) is a department of the Church of Scientology which has been characterized as a non-state intelligence agency. It has targeted critics of the Church for \"dead agent\" operations, which is mounting character assassination operations against perceived enemies.","Scientology\n\nFranchises and advanced organizations","Scientology\n\nMany Scientologists' first contact with Scientology is through local informal groups and field auditors practicing Dianetics counseling. In addition to these, Scientology operates hundreds of Churches and Missions around the world. This is where Scientologists receive introductory training, and it is at this local level that most Scientologists participate. Churches and Missions are licensed franchises; they may offer services for a fee provided they contribute a proportion of their income and comply with the Religious Technology Center (RTC) and its standards.","Scientology\n\nOperating Thetan levels are offered only at Scientology's Advanced Organizations (Los Angeles, Sydney, East Grinstead and Copenhagen). The Flag Service Organization in Clearwater, Florida offers OT levels VI and VII. The Scientology ship Freewinds offers OT VIII.","Scientology\n\nCelebrity Centers","Scientology\n\nIn 1955, Hubbard created a list of 63 celebrities targets for conversion to Scientology. In a church policy letter in 1973, L. Ron Hubbard wrote, \"The purpose of [the] Celebrity Centre is, to forward the expansion and popularization of Scientology through the arts.\"","Scientology\n\nScientology operates eight churches that are designated Celebrity Centres, designed to minister to celebrity Scientologists. The largest of these is in Hollywood, California, called Church of Scientology Celebrity Centre International. The Celebrity Centre International was the first one that was opened in 1969 and its opening is celebrated the first week of August each year in an evening gala.","Scientology\n\nFormer silent-screen star Gloria Swanson and actors Tom Cruise and John Travolta have spoken publicly about their commitment to Scientology.","Scientology\n\nScientology tech in jails and prisons, schools, and management","Scientology\n\nSeveral Scientology organizations promote the use of Scientology technology as a means to solve social problems. Scientology began to focus on these issues in the early 1970s, lead by Hubbard. The church developed outreach programs to fight drug addiction, illiteracy, learning disabilities and criminal behavior. These have been presented to schools, businesses and communities as secular techniques based on Hubbard's writings. The Association for Better Living and Education (ABLE) acts as an umbrella organization for these efforts. Notable examples include:","Scientology\n\n* Criminon, an offshoot of Narconon, introduces Scientology practices to criminal offenders \n* Applied Scholastics, founded in 1972, teaches Scientology study tech to K-12 students. Delphi Schools operates numerous private schools throughout the United States, including the flagship academy The Delphian School in Yamhill County, Oregon.\n* The World Institute of Scientology Enterprises (WISE) applies Scientology technology to business management. The most prominent training supplier to make use of Hubbard's technology is Sterling Management Systems.\n* The Way to Happiness Foundation promotes a moral code written by Hubbard, to date translated into more than 40 languages.","Scientology\n\nVolunteer ministers","Scientology\n\nThe Church of Scientology began its \"Volunteer Ministers\" program as a way to participate in community outreach projects. Volunteer Ministers sometimes travel to the scenes of major disasters in order to provide assistance with relief efforts. According to critics, these relief efforts consist of passing out copies of a pamphlet authored by Hubbard entitled The Way to Happiness, and engaging in a method said to calm panicked or injured individuals known in Scientology as a \"touch assist.\" Accounts of the Volunteer Ministers' effectiveness have been mixed, and touch assists are not supported by scientific evidence.","Scientology\n\nOther entities","Scientology\n\nOther Scientology-related organizations include:\n* International Association of Scientologists, the official Scientology membership organization;\n* Church of Spiritual Technology, which owns the copyrights to Scientology works.\n* The National Commission on Law Enforcement and Social Justice, devoted to combating what it describes as abusive practices by government and police agencies, especially Interpol.","Scientology\n\nControversies","Scientology\n\nThe Church of Scientology is one of the most controversial religious organizations. A first point of controversy was its challenge of the psychotherapeutic establishment. Another was a 1991 Time magazine article that attacked the church, which was rejected by the court as baseless early in 1992. And a third is its religious status in the United States, formalized when the IRS granted the organization tax-exempt status in 1993. The rumor that the U.S. Supreme Court removed tax-exempt status in 2016, effective April 6, 2016 was a fictional report.","Scientology\n\nIt has been in conflict with the governments and police forces of many countries (including the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France and Germany). It has been one of the most litigious religious movements in history, filing countless lawsuits against governments, organizations and individuals.","Scientology\n\nReports and allegations have been made, by journalists, courts, and governmental bodies of several countries, that the Church of Scientology is an unscrupulous commercial enterprise that harasses its critics and brutally exploits its members. A considerable amount of investigation has been aimed at the church, by groups ranging from the media to governmental agencies.","Scientology\n\nThe controversies involving the church and its critics, some of them ongoing, include:\n* Criminal behavior by members of the Church, including the infiltration of the US Government.\n* Organized harassment of people perceived as enemies of the Church.\n* Scientology's disconnection policy, in which some members are required to shun friends or family members who are \"antagonistic\" to the Church. \n* The death of a Scientologist Lisa McPherson while in the care of the church. (Robert Minton sponsored the multimillion-dollar lawsuit against Scientology for the death of McPherson. In May 2004, McPherson's estate and the Church of Scientology reached a confidential settlement.) \n* Attempts to legally force search engines censor information critical of the Church. \n* Allegations the Church leader David Miscavige beats and demoralizes staff, and that physical violence by superiors towards staff working for them is a common occurrence in the church. Scientology spokesman Tommy Davis denied these claims and provided witnesses to rebut them.","Scientology\n\nScientology social programs such as drug and criminal rehabilitation have likewise drawn both support and criticism.","Scientology\n\nStephen A. Kent, a professor of sociology, has said that \"Scientologists see themselves as possessors of doctrines and skills that can save the world, if not the galaxy.\" As stated in Scientology doctrine: \"The whole agonized future of this planet, every man, woman and child on it, and your own destiny for the next endless trillions of years depend on what you do here and now with and in Scientology.\" Kent has described Scientology's ethics system as \"a peculiar brand of morality that uniquely benefited [the Church of Scientology] ... In plain English, the purpose of Scientology ethics is to eliminate opponents, then eliminate people's interests in things other than Scientology.\".","Scientology\n\nMany former members have come forward to speak out about the Church and the negative effects its teachings have had on them, including celebrities such as Leah Remini. Remini spoke about her split from the Church, saying that she still has friends within the organization that she is no longer able to speak to.","Scientology\n\nCriminal behavior","Scientology\n\nMuch of the controversy surrounding Scientology stems from the criminal convictions of core members of the Scientology organization.","Scientology\n\nIn 1978, a number of Scientologists, including L. Ron Hubbard's wife Mary Sue Hubbard (who was second in command in the organization at the time), were convicted of perpetrating what was at the time the largest incident of domestic espionage in the history of the United States, called \"Operation Snow White\". This involved infiltrating, wiretapping, and stealing documents from the offices of Federal attorneys and the Internal Revenue Service. L. Ron Hubbard was convicted in absentia by French authorities of engaging in fraud and sentenced to four years in prison. The head of the French Church of Scientology was convicted at the same trial and given a suspended one-year prison sentence.","Scientology\n\nAn FBI raid on the Church's headquarters revealed documentation that detailed Scientology's criminal actions against various critics of the organization. In \"Operation Freakout\", agents of the church attempted to destroy Paulette Cooper, author of The Scandal of Scientology, an early book that had been critical of the movement. Among these documents was a plan to frame Gabe Cazares, the mayor of Clearwater, Florida, with a staged hit-and-run accident.","Scientology\n\nIn 1988, Scientology president Heber Jentzsch and ten other members of the organization were arrested in Spain on various charges including illicit association, coercion, fraud, and labor law violations.","Scientology\n\nIn October 2009, the Church of Scientology was found guilty of organized fraud in France. The sentence was confirmed by appeal court in February 2012.","Scientology\n\nIn 2012, Belgian prosecutors indicted Scientology as a criminal organization engaged in fraud\nand extortion.","Scientology\n\nOrganized harassment","Scientology\n\nScientology has historically engaged in hostile action toward its critics; executives within the organization have proclaimed that Scientology is \"not a turn-the-other-cheek religion\". Journalists, politicians, former Scientologists and various anti-cult groups have made accusations of wrongdoing against Scientology since the 1960s, and Scientology has targeted these critics – almost without exception – for retaliation, in the form of lawsuits and public counter-accusations of personal wrongdoing. Many of Scientology's critics have also reported they were subject to threats and harassment in their private lives.","Scientology\n\nJournalist John Sweeney reported that that \"While making our BBC Panorama film Scientology and Me I have been shouted at, spied on, had my hotel invaded at midnight, denounced as a 'bigot' by star Scientologists, brain-washed—that is how it felt to me—in a mock up of a Nazi-style torture chamber and chased round the streets of Los Angeles by sinister strangers\".","Scientology\n\nViolation of auditing confidentiality","Scientology\n\nDuring the auditing process, the auditor collects and records personal information from the client.","Scientology\n\nWhile the Church of Scientology claims to protect the confidentiality of auditing records, the Church has a history of attacking and psychologically abusing former members using information culled from the records. For example, a December 16, 1969, a Guardian's Office order (G. O. 121669) by Mary Sue Hubbard explicitly authorized the use of auditing records for purposes of \"internal security.\" Former members report having participated in combing through information obtained in auditing sessions to see if it could be used for smear campaigns against critics.","Scientology\n\nShunning","Scientology\n\nThe practice of shunning in Scientology is termed \"Disconnection\". Members can disconnect from any person they already know, including existing family members. Many examples of this policy's application have been established in court. Failure to disconnect from a Suppressive Person is itself labelled a Suppressive act.","Scientology\n\nAllegation of coerced abortions","Scientology\n\nThe Sea Org originally operated on vessels at sea where it was understood that it was not permitted to raise children on board the ships. Pregnant women in the Sea Org have reported been pressured to undergo abortions. Sea Org members were reportedly shown secret writings by L. Ron Hubbard to convince them that having an abortion was not against Scientology practices.","Scientology\n\nIn 2003, The Times of India reported that \"Forced abortions, beatings, starvation are considered tools of discipline in this church.\"","Scientology\n\nA former high-ranking source reports that \"some 1,500 abortions\" have been \"carried out by women in the Sea Organization since the implementation of a rule in the late '80s that members could not remain in the organization if they decided to have children.\" The source noted that \"And if members who have been in the Sea Organization for, say, 10 years do decide to have kids, they are dismissed with no more than $1,000\" as a severance package.","Scientology\n\nMany former members have claimed they were pressured to undergo abortion.","Scientology\n\nLongtime member Astra Woodcraft reportedly \"left Scientology for good when the church tried to pressure her to have an abortion\". Former Sea Org member Karen Pressley recounted that she was often asked by fellow Scientologists for loans so that they could get an abortion and remain in the Sea Org. Scientology employee Claire Headley has claimed that she worked \"was forced to have (two) abortions to keep her job and was subjected to violations of personal rights and liberties for the purpose of obtaining forced labor.\" Laura Ann DeCrescenzo reported that while a minor, she was \"coerced to have an abortion\".","Scientology\n\nIn March 2009, Maureen Bolstad reported that women who worked at Scientology's headquarters were forced to have abortions, or faced being declared a \"Suppressive Person\" by the organization's management. In March 2010, former Scientologist Janette Lang stated that at age 20 she became pregnant by her boyfriend while in the organization, and her boyfriend's Scientology supervisors \"coerced them into terminating the pregnancy\". \"We fought for a week, I was devastated, I felt abused, I was lost and eventually I gave in. It was my baby, my body and my choice, and all of that was taken away from me by Scientology,\" said Lang.","Scientology\n\nAustralian Senator Nick Xenophon gave a speech to the Australian Parliament in November 2009, about statements he had received from former Scientologists. He said that he had been told members of the organization had coerced pregnant female employees to have abortions. \"I am deeply concerned about this organisation and the devastating impact it can have on its followers,\" said Senator Xenophon, and he requested that the Australian Senate begin an investigation into Scientology. According to the letters presented by Senator Xenophon, the organization was involved in \"ordering\" its members to have abortions. Former Scientologist Aaron Saxton sent a letter to Senator Xenophon stating he had participated in coercing pregnant women within the organization to have abortions. \"Aaron says women who fell pregnant were taken to offices and bullied to have an abortion. If they refused, they faced demotion and hard labour. Aaron says one staff member used a coat hanger and self-aborted her child for fear of punishment,\" said Senator Xenophon. Carmel Underwood, another former Scientologist, said she had been put under \"extreme pressure\" to have an abortion, and that she was placed into a \"disappearing programme\", after refusing. Underwood was the executive director of Scientology's branch in Sydney, Australia.","Scientology\n\nScientology spokesman Tommy Davis dismissed such claims as \"utterly meritless\". Mike Ferriss, the head of Scientology in New Zealand, told media that \"There are no forced abortions in Scientology\". Scientology spokesperson Virginia Stewart likewise rejected the claims and asserted \"The Church of Scientology considers the family unit and children to be of the utmost importance and does not condone nor force anyone to undertake any medical procedure whatsoever.\"","Scientology\n\nScientology, litigation, and the Internet","Scientology\n\nIn the 1990s, Miscavige's organization took action against increased criticism of Scientology on the Internet and online distribution of Scientology-related documents.","Scientology\n\nStarting in 1991, Scientology filed fifty lawsuits against Scientology-critic Cult Awareness Network (CAN). Many of the suits were dismissed, but one resulted in $2 million in losses, bankrupting the network. At bankruptcy, CAN's name and logo were obtained by a Scientologist. A new Cult Awareness Network was set up with Scientology backing, which operates as an information and networking center for non-traditional religions, referring callers to academics and other experts.","Scientology\n\nIn a 1993 U.S. lawsuit brought by the Church of Scientology against Steven Fishman, a former member of the Church, Fishman made a court declaration which included several dozen pages of formerly secret esoterica detailing aspects of Scientologist cosmogony. As a result of the litigation, this material, normally strictly safeguarded and used only in Scientology's more advanced \"OT levels\", found its way onto the Internet. This resulted in a battle between the Church of Scientology and its online critics over the right to disclose this material, or safeguard its confidentiality. The Church of Scientology was forced to issue a press release acknowledging the existence of this cosmogony, rather than allow its critics \"to distort and misuse this information for their own purposes.\" Even so, the material, notably the story of Xenu, has since been widely disseminated and used to caricature Scientology, despite the Church's vigorous program of copyright litigation.","Scientology\n\nIn January 1995, church lawyer Helena Kobrin attempted to shut down the newsgroup alt.religion.scientology by sending a control message instructing Usenet servers to delete the group. In practice, this rmgroup message had little effect, since most Usenet servers are configured to disregard such messages when sent to groups that receive substantial traffic, and newgroup messages were quickly issued to recreate the group on those servers that did not do so. However, the issuance of the message led to a great deal of public criticism by free-speech advocates. Among the criticisms raised, one suggestion is that Scientology's true motive is to suppress the free speech of its critics.","Scientology\n\nThe Church also began filing lawsuits against those who posted copyrighted texts on the newsgroup and the World Wide Web, and lobbied for tighter restrictions on copyrights in general. The Church supported the controversial Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act as well as the even more controversial Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). Some of the DMCA's provisions (notably the Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act) were heavily influenced by Church litigation against US Internet service providers over copyrighted Scientology materials that had been posted or uploaded through their servers.","Scientology\n\nBeginning in the middle of 1996 and ensuing for several years, the newsgroup was attacked by anonymous parties using a tactic dubbed sporgery by some, in the form of hundreds of thousands of forged spam messages posted on the group. Some investigators said that some spam had been traced to church members. Former Scientologist Tory Christman later asserted that the Office of Special Affairs had undertaken a concerted effort to destroy alt.religion.scientology through these means; the effort failed.","Scientology\n\nOn January 14, 2008, a video produced by the Church of Scientology featuring an interview with Tom Cruise was leaked to the Internet and uploaded to YouTube. \nThe Church of Scientology issued a copyright violation claim against YouTube requesting the removal of the video. Subsequently, the group Anonymous voiced its criticism of Scientology and began attacking the Church. Calling the action by the Church of Scientology a form of Internet censorship, participants of Anonymous coordinated Project Chanology, which consisted of a series of denial-of-service attacks against Scientology websites, prank calls, and black faxes to Scientology centers. On January 21, 2008, Anonymous announced its intentions via a video posted to YouTube entitled \"Message to Scientology\", and a press release declaring a \"war\" against both the Church of Scientology and the Religious Technology Center. \nIn the press release, the group stated that the attacks against the Church of Scientology would continue in order to protect the freedom of speech, and end what they saw as the financial exploitation of church members.","Scientology\n\nOn January 28, 2008, an Anonymous video appeared on YouTube calling for protests outside Church of Scientology centers on February 10, 2008. According to a letter Anonymous e-mailed to the press, about 7,000 people protested in more than 90 cities worldwide. Many protesters wore masks based on the character V from V for Vendetta (who was influenced by Guy Fawkes) or otherwise disguised their identities, in part to protect themselves from reprisals from the Church of Scientology. \nMany further protests have followed since then in cities around the world.","Scientology\n\nThe Arbitration Committee of the Wikipedia internet encyclopedia decided in May 2009 to restrict access to its site from Church of Scientology IP addresses, to prevent self-serving edits by Scientologists. A \"host of anti-Scientologist editors\" were topic-banned as well. The committee concluded that both sides had \"gamed policy\" and resorted to \"battlefield tactics\", with articles on living persons being the \"worst casualties\".","Scientology\n\nDisputes over legal status","Scientology\n\nThe legal status of Scientology or Scientology-related organizations differs between jurisdictions. Scientology was legally recognized as a tax-exempt religion in South Africa, Australia, Sweden, New Zealand, Portugal, and Spain. Scientology was granted tax-exempt status in the United States in 1993. The organization is considered a cult in Chile and an \"anticonstitutional sect\" in Germany, and is considered a cult (French secte) by some French public authorities.","Scientology\n\nThe church argues that Scientology is a genuine religious movement that has been misrepresented, maligned, and persecuted. The Church of Scientology has pursued an extensive public relations campaign for the recognition of Scientology as a tax-exempt religion in the various countries in which it exists.","Scientology\n\nScientology has often encountered opposition due to its strong-arm tactics directed against critics and members wishing to leave the organization. A number of governments regard the Church as a religious organization entitled to tax-exempt status, while governments variously classify it as a business, cult, pseudoreligion, or criminal organization.","Scientology\n\nIn 1957, the Church of Scientology of California was granted tax-exempt status by the United States Internal Revenue Service (IRS), and so, for a time, were other local churches. In 1958 however, the IRS started a review of the appropriateness of this status. In 1959, Hubbard moved to England, remaining there until the mid-1960s.","Scientology\n\nIn the mid-sixties, the Church of Scientology was banned in several Australian states, starting with Victoria in 1965. The ban was based on the Anderson Report, which found that the auditing process involved \"command\" hypnosis, in which the hypnotist assumes \"positive authoritative control\" over the patient. On this point the report stated, It is the firm conclusion of this Board that most scientology and dianetic techniques are those of authoritative hypnosis and as such are dangerous ... the scientific evidence which the Board heard from several expert witnesses of the highest repute ... leads to the inescapable conclusion that it is only in name that there is any difference between authoritative hypnosis and most of the techniques of scientology. Many scientology techniques are in fact hypnotic techniques, and Hubbard has not changed their nature by changing their names. The Australian Church was forced to operate under the name of the \"Church of the New Faith\" as a result, the name and practice of Scientology having become illegal in the relevant states. Several years of court proceedings aimed at overturning the ban followed.","Scientology\n\nIn 1973, the law in Victoria was formally repealed in Western and Southern Australia and within two decades, all legislation against Scientology was reversed. In 1982, the law was repealed, and the High Court of Australia ruled in a unanimous decision that the Church of Scientology was “undoubtedly a religion and deserving of tax exemption” the following year.","Scientology\n\nIn 1967, the IRS removed Scientology's tax-exempt status, asserting that its activities were commercial and operated for the benefit of Hubbard, rather than for charitable or religious purposes. The decision resulted in a process of litigation that was settled in the Church's favor a quarter of a century later, the longest case of litigation in IRS history.","Scientology\n\nScientology as a religion","Scientology\n\nScientology is officially recognized as a religion in the United States. Recognition came in 1993, when the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) stated that \"[Scientology is] operated exclusively for religious and charitable purposes.\" Scientology was again recognized as a religion by the U.S. courts when the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the judgment in Headley v. Church of Scientology International in 2012.","Scientology\n\nThe New York Times noted in this connection that the Church of Scientology had funded a campaign which included a whistle-blower organization to publicly attack the IRS, as well as hiring of private investigators to look into the private lives of IRS officials. In 1991, Miscavige, the highest-ranking Scientology leader, arranged a meeting with Fred T. Goldberg Jr., the Commissioner of the Internal Revenue Service at the time. The meeting was an \"opportunity for the church to offer to end its long dispute with the agency, including the dozens of suits brought against the IRS.\" The committee met several times with the Scientology legal team and \"was persuaded that those involved in the Snow White crimes had been purged, that church money was devoted to tax-exempt purposes and that, with Mr. Hubbard's death, no one was getting rich from Scientology.\" In August 1993, a settlement was reached; the church would receive its tax-exempt status and end its legal actions against the IRS and its personnel.","Scientology\n\nThe church was required only to resubmit new applications for exemption to the IRS Exempt Organizations (EO) division, which was told \"not to consider any substantive matters\" because those issues had been resolved by the committee. The secret agreement was announced on October 13, 1993, with the IRS refusing to disclose any of the terms or the reasoning behind the decision. Both the IRS and Scientology rejected any allegations that foul play or undue pressure had been used on IRS officials, insisting that the decision had been based on the merits of the case. IRS officials \"insisted that Scientology's tactics had not affected the decision\" and that \"ultimately the decision was made on a legal basis\". Miscavige claims that the IRS’s examination of Scientology was the most exhaustive review of any non-profit organization in history.","Scientology\n\nElsewhere, Scientology is recognized as a religion in Australia, Portugal, Spain, Slovenia, Sweden, Croatia, Hungary and Kyrgyzstan. In New Zealand, the Inland Revenue Department classified the Church of Scientology as a charitable organization and stated that its income would be tax exempt. It has gained judicial recognition in Italy, and Scientology officials have won the right to perform marriages in South Africa.","Scientology\n\nScientology is not recognized as a religion in Canada. In the UK, the Charity Commission for England and Wales ruled in 1999 that Scientology was not a religion and refused to register the Church as a charity, although a year later, it was recognized as a not-for-profit body in a separate proceeding by the UK Revenue and Customs and exempted from UK value added tax. In December 2013, the United Kingdom’s highest court officially recognized Scientology as a religion. The ruling ended a five-year legal battle by Scientologist Louisa Hodkin, who sought the legal right to marry at the Church of Scientology chapel in central London. The opinion by five supreme court justices redefined religion in law, rendering the 1970 definition “out of date” in restricting religious worship to “reverence or veneration of God or of a Supreme Being.”","Scientology\n\nViewed as a commercial enterprise","Scientology\n\nScientology has been accused of being \"a business, often given to criminal acts, and sometimes masquerading as a religion.\"","Scientology\n\nIn conjunction with the Church of Scientology's request to be officially recognized as a religion in Germany, around 1996 the German state Baden-Württemberg conducted a thorough investigation of the group's activities within Germany. The results of this investigation indicated that at the time of publication, Scientology's main sources of revenue (\"Haupteinnahmequellen der SO\") were from course offerings and sales of their various publications. Course offerings ranged from (German Marks) DM 182.50 to about DM 30,000 - the equivalent today of approximately $119 to $19,560 USD. Revenue from monthly, bi-monthly, and other membership offerings could not be estimated in the report, but was nevertheless placed in the millions. Defending its practices against accusations of profiteering, the Church has countered critics by drawing analogies to other religious groups who have established practices such as tithing, or require members to make donations for specific religious services.","Scientology\n\nSince 1997 Germany has considered Scientology to be in conflict with the principles of the nation's constitution. It is seen as an anticonstitutional sect and a new version of political extremism and because there is \"evidence for intentions against the free democratic basic order\" it is observed by the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. In 1997, an open letter to then-German Chancellor, Helmut Kohl, published as a newspaper advertisement in the International Herald Tribune, drew parallels between the \"organized oppression\" of Scientologists in Germany and the treatment of Jews in 1930s' Nazi Germany. The letter was signed by Dustin Hoffman, Goldie Hawn and a number of other Hollywood celebrities and executives. Commenting on the matter, a spokesman for the U.S. Department of State said that Scientologists were discriminated against in Germany, but condemned the comparisons to the Nazis' treatment of Jews as extremely inappropriate, as did a United Nations Special Rapporteur. Based on the IRS exemptions, the U.S. State Department formally criticized Germany for discriminating against Scientologists and began to note Scientologists' complaints of harassment in its annual human rights reports, as well as the annual International Religious Freedom Reports it has released from 1999 onwards.","Scientology\n\nGermany will continue to monitor Scientology's activities in the country, despite continued objection from Scientology which cites such monitoring as abuse of freedom of religion.","Scientology\n\nFrance and Belgium have not recognized Scientology as a religion, and Stephen A. Kent, writing in 2001, noted that recognition had not been obtained in Ireland, Luxembourg, Israel or Mexico either. The Belgian State Prosecution Service has recommended that various individuals and organizations associated with Scientology should be prosecuted. An administrative court has yet to decide if charges will be pressed.","Scientology\n\nIn Greece, Scientology is not recognized as a religion by the Greek government, and multiple applications for religious status have been denied, notably in 2000 and 2003.","Scientology\n\nIn the Netherlands, Scientology was granted tax exempt status in October 2013. The status was revoked in October 2015. The court ruled that because auditing fees and course costs were more expensive than most commercial education institutions, Scientology appeared to be aimed at making a profit.","Scientology\n\nScientology maintains strict control over the use of its symbols, icons, and names. It claims copyright and trademark over its \"Scientology cross\", and its lawyers have threatened lawsuits against individuals and organizations who have published the image in books and on Web sites. Because of this, it is very difficult for individual groups to attempt to publicly practice Scientology on their own, independent of the official Church of Scientology. Scientology has filed suit against a number of individuals who have attempted to set up their own auditing practices, using copyright and trademark law to shut these groups down.","Scientology\n\nThe Church of Scientology and its many related organizations have amassed considerable real estate holdings worldwide, likely in the hundreds of millions of dollars. Scientology encourages existing members to \"sell\" Scientology to others by paying a commission to those who recruit new members. Scientology franchises, or missions, must pay the Church of Scientology roughly 10% of their gross income. On that basis, it is likened to a pyramid selling scheme. While introductory courses do not cost much, courses at the higher levels may cost several thousand dollars each. As a rule, the great majority of members proceeds up the bridge in a steady rate commensurate with their income. Most recently the Italian Supreme Court agreed with the American IRS that the church's financial system is analogous to the practices of other groups and not out of line with its religious purposes.","Scientology\n\nIn November 2009, Australian Senator Nick Xenophon used a speech in Federal Parliament to allege that the Church of Scientology is a criminal organization. Based on letters from former followers of the religion, he said that there were \"allegations of forced imprisonment, coerced abortions, and embezzlement of church funds, of physical violence and intimidation, blackmail and the widespread and deliberate abuse of information obtained by the organization\"","Scientology\n\nScientology in religious studies","Scientology\n\nDescribing the available scholarship on Scientology, David G. Bromley and Douglas E. Cowan stated in 2006 that \"most scholars have concluded that Scientology falls within the category of religion for the purposes of academic study, and a number have defended the Church in judicial and political proceedings on this basis.\" Hugh B. Urban writes that \"Scientology's efforts to get itself defined as a religion make it an ideal case study for thinking about how we understand and define religion.\" Urban presented a “balanced description” of the Church utilizing interviews with current satisfied practitioners and interviews with former members critical of the establishment in his work. Toward the second decade of the 2000s, a new interest for Scientology emerged among scholars, bringing the subject from obscurity.","Scientology\n\nAccording to the Encyclopedia of Religious Controversies in the United States, \"even as Scientology raises questions about how and who gets to define religion, most scholars recognize it as a religion, one that emerges from and builds on American individualism and the spiritual marketplace that dominated 1950's America.\" David G. Bromley comments that Scientology “could gain strength by adding to the new perspective on existence, the hope and human meaning that only a transcendent creed can give.”","Scientology\n\nBromley and Cowan noted in 2008 that Scientology's attempts \"to gain favor with new religion scholars\" had often been problematic. According to Religious Studies professor Mary Farrell Benarowski, Scientology describes itself as drawing on science, religion, psychology and philosophy but \"had been claimed by none of them and repudiated, for the most part, by all.\"","Scientology\n\nRegis Dericquesbourg writes about the efficacy of Scientology in imparting knowledge: “Scientology indeed not only brings knowledge, it also brings personal introspection through auditing, and transmission in upper levels is not merely reading texts: what is transmitted is experienced through a solo or duo auditing experience.” He compared it to psychoanalysis.","Scientology\n\nIn Scientology, ceremonies for events such as weddings, child naming, and funerals are observed. Friday services are held to commemorate the completion of a person's religious services during the prior week. Ordained Scientology ministers may perform such rites. However, these services and the clergy who perform them play only a minor role in Scientologists' religious lives.","Scientology\n\nFrank K. Flinn, adjunct professor of religious studies at Washington University in St. Louis wrote, \"it is abundantly clear that Scientology has both the typical forms of ceremonial and celebratory worship and its own unique form of spiritual life.\" Flinn further states that religion requires \"beliefs in something transcendental or ultimate, practices (rites and codes of behavior) that re-inforce those beliefs and, a community that is sustained by both the beliefs and practices\", all of which are present within Scientology. Similarly, World Religions in America states that \"Scientology contains the same elements of most other religions, including myths, scriptures, doctrines, worship, sacred practices and rituals, moral and ethical expectations, a community of believers, clergy, and ecclesiastic organizations.\"","Scientology\n\nWhile acknowledging that a number of his colleagues accept Scientology as a religion, sociologist Stephen A. Kent writes: \"Rather than struggling over whether or not to label Scientology as a religion, I find it far more helpful to view it as a multifaceted transnational corporation, only one element of which is religious\" [emphasis in the original].","Scientology\n\nDonna Batten in the Gale Encyclopedia of American Law writes, \"A belief does not need to be stated in traditional terms to fall within First Amendment protection. For example, Scientology—a system of beliefs that a human being is essentially a free and immortal spirit who merely inhabits a body—does not propound the existence of a supreme being, but it qualifies as a religion under the broad definition propounded by the Supreme Court.\"","Scientology\n\nJ. Gordon Melton asserts that while the debate over definitions of religion will continue, “scholars will probably continue in the future to adopt a broad definition, thus including Scientology in a wider religious field.”","Scientology\n\nThe material contained in the OT levels has been characterized as bad science fiction by critics, while others claim it bears structural similarities to gnostic thought and ancient Hindu beliefs of creation and cosmic struggle. Melton suggests that these elements of the OT levels may never have been intended as descriptions of historical events and that, like other religious mythology, they may have their truth in the realities of the body and mind which they symbolize. He adds that on whatever level Scientologists might have received this mythology, they seem to have found it useful in their spiritual quest.","Scientology\n\nHubbard's motives","Scientology\n\nDuring his lifetime, Hubbard was accused of using religion as a façade for Scientology to maintain tax-exempt status and avoid prosecution for false medical claims. The IRS cited a statement frequently attributed to Hubbard that the way to get rich was to found a religion. According to Melton, the statement is unsubstantiated, although several of Hubbard's science fiction colleagues do recall Hubbard raising the topic in conversation.","Scientology\n\nHubbard grew up in a climate that was very critical of organized religion, and frequently quoted anti-religious sentiments in his early lectures. The scholar Marco Frenschkowski (University of Mainz) has stated that it was not easy for Hubbard \"to come to terms with the spiritual side of his own movement. Hubbard did not want to found a religion: he discovered that what he was talking about in fact was religion. This mainly happened when he had to deal with apparent memories from former lives. He had to defend himself about this to his friends.\" Frenschkowski allows that there were practical concerns in the question of \"how to present Scientology to the outside world\", but dismisses the notion that the religious format was just an expedient pretense; Frenschkowski points to many passages in Hubbard's works that document his struggle with this question.","Scientology\n\nDrawing parallels to similar struggles for identity in other religious movements such as Theosophy and Transcendental Meditation, Frenschkowski sees in Hubbard's lectures \"the case of a man whose background was non-religious and who nevertheless discovers that his ideas somehow oscillate between 'science' (in a very popular sense), 'religion' and 'philosophy', and that these ideas somehow fascinate so many people that they start to form a separate movement. Hubbard experiments with traditional religious language in a short piece written in 1953 called “The Factors,” “a basic expression of Scientologist cosmology and metaphysics,” reprinted in current Scientology literature. Frenschkowski observes that the text is partly biblical in structure and that this development is a component of Scientology’s metamorphosis into a religion, written at a point when the nature of the new movement was unclear.","Scientology\n\nThe Church of Scientology denounces the idea of Hubbard starting a religion for personal gain as an unfounded rumor. The Church also suggests that the origin of the rumor was a remark by George Orwell which had been misattributed to Hubbard. Robert Vaughn Young, who left the Church in 1989 after being its spokesman for twenty years, suggested that reports of Hubbard making such a statement could be explained as a misattribution, despite having encountered three of Hubbard's associates from his science fiction days who remembered Hubbard making statements of that sort in person. It was Young who by a stroke of luck came up with the \"Orwell quote\": \"but I have always thought there might be a lot of cash in starting a new religion, and we'll talk it over some time\" It appears in a letter by Eric Blair (known the world as George Orwell) to his friend, Jack Common, dated 16-February-38 (February 16, 1938), and was published in Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell, vol. 1. In 2006, Rolling Stone's Janet Reitman also attributed the statement to Hubbard, as a remark to science fiction writer Lloyd Eshbach and recorded in Eshbach's autobiography.","Scientology\n\nScientology as a UFO religion","Scientology\n\nScientology can be seen as a UFO religion in which the existence of extraterrestrial entities operating unidentified flying objects (UFOs) are an element of belief. In this context, it is discussed in UFO Religions by Christopher Partridge, and The Encyclopedic Sourcebook of UFO Religions by James R. Lewis, while Susan Palmer draws several parallels with Raelianism. Gregory Reece, in his book UFO Religion: Inside flying saucer cults and culture, writes: Scientology is unique within the UFO culture because of this secretiveness, as well as because of the capitalist format under which they operate. Scientology is also difficult to categorize. While it bears strong similarities to the Ashtar Command or the Aetherius Society, its emphasis upon the Xenu event as the central message of the group seems to place them within the ancient astronaut tradition. Either way, Scientology is perhaps most different from other UFO groups in their attempt to keep all of the space opera stuff under wraps. They really would have preferred the rest of us not to know about Xenu and the galactic federation. Alas, such secrets are hard to keep","Scientology\n\nRegardless of such statements by critics, Hubbard wrote and lectured openly about the material he himself called \"space opera.\" In 1952, Hubbard published a book (What to Audit / A History of Man ) on space opera and other material that may be encountered when auditing preclears.","Scientology\n\nInfluences","Scientology\n\nThe general orientation of Hubbard's philosophy owes much to Will Durant, author of the popular 1926 classic The Story of Philosophy; Dianetics is dedicated to Durant. Hubbard's view of a mechanically functioning mind in particular finds close parallels in Durant's work on Spinoza. According to Hubbard himself, Scientology is \"the Western anglicized continuance of many early forms of wisdom.\" Ankerberg and Weldon mention the sources of Scientology to include \"the Vedas, Buddhism, Judaism, Gnosticism, Taoism, early Greek civilization and the teachings of Jesus, Nietzsche and Freud.\" Hubbard asserted that Freudian thought was a “major precursor” to Scientology. W. Vaughn Mccall, Professor and Chairman of the Georgia Regents University writes, “Both Freudian theory and Hubbard assume that there are unconscious mental processes that may be shaped by early life experiences, and that these influence later behavior and thought.” Both schools of thought propose a “tripartite structure of the mind.” Sigmund Freud's psychology, popularized in the 1930s and 1940s, was a key contributor to the Dianetics therapy model, and was acknowledged unreservedly as such by Hubbard in his early works. Hubbard never forgot, when he was 12 years old, meeting Cmdr. Joseph Cheesman Thompson, a U.S.","Scientology\n\nNavy officer who had studied with Freud and when writing to the American Psychological Association in 1949, he stated that he was conducting research based on the \"early work of Freud\".","Scientology\n\nIn Dianetics, Hubbard cites Hegel as a negative influence — an object lesson in \"confusing\" writing. According to Mary A. Mann, Scientology is considered nondenominational, accepting all people regardless of their religions background, ethnicity, or educational attainment. Another major influence was Alfred Korzybski's General Semantics. Hubbard was friends with fellow science fiction writer A. E. van Vogt, who explored the implications of Korzybski's non-Aristotelian logic in works such as The World of Null-A, and Hubbard's view of the reactive mind has clear and acknowledged parallels with Korzybski's thought; in fact, Korzybski's \"anthropometer\" may have been what inspired Hubbard's invention of the E-meter.","Scientology\n\nBeyond that, Hubbard himself named a great many other influences in his own writing – in Scientology 8-8008, for example, these include philosophers from Anaxagoras and Aristotle to Herbert Spencer and Voltaire, physicists and mathematicians like Euclid and Isaac Newton, as well as founders of religions such as Buddha, Confucius, Jesus and Mohammed – but there is little evidence in Hubbard's writings that he studied these figures to any great depth.","Scientology\n\nAs noted, elements of the Eastern religions are evident in Scientology, in particular the concept of karma found in Hinduism and Jainism. In addition to the links to Hindu texts, Scientology draws from Taoism and Buddhism. According to the Encyclopedia of Community, Scientology \"shows affinities with Buddhism and a remarkable similarity to first-century Gnosticism.\"","Scientology\n\nIn the 1940s, Hubbard was in contact with Jack Parsons, a rocket scientist and member of the Ordo Templi Orientis then led by Aleister Crowley, and there have been suggestions that this connection influenced some of the ideas and symbols of Scientology. Religious scholars Gerald Willms and J. Gordon Melton have stated that Crowley's teachings bear little if any resemblance to Scientology doctrine.","Scientology\n\nAccording to James R. Lewis, Scientology is in the same lineage of supernatural religious movements such as New Thought. Scientology goes beyond this and refers to their religio-therapeutic practices as religious technology. Lewis wrote, \"Scientology sees their psycho-spiritual technology as supplying the missing ingredient in existing technologies—namely, the therapeutic engineering of the human psyche.\"","Scientology\n\nScientology and hypnosis","Scientology\n\nHubbard was said to be an accomplished hypnotist, and close acquaintances such as Forrest Ackerman (Hubbard's literary agent) and A. E. van Vogt (an early supporter of Dianetics) witnessed repeated demonstrations of his hypnotic skills. Scientology literature states that L. Ron Hubbard expertise in hypnosis led to the discovery of the Dianetic engram. But Hubbard wrote that hypnosis is a \"wild variable\", and compared parlor hypnosis to an atom bomb. He also wrote:","Scientology\n\nEtymology of \"Scientology\" and earlier usage","Scientology\n\nThe word Scientology is a pairing of the Latin word scientia (\"knowledge\", \"skill\"), which comes from the verb scīre (\"to know\"), and the Greek λόγος lógos (\"word\" or \"account [of]\"). Scientology, as coined by L. Ron Hubbard, comes from the Latin scio, which means \"knowing, in the fullest meaning of the word\" and the Greek word logos, which means \"study of\". Scientology is further defined as \"the study and handling of the spirit in relationship to itself, universes, and other life.\"","Scientology\n\nThe term scientology had been used in published works at least twice before Hubbard. In The New Word (1901) poet and lawyer Allen Upward first used scientology to mean blind, unthinking acceptance of scientific doctrine. In 1934, philosopher Anastasius Nordenholz published Scientology: Science of the Constitution and Usefulness of Knowledge, which used the term to mean the science of science. It is unknown whether Hubbard was aware of either prior usage of the word.","Scientology\n\nARC and KRC triangles","Scientology\n\nThe ARC and KRC triangles are concept maps which show a relationship between three concepts to form another concept. These two triangles are present in the Scientology symbol. The lower triangle, the ARC triangle, is a summary representation of the knowledge the Scientologist strives for. It encompasses Affinity (affection, love or liking), Reality (consensual reality) and Communication (the exchange of ideas). Scientology teaches that improving one of the three aspects of the triangle \"increases the level\" of the other two, but Communication is held to be the most important. The upper triangle is the KRC triangle, the letters KRC positing a similar relationship between Knowledge, Responsibility and Control.","Scientology\n\nAmong Scientologists, the letters ARC are used as an affectionate greeting in personal communication, for example at the end of a letter. Social problems are ascribed to breakdowns in ARC – in other words, a lack of agreement on reality, a failure to communicate effectively, or a failure to develop affinity. These can take the form of overts – harmful acts against another, either intentionally or by omission – which are usually followed by withholds – efforts to conceal the wrongdoing, which further increase the level of tension in the relationship.","Scientology\n\nBridge to total freedom","Scientology\n\nScientologists seek to attain spiritual development through study of Scientology materials and auditing. The subject (called Technology or Tech in Scientology jargon) is structured in a series of levels (or gradients) of gradually increasing complexity. The sequence of study (\"training\") and auditing (\"processing\") levels is termed the \"Bridge to Total Freedom\", or simply \"the Bridge\". Training concerns primarily the principles and techniques of auditing. Processing is personal development through participation in auditing sessions.","Scientology\n\nThe Church of Scientology teaches the principle of reciprocity, involving give-and-take in every human transaction. Accordingly, members are required to make donations for study courses and auditing as they move up the Bridge, the amounts increasing as higher levels are reached. Participation in higher-level courses on the Bridge may cost several thousand dollars, and Scientologists usually move up the Bridge at a rate governed by their income.","Scientology\n\nScientology in popular culture","Scientology\n\nThe 2005 South Park episode \"Trapped in the Closet\" publicized the story of Xenu, based directly on the actual Scientology Operating Thetan III document, and accompanied by an onscreen caption reading \"This is what Scientologists actually believe\". After explaining these beliefs, the character representing the church's president ultimately reveals to Stan that the church is in reality a money-making scam.","Scientology\n\nPaul Thomas Anderson's 2012 film The Master features a religious organization called \"The Cause\" that has many similarities to Scientology. Also, the character of Lancaster Dodd, played by Philip Seymour Hoffman shares a physical resemblance to Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard.","Scientology\n\nIn April 2015, following the recent release of Going Clear: Scientology and the Prison of Belief, Saturday Night Live aired a music video featuring the \"Church of Neurotology\", a parody of Scientology's 1990 music video \"We Stand Tall\"."],"string":"[\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nDouglas Corrigan (January 22, 1907 – December 9, 1995) was an American aviator born in Galveston, Texas. He was nicknamed \\\"Wrong Way\\\" in 1938. After a transcontinental flight from Long Beach, California, to New York, he flew from Floyd Bennett Field in Brooklyn, New York, to Ireland, though his flight plan was filed to return to Long Beach. He claimed his unauthorized flight was due to a navigational error, caused by heavy cloud cover that obscured landmarks and low-light conditions, causing him to misread his compass. However, he was a skilled aircraft mechanic (he was one of the builders of Charles Lindbergh's Spirit of St. Louis) and had made several modifications to his own plane, preparing it for his transatlantic flight. He had been denied permission to make a nonstop flight from New York to Ireland, and his \\\"navigational error\\\" was seen as deliberate. Nevertheless, he never publicly admitted to having flown to Ireland intentionally.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nThe son of a construction engineer and a teacher, he was named Clyde Groce Corrigan after his father, but legally adopted the name Douglas as an adult. Corrigan was of Irish descent. The family moved often, until his parents finally divorced and shared custody of their children. Corrigan finally settled with his mother, brother Harry, and sister Evelyn in Los Angeles. Quitting high school, he went to work in construction.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nIn October 1925, Corrigan saw people paying to be taken for short rides in a Curtiss JN-4 \\\"Jenny\\\" biplane near his home. He paid the $2.50 (equal to $ today) for his own ride. A week later, he began flying lessons, spending non-flying time watching and learning from local aircraft mechanics. After twenty lessons, he made his first solo flight on March 25, 1926.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nAircraft mechanic\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nRyan Aeronautical Company operated from the airfield where Corrigan learned to fly, and hired him for their San Diego factory. Corrigan was responsible for assembling the wing and installing the fuel tanks and instrument panel of Charles Lindbergh's Spirit of St. Louis. Corrigan and his colleague Dan Burnett increased the lift of the aircraft by extending the wing longer than any previous Ryan design. Corrigan pulled the chocks from the Spirit of St Louis when Lindbergh took off from San Diego to New York to prepare for his historic flight.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nAfter Lindbergh's success, Corrigan decided to duplicate it and selected Ireland as his objective. He discussed the idea with friends and mentioned flying without permission. When Ryan Aeronautical moved to St. Louis in October 1928, Corrigan stayed in San Diego as a mechanic for the newly formed Airtech School. With more than 50 students flying each day, Corrigan could only get flight time during his lunch break.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nDuring his short flights, Corrigan performed aerobatic stunts. His favourite maneuver was the chandelle, in strings of up to a dozen, spiralling from close to the ground. The company disapproved and prohibited him from performing stunts in the company aircraft. Corrigan simply flew to a field further south where his stunts could not be seen by his employers.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nCorrigan moved from job to job as an aircraft mechanic, using his employers' planes to develop his flying skills. He gained his transport pilot's certificate in October 1929, and in 1930, started a passenger service between small East Coast towns, with his friend Steve Reich. The most lucrative part of the business turned out to be barnstorming displays promoting short recreational plane rides. Despite business success, after a few years, Corrigan decided to return to the West Coast. In 1933, he spent $310 on a used 1929 Curtiss Robin OX-5 monoplane and flew it home, where he returned to work as an aircraft mechanic and began to modify the Robin for a transatlantic flight.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nTransatlantic flier\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nHaving installed an engine built from two old Wright Whirlwind J6-5 engines (affording instead of the of the original) and extra fuel tanks, Corrigan applied to the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1935, seeking permission to make a nonstop flight from New York to Ireland. The application was rejected; his plane was deemed unsound for a nonstop transatlantic trip, although it was certified to the lower standard for cross-country journeys.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nOver the next two years, Corrigan made repeated modifications and reapplications for full certification, but none succeeded. Indeed, by 1937, after extensive modifications in the face of increasing regulation, his aircraft was refused renewal of its licence because it was deemed to be too unstable for safe flight. His autobiography expresses his exasperation with official resistance and he is widely thought to have responded by deciding that year to make an unofficial crossing.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nAlthough he never admitted it, he apparently planned a late arrival at New York so that he could refill his tanks and leave for Ireland after airport officials had gone home from work. Mechanical problems extended his unapproved inbound flight to nine days, which delayed him beyond the Atlantic \\\"safe weather window\\\", and he returned to California. As a result of this trip, he named his plane Sunshine, however, federal officials notified Californian airfield officials that Sunshine was not airworthy and it was grounded for six months.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nOn 9 July 1938, Corrigan again left California for Floyd Bennett Field, Brooklyn, New York. He had repaired the engine, taking his total spent on the aircraft to about $900 (equal to $ today), gained an experimental license, and obtained permission for a transcontinental flight with conditional consent for a return trip. With the Robin cruising at 85 mi/h for maximum fuel efficiency, the outward journey took him 27 hours. Fuel efficiency became critical towards the end of the flight: a gasoline leak developed, filling the cockpit with fumes.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nUpon his unannounced arrival at Floyd Bennett Field, in the midst of Howard Hughes' preparations for takeoff on a world tour, Corrigan decided repairing the leak would take too long if he was to meet his schedule. His logged flight plan had him returning to California on July 17. Before take off, Corrigan asked the manager of Floyd Bennett Field, Kenneth P. Behr, which runway to use, and Behr told him to use any runway as long as he didn't take off to the west, in the direction of the administration building where Behr had his office. As recorded in Corrigan's autobiography, Behr wished him \\\"Bon Voyage\\\" prior to take-off, perhaps in a nod to Corrigan's intentions to fly the Atlantic. Upon take off at 5:15 in the morning with of gasoline and of oil, Corrigan headed east from the 4200 ft runway of Floyd Bennett Field and kept going. (Behr later swore publicly he had no foreknowledge of Corrigan's intentions.)\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nCorrigan claimed to have noticed his \\\"error\\\" after flying for about 26 hours. This is not entirely consistent with his claim that after 10 hours, he felt his feet go cold; the cockpit floor was awash with gasoline leaking from the unrepaired tank. He used a screwdriver to punch a hole through the cockpit floor so that the fuel would drain away on the side opposite the hot exhaust pipe, reducing the risk of a midair explosion. Had he been truly unaware he was over ocean, it seems likely he would have descended at this point; instead, he claimed to have increased the engine speed by almost 20% in the hope of decreasing his flight time.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nHe landed at Baldonnel Aerodrome, County Dublin, on July 18, after a 28-hour, 13-minute flight. His provisions had been just two chocolate bars, two boxes of fig bars, and of water.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nCorrigan's plane had fuel tanks mounted on the front, allowing him to see only out of the sides. He had no radio and his compass was 20 years old. The journalist H. R. Knickerbocker, who met Corrigan in Ireland after his arrival, wrote in 1941:\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nAviation officials took 600 words to list the regulations broken by his flight in a telegram (a medium that encourages brevity by charging at a rate per word). Despite the extent of Corrigan's illegality, he received only a mild punishment; his pilot's certificate was suspended for 14 days. He and his plane returned to New York on the steamship Manhattan and arrived on August 4, the last day of his suspension. His return was marked with great celebration. More people attended his Broadway ticker-tape parade than had honored Lindbergh after his triumph. He was also given a ticker tape parade in Chicago.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nHe appeared as a contestant on the July 16, 1957 episode of To Tell the Truth.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nLater life\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nTo Corrigan's great disappointment, Lindbergh, his hero and the reason he had made the flight, never acknowledged the accomplishment. Corrigan wrote his autobiography, That's My Story, within months of the flight; it was published for the Christmas market on 15 December 1938. He also endorsed 'wrong-way' products including a watch that ran backwards. The following year, he starred as himself in RKO Radio Pictures' The Flying Irishman (1939), a movie biography. The $75,000 he earned was the equivalent of 30 years income at his airfield jobs.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nAccording to a letter written to a fan in 1940, Corrigan claimed to have \\\"no hobbies except working on airplanes or machinery\\\". When the United States entered World War II, he tested bombers and flew in the Ferry Command, a division of the Air Transport Command. In 1946, he gained less than 2% of the vote running for the U.S. Senate as a member of the Prohibition Party, running against Republican William F. Knowland. He then worked as a commercial pilot for a small California airline.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nCorrigan retired from aviation in 1950 and bought an 18 acre orange grove in Santa Ana, California. He lived there with his wife and three sons until his death on December 9, 1995. He knew nothing about raising oranges, and said he learned by copying his neighbors. His wife died in 1966, and Corrigan sold most of his grove for development, keeping only the ranch-style house. One of the streets in the 93-house estate is named after him. He became reclusive after one of his sons died in a private plane crash on Santa Catalina Island, California in 1972. In 1988, however, he joined in the golden anniversary celebration of his famous \\\"wrong way\\\" flight, allowing enthusiasts to retrieve the Robin from its hangar. The plane was reassembled and the engine was run successfully. Corrigan was so excited that the organizers placed guards at the plane's wings while he was at the show and considered tethering the tail to a police car to prevent him from taking off in it. Later, Corrigan became elusive about the plane's location. It was rumored he had dismantled and stored it in several locations to prevent its theft.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nAn anthology of aircraft related mysteries published in 1995 claimed that Corrigan was elected an Honorary Member of the 'Liars Club of America' at the age of 84, and that the 'honor,' (as had so many other suggestions over the years since his transatlantic flight) had been politely but firmly refused. Up to his death, Corrigan still maintained that he had flown transatlantic by accident.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nIn popular culture\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nCorrigan's \\\"error\\\" caught the imagination of the depressed American public and inspired many jokes. The nickname \\\"'Wrong Way' Corrigan\\\" passed into common use (sometimes confused with the memory of 1929's \\\"Wrong Way\\\" Riegels football incident) and is still mentioned (or used as satire) when someone has the reputation for taking the wrong direction. For example: Corrigan was directly referenced in the 1938 Three Stooges short Flat Foot Stooges. Curly states, \\\"Hey, we're doing a Corrigan!\\\" after realizing they are heading in the wrong direction to get to the fire they need to extinguish. A character named \\\"Wrong Way Feldman\\\" was portrayed by Hans Conreid in two episodes of Gilligan's Island in the 1960s. Also, in the short 'Birds on a Wire', part of the last episode (1998) of Animaniacs, Pesto the Goodfeather pigeon expresses outrage by exclaiming \\\"Are you saying that I don't know my directions? That I'm some sort of 'Wrong Way' Corrigan?\\\" when he is pointed out the fact that he is confusing north with west.\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"Douglas Corrigan\\n\\nAmong aviation historians, Corrigan is remembered as one of the brave few who made early transoceanic flights. On his death in 1995, he was buried at Fairhaven Memorial Park in Santa Ana. His memorial is a small horizontal plaque bearing a facsimile of his signature.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology is a body of religious beliefs and practices created in 1954 by American author L. Ron Hubbard (1911–86). After he developed Dianetics, the Dianetics Foundation entered bankruptcy and Hubbard lost the rights to his seminal publication Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health in 1952. He then recharacterized the subject as a religion and renamed it Scientology, retaining the terminology, doctrines, the E-meter, and the practice of auditing. Within a year, he regained the rights to Dianetics and retained both subjects under the umbrella of the Church of Scientology.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nHubbard's groups have encountered considerable opposition and controversy. In January 1951, the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners brought proceedings against Hubbard's Dianetics Foundation on the charge of teaching medicine without a license. Hubbard's followers engaged in a program of covert and illegal infiltration of the U.S. government.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nHubbard-inspired organizations and their classification are often a point of contention. Germany classifies Scientology groups as an \\\"anti-constitutional sect\\\" (verfassungsfeindliche Sekte). In France, Scientology groups have been classified as a cult by some public authorities.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nHistory of Scientology\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nL. Ron Hubbard\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nL. Ron Hubbard (1911-1986) was the only child of Harry Ross Hubbard, a United States Navy officer, and his wife Ledora. Hubbard spent three semesters at George Washington University but in September 1931, he was placed on probation. He failed to return for the fall 1932 semester.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn July 1941, Hubbard was commissioned as a Lieutenant (junior grade) in the U.S. Naval Reserve. On May 18, 1943 the subchaser left Portland. That night, Hubbard ordered his crew to fire 35 depth charges and a number of gun rounds at what he believed were Japanese submarines. His ship sustained some minor damage and three crew were injured. Having run out of depth charges and with the presence of a submarine still unconfirmed by any other ship, Hubbard's ship was ordered back to port. The navy report concludes that \\\"there was no submarine in the area.\\\" A decade later, Hubbard's Scientology lectures incorporate his claim of having sunk a Japanese sub.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nOn June 28, Hubbard ordered his crew to fire on the Coronado Islands. Hubbard apparently did not realize that the islands belonged to US-allied Mexico, nor that he had taken his vessel into Mexican territorial waters. Hubbard was reprimanded and removed from command on July 7.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nAfter reassignment to a naval facility in Monterey, California, Hubbard became depressed and fell ill. Reporting stomach pains in April 1945, Hubbard spent the remainder of the war as a patient in Oak Knoll Naval Hospital in Oakland, California. According to his later Scientology teachings, Hubbard made scientific \\\"breakthroughs\\\" by use of \\\"endocrine experiments\\\" during this time period.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nOn October 15, 1947, Hubbard wrote a letter to the Veteran Administration formally requesting psychiatric treatment. Wrote Hubbard: \\\"My last physician informed me that it might be very helpful if I were to be examined and perhaps treated psychiatrically or even by a psychoanalyst.\\\" He admitted, however, that he was unable to afford such treatment. Within a few years, Hubbard would assert the evil nature of psychiatry that would grow into a major theme in Scientology.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nExcalibur and Babalon Working\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn April 1938, Hubbard reportedly underwent a dental procedure and reacted to the drug used in the procedure. According to his account, this triggered a revelatory near-death experience. Allegedly inspired by this experience, Hubbard composed a manuscript, which was never published, with working titles of \\\"The One Command\\\" or Excalibur. The contents of Excalibur formed the basis for some of his later publications. Arthur J. Burks, who read the work in 1938, later recalled it discussed the \\\"one command\\\": to survive. This theme would be revisited in Dianetics. Hubbard would later cite Excalibur as an early version of Dianetics.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn August 1945 Hubbard moved into the Pasadena mansion of John \\\"Jack\\\" Whiteside Parsons, an avid occultist and Thelemite, follower of the English ceremonial magician Aleister Crowley and leader of a lodge of Crowley's magical order, Ordo Templi Orientis (OTO). Parsons and Hubbard collaborated on the \\\"Babalon Working\\\", a sex magic ritual intended to summon an incarnation of Babalon, the supreme Thelemite Goddess.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn the late 1940s, Hubbard practiced as a hypnotist. During this period, he worked in Hollywood posing as a swami. The Church says that Hubbard's experience with hypnosis led him to create Dianetics.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nDianetics\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn May 1950, Hubbard's Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science was published by pulp magazine Astounding Science Fiction. That same year, he published the book-length Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health. The publication of that book is considered by Scientologists to be the seminal event of the century. Scientologists sometimes use a \\\"dating system based on the initial appearance of this book. For example, 'A.D. 25' does not stand for Anno Domini, but 'After Dianetics.'\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nDianetics uses a counseling technique known as auditing in which an auditor assists a subject in conscious recall of traumatic events in the individual's past. It was originally intended to be a new psychotherapy and was not expected to become the foundation for a new religion. Hubbard variously defined Dianetics as a spiritual healing technology and an organized science of thought. The stated intent of Dianetics is to free individuals of the influence of past traumas by systematic exposure and removal of the engrams (painful memories) these events have left behind, in a process called clearing. Rutgers scholar Beryl Satter says that \\\"there was little that was original in Hubbard's approach\\\" with much of the theory having origins in popular conceptions of psychology.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nSatter observes that, \\\"keeping with the typical 1950s distrust of emotion, Hubbard promised that Dianetic treatment would release and erase psychosomatic ills and painful emotions, thereby leaving individuals with increased powers of rationality.\\\" According to Gallagher and Ashcraft, in contrast to psychotherapy, Hubbard stated that Dianetics \\\"was more accessible to the average person, promised practitioners more immediate progress, and placed them in control of the therapy process.\\\" Hubbard's thought was parallel with the trend of humanist psychology at that time, which also came about in the 1950s. Passas and Castillo write that the appeal of Dianetics was based on its consistency with prevailing values. Shortly after the introduction of Dianetics, Hubbard introduced the concept of the \\\"thetan\\\" (or soul) which he claimed to have discovered. Dianetics was organized and centralized to consolidate power under Hubbard, and groups that were previously recruited were no longer permitted to organize autonomously.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nTwo of Hubbard's key supporters at the time were John W. Campbell Jr., the editor of Astounding Science Fiction, and Campbell's brother-in-law, physician Joseph A. Winter. Dr. Winter, hoping to have Dianetics accepted in the medical community, submitted papers outlining the principles and methodology of Dianetic therapy to the Journal of the American Medical Association and the American Journal of Psychiatry in 1949, but these were rejected.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nDianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health spent six months on the New York Times best-seller list Religious Studies Professor Paul Gutjahr called Dianetics the bestselling non-Christian religious book of the century. Publisher's Weekly gave a posthumous plaque to Hubbard to commemorate Dianetics' appearance on its list of bestsellers for one hundred weeks. A few studies that address the topic of the origins of the work and its significance to Scientology as a whole include Peter Rowley's New Gods in America, Omar V. Garrison's The Hidden Story of Scientology, and Albert I. Berger's Towards a Science of the Nuclear Mind: Science-fiction Origins of Dianetics. More complex studies include Roy Wallis's The Road to Total Freedom.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nDianetics appealed to a broad range of people who used instructions from the book and applied the method to each other, becoming practitioners themselves. Dianetics soon met with criticism. Morris Fishbein, the editor of the Journal of the American Medical Association and well-known at the time as a debunker of quack medicine, dismissed Hubbard's book. An article in Newsweek stated that \\\"the Dianetics concept is unscientific and unworthy of discussion or review\\\". Hubbard asserted that Dianetics is “an organized science of thought built on definite axioms: statements of natural laws on the order of those of the physical sciences.”\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nHubbard became the leader of a growing Dianetics movement. He became a popular lecturer and established the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in Elizabeth, New Jersey, where he trained his first Dianetics counselors or auditors.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nSome practitioners of Dianetics reported experiences which they believed had occurred in past lives, or previous incarnations. In early 1951, reincarnation became a subject of intense debate within the Dianetics community. Hubbard took the reports of past life events seriously and introduced the concept of the thetan, an immortal being analogous to the soul. This was an important factor in the transition from secular Dianetics to the religion of Scientology. Sociologists Roy Wallis and Steve Bruce suggest that Dianetics, which set each person as his or her own authority, was about to fail due to its inherent individualism, and that Hubbard started Scientology as a religion to establish himself as the overarching authority.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nAlso in 1951, Hubbard incorporated the electropsychometer (E-meter for short), a kind of electrodermal activity meter, as an auditing aid. Based on a design by Volney Mathison, the device is held by Scientologists to be a useful tool in detecting changes in a person's state of mind. The global spread of Scientology at the latter half of the 1950s was culminated with the opening of churches in Johannesburg and Paris, while world headquarters transferred to England in Saint Hill, a rural estate. Hubbard lived there for the next seven years.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nDianetics is different from Scientology in that Scientology is a religion while Dianetics is not. The purpose of Dianetics is the improvement of the individual, the individual or “self” being only one of eight \\\"dynamics.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nChurch of Scientology\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn January 1951, the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners began proceedings against the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation for teaching medicine without a license, which eventually led to that foundation's bankruptcy. In December 1952, the Hubbard Dianetic Foundation filed for bankruptcy, and Hubbard lost control of the Dianetics trademark and copyrights to financier Don Purcell. Author Russell Miller argues that Scientology \\\"was a development of undeniable expedience, since it ensured that he would be able to stay in business even if the courts eventually awarded control of Dianetics and its valuable copyrights to ... Purcell\\\".\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nL. Ron Hubbard originally intended for Scientology to be considered a science, as stated in his writings. In 1952, Scientology was organized to put this intended science into practice, and in the same year, Hubbard published a new set of teachings as Scientology, a religious philosophy. In April 1953, Hubbard wrote a letter proposing that Scientology should be transformed into a religion. As membership declined and finances grew tighter, Hubbard had reversed the hostility to religion he voiced in Dianetics.Kent, Stephen A. \\\"The Creation of 'Religious' Scientology.\\\" Religious Studies and Theology 18:2, pp. 97–126. 1999. ISSN 1747-5414 His letter discussed the legal and financial benefits of religious status. Hubbard outlined plans for setting up a chain of \\\"Spiritual Guidance Centers\\\" charging customers $500 for twenty-four hours of auditing (\\\"That is real money ... Charge enough and we'd be swamped.\\\"). He wrote:\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn December 1953, Hubbard incorporated three churches – a \\\"Church of American Science\\\", a \\\"Church of Scientology\\\" and a \\\"Church of Spiritual Engineering\\\" – in Camden, New Jersey. On February 18, 1954, with Hubbard's blessing, some of his followers set up the first local Church of Scientology, the Church of Scientology of California, adopting the \\\"aims, purposes, principles and creed of the Church of American Science, as founded by L. Ron Hubbard.\\\" The movement spread quickly through the United States and to other English-speaking countries such as Britain, Ireland, South Africa and Australia. The second local Church of Scientology to be set up, after the one in California, was in Auckland, New Zealand. In 1955, Hubbard established the Founding Church of Scientology in Washington, D.C.. The group declared that the Founding Church, as written in the certificate of incorporation for the Founding Church of Scientology in the District of Columbia, was to “act as a parent church for the religious faith down as ‘Scientology’ and to act as a church for the religious worship of the faith.”\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Church experienced further challenges. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) began an investigation concerning the claims the Church of Scientology made in connection with its E-meters. On January 4, 1963, FDA agents raided offices of the Church of Scientology, seizing hundreds of E-meters as illegal medical devices and tons of literature that they accused of making false medical claims. The original suit by the FDA to condemn the literature and E-meters did not succeed, but the Court ordered the Church to label every meter with a disclaimer that it is purely religious artifact, to post a $20,000 bond of compliance, and to pay the FDA's legal expenses.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn the course of developing Scientology, Hubbard presented rapidly changing teachings that some have seen as often self-contradictory. According to Lindholm, for the inner cadre of Scientologists in that period, involvement depended not so much on belief in a particular doctrine but on unquestioning faith in Hubbard.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn 1966, Hubbard purportedly stepped down as executive director of Scientology to devote himself to research and writing. The following year, he formed the ship-based Sea Organization or Sea Org which operated three ships: the Diana, the Athena, and the flagship the Apollo. One month after the establishment of the Sea Org, Hubbard announced that he had made a breakthrough discovery, the result of which were the \\\"OT III\\\" materials purporting to provide a method for overcoming factors inhibiting spiritual progress. These materials were first disseminated on the ships, and then propagated by Sea Org members reassigned to staff Advanced Organizations on land.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nHubbard in hiding, death, and aftermath\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn 1972, facing criminal charges in France, Hubbard returned to the United States and began living in an apartment in Queens, New York. When faced with possible indictment in the United States, Hubbard went into hiding in April 1979. He hid first in an apartment in Hemet, California, where his only contact with the outside world was via ten trusted Messengers. He cut contact with everyone else, even his wife, whom he saw for the last time in August 1979. In February 1980 he disappeared into deep cover in the company of two trusted Messengers, Pat and Anne Broeker.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn 1979, as a result of FBI raids during Operation Snow White, eleven senior people in the church's Guardian's Office were convicted of obstructing justice, burglary of government offices, and theft of documents and government property. In 1981, Scientology took the German government to court for the first time.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nOn January 24, 1986, L. Ron Hubbard died at his ranch in Creston, California. David Miscavige emerged as the new head of the organization.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nSplinter groups: Independent Scientology, Freezone, and Miscavige's RTC\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nWhile Scientology generally refers to Miscavige-led Church of Scientology, other groups practice Scientology. These groups, collectively known as Independent Scientologists, consist of former members of the official Church of Scientology as well as entirely new members.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn 1950, founding member Joseph Winter cut ties with Hubbard and set up a private Dianetics practice in New York. In 1965, a longtime Church member and \\\"Doctor of Scientology\\\" Jack Horner (b. 1927), dissatisfied with the Church's \\\"ethics\\\" program, developed Dianology. Capt. Bill Robertson, a former Sea Org member, was a primary instigator of the movement in the early 1980s. The church labels these groups \\\"squirrels\\\" (Scientology jargon) and often subjects them to considerable legal and social pressure.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nOn January 1, 1982, Miscavige established the Religious Technology Center (RTC). On November 11, 1982, the Free Zone was established by top Scientologists in disagreement with RTC. The Free Zone Association was founded and registered under the laws of Germany, and espouses the doctrine that the official Church of Scientology led by David Miscavige has departed from Hubbard's original philosophy.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Advanced Ability Center was established by Hubbard's personal auditor David Mayo after February 1983 – a time when some of Scientology's upper and middle management split with Miscavige's organization.Nordhausen & Billerbeck (2008), pp. 469–470\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nMore recently, high-profile defectors Mark Rathbun and Mike Rinder have championed the cause of Independent Scientologists wishing to practice Scientology outside of the Church.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nBeliefs and practices\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nAccording to Scientology, its beliefs and practices are based on rigorous research, and its doctrines are accorded a significance equivalent to scientific laws. Scientology cosmology is, however, at odds with modern science, with claims of memories going back \\\"76 trillion years\\\": much longer than the age of the universe. Blind belief is held to be of lesser significance than the practical application of Scientologist methods. Adherents are encouraged to validate the practices through their personal experience. Hubbard put it this way: \\\"For a Scientologist, the final test of any knowledge he has gained is, 'did the data and the use of it in life actually improve conditions or didn't it? Hubbard defined Scientology’s aims as: “A civilization without insanity, without criminals and without war; where the world can prosper and honest beings can have rights, and where man is free to rise to greater heights, are the aims of Scientology.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nTheological doctrine\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology does not preach or impose a particular idea of God on Scientologists. Rather, people are expected to discover the truth through their own observations as their awareness advances.... the Church of Scientology has no set dogma concerning God that it imposes on its members. As with all its tenets, Scientology does not ask individuals to accept anything on faith alone. Rather, as one’s level of spiritual awareness increases through participation in Scientology auditing and training, one attains his own certainty of every dynamic. Accordingly, only when the Seventh Dynamic (spiritual) is reached in its entirety will one discover and come to a full understanding of the Eighth Dynamic (infinity) and one’s relationship to the Supreme Being.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nReactive mind, traumatic memories, and auditing\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology presents two major divisions of the mind. The reactive mind is thought to record all pain and emotional trauma, while the analytical mind is a rational mechanism that serves consciousness. The reactive mind stores mental images which are not readily available to the analytical (conscious) mind; these are referred to as engrams. Engrams are painful and debilitating; as they accumulate, people move further away from their true identity. To avoid this fate is Scientology's basic goal.Some engrams are taught by Hubbard to happen by accident while others are inflicted by “thetans who have gone bad and want power,” as described by the Los Angeles Times. These engrams are named Implants in the doctrine of Scientology. Hubbard said, “Implants result in all varieties of illness, apathy, degradation, neurosis and insanity and are the principal cause of these in man.”\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nDianetic auditing is one way by which the Scientologist may progress toward the Clear state, winning gradual freedom from the reactive mind's engrams and acquiring certainty of his or her reality as a thetan. David V. Barrett, a sociologist of religion who has written widely about the subject, says that according to Scientology, the “first major goal is to go Clear.” Clearing was described to represent “the attainment of Man’s dreams through the ages of attaining a new and higher state of existence and freedom from the endless cycle of birth, death, birth … Clear is the total erasure of the reactive mind from which stems all the anxieties and problems the individual has.”\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology asserts that people have hidden abilities which have not yet been fully realized. It teaches that increased spiritual awareness and physical benefits are accomplished through counseling sessions referred to as auditing. Through auditing, people can solve their problems and free themselves of engrams. This restores them to their natural condition as thetans and enables them to be at cause in their daily lives, responding rationally and creatively to life events rather than reacting to them under the direction of stored engrams. Accordingly, those who study Scientology materials and receive auditing sessions advance from a status of Preclear to Clear and Operating Thetan. Scientology's utopian aim is to \\\"clear the planet\\\", that is, clear all people in the world of their engrams.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nAuditing is a one-on-one session with a Scientology counselor or auditor. It is similar to confession or pastoral counseling, but the auditor records and stores all information received and does not dispense forgiveness or advice as a pastor or priest of another religion might do. Instead, the auditor's task is to help a person discover and understand the universal principles of affinity, reality, and communication (ARC). Most auditing requires an E-meter, a device that measures minute changes in electrical resistance through the body when a person holds electrodes (metal \\\"cans\\\"), and a small current is passed through them.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology teaches that the E-meter helps to locate spiritual difficulties. Once an area of concern has been identified, the auditor asks the individual specific questions about it to help him or her eliminate the difficulty, and uses the E-meter to confirm that the \\\"charge\\\" has been dissipated. As the individual progresses up the \\\"Bridge to Total Freedom\\\", the focus of auditing moves from simple engrams to engrams of increasing complexity and other difficulties. At the more advanced OT levels, Scientologists act as their own auditors (\\\"solo auditors\\\").\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nEmotional Tone Scale and survival\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology uses an emotional classification system called the tone scale. The tone scale is a tool used in auditing; Scientologists maintain that knowing a person's place on the scale makes it easier to predict his or her actions and assists in bettering his or her condition.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology emphasizes the importance of survival, which it subdivides into eight classifications that are referred to as \\\"dynamics\\\". An individual's desire to survive is considered to be the first dynamic, while the second dynamic relates to procreation and family. The remaining dynamics encompass wider fields of action, involving groups, mankind, all life, the physical universe, the spirit, and infinity, often associated with the Supreme Being. The optimum solution to any problem is held to be the one that brings the greatest benefit to the greatest number of dynamics.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nToxins and Purification\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Purification Rundown is a controversial \\\"detoxification\\\" program used by the Church of Scientology as an introductory service. It features high-dose dietary supplements and extended time in a sauna (up to five hours a day for five weeks). Scientology claims it the only effective way to deal with the long-term effects of drug abuse or toxic exposure.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nNarconon is a \\\"drug education and rehabilitation program\\\" founded on Hubbard's beliefs about \\\"toxins\\\" and \\\"purification\\\". Narconon is offered in the United States, Canada and a number of European countries; its Purification Program also uses high-dose vitamins and extended sauna sessions, combined with auditing and study.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIntrospection Rundown\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Introspection Rundown is a controversial Church of Scientology auditing process that is intended to handle a psychotic episode or complete mental breakdown. Introspection is defined for the purpose of this rundown as a condition where the person is \\\"looking into one's own mind, feelings, reactions, etc.\\\" The Introspection Rundown came under public scrutiny after the death of Lisa McPherson in 1995.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nRejection of psychology and psychiatry\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology is vehemently opposed to psychiatry and psychology. Psychiatry rejected Hubbard's theories in the early 1950s and in 1951, Hubbard's wife Sara consulted doctors who recommended he \\\"be committed to a private sanatorium for psychiatric observation and treatment of a mental ailment known as paranoid schizophrenia.\\\" Thereafter, Hubbard criticized psychiatry as a \\\"barbaric and corrupt profession\\\".\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nHubbard taught that psychiatrists were responsible for a great many wrongs in the world, saying that psychiatry has at various times offered itself as a tool of political suppression and \\\"that psychiatry spawned the ideology which fired Hitler's mania, turned the Nazis into mass murderers, and created the Holocaust.\\\" Hubbard created the anti-psychiatry organization Citizens Commission on Human Rights (CCHR), which operates Psychiatry: An Industry of Death, an anti-psychiatry museum.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nFrom 1969, CCHR has created campaigns to stand against the psychiatric treatments, electroconvulsive shock, lobotomy, and psychotropic drugs such as Ritalin and Prozac. It has also exposed abuses in the psychiatric profession.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nBody and thetan\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology beliefs revolve around the immortal soul, the thetan. Scientology teaches that the thetan is the true identity of a person – an intrinsically good, omniscient, non-material core capable of unlimited creativity.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nHubbard taught that thetans brought the material universe into being largely for their own pleasure. The universe has no independent reality, but derives its apparent reality from the fact that thetans agree it exists. Thetans fell from grace when they began to identify with their creation rather than their original state of spiritual purity. Eventually they lost their memory of their true nature, along with the associated spiritual and creative powers. As a result, thetans came to think of themselves as nothing but embodied beings.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThetans are reborn time and time again in new bodies through a process called \\\"assumption\\\" which is analogous to reincarnation. Scientology posits a causal relationship between the experiences of earlier incarnations and one's present life, and with each rebirth, the effects of the MEST universe (MEST here stands for matter, energy, space, and time) on the thetan become stronger.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nSpace opera and the Wall of Fire\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Church of Scientology holds that at the higher levels of initiation (\\\"OT levels\\\"), mystical teachings are imparted that may be harmful to unprepared readers. These teachings are kept secret from members who have not reached these levels. The church says that the secrecy is warranted to keep its materials' use in context and to protect its members from being exposed to materials they are not yet prepared for.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThese are the OT levels, the levels above Clear, whose contents are guarded within Scientology. The OT level teachings include accounts of various cosmic catastrophes that befell the thetans. Hubbard described these early events collectively as \\\"space opera\\\".\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn the OT levels, Hubbard explains how to reverse the effects of past-life trauma patterns that supposedly extend millions of years into the past. Among these advanced teachings is the story of Xenu (sometimes Xemu), introduced as the tyrant ruler of the \\\"Galactic Confederacy\\\". According to this story, 75 million years ago Xenu brought billions of people to Earth in spacecraft resembling Douglas DC-8 airliners, stacked them around volcanoes and detonated hydrogen bombs in the volcanoes. The thetans then clustered together, stuck to the bodies of the living, and continue to do this today. Scientologists at advanced levels place considerable emphasis on isolating body thetans and neutralizing their ill effects.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nExcerpts and descriptions of OT materials were published online by a former member in 1995 and then circulated in mainstream media. This occurred after the teachings were submitted as evidence in court cases involving Scientology, thus becoming a matter of public record. There are eight publicly known OT levels, OT I to VIII. The highest level, OT VIII, is disclosed only at sea on the Scientology cruise ship Freewinds. It has been rumored that additional OT levels, said to be based on material written by Hubbard long ago, will be released at some appropriate point in the future.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nA large Church of Spiritual Technology symbol carved into the ground at Scientology's Trementina Base is visible from the air. Washington Post reporter Richard Leiby wrote, \\\"Former Scientologists familiar with Hubbard’s teachings on reincarnation say the symbol marks a 'return point' so loyal staff members know where they can find the founder’s works when they travel here in the future from other places in the universe.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nEthics, suppressives, and disconnection\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Ethics system regulates member behavior, and Ethics officers are present in every Scientology organization. Ethics officers ensure \\\"correct application of Scientology technology\\\" and deal with \\\"behavior adversely affecting a Scientology organization's performance\\\", ranging from \\\"Errors\\\" and \\\"Misdemeanors\\\" to \\\"Crimes\\\" and \\\"Suppressive Acts\\\", as those terms defined by Scientology.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology asserts some people are truly malevolent, and Hubbard taught 20 percent of the population were suppressive persons, which includes some hopelessly antisocial personalities who are the truly dangerous individuals in humanity: \\\"the Adolf Hitlers and the Genghis Khans, the unrepentant murderers and the drug lords.\\\" Scientology disconnection policy prohibits most contact with Suppressive Persons. The church denies that a disconnection policy exists, and quotes Hubbard's definition of disconnection as \\\"a self-determined decision made by an individual that he is not going to be connected to another.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nA Scientologist who communicates with a suppressive person risks being declared a Potential Trouble Source. Defectors who turn into critics of the movement are declared suppressive persons, and the Church of Scientology has a reputation for moving aggressively against such detractors.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nFair game\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe term Fair Game is used to describe policies and practices carried out against people the Church perceives as its enemies. Hubbard established the policy in the 1950s, in response to criticism both from within and outside his organization. Individuals or groups who are \\\"Fair Game\\\" are judged to be a threat to the Church and, according to the policy, can be punished and harassed using any and all means possible.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nHubbard and his followers targeted many individuals as well as government officials and agencies, including a program of covert and illegal infiltration of the IRS and other U.S. government agencies during the 1970s. They also conducted private investigations, character assassination and legal action against the Church's critics in the media. The policy remains in effect and has been defended by the Church of Scientology as a core religious practice.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nOrganization\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe internal structure of Scientology organizations is strongly bureaucratic with a focus on statistics-based management. Organizational operating budgets are performance-related and subject to frequent reviews.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nMembership statistics\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nA 2001 survey found only 55,000 people in the United States who claimed to be Scientologists. Worldwide estimates of Scientology's core practicing membership ranges between 100,000 and 200,000, mostly in the U.S., Europe, South Africa and Australia. The 2008 American Religious Identification Survey found that the number of American Scientologists had dropped to 25,000. Scientology is also declining in the United Kingdom.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nAlthough the Church of Scientology claims to be the fastest growing religious movement on Earth, the church's estimates of its membership numbers are reportedly significantly exaggerated.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nSea Org\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe highest echelon of the Scientology hierarchy are the members the Sea Organization or Sea Org. The organization includes some 5,000 of Scientology's most dedicated adherents, who work for low pay, and sign a billion-year contract.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nRehabilitation Project Force\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Rehabilitation Project Force (RPF) is a controversial part of the Scientology \\\"justice\\\" system. When Sea Org members are found guilty of a violation, is assigned to the RPF. The RPF involves a daily regimen of five hours of auditing or studying, eight hours of work, often physical labor, such as building renovation, and at least seven hours of sleep. Douglas E. Cowan and David G. Bromley state that scholars and observers have come to radically different conclusions about the RPF and whether it is \\\"voluntary or coercive, therapeutic or punitive\\\".\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nOffice of Special Affairs\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Office of Special Affairs or OSA (formerly the Guardian's Office) is a department of the Church of Scientology which has been characterized as a non-state intelligence agency. It has targeted critics of the Church for \\\"dead agent\\\" operations, which is mounting character assassination operations against perceived enemies.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nFranchises and advanced organizations\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nMany Scientologists' first contact with Scientology is through local informal groups and field auditors practicing Dianetics counseling. In addition to these, Scientology operates hundreds of Churches and Missions around the world. This is where Scientologists receive introductory training, and it is at this local level that most Scientologists participate. Churches and Missions are licensed franchises; they may offer services for a fee provided they contribute a proportion of their income and comply with the Religious Technology Center (RTC) and its standards.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nOperating Thetan levels are offered only at Scientology's Advanced Organizations (Los Angeles, Sydney, East Grinstead and Copenhagen). The Flag Service Organization in Clearwater, Florida offers OT levels VI and VII. The Scientology ship Freewinds offers OT VIII.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nCelebrity Centers\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn 1955, Hubbard created a list of 63 celebrities targets for conversion to Scientology. In a church policy letter in 1973, L. Ron Hubbard wrote, \\\"The purpose of [the] Celebrity Centre is, to forward the expansion and popularization of Scientology through the arts.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology operates eight churches that are designated Celebrity Centres, designed to minister to celebrity Scientologists. The largest of these is in Hollywood, California, called Church of Scientology Celebrity Centre International. The Celebrity Centre International was the first one that was opened in 1969 and its opening is celebrated the first week of August each year in an evening gala.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nFormer silent-screen star Gloria Swanson and actors Tom Cruise and John Travolta have spoken publicly about their commitment to Scientology.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology tech in jails and prisons, schools, and management\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nSeveral Scientology organizations promote the use of Scientology technology as a means to solve social problems. Scientology began to focus on these issues in the early 1970s, lead by Hubbard. The church developed outreach programs to fight drug addiction, illiteracy, learning disabilities and criminal behavior. These have been presented to schools, businesses and communities as secular techniques based on Hubbard's writings. The Association for Better Living and Education (ABLE) acts as an umbrella organization for these efforts. Notable examples include:\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\n* Criminon, an offshoot of Narconon, introduces Scientology practices to criminal offenders \\n* Applied Scholastics, founded in 1972, teaches Scientology study tech to K-12 students. Delphi Schools operates numerous private schools throughout the United States, including the flagship academy The Delphian School in Yamhill County, Oregon.\\n* The World Institute of Scientology Enterprises (WISE) applies Scientology technology to business management. The most prominent training supplier to make use of Hubbard's technology is Sterling Management Systems.\\n* The Way to Happiness Foundation promotes a moral code written by Hubbard, to date translated into more than 40 languages.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nVolunteer ministers\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Church of Scientology began its \\\"Volunteer Ministers\\\" program as a way to participate in community outreach projects. Volunteer Ministers sometimes travel to the scenes of major disasters in order to provide assistance with relief efforts. According to critics, these relief efforts consist of passing out copies of a pamphlet authored by Hubbard entitled The Way to Happiness, and engaging in a method said to calm panicked or injured individuals known in Scientology as a \\\"touch assist.\\\" Accounts of the Volunteer Ministers' effectiveness have been mixed, and touch assists are not supported by scientific evidence.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nOther entities\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nOther Scientology-related organizations include:\\n* International Association of Scientologists, the official Scientology membership organization;\\n* Church of Spiritual Technology, which owns the copyrights to Scientology works.\\n* The National Commission on Law Enforcement and Social Justice, devoted to combating what it describes as abusive practices by government and police agencies, especially Interpol.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nControversies\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Church of Scientology is one of the most controversial religious organizations. A first point of controversy was its challenge of the psychotherapeutic establishment. Another was a 1991 Time magazine article that attacked the church, which was rejected by the court as baseless early in 1992. And a third is its religious status in the United States, formalized when the IRS granted the organization tax-exempt status in 1993. The rumor that the U.S. Supreme Court removed tax-exempt status in 2016, effective April 6, 2016 was a fictional report.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIt has been in conflict with the governments and police forces of many countries (including the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France and Germany). It has been one of the most litigious religious movements in history, filing countless lawsuits against governments, organizations and individuals.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nReports and allegations have been made, by journalists, courts, and governmental bodies of several countries, that the Church of Scientology is an unscrupulous commercial enterprise that harasses its critics and brutally exploits its members. A considerable amount of investigation has been aimed at the church, by groups ranging from the media to governmental agencies.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe controversies involving the church and its critics, some of them ongoing, include:\\n* Criminal behavior by members of the Church, including the infiltration of the US Government.\\n* Organized harassment of people perceived as enemies of the Church.\\n* Scientology's disconnection policy, in which some members are required to shun friends or family members who are \\\"antagonistic\\\" to the Church. \\n* The death of a Scientologist Lisa McPherson while in the care of the church. (Robert Minton sponsored the multimillion-dollar lawsuit against Scientology for the death of McPherson. In May 2004, McPherson's estate and the Church of Scientology reached a confidential settlement.) \\n* Attempts to legally force search engines censor information critical of the Church. \\n* Allegations the Church leader David Miscavige beats and demoralizes staff, and that physical violence by superiors towards staff working for them is a common occurrence in the church. Scientology spokesman Tommy Davis denied these claims and provided witnesses to rebut them.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology social programs such as drug and criminal rehabilitation have likewise drawn both support and criticism.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nStephen A. Kent, a professor of sociology, has said that \\\"Scientologists see themselves as possessors of doctrines and skills that can save the world, if not the galaxy.\\\" As stated in Scientology doctrine: \\\"The whole agonized future of this planet, every man, woman and child on it, and your own destiny for the next endless trillions of years depend on what you do here and now with and in Scientology.\\\" Kent has described Scientology's ethics system as \\\"a peculiar brand of morality that uniquely benefited [the Church of Scientology] ... In plain English, the purpose of Scientology ethics is to eliminate opponents, then eliminate people's interests in things other than Scientology.\\\".\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nMany former members have come forward to speak out about the Church and the negative effects its teachings have had on them, including celebrities such as Leah Remini. Remini spoke about her split from the Church, saying that she still has friends within the organization that she is no longer able to speak to.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nCriminal behavior\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nMuch of the controversy surrounding Scientology stems from the criminal convictions of core members of the Scientology organization.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn 1978, a number of Scientologists, including L. Ron Hubbard's wife Mary Sue Hubbard (who was second in command in the organization at the time), were convicted of perpetrating what was at the time the largest incident of domestic espionage in the history of the United States, called \\\"Operation Snow White\\\". This involved infiltrating, wiretapping, and stealing documents from the offices of Federal attorneys and the Internal Revenue Service. L. Ron Hubbard was convicted in absentia by French authorities of engaging in fraud and sentenced to four years in prison. The head of the French Church of Scientology was convicted at the same trial and given a suspended one-year prison sentence.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nAn FBI raid on the Church's headquarters revealed documentation that detailed Scientology's criminal actions against various critics of the organization. In \\\"Operation Freakout\\\", agents of the church attempted to destroy Paulette Cooper, author of The Scandal of Scientology, an early book that had been critical of the movement. Among these documents was a plan to frame Gabe Cazares, the mayor of Clearwater, Florida, with a staged hit-and-run accident.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn 1988, Scientology president Heber Jentzsch and ten other members of the organization were arrested in Spain on various charges including illicit association, coercion, fraud, and labor law violations.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn October 2009, the Church of Scientology was found guilty of organized fraud in France. The sentence was confirmed by appeal court in February 2012.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn 2012, Belgian prosecutors indicted Scientology as a criminal organization engaged in fraud\\nand extortion.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nOrganized harassment\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology has historically engaged in hostile action toward its critics; executives within the organization have proclaimed that Scientology is \\\"not a turn-the-other-cheek religion\\\". Journalists, politicians, former Scientologists and various anti-cult groups have made accusations of wrongdoing against Scientology since the 1960s, and Scientology has targeted these critics – almost without exception – for retaliation, in the form of lawsuits and public counter-accusations of personal wrongdoing. Many of Scientology's critics have also reported they were subject to threats and harassment in their private lives.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nJournalist John Sweeney reported that that \\\"While making our BBC Panorama film Scientology and Me I have been shouted at, spied on, had my hotel invaded at midnight, denounced as a 'bigot' by star Scientologists, brain-washed—that is how it felt to me—in a mock up of a Nazi-style torture chamber and chased round the streets of Los Angeles by sinister strangers\\\".\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nViolation of auditing confidentiality\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nDuring the auditing process, the auditor collects and records personal information from the client.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nWhile the Church of Scientology claims to protect the confidentiality of auditing records, the Church has a history of attacking and psychologically abusing former members using information culled from the records. For example, a December 16, 1969, a Guardian's Office order (G. O. 121669) by Mary Sue Hubbard explicitly authorized the use of auditing records for purposes of \\\"internal security.\\\" Former members report having participated in combing through information obtained in auditing sessions to see if it could be used for smear campaigns against critics.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nShunning\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe practice of shunning in Scientology is termed \\\"Disconnection\\\". Members can disconnect from any person they already know, including existing family members. Many examples of this policy's application have been established in court. Failure to disconnect from a Suppressive Person is itself labelled a Suppressive act.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nAllegation of coerced abortions\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Sea Org originally operated on vessels at sea where it was understood that it was not permitted to raise children on board the ships. Pregnant women in the Sea Org have reported been pressured to undergo abortions. Sea Org members were reportedly shown secret writings by L. Ron Hubbard to convince them that having an abortion was not against Scientology practices.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn 2003, The Times of India reported that \\\"Forced abortions, beatings, starvation are considered tools of discipline in this church.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nA former high-ranking source reports that \\\"some 1,500 abortions\\\" have been \\\"carried out by women in the Sea Organization since the implementation of a rule in the late '80s that members could not remain in the organization if they decided to have children.\\\" The source noted that \\\"And if members who have been in the Sea Organization for, say, 10 years do decide to have kids, they are dismissed with no more than $1,000\\\" as a severance package.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nMany former members have claimed they were pressured to undergo abortion.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nLongtime member Astra Woodcraft reportedly \\\"left Scientology for good when the church tried to pressure her to have an abortion\\\". Former Sea Org member Karen Pressley recounted that she was often asked by fellow Scientologists for loans so that they could get an abortion and remain in the Sea Org. Scientology employee Claire Headley has claimed that she worked \\\"was forced to have (two) abortions to keep her job and was subjected to violations of personal rights and liberties for the purpose of obtaining forced labor.\\\" Laura Ann DeCrescenzo reported that while a minor, she was \\\"coerced to have an abortion\\\".\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn March 2009, Maureen Bolstad reported that women who worked at Scientology's headquarters were forced to have abortions, or faced being declared a \\\"Suppressive Person\\\" by the organization's management. In March 2010, former Scientologist Janette Lang stated that at age 20 she became pregnant by her boyfriend while in the organization, and her boyfriend's Scientology supervisors \\\"coerced them into terminating the pregnancy\\\". \\\"We fought for a week, I was devastated, I felt abused, I was lost and eventually I gave in. It was my baby, my body and my choice, and all of that was taken away from me by Scientology,\\\" said Lang.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nAustralian Senator Nick Xenophon gave a speech to the Australian Parliament in November 2009, about statements he had received from former Scientologists. He said that he had been told members of the organization had coerced pregnant female employees to have abortions. \\\"I am deeply concerned about this organisation and the devastating impact it can have on its followers,\\\" said Senator Xenophon, and he requested that the Australian Senate begin an investigation into Scientology. According to the letters presented by Senator Xenophon, the organization was involved in \\\"ordering\\\" its members to have abortions. Former Scientologist Aaron Saxton sent a letter to Senator Xenophon stating he had participated in coercing pregnant women within the organization to have abortions. \\\"Aaron says women who fell pregnant were taken to offices and bullied to have an abortion. If they refused, they faced demotion and hard labour. Aaron says one staff member used a coat hanger and self-aborted her child for fear of punishment,\\\" said Senator Xenophon. Carmel Underwood, another former Scientologist, said she had been put under \\\"extreme pressure\\\" to have an abortion, and that she was placed into a \\\"disappearing programme\\\", after refusing. Underwood was the executive director of Scientology's branch in Sydney, Australia.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology spokesman Tommy Davis dismissed such claims as \\\"utterly meritless\\\". Mike Ferriss, the head of Scientology in New Zealand, told media that \\\"There are no forced abortions in Scientology\\\". Scientology spokesperson Virginia Stewart likewise rejected the claims and asserted \\\"The Church of Scientology considers the family unit and children to be of the utmost importance and does not condone nor force anyone to undertake any medical procedure whatsoever.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology, litigation, and the Internet\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn the 1990s, Miscavige's organization took action against increased criticism of Scientology on the Internet and online distribution of Scientology-related documents.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nStarting in 1991, Scientology filed fifty lawsuits against Scientology-critic Cult Awareness Network (CAN). Many of the suits were dismissed, but one resulted in $2 million in losses, bankrupting the network. At bankruptcy, CAN's name and logo were obtained by a Scientologist. A new Cult Awareness Network was set up with Scientology backing, which operates as an information and networking center for non-traditional religions, referring callers to academics and other experts.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn a 1993 U.S. lawsuit brought by the Church of Scientology against Steven Fishman, a former member of the Church, Fishman made a court declaration which included several dozen pages of formerly secret esoterica detailing aspects of Scientologist cosmogony. As a result of the litigation, this material, normally strictly safeguarded and used only in Scientology's more advanced \\\"OT levels\\\", found its way onto the Internet. This resulted in a battle between the Church of Scientology and its online critics over the right to disclose this material, or safeguard its confidentiality. The Church of Scientology was forced to issue a press release acknowledging the existence of this cosmogony, rather than allow its critics \\\"to distort and misuse this information for their own purposes.\\\" Even so, the material, notably the story of Xenu, has since been widely disseminated and used to caricature Scientology, despite the Church's vigorous program of copyright litigation.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn January 1995, church lawyer Helena Kobrin attempted to shut down the newsgroup alt.religion.scientology by sending a control message instructing Usenet servers to delete the group. In practice, this rmgroup message had little effect, since most Usenet servers are configured to disregard such messages when sent to groups that receive substantial traffic, and newgroup messages were quickly issued to recreate the group on those servers that did not do so. However, the issuance of the message led to a great deal of public criticism by free-speech advocates. Among the criticisms raised, one suggestion is that Scientology's true motive is to suppress the free speech of its critics.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Church also began filing lawsuits against those who posted copyrighted texts on the newsgroup and the World Wide Web, and lobbied for tighter restrictions on copyrights in general. The Church supported the controversial Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act as well as the even more controversial Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). Some of the DMCA's provisions (notably the Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act) were heavily influenced by Church litigation against US Internet service providers over copyrighted Scientology materials that had been posted or uploaded through their servers.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nBeginning in the middle of 1996 and ensuing for several years, the newsgroup was attacked by anonymous parties using a tactic dubbed sporgery by some, in the form of hundreds of thousands of forged spam messages posted on the group. Some investigators said that some spam had been traced to church members. Former Scientologist Tory Christman later asserted that the Office of Special Affairs had undertaken a concerted effort to destroy alt.religion.scientology through these means; the effort failed.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nOn January 14, 2008, a video produced by the Church of Scientology featuring an interview with Tom Cruise was leaked to the Internet and uploaded to YouTube. \\nThe Church of Scientology issued a copyright violation claim against YouTube requesting the removal of the video. Subsequently, the group Anonymous voiced its criticism of Scientology and began attacking the Church. Calling the action by the Church of Scientology a form of Internet censorship, participants of Anonymous coordinated Project Chanology, which consisted of a series of denial-of-service attacks against Scientology websites, prank calls, and black faxes to Scientology centers. On January 21, 2008, Anonymous announced its intentions via a video posted to YouTube entitled \\\"Message to Scientology\\\", and a press release declaring a \\\"war\\\" against both the Church of Scientology and the Religious Technology Center. \\nIn the press release, the group stated that the attacks against the Church of Scientology would continue in order to protect the freedom of speech, and end what they saw as the financial exploitation of church members.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nOn January 28, 2008, an Anonymous video appeared on YouTube calling for protests outside Church of Scientology centers on February 10, 2008. According to a letter Anonymous e-mailed to the press, about 7,000 people protested in more than 90 cities worldwide. Many protesters wore masks based on the character V from V for Vendetta (who was influenced by Guy Fawkes) or otherwise disguised their identities, in part to protect themselves from reprisals from the Church of Scientology. \\nMany further protests have followed since then in cities around the world.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Arbitration Committee of the Wikipedia internet encyclopedia decided in May 2009 to restrict access to its site from Church of Scientology IP addresses, to prevent self-serving edits by Scientologists. A \\\"host of anti-Scientologist editors\\\" were topic-banned as well. The committee concluded that both sides had \\\"gamed policy\\\" and resorted to \\\"battlefield tactics\\\", with articles on living persons being the \\\"worst casualties\\\".\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nDisputes over legal status\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe legal status of Scientology or Scientology-related organizations differs between jurisdictions. Scientology was legally recognized as a tax-exempt religion in South Africa, Australia, Sweden, New Zealand, Portugal, and Spain. Scientology was granted tax-exempt status in the United States in 1993. The organization is considered a cult in Chile and an \\\"anticonstitutional sect\\\" in Germany, and is considered a cult (French secte) by some French public authorities.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe church argues that Scientology is a genuine religious movement that has been misrepresented, maligned, and persecuted. The Church of Scientology has pursued an extensive public relations campaign for the recognition of Scientology as a tax-exempt religion in the various countries in which it exists.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology has often encountered opposition due to its strong-arm tactics directed against critics and members wishing to leave the organization. A number of governments regard the Church as a religious organization entitled to tax-exempt status, while governments variously classify it as a business, cult, pseudoreligion, or criminal organization.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn 1957, the Church of Scientology of California was granted tax-exempt status by the United States Internal Revenue Service (IRS), and so, for a time, were other local churches. In 1958 however, the IRS started a review of the appropriateness of this status. In 1959, Hubbard moved to England, remaining there until the mid-1960s.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn the mid-sixties, the Church of Scientology was banned in several Australian states, starting with Victoria in 1965. The ban was based on the Anderson Report, which found that the auditing process involved \\\"command\\\" hypnosis, in which the hypnotist assumes \\\"positive authoritative control\\\" over the patient. On this point the report stated, It is the firm conclusion of this Board that most scientology and dianetic techniques are those of authoritative hypnosis and as such are dangerous ... the scientific evidence which the Board heard from several expert witnesses of the highest repute ... leads to the inescapable conclusion that it is only in name that there is any difference between authoritative hypnosis and most of the techniques of scientology. Many scientology techniques are in fact hypnotic techniques, and Hubbard has not changed their nature by changing their names. The Australian Church was forced to operate under the name of the \\\"Church of the New Faith\\\" as a result, the name and practice of Scientology having become illegal in the relevant states. Several years of court proceedings aimed at overturning the ban followed.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn 1973, the law in Victoria was formally repealed in Western and Southern Australia and within two decades, all legislation against Scientology was reversed. In 1982, the law was repealed, and the High Court of Australia ruled in a unanimous decision that the Church of Scientology was “undoubtedly a religion and deserving of tax exemption” the following year.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn 1967, the IRS removed Scientology's tax-exempt status, asserting that its activities were commercial and operated for the benefit of Hubbard, rather than for charitable or religious purposes. The decision resulted in a process of litigation that was settled in the Church's favor a quarter of a century later, the longest case of litigation in IRS history.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology as a religion\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology is officially recognized as a religion in the United States. Recognition came in 1993, when the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) stated that \\\"[Scientology is] operated exclusively for religious and charitable purposes.\\\" Scientology was again recognized as a religion by the U.S. courts when the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the judgment in Headley v. Church of Scientology International in 2012.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe New York Times noted in this connection that the Church of Scientology had funded a campaign which included a whistle-blower organization to publicly attack the IRS, as well as hiring of private investigators to look into the private lives of IRS officials. In 1991, Miscavige, the highest-ranking Scientology leader, arranged a meeting with Fred T. Goldberg Jr., the Commissioner of the Internal Revenue Service at the time. The meeting was an \\\"opportunity for the church to offer to end its long dispute with the agency, including the dozens of suits brought against the IRS.\\\" The committee met several times with the Scientology legal team and \\\"was persuaded that those involved in the Snow White crimes had been purged, that church money was devoted to tax-exempt purposes and that, with Mr. Hubbard's death, no one was getting rich from Scientology.\\\" In August 1993, a settlement was reached; the church would receive its tax-exempt status and end its legal actions against the IRS and its personnel.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe church was required only to resubmit new applications for exemption to the IRS Exempt Organizations (EO) division, which was told \\\"not to consider any substantive matters\\\" because those issues had been resolved by the committee. The secret agreement was announced on October 13, 1993, with the IRS refusing to disclose any of the terms or the reasoning behind the decision. Both the IRS and Scientology rejected any allegations that foul play or undue pressure had been used on IRS officials, insisting that the decision had been based on the merits of the case. IRS officials \\\"insisted that Scientology's tactics had not affected the decision\\\" and that \\\"ultimately the decision was made on a legal basis\\\". Miscavige claims that the IRS’s examination of Scientology was the most exhaustive review of any non-profit organization in history.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nElsewhere, Scientology is recognized as a religion in Australia, Portugal, Spain, Slovenia, Sweden, Croatia, Hungary and Kyrgyzstan. In New Zealand, the Inland Revenue Department classified the Church of Scientology as a charitable organization and stated that its income would be tax exempt. It has gained judicial recognition in Italy, and Scientology officials have won the right to perform marriages in South Africa.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology is not recognized as a religion in Canada. In the UK, the Charity Commission for England and Wales ruled in 1999 that Scientology was not a religion and refused to register the Church as a charity, although a year later, it was recognized as a not-for-profit body in a separate proceeding by the UK Revenue and Customs and exempted from UK value added tax. In December 2013, the United Kingdom’s highest court officially recognized Scientology as a religion. The ruling ended a five-year legal battle by Scientologist Louisa Hodkin, who sought the legal right to marry at the Church of Scientology chapel in central London. The opinion by five supreme court justices redefined religion in law, rendering the 1970 definition “out of date” in restricting religious worship to “reverence or veneration of God or of a Supreme Being.”\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nViewed as a commercial enterprise\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology has been accused of being \\\"a business, often given to criminal acts, and sometimes masquerading as a religion.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn conjunction with the Church of Scientology's request to be officially recognized as a religion in Germany, around 1996 the German state Baden-Württemberg conducted a thorough investigation of the group's activities within Germany. The results of this investigation indicated that at the time of publication, Scientology's main sources of revenue (\\\"Haupteinnahmequellen der SO\\\") were from course offerings and sales of their various publications. Course offerings ranged from (German Marks) DM 182.50 to about DM 30,000 - the equivalent today of approximately $119 to $19,560 USD. Revenue from monthly, bi-monthly, and other membership offerings could not be estimated in the report, but was nevertheless placed in the millions. Defending its practices against accusations of profiteering, the Church has countered critics by drawing analogies to other religious groups who have established practices such as tithing, or require members to make donations for specific religious services.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nSince 1997 Germany has considered Scientology to be in conflict with the principles of the nation's constitution. It is seen as an anticonstitutional sect and a new version of political extremism and because there is \\\"evidence for intentions against the free democratic basic order\\\" it is observed by the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution. In 1997, an open letter to then-German Chancellor, Helmut Kohl, published as a newspaper advertisement in the International Herald Tribune, drew parallels between the \\\"organized oppression\\\" of Scientologists in Germany and the treatment of Jews in 1930s' Nazi Germany. The letter was signed by Dustin Hoffman, Goldie Hawn and a number of other Hollywood celebrities and executives. Commenting on the matter, a spokesman for the U.S. Department of State said that Scientologists were discriminated against in Germany, but condemned the comparisons to the Nazis' treatment of Jews as extremely inappropriate, as did a United Nations Special Rapporteur. Based on the IRS exemptions, the U.S. State Department formally criticized Germany for discriminating against Scientologists and began to note Scientologists' complaints of harassment in its annual human rights reports, as well as the annual International Religious Freedom Reports it has released from 1999 onwards.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nGermany will continue to monitor Scientology's activities in the country, despite continued objection from Scientology which cites such monitoring as abuse of freedom of religion.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nFrance and Belgium have not recognized Scientology as a religion, and Stephen A. Kent, writing in 2001, noted that recognition had not been obtained in Ireland, Luxembourg, Israel or Mexico either. The Belgian State Prosecution Service has recommended that various individuals and organizations associated with Scientology should be prosecuted. An administrative court has yet to decide if charges will be pressed.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn Greece, Scientology is not recognized as a religion by the Greek government, and multiple applications for religious status have been denied, notably in 2000 and 2003.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn the Netherlands, Scientology was granted tax exempt status in October 2013. The status was revoked in October 2015. The court ruled that because auditing fees and course costs were more expensive than most commercial education institutions, Scientology appeared to be aimed at making a profit.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology maintains strict control over the use of its symbols, icons, and names. It claims copyright and trademark over its \\\"Scientology cross\\\", and its lawyers have threatened lawsuits against individuals and organizations who have published the image in books and on Web sites. Because of this, it is very difficult for individual groups to attempt to publicly practice Scientology on their own, independent of the official Church of Scientology. Scientology has filed suit against a number of individuals who have attempted to set up their own auditing practices, using copyright and trademark law to shut these groups down.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Church of Scientology and its many related organizations have amassed considerable real estate holdings worldwide, likely in the hundreds of millions of dollars. Scientology encourages existing members to \\\"sell\\\" Scientology to others by paying a commission to those who recruit new members. Scientology franchises, or missions, must pay the Church of Scientology roughly 10% of their gross income. On that basis, it is likened to a pyramid selling scheme. While introductory courses do not cost much, courses at the higher levels may cost several thousand dollars each. As a rule, the great majority of members proceeds up the bridge in a steady rate commensurate with their income. Most recently the Italian Supreme Court agreed with the American IRS that the church's financial system is analogous to the practices of other groups and not out of line with its religious purposes.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn November 2009, Australian Senator Nick Xenophon used a speech in Federal Parliament to allege that the Church of Scientology is a criminal organization. Based on letters from former followers of the religion, he said that there were \\\"allegations of forced imprisonment, coerced abortions, and embezzlement of church funds, of physical violence and intimidation, blackmail and the widespread and deliberate abuse of information obtained by the organization\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology in religious studies\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nDescribing the available scholarship on Scientology, David G. Bromley and Douglas E. Cowan stated in 2006 that \\\"most scholars have concluded that Scientology falls within the category of religion for the purposes of academic study, and a number have defended the Church in judicial and political proceedings on this basis.\\\" Hugh B. Urban writes that \\\"Scientology's efforts to get itself defined as a religion make it an ideal case study for thinking about how we understand and define religion.\\\" Urban presented a “balanced description” of the Church utilizing interviews with current satisfied practitioners and interviews with former members critical of the establishment in his work. Toward the second decade of the 2000s, a new interest for Scientology emerged among scholars, bringing the subject from obscurity.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nAccording to the Encyclopedia of Religious Controversies in the United States, \\\"even as Scientology raises questions about how and who gets to define religion, most scholars recognize it as a religion, one that emerges from and builds on American individualism and the spiritual marketplace that dominated 1950's America.\\\" David G. Bromley comments that Scientology “could gain strength by adding to the new perspective on existence, the hope and human meaning that only a transcendent creed can give.”\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nBromley and Cowan noted in 2008 that Scientology's attempts \\\"to gain favor with new religion scholars\\\" had often been problematic. According to Religious Studies professor Mary Farrell Benarowski, Scientology describes itself as drawing on science, religion, psychology and philosophy but \\\"had been claimed by none of them and repudiated, for the most part, by all.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nRegis Dericquesbourg writes about the efficacy of Scientology in imparting knowledge: “Scientology indeed not only brings knowledge, it also brings personal introspection through auditing, and transmission in upper levels is not merely reading texts: what is transmitted is experienced through a solo or duo auditing experience.” He compared it to psychoanalysis.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn Scientology, ceremonies for events such as weddings, child naming, and funerals are observed. Friday services are held to commemorate the completion of a person's religious services during the prior week. Ordained Scientology ministers may perform such rites. However, these services and the clergy who perform them play only a minor role in Scientologists' religious lives.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nFrank K. Flinn, adjunct professor of religious studies at Washington University in St. Louis wrote, \\\"it is abundantly clear that Scientology has both the typical forms of ceremonial and celebratory worship and its own unique form of spiritual life.\\\" Flinn further states that religion requires \\\"beliefs in something transcendental or ultimate, practices (rites and codes of behavior) that re-inforce those beliefs and, a community that is sustained by both the beliefs and practices\\\", all of which are present within Scientology. Similarly, World Religions in America states that \\\"Scientology contains the same elements of most other religions, including myths, scriptures, doctrines, worship, sacred practices and rituals, moral and ethical expectations, a community of believers, clergy, and ecclesiastic organizations.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nWhile acknowledging that a number of his colleagues accept Scientology as a religion, sociologist Stephen A. Kent writes: \\\"Rather than struggling over whether or not to label Scientology as a religion, I find it far more helpful to view it as a multifaceted transnational corporation, only one element of which is religious\\\" [emphasis in the original].\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nDonna Batten in the Gale Encyclopedia of American Law writes, \\\"A belief does not need to be stated in traditional terms to fall within First Amendment protection. For example, Scientology—a system of beliefs that a human being is essentially a free and immortal spirit who merely inhabits a body—does not propound the existence of a supreme being, but it qualifies as a religion under the broad definition propounded by the Supreme Court.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nJ. Gordon Melton asserts that while the debate over definitions of religion will continue, “scholars will probably continue in the future to adopt a broad definition, thus including Scientology in a wider religious field.”\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe material contained in the OT levels has been characterized as bad science fiction by critics, while others claim it bears structural similarities to gnostic thought and ancient Hindu beliefs of creation and cosmic struggle. Melton suggests that these elements of the OT levels may never have been intended as descriptions of historical events and that, like other religious mythology, they may have their truth in the realities of the body and mind which they symbolize. He adds that on whatever level Scientologists might have received this mythology, they seem to have found it useful in their spiritual quest.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nHubbard's motives\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nDuring his lifetime, Hubbard was accused of using religion as a façade for Scientology to maintain tax-exempt status and avoid prosecution for false medical claims. The IRS cited a statement frequently attributed to Hubbard that the way to get rich was to found a religion. According to Melton, the statement is unsubstantiated, although several of Hubbard's science fiction colleagues do recall Hubbard raising the topic in conversation.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nHubbard grew up in a climate that was very critical of organized religion, and frequently quoted anti-religious sentiments in his early lectures. The scholar Marco Frenschkowski (University of Mainz) has stated that it was not easy for Hubbard \\\"to come to terms with the spiritual side of his own movement. Hubbard did not want to found a religion: he discovered that what he was talking about in fact was religion. This mainly happened when he had to deal with apparent memories from former lives. He had to defend himself about this to his friends.\\\" Frenschkowski allows that there were practical concerns in the question of \\\"how to present Scientology to the outside world\\\", but dismisses the notion that the religious format was just an expedient pretense; Frenschkowski points to many passages in Hubbard's works that document his struggle with this question.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nDrawing parallels to similar struggles for identity in other religious movements such as Theosophy and Transcendental Meditation, Frenschkowski sees in Hubbard's lectures \\\"the case of a man whose background was non-religious and who nevertheless discovers that his ideas somehow oscillate between 'science' (in a very popular sense), 'religion' and 'philosophy', and that these ideas somehow fascinate so many people that they start to form a separate movement. Hubbard experiments with traditional religious language in a short piece written in 1953 called “The Factors,” “a basic expression of Scientologist cosmology and metaphysics,” reprinted in current Scientology literature. Frenschkowski observes that the text is partly biblical in structure and that this development is a component of Scientology’s metamorphosis into a religion, written at a point when the nature of the new movement was unclear.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Church of Scientology denounces the idea of Hubbard starting a religion for personal gain as an unfounded rumor. The Church also suggests that the origin of the rumor was a remark by George Orwell which had been misattributed to Hubbard. Robert Vaughn Young, who left the Church in 1989 after being its spokesman for twenty years, suggested that reports of Hubbard making such a statement could be explained as a misattribution, despite having encountered three of Hubbard's associates from his science fiction days who remembered Hubbard making statements of that sort in person. It was Young who by a stroke of luck came up with the \\\"Orwell quote\\\": \\\"but I have always thought there might be a lot of cash in starting a new religion, and we'll talk it over some time\\\" It appears in a letter by Eric Blair (known the world as George Orwell) to his friend, Jack Common, dated 16-February-38 (February 16, 1938), and was published in Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell, vol. 1. In 2006, Rolling Stone's Janet Reitman also attributed the statement to Hubbard, as a remark to science fiction writer Lloyd Eshbach and recorded in Eshbach's autobiography.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology as a UFO religion\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology can be seen as a UFO religion in which the existence of extraterrestrial entities operating unidentified flying objects (UFOs) are an element of belief. In this context, it is discussed in UFO Religions by Christopher Partridge, and The Encyclopedic Sourcebook of UFO Religions by James R. Lewis, while Susan Palmer draws several parallels with Raelianism. Gregory Reece, in his book UFO Religion: Inside flying saucer cults and culture, writes: Scientology is unique within the UFO culture because of this secretiveness, as well as because of the capitalist format under which they operate. Scientology is also difficult to categorize. While it bears strong similarities to the Ashtar Command or the Aetherius Society, its emphasis upon the Xenu event as the central message of the group seems to place them within the ancient astronaut tradition. Either way, Scientology is perhaps most different from other UFO groups in their attempt to keep all of the space opera stuff under wraps. They really would have preferred the rest of us not to know about Xenu and the galactic federation. Alas, such secrets are hard to keep\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nRegardless of such statements by critics, Hubbard wrote and lectured openly about the material he himself called \\\"space opera.\\\" In 1952, Hubbard published a book (What to Audit / A History of Man ) on space opera and other material that may be encountered when auditing preclears.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nInfluences\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe general orientation of Hubbard's philosophy owes much to Will Durant, author of the popular 1926 classic The Story of Philosophy; Dianetics is dedicated to Durant. Hubbard's view of a mechanically functioning mind in particular finds close parallels in Durant's work on Spinoza. According to Hubbard himself, Scientology is \\\"the Western anglicized continuance of many early forms of wisdom.\\\" Ankerberg and Weldon mention the sources of Scientology to include \\\"the Vedas, Buddhism, Judaism, Gnosticism, Taoism, early Greek civilization and the teachings of Jesus, Nietzsche and Freud.\\\" Hubbard asserted that Freudian thought was a “major precursor” to Scientology. W. Vaughn Mccall, Professor and Chairman of the Georgia Regents University writes, “Both Freudian theory and Hubbard assume that there are unconscious mental processes that may be shaped by early life experiences, and that these influence later behavior and thought.” Both schools of thought propose a “tripartite structure of the mind.” Sigmund Freud's psychology, popularized in the 1930s and 1940s, was a key contributor to the Dianetics therapy model, and was acknowledged unreservedly as such by Hubbard in his early works. Hubbard never forgot, when he was 12 years old, meeting Cmdr. Joseph Cheesman Thompson, a U.S.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nNavy officer who had studied with Freud and when writing to the American Psychological Association in 1949, he stated that he was conducting research based on the \\\"early work of Freud\\\".\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn Dianetics, Hubbard cites Hegel as a negative influence — an object lesson in \\\"confusing\\\" writing. According to Mary A. Mann, Scientology is considered nondenominational, accepting all people regardless of their religions background, ethnicity, or educational attainment. Another major influence was Alfred Korzybski's General Semantics. Hubbard was friends with fellow science fiction writer A. E. van Vogt, who explored the implications of Korzybski's non-Aristotelian logic in works such as The World of Null-A, and Hubbard's view of the reactive mind has clear and acknowledged parallels with Korzybski's thought; in fact, Korzybski's \\\"anthropometer\\\" may have been what inspired Hubbard's invention of the E-meter.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nBeyond that, Hubbard himself named a great many other influences in his own writing – in Scientology 8-8008, for example, these include philosophers from Anaxagoras and Aristotle to Herbert Spencer and Voltaire, physicists and mathematicians like Euclid and Isaac Newton, as well as founders of religions such as Buddha, Confucius, Jesus and Mohammed – but there is little evidence in Hubbard's writings that he studied these figures to any great depth.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nAs noted, elements of the Eastern religions are evident in Scientology, in particular the concept of karma found in Hinduism and Jainism. In addition to the links to Hindu texts, Scientology draws from Taoism and Buddhism. According to the Encyclopedia of Community, Scientology \\\"shows affinities with Buddhism and a remarkable similarity to first-century Gnosticism.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn the 1940s, Hubbard was in contact with Jack Parsons, a rocket scientist and member of the Ordo Templi Orientis then led by Aleister Crowley, and there have been suggestions that this connection influenced some of the ideas and symbols of Scientology. Religious scholars Gerald Willms and J. Gordon Melton have stated that Crowley's teachings bear little if any resemblance to Scientology doctrine.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nAccording to James R. Lewis, Scientology is in the same lineage of supernatural religious movements such as New Thought. Scientology goes beyond this and refers to their religio-therapeutic practices as religious technology. Lewis wrote, \\\"Scientology sees their psycho-spiritual technology as supplying the missing ingredient in existing technologies—namely, the therapeutic engineering of the human psyche.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology and hypnosis\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nHubbard was said to be an accomplished hypnotist, and close acquaintances such as Forrest Ackerman (Hubbard's literary agent) and A. E. van Vogt (an early supporter of Dianetics) witnessed repeated demonstrations of his hypnotic skills. Scientology literature states that L. Ron Hubbard expertise in hypnosis led to the discovery of the Dianetic engram. But Hubbard wrote that hypnosis is a \\\"wild variable\\\", and compared parlor hypnosis to an atom bomb. He also wrote:\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nEtymology of \\\"Scientology\\\" and earlier usage\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe word Scientology is a pairing of the Latin word scientia (\\\"knowledge\\\", \\\"skill\\\"), which comes from the verb scīre (\\\"to know\\\"), and the Greek λόγος lógos (\\\"word\\\" or \\\"account [of]\\\"). Scientology, as coined by L. Ron Hubbard, comes from the Latin scio, which means \\\"knowing, in the fullest meaning of the word\\\" and the Greek word logos, which means \\\"study of\\\". Scientology is further defined as \\\"the study and handling of the spirit in relationship to itself, universes, and other life.\\\"\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe term scientology had been used in published works at least twice before Hubbard. In The New Word (1901) poet and lawyer Allen Upward first used scientology to mean blind, unthinking acceptance of scientific doctrine. In 1934, philosopher Anastasius Nordenholz published Scientology: Science of the Constitution and Usefulness of Knowledge, which used the term to mean the science of science. It is unknown whether Hubbard was aware of either prior usage of the word.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nARC and KRC triangles\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe ARC and KRC triangles are concept maps which show a relationship between three concepts to form another concept. These two triangles are present in the Scientology symbol. The lower triangle, the ARC triangle, is a summary representation of the knowledge the Scientologist strives for. It encompasses Affinity (affection, love or liking), Reality (consensual reality) and Communication (the exchange of ideas). Scientology teaches that improving one of the three aspects of the triangle \\\"increases the level\\\" of the other two, but Communication is held to be the most important. The upper triangle is the KRC triangle, the letters KRC positing a similar relationship between Knowledge, Responsibility and Control.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nAmong Scientologists, the letters ARC are used as an affectionate greeting in personal communication, for example at the end of a letter. Social problems are ascribed to breakdowns in ARC – in other words, a lack of agreement on reality, a failure to communicate effectively, or a failure to develop affinity. These can take the form of overts – harmful acts against another, either intentionally or by omission – which are usually followed by withholds – efforts to conceal the wrongdoing, which further increase the level of tension in the relationship.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nBridge to total freedom\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientologists seek to attain spiritual development through study of Scientology materials and auditing. The subject (called Technology or Tech in Scientology jargon) is structured in a series of levels (or gradients) of gradually increasing complexity. The sequence of study (\\\"training\\\") and auditing (\\\"processing\\\") levels is termed the \\\"Bridge to Total Freedom\\\", or simply \\\"the Bridge\\\". Training concerns primarily the principles and techniques of auditing. Processing is personal development through participation in auditing sessions.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe Church of Scientology teaches the principle of reciprocity, involving give-and-take in every human transaction. Accordingly, members are required to make donations for study courses and auditing as they move up the Bridge, the amounts increasing as higher levels are reached. Participation in higher-level courses on the Bridge may cost several thousand dollars, and Scientologists usually move up the Bridge at a rate governed by their income.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nScientology in popular culture\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nThe 2005 South Park episode \\\"Trapped in the Closet\\\" publicized the story of Xenu, based directly on the actual Scientology Operating Thetan III document, and accompanied by an onscreen caption reading \\\"This is what Scientologists actually believe\\\". After explaining these beliefs, the character representing the church's president ultimately reveals to Stan that the church is in reality a money-making scam.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nPaul Thomas Anderson's 2012 film The Master features a religious organization called \\\"The Cause\\\" that has many similarities to Scientology. Also, the character of Lancaster Dodd, played by Philip Seymour Hoffman shares a physical resemblance to Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard.\",\n \"Scientology\\n\\nIn April 2015, following the recent release of Going Clear: Scientology and the Prison of Belief, Saturday Night Live aired a music video featuring the \\\"Church of Neurotology\\\", a parody of Scientology's 1990 music video \\\"We Stand Tall\\\".\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":137099,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_2329"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"July 20, 1919, was the birth of what New Zealand mountaineer, explorer and philanthropist, who made sherpa Tenzing Norgay an international celebrity?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Sir Edmund Hillary"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["sir edmund","edmond hillary","sir edmund hillary","edmund hillary","sir edmund percival hillary","edmund hilary","sir ed","ed hillary","sir edmund hilary","edmund percival hillary"],"string":"[\n \"sir edmund\",\n \"edmond hillary\",\n \"sir edmund hillary\",\n \"edmund hillary\",\n \"sir edmund percival hillary\",\n \"edmund hilary\",\n \"sir ed\",\n \"ed hillary\",\n \"sir edmund hilary\",\n \"edmund percival hillary\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand () is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses – that of the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu – and numerous smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1500 km east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1000 km south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of animal, fungal and plant life. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealand's capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland.","New Zealand\n\nSometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that would later become New Zealand, and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Abel Tasman, a Dutch explorer, became the first European to sight New Zealand. In 1840, representatives of the British Crown and Māori Chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, making New Zealand a British colony. Today, the majority of New Zealand's population of 4.7 million is of European descent; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealand's culture is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers, with recent broadening arising from increased immigration. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, with English predominant.","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand is a developed country with a market economy. New Zealand is a World Bank high-income economy and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Nationally, legislative authority is vested in an elected, unicameral Parliament, while executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister, who is currently John Key. Queen Elizabeth II is the country's head of state and is represented by a Governor-General. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes. The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau (a dependent territory); the Cook Islands and Niue (self-governing states in free association with New Zealand); and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.","New Zealand\n\nEtymology","New Zealand\n\nDutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, supposing it was connected to a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America. In 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand.","New Zealand\n\nAotearoa (often translated as \"land of the long white cloud\") is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans, with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island. Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui (the fish of Māui) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura). In 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu. Note that for each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.","New Zealand\n\nHistory","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans. Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300, concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands. Over the centuries that followed, these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori. The population was divided into iwi (tribes) and hapū (subtribes) who would sometimes cooperate, sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other. At some point, a group of Māori migrated to the Chatham Islands (which they named Rēkohu) where they developed their distinct Moriori culture. The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862, largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s, although European diseases also contributed. In 1862, only 101 survived and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.","New Zealand\n\nThe first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642. In a hostile encounter, four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot. Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline. Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for timber, Māori food, artifacts and water. The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns. The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori. From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population. The Māori population declined to around 40 percent of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.","New Zealand\n\nIn 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand. The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori. In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of the Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection. Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for Great Britain and negotiate a treaty with the Māori. The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.","New Zealand\n\nIn response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa, Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign. With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand, still part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate Colony of New Zealand on 1 July 1841. The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854. In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy. (Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s.) Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near the Cook Strait. Wellington was chosen for its harbour and central location, with parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865. As immigrant numbers increased, conflicts over land led to the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, resulting in the loss and confiscation of much Māori land.","New Zealand\n\nIn 1891 the Liberal Party led by John Ballance came to power as the first organised political party. The Liberal Government, later led by Richard Seddon, passed many important social and economic measures. In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions. In 1898 Seddon's government passed the Old-age Pensions Act of 1898, the first general pensions scheme in the British Empire.","New Zealand\n\nIn 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a dominion within the British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status. Accordingly, the title \"Dominion of New Zealand\" dates from 1907.","New Zealand\n\nIn 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand. New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting, as part of the British Empire, in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through the Great Depression. The depression led to the election of the first Labour government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy. New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following World War II and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work. A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and the Treaty of Waitangi. In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985. The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi, although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s.","New Zealand\n\nPolitics","New Zealand\n\nGovernment","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy, although its constitution is not codified. Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and the head of state. The Queen is represented by the Governor-General, whom she appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Governor-General can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers, such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers, ambassadors and other key public officials, and in rare situations, the reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the Royal Assent of a bill into law). The powers of the Queen and the Governor-General are limited by constitutional constraints and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of Cabinet.","New Zealand\n\nThe New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the Queen and the House of Representatives. It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950. The supremacy of Parliament, over the Crown and other government institutions, was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand. The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a Government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats. If no majority is formed a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured. The Governor-General appoints ministers under advice from the Prime Minister, who is by convention the Parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition. Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the Prime Minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions. By convention, members of cabinet are bound by collective responsibility to decisions made by cabinet.","New Zealand\n\nAlmost all parliamentary general elections between and were held under the first-past-the-post voting system. The elections since 1930 have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour. Since the , a form of proportional representation called Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) has been used. Under the MMP system each person has two votes; one is for electoral seats (including some reserved for Māori), and the other is for a party. Since the , there have been 71 electorate seats (which includes 7 Māori electorates), and the remaining 49 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote, although a party has to win one electoral seat or 5 percent of the total party vote before it is eligible for these seats. Between March 2005 and August 2006 New Zealand became the only country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land (Head of State, Governor-General, Prime Minister, Speaker and Chief Justice) were occupied simultaneously by women.","New Zealand\n\nJudges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain constitutional independence from the government. This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions. The Privy Council in London was the country's final court of appeal until 2004, when it was replaced with the newly established Supreme Court of New Zealand. The judiciary, headed by the Chief Justice, includes the Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed nations. , the country was ranked fifth in the strength of its democratic institutions and first in government transparency and lack of corruption. New Zealand has a high level of civic participation, with 79% voter turnout during the most recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 72%. Furthermore, 67% of New Zealanders say they trust their political institutions, far higher than the OECD average of 56%.","New Zealand\n\nForeign relations and the military","New Zealand\n\nEarly colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy. The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate their own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Savage proclaiming, \"Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand.\"","New Zealand\n\nIn 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests, while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty. The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War, the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy. Despite the US's suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend. Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions. In 2013, there are about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is about 15 percent of the population of New Zealand. 65,000 Australians live in New Zealand.","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries. A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment. Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year. A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it. New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit). New Zealand is also a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the Five Power Defence Arrangements.","New Zealand\n\nThe New Zealand Defence Force has three branches: the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. New Zealand's national defence needs are modest because of the unlikelihood of direct attack, although it does have a global presence. The country fought in both world wars, with notable campaigns in Gallipoli, Crete, El Alamein and Cassino. The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand's national identity and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia. According to Mary Edmond-Paul, \"World War I had left scars on New Zealand society, with nearly 18,500 in total dying as a result of the war, more than 41,000 wounded, and others affected emotionally, out of an overseas fighting force of about 103,000 and a population of just over a million.\" New Zealand also played key parts in the naval Battle of the River Plate and the Battle of Britain air campaign. During World War II, the United States had more than 400,000 American military personnel stationed in New Zealand.","New Zealand\n\nIn addition to Vietnam and the two world wars, New Zealand fought in the Korean War, the Second Boer War, the Malayan Emergency, the Gulf War and the Afghanistan War. It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions, such as those in Cyprus, Somalia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Sinai, Angola, Cambodia, the Iran–Iraq border, Bougainville, East Timor, and the Solomon Islands. New Zealand also sent a unit of army engineers to help rebuild Iraqi infrastructure for one year during the Iraq War.","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand ranks 8th in the Center for Global Development's 2012 Commitment to Development Index, which ranks the world's most developed countries on their dedication to policies that benefit poorer nations. New Zealand is considered the fourth most peaceful country in the world according to the 2014 Global Peace Index.","New Zealand\n\nLocal government and external territories","New Zealand\n\nOfficially, New Zealand is divided into 16 regions.","New Zealand\n\nThe early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of autonomy. Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876. As a result, New Zealand now has no separately represented subnational entities. The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays and sporting rivalries.","New Zealand\n\nSince 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government. In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities. The 249 municipalities that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils. The regional councils' role is to regulate \"the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management\", while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents and other local matters. Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils. The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand is one of 16 realms within the Commonwealth. The Realm of New Zealand is the territory over which the Queen of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands and Niue. The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand. The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is a non-self-governing territory that uses the New Zealand flag and anthem, but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll). The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates the Scott Base research facility. New Zealand citizenship law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau and the Ross Dependency before 2006 are New Zealand citizens. Further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards.","New Zealand\n\nEnvironment","New Zealand\n\nGeography","New Zealand\n\nSee also: Atlas of New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and is made up of two main islands and a number of smaller islands. The two main islands (the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu) are separated by the Cook Strait, 22 km wide at its narrowest point. Besides the North and South Islands, the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island, the Chatham Islands, Great Barrier Island (in the Hauraki Gulf), d'Urville Island (in the Marlborough Sounds) and Waiheke Island (about 22 km from central Auckland). The country's islands lie between latitudes 29° and 53°S, and longitudes 165° and 179°E.","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand is long and narrow (over 1600 km along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 km), with about 15000 km of coastline and a total land area of 268000 km2. Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its Exclusive Economic Zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area.","New Zealand\n\nThe South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand, and is divided along its length by the Southern Alps. There are 18 peaks over 3000 m, the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3754 m. Fiordland's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this south-western corner of the South Island. The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism. The highly active Taupo Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau, punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu (2797 m). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, Lake Taupo, nestled in the caldera of one of the world's most active supervolcanoes.","New Zealand\n\nThe country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates. New Zealand is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent. About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault. Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches further north.","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand and Australia are both part of the wider regions known as Australasia and Oceania. The term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent, New Zealand and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model.","New Zealand\n\nFile:NZ Landscape.jpg|Rural scene\nFile:Emerald Lakes, New Zealand.jpg|The Emerald Lakes, Mt Tongariro.\nFile:Lake Gunn.jpg|Lake Gunn\nFile:Pencarrow Head, Wellington, New Zealand from Santa Regina, 24 Feb. 2007.jpg|Pencarrow Head, Wellington","New Zealand\n\nClimate","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand has a mild and temperate maritime climate (Köppen: Cfb) with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C in the south to 16 °C in the north. Historical maxima and minima are in Rangiora, Canterbury and in Ranfurly, Otago. Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland. Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 640 mm of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount. Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and south-western parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and north-eastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours. The general snow season is about early June until early October in the South Island. Snowfall is less common on the North Island, although it does occur.","New Zealand\n\nFile:Autumn in New Zealand.jpg|Autumn in Wellington\nFile:New Zealand snow.jpg|Central Plateau in winter. Much of this region has a cool continental climate with regular snowfall.\nFile:Scorching Bay.jpg|Scorching Bay beach in summer","New Zealand\n\nThe table below lists climate normals for the warmest and coldest month in the six largest cities of New Zealand. The North Island cities are generally slightly warmer in February, but the South Island cities are warmest in January.","New Zealand\n\nBiodiversity","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species of animals, fungi and plants. Physical isolation has not caused biological isolation, and this has resulted in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of very distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species. About 82 percent of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants are endemic, covering 1,944 species across 65 genera and includes a single endemic family. The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand and 40 percent of these are endemic. The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps, or by southern beech in cooler climates. The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock.","New Zealand\n\nBefore the arrival of humans an estimated 80 percent of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees. Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement. Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23 percent of the land.","New Zealand\n\nThe forests were dominated by birds, and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi, kakapo, weka and takahē evolving flightlessness. The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of rats, ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species, including large birds like the moa and Haast's eagle.","New Zealand\n\nOther indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (tuataras, skinks and geckos), frogs, spiders (katipo), insects (weta) and snails. Some, such as the wrens and tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils. Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old. Marine mammals however are abundant, with almost half the world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters. Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country. More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country.","New Zealand\n\nSince human arrival almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced. However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other selected areas. According to the 2012 Environmental Performance Index, New Zealand is considered a \"strong performer\" in environmental protection, ranking 14th out of 132 assessed countries.","New Zealand\n\nEconomy","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand has a modern, prosperous and developed market economy with an estimated gross domestic product (GDP) at purchasing power parity (PPP) per capita of roughly NZ$47,784. The currency is the New Zealand dollar, informally known as the \"Kiwi dollar\"; it also circulates in the Cook Islands (see Cook Islands dollar), Niue, Tokelau, and the Pitcairn Islands. New Zealand was ranked sixth in the 2013 Human Development Index, fourth in The Heritage Foundation's 2012 Index of Economic Freedom, and 13th in INSEAD's 2012 Global Innovation Index.","New Zealand\n\nHistorically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focussing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber. With the development of refrigerated shipping in the 1880s meat and dairy products were exported to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand. High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1973, New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Community and other compounding factors, such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crisis, led to a severe economic depression. Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank. Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a highly protectionist economy to a liberalised free-trade economy.","New Zealand\n\nUnemployment peaked above 10 percent in 1991 and 1992, following the 1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to a record low of 3.4 percent in 2007 (ranking fifth from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations). However, the global financial crisis that followed had a major impact on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years, and unemployment rising back to 7 percent in late 2009. At May 2012, the general unemployment rate was around 6.7 percent, while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 21 was 13.6 percent. In the September 2014 quarter, unemployment was 5.4%. New Zealand has experienced a series of \"brain drains\" since the 1970s that still continue today. Nearly one quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation. In recent years, however, a \"brain gain\" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries.","New Zealand\n\nTrade","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade, particularly in agricultural products. Exports account for 24 percent of its output, making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. Food products made up 55% of the value of all the country's exports in 2014; wood was the second largest earner (7%). Its major export partners are Australia, United States, Japan, China, and the United Kingdom. On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country. The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction. Tourism plays a significant role in New Zealand's economy, contributing $15.0 billion to New Zealand’s total GDP and supporting 9.6 percent of the total workforce in 2010. International visitors to New Zealand increased by 3.1 percent in the year to October 2010 and are expected to increase at a rate of 2.5 percent annually up to 2015.","New Zealand\n\nIn 1984 New Zealand eliminated agricultural subsidies.","New Zealand\n\nWool was New Zealand’s major agricultural export during the late 19th century. Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues, but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers. In contrast dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007, to become New Zealand's largest export earner. In the year to June 2009, dairy products accounted for 21 percent ($9.1 billion) of total merchandise exports, and the country's largest company, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade. Other agricultural exports in 2009 were meat 13.2 percent, wool 6.3 percent, fruit 3.5 percent and fishing 3.3 percent. New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period, overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.","New Zealand\n\nInfrastructure","New Zealand\n\nIn 2014, renewable energy generated 39.5 percent of New Zealand's gross energy supply, primarily hydroelectric power and geothermal power.","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand's transport network comprises 93805 km of roads, including 199 km of motorways, and 4128 km of railway lines. Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport. The railways were privatised in 1993, but were re-nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008. The state-owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways, with the exception of Auckland commuter services which are operated by Transdev. Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers. Most international visitors arrive via air and New Zealand has six international airports, but only the Auckland and Christchurch airports connect directly with countries other than Australia or Fiji.","New Zealand\n\nThe New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications until 1987 when Telecom New Zealand was formed, initially as a state-owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990. Telecom was rebranded as Spark New Zealand in 2014. Chorus, which was split from Telecom in 2011, still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure, but competition from other providers has increased. The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 12th in the development of information and communications infrastructure, having moved up four places between 2008 and 2010.","New Zealand\n\nWater supply and sanitation","New Zealand\n\nWater supply and sanitation in New Zealand is universal and of good quality in urban areas. It is provided by \nlocal government called Territorial Authorities in New Zealand. \nTerritorial Authorities consist of 14 city councils in urban areas and \n53 district councils in rural areas. The legal framework includes the \nHealth Act 1956 amended in 2007, the Local Government Act 2002 and the Resource Management Act 1991.","New Zealand\n\nDemography","New Zealand\n\nAs of June 2015, the population of New Zealand is estimated at 4.597 million. New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 72 percent of the population living in 16 main urban areas and 53 percent living in the four largest cities of Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington, and Hamilton. New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2010 Auckland was ranked the world's 4th most liveable city and Wellington the 12th by the Mercer Quality of Life Survey.","New Zealand\n\nLife expectancy for New Zealanders in 2012 was 84 years for females, and 80.2 years for males. Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline. New Zealand's fertility rate of 2.1 is relatively high for a developed country, and natural births account for a significant proportion of population growth. Consequently, the country has a young population compared to most industrialized nations, with 20 percent of New Zealanders being 14 years old or younger. By 2050 the population is forecast to reach 5.3 million, the median age to rise from 36 years to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18 percent to 29 percent. Despite the high life expectancy, mortality from heart disease is higher in New Zealand than it is in various other developed Western countries such as Australia, the United Kingdom and Canada.","New Zealand\n\nEthnicity and immigration","New Zealand\n\nIn the 2013 census, 74.0% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European, and 14.9% as Māori. Other major ethnic groups include Asian (11.8%) and Pacific peoples (7.4%), of which two-thirds live in the Auckland region. \nThe population has become more diverse in recent decades: in 1961, the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92 percent European and 7 percent Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1 percent.","New Zealand\n\nWhile the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal \"Kiwi\" is commonly used both internationally and by locals. The Māori loanword Pākehā has been used to refer to New Zealanders of European descent, although others reject this appellation. The word Pākehā today is increasingly used to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders.","New Zealand\n\nThe Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the white Australian policies. There was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian, Italian, and German immigration, together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa. Following the Great Depression policies were relaxed and migrant diversity increased. In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service—more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents. Just over 25% of New Zealand's population was born overseas, with the majority (52%) living in the Auckland region. The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand's overseas population, with a quarter of all overseas-born New Zealanders born there; other major sources of New Zealand's overseas-born population are China, India, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and Samoa. The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002.","New Zealand\n\nLanguage","New Zealand\n\nEnglish is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 98 percent of the population. New Zealand English is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart. The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-\"i\" sound (as in \"kit\") has centralised towards the schwa sound (the \"a\" in \"comma\" and \"about\"); the short-\"e\" sound (as in \"dress\") has moved towards the short-\"i\" sound; and the short-\"a\" sound (as in \"trap\") has moved to the short-\"e\" sound. Hence, the New Zealand pronunciation of words such as \"bad\", \"dead\", \"fish\" and \"chips\" sound like \"bed\", \"did\", \"fush\" and \"chups\" to non-New Zealanders.","New Zealand\n\nAfter the Second World War, Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language (te reo Māori) in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas. It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation, being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987, and is spoken by 4.1 percent of the population. There are now Māori language immersion schools and two Māori Television channels, the only nationwide television channels to have the majority of their prime-time content delivered in Māori. Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised. Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language in New Zealand (2.3 percent), followed by Hindi, Mandarin Chinese, French, and Yue Chinese (Cantonese). New Zealand Sign Language is used by about 28,000 people. It was declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006.","New Zealand\n\nEducation","New Zealand\n\nPrimary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority attending from the age of 5. There are 13 school years and attending state (public) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday. New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent, and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification. There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions: universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, specialist colleges, and wānanga, in addition to private training establishments. In the adult population 14.2 percent have a bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22.4 percent have no formal qualification. The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand's education system as the 7th best in the world, with students performing exceptionally well in reading, mathematics and science.","New Zealand\n\nReligion","New Zealand\n\nChristianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand, although its society is among the most secular in the world. In the 2013 Census, 55.0 percent of the population identified with one or more religions, including 49.0 percent identifying as Christians. Another 41.9 percent indicated that they had no religion. The main Christian denominations are Roman Catholicism (12.6 percent), Anglicanism (11.8 percent), Presbyterianism (8.5 percent) and \"Christian not further defined\" (i.e. people identifying as Christian but not stating the denomination, 5.5 percent). The Māori-based Ringatū and Rātana religions (1.4 percent) are also Christian. Other significant minority religions include Hinduism (2.3 percent), Buddhism (1.5 percent) and Islam (1.2 percent). The indigenous Māori Christians tend to be associated with the Anglican and Catholic churches, while Pacific people tend to be Presbyterian, Methodist, Catholic and Latter-day Saint adherents.","New Zealand\n\nCulture","New Zealand\n\nEarly Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whanau), sub-tribes (hapu) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira) whose position was subject to the community's approval. The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture, particularly with the introduction of Christianity. However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples. More recently American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.","New Zealand\n\nThe largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers. Modesty was expected and enforced through the \"tall poppy syndrome\", where high achievers received harsh criticism. At the time New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country. From the early 20th century until the late 1960s Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders. In the 1960s, as higher education became more available and cities expanded urban culture began to dominate. Even though the majority of the population now lives in cities, much of New Zealand's art, literature, film and humour has rural themes. From around the middle of the 20th century, many cultural icons called Kiwiana, started to emerge that now help to define what it means to be a New Zealander; such as the silver fern and the paua shell.","New Zealand\n\nArt","New Zealand\n\nAs part of the resurgence of Māori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence. Most Māori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a grotesque head. Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings. The pre-eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs.","New Zealand\n\nMāori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of red ochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls. Māori tattoos (moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel. Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand. Portraits of Māori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as \"noble savages\", exotic beauties or friendly natives. The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to developed their own distinctive style of regionalism. During the 1960s and 70s many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms. New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the \"Paradise Now\" exhibition in New York in 2004.","New Zealand\n\nMāori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes. Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being the hei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side. Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions. Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre. However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition.","New Zealand\n\nLiterature","New Zealand\n\nMāori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form. Most early English literature was obtained from Britain and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known. Although still largely influenced by global trends (modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit. Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished. Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature.","New Zealand\n\nMedia and entertainment","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand music has been influenced by blues, jazz, country, rock and roll and hip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation. Māori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient South-East Asian origins, and after centuries of isolation created a unique \"monotonous\" and \"doleful\" sound. Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments or as signalling devices during war or special occasions. Early settlers brought over their ethnic music, with brass bands and choral music being popular, and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s. Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century. The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States. Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence. The New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by Recorded Music NZ; the awards were first held in 1965 by Reckitt & Colman as the Loxene Golden Disc awards. Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country's official weekly record charts.","New Zealand\n\nRadio first arrived in New Zealand in 1922 and television in 1960. The number of New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s. In 1978 the New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film-makers and many films attained a world audience, some receiving international acknowledgement. The highest grossing New Zealand movies include: Hunt for the Wilderpeople, Boy, The World's Fastest Indian, Once Were Warriors, and Whale Rider. Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations. New Zealand television primarily broadcasts American and British programming, along with a large number of Australian and local shows. The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives, have encouraged some producers to film big budget movies in New Zealand, including Avatar, The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit, The Chronicles of Narnia, King Kong and The Last Samurai. The New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies, most of which are foreign-owned, although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations. Between 2003 and 2008, Reporters Without Borders consistently ranked New Zealand's press freedom in the top twenty.","New Zealand\n\n, New Zealand was ranked 13th worldwide in press freedom by Freedom House, with the 2nd freest media in the Asia-Pacific region after Palau.","New Zealand\n\nSports","New Zealand\n\nMost of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins. Rugby union is considered the national sport and attracts the most spectators. Golf, netball, tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation, while netball, rugby union and football (soccer) is popular among young people. Around 54 percent of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school. Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity. Horseracing was also a popular spectator sport and became part of the \"Rugby, Racing and Beer\" culture during the 1960s. Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby and the country's team performs a haka, a traditional Māori challenge, before international matches.","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand has competitive international teams in rugby union, netball, cricket, rugby league, and softball and has traditionally done well in triathlons, rowing, yachting and cycling. New Zealand participated at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1912 as a joint team with Australia, before first participating on its own in 1920. The country has ranked highly on a medals-to-population ratio at recent Games. The All Blacks, the national men's rugby union team, are the most successful in the history of international rugby and the reigning World Cup champions. New Zealand is known for its extreme sports, adventure tourism and strong mountaineering tradition, as seen in the success of notable New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary. Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling, fishing, swimming, running, tramping, canoeing, hunting, snowsports and surfing are also popular. The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has increased in popularity and is now an international sport involving teams from all over the Pacific.","New Zealand\n\nCuisine","New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand's cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, drawing inspiration from Europe, Asia and Polynesia. For dishes that have a distinctly New Zealand style, there's lamb, pork and cervena (venison), salmon, crayfish (lobster), Bluff oysters, whitebait, paua (abalone), mussels, scallops, pipis and tuatua (both are types of New Zealand shellfish), kumara (sweet potato), kiwifruit, tamarillo and pavlova, the national dessert. A Hāngi is a traditional New Zealand Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven. New Zealand food's distinctiveness is more in the way New Zealanders eat, generally preferring as relaxed and unaffected as possible, in keeping with the laidback Kiwi psyche. New Zealand's climate is ideal for fine wine growing, wineries and vineyards.","Mountaineering\n\nThe term mountaineering describes the sport of mountain climbing, including ski mountaineering. Hiking in the mountains can also be a simple form of mountaineering when it involves scrambling, or short stretches of the more basic grades of rock climbing, as well as crossing glaciers.","Mountaineering\n\nWhile mountaineering began as attempts to reach the highest point of unclimbed big mountains it has branched into specializations that address different aspects of the mountain and consists of three (3) areas: rock-craft, snow-craft, and skiing, depending on whether the route chosen is over rock, snow or ice. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge to maintain safety.","Mountaineering\n\nMountaineering is often called Alpinism, especially in European languages, which implies climbing with difficulty such high, and often snow and ice-covered mountains as the Alps. A mountaineer with such great skill is called an Alpinist. The word alpinism was born in the 19th century to refer to climbing for the purpose of enjoying climbing itself as a sport or recreation, distinct from merely climbing while hunting or as a religious pilgrimage that had been done generally at that time.","Mountaineering\n\nThe UIAA or Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme is the world governing body in mountaineering and climbing, addressing issues like access, medical, mountain protection, safety, youth and ice climbing.","Mountaineering\n\nHistory","Mountaineering\n\nFirst climbs","Mountaineering\n\nHistorically, many cultures have harbored superstitions about mountains, which they often regarded as sacred due to their proximity with heaven, such as Mount Olympus for the Ancient Greeks.","Mountaineering\n\nIn 1492, Antoine de Ville, lord of Domjulien and Beaupré, was the first to ascend the Mont Aiguille, in France, with a little team, using ladders and ropes. It appears to be the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty, and has been said to mark the beginning of mountaineering.","Mountaineering\n\nIn 1573 Francesco De Marchi and Francesco Di Domenico ascended Corno Grande, the highest peak in the Apennine Mountains. During the Enlightenment, as a product of the new spirit of curiosity for the natural world, many mountain summits were surmounted for the first time. Richard Pococke and William Windham made a historic visit to Chamonix in 1741. In 1760, the Swiss scientist, Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, offered a reward for the first person to ascend Mont Blanc in France, which was claimed in 1786.","Mountaineering\n\nBy the early 19th century many of the alpine peaks were reached; the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813.","Mountaineering\n\nEmergence as a sport","Mountaineering\n\nThe beginning of mountaineering as a systematic sport is generally dated to the ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854 by Sir Alfred Wills who made mountaineering fashionable, especially in Britain. This inaugurated what became known as the Golden age of alpinism, with the first mountaineering club - the Alpine Club - being founded in 1857.","Mountaineering\n\nProminent figures of the period include Lord Francis Douglas, Florence Crauford Grove, Charles Hudson, E. S. Kennedy, William Mathews, A. W. Moore, Leslie Stephen, Francis Fox Tuckett, John Tyndall, Horace Walker and Edward Whymper. Well-known guides of the era include Christian Almer, Jakob Anderegg, Melchior Anderegg, J. J. Bennen, Michel Croz, Johannes Zumtaugwald.","Mountaineering\n\nIn the early years of the \"golden age\", scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years of the \"golden age\", it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and alpine mountaineering overall.","Mountaineering\n\nOne of the most dramatic events was the spectacular first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865, by a party led by the English illustrator, Edward Whymper - four of the party members fell to their deaths. This ascent is generally regarded as marking the end of the mountaineering golden age. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a body of professional guides, equipment and fixed guidelines.","Mountaineering\n\nExpansion around the world","Mountaineering\n\nFocus shifted toward the exploration of other ranges such as the Pyrenees and the Caucasus Mountains; the latter owed much to the initiative of D. W. Freshfield who was the first man to conquer the summit of Mount Kazbek. Most of its great peaks were successfully conquered by the late 1880s.","Mountaineering\n\nMountaineering in the Americas became popular in the 1800s. In North America, Pikes Peak (14410 ft) in the Colorado Rockies, was first climbed by Edwin James and two others in 1820. Though lower than Pikes Peak, the heavily glaciated Fremont Peak (13745 ft) in Wyoming was thought to be the tallest mountain in the Rockies when it was first climbed by John C. Frémont and two others in 1842. Pico de Orizaba (18491 ft), the tallest peak in Mexico and third tallest in North America, was first summited by U.S. military personnel which included William F. Raynolds and a half dozen other climbers in 1848. Heavily glaciated and more technical climbs in North American were not achieved until the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1897, Mount Saint Elias (18008 ft) on the Alaska-Yukon border was summited by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party. But it was not until 1913 that Mount Mckinley (20237 ft), the tallest peak in North America, was successfully climbed. Mount Logan (19551 ft), the tallest peak in Canada, was first summitted by a half dozen climbers in 1925 in an expedition that took more than two months.","Mountaineering\n\nThe exploration of the highest Andes in South America begun in 1879-1880, when Whymper climbed Chimborazo (20564 ft) and explored the mountains of Ecuador. The Cordillera between Chile and Argentina was visited by Paul Güssfeldt in 1883, who ascended the volcano Maipo (17270 ft) and attempted to climb the tallest mountain in the Americas, Aconcagua (22837 ft) that same year but was unsuccessful. The summit of Aconcagua was finally reached in 1897 by Matthias Zurbriggen during an expedition led by Edward FitzGerald that lasted several months. The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898, who later visited the mountains of Tierra del Fuego on the southern tip of South America.","Mountaineering\n\nNew Zealand's Southern Alps were first visited in 1882 by the Reverend Green and in 1894 Tom Fyfe and party climbed Aoraki / Mount Cook. By the turn of the century, mountaineering had acquired a more international flavour; Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa was climbed in 1889 by Ludwig Purtscheller and Hans Meyer, Mt. Kenya in 1899 by Halford Mackinder, and a peak of Ruwenzori by H. J. Moore in 1900.","Mountaineering\n\nThe last frontier: The Himalayas","Mountaineering\n\nThe last and greatest mountain range was the Himalayas in Central Asia. They had initially been surveyed by the British Empire for military and strategic reasons. In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway explored the Karakoram Himalayas, and climbed a peak of 23000 ft In 1895 Albert F. Mummery died while attempting Nanga Parbat, while in 1899 D. W. Freshfield took an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim. In 1899, 1903, 1906 and 1908 Mrs Fannie Bullock Workman made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (23,300 ft). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Charles Granville Bruce, and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them.","Mountaineering\n\nIn 1902, the Eckenstein-Crowley Expedition, led by English mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and author and occultist Aleister Crowley, was the first to attempt to scale Chogo Ri (now known as K2 in the west). They reached 22000 ft before turning back due to weather and other mishaps. Undaunted, in 1905 Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world. Four members of the party were killed in an avalanche and they failed to reach the summit.","Mountaineering\n\nEckenstein was also a pioneer in developing new equipment and climbing methods. He started using shorter ice axes which could be used single-handed, designed the modern crampons and improved on the nail patterns used for the climbing boots.","Mountaineering\n\nBy the 1950s, all the eight-thousanders but two had been climbed starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal. The last great peak was the highest of them all, Mount Everest. The British had made several attempts in the 1920s; the 1922 expedition reached 8320 m before being aborted on the third summit attempt after an avalanche killed seven porters. The 1924 expedition saw another height record achieved but still failed to reach the summit with confirmation when George Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappeared on the final attempt. The summit was finally reached on May 29, 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay from the south side in Nepal.","Mountaineering\n\nJust a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), a siege-style expedition culminating in a last 1,300 meters walking alone, being under the influence of drugs: pervitin (based on the stimulant methamphetamine used by soldiers during World War II), padutin and tea from coca leaves. K2 (8,611 m), the second-highest peak in the world, was first scaled in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni. In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was Shishapangma (8,013 m), the lowest of all the 8,000 metre peaks.","Mountaineering\n\nTechnique","Mountaineering\n\nMountaineering techniques vary greatly depending on location, season, and the particular route a mountaineer chooses to climb. Mountaineers train to climb on all types of terrain whether it be snow, glacier, glacial Ice, water ice, or rock. Each type of terrain presents its own hazards. Climbers must be skilled in dealing with the different challenges that could arise from different terrain.","Mountaineering\n\nSnow","Mountaineering\n\nCompacted snow conditions allow mountaineers to progress on foot. Frequently crampons are required to travel efficiently over snow and ice. Crampons attach to a mountaineer's boots to provide additional traction on hard snow (névé) and ice. Using various techniques from alpine skiing and mountaineering to ascend/descend a mountain is a form of the sport by itself, called ski mountaineering. Ascending and descending a snow slope safely requires the use of an ice axe and many different footwork techniques that have been developed over the past century, mainly in Europe (e.g. French technique and German technique). The progression of footwork from the lowest angle slopes to the steepest terrain is first to splay the feet to a rising traverse, to kicking steps, to front pointing the crampons. The progression of ice axe technique from the lowest angle slopes to the steepest terrain is to use the ice axe first as a walking stick, then a stake, then to use the front pick as a dagger below the shoulders or above, and finally to swinging the pick into the slope over the head.","Mountaineering\n\nThese various techniques may involve questions of differing ice-axe design depending on terrain, and even whether a mountaineer uses one or two ice axes. Anchors for the rope in snow are sometimes unreliable, and include the snow stakes, called pickets, deadman devices called flukes which are fashioned from aluminium, or devised from buried objects that might include an ice axe, skis, rocks or other objects. Bollards, which are simply carved out of consolidated snow or ice, also sometimes serve as anchors.","Mountaineering\n\nGlaciers","Mountaineering\n\nWhen travelling over glaciers, crevasses pose a grave danger. These giant cracks in the ice are not always visible as snow can be blown and freeze over the top to make a snowbridge. At times snowbridges can be as thin as a few inches. Climbers use a system of ropes to protect themselves from such hazards. Basic gear for glacier travel includes crampons and ice axes. Teams of two to five climbers tie into a rope equally spaced. If a climber begins to fall the other members of the team perform a self-arrest to stop the fall. The other members of the team enact a crevasse rescue to pull the fallen climber from the crevasse.","Mountaineering\n\nIce","Mountaineering\n\nMultiple methods are used to travel safely over ice. The lead climber can place ice screws in the ice and attach the rope for protection. Each climber on the team must clip past the anchor, and the last climber picks up the anchor itself. Occasionally, slinged icicles or bollards are also used. This allows for safety should the entire team be taken off their feet. This technique is known as Simul-climbing and is sometimes also used on steep snow and easy rock.","Mountaineering\n\nIf the terrain becomes too steep, standard ice climbing techniques are used in which each climber is belayed, moving one at a time.","Mountaineering\n\nRock","Mountaineering\n\nAlpine rock climbing involves technical skills including the ability to place traditional protection (cams, nuts, hexes) into the rock to safely ascend a mountain. Climbers will climb multiple pitches of rock in order to reach the top. Typically, teams of 2 will climb with one leader placing the protection, and a follower belaying. The leader will reach a point on the rock to build an anchor. This anchor could be created by using slings around a tree, a large rock horn or boulder, or by using protection devices like cams and nuts to build an anchor in cracks. Once anchored, the leader will then belay the follower up to their position. The leader will then transfer all the necessary protection devices (known as a rack) to the follower. The follower then becomes the leader and will ascend the next pitch. This process will continue until the climbers either reach the top, or run into different terrain. In alpine climbing, it is common for climbers to see routes of mixed terrain. This means climbers may need to move efficiently from climbing glacier, to rock, to ice, back and forth in a number of variations.","Mountaineering\n\nShelter","Mountaineering\n\nClimbers use a few different forms of shelter depending on the situation and conditions. Shelter is a very important aspect of safety for the climber as the weather in the mountains may be very unpredictable. Tall mountains may require many days of camping on the mountain.","Mountaineering\n\nBase Camp","Mountaineering\n\nThe \"Base Camp\" of a mountain is an area used for staging an attempt at the summit. Base camps are positioned to be safe from the harsher conditions above. There are base camps on many popular or dangerous mountains. Where the summit cannot be reached from base camp in a single day, a mountain will have additional camps above base camp. For example, the southeast ridge route on Mount Everest has Base Camp plus (normally) camps I through IV.","Mountaineering\n\nHut","Mountaineering\n\nThe European alpine regions, in particular, have a network of mountain huts (called \"refuges\" in France, \"rifugi\" in Italy, \"cabanes\" in Switzerland, \"Hütten\" in Germany and Austria, \"Bothies\" in Scotland, \"koča\" in Slovenia, \"chaty\" in Slovakia, \"schroniska\" in Poland, \"refugios\" in Spain, \"hytte\" or \"koie\" in Norway, and \"cabane\" in Romanian). Such huts exist at many different heights, including in the high mountains themselves – in extremely remote areas, more rudimentary shelters may exist. The mountain huts are of varying size and quality, but each is typically centred on a communal dining room and have dormitories equipped with mattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows; guests are expected to bring and to use their own sleeping bag liner. The facilities are usually rudimentary but, given their locations, huts offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (by allowing journeys to be broken and reducing the weight of equipment needing to be carried), and offer good value. In Europe, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June to mid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-March to mid-May). Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall.","Mountaineering\n\nHuts also may have a part that is always open, but unmanned, a so-called winter hut. When open and manned, the huts are generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on a voluntary basis by members of Alpine clubs (such as Swiss Alpine Club and Club alpin français) or in North America by Alpine Club of Canada. The manager of the hut, termed a guardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sell refreshments and meals; both to those visiting only for the day and to those staying overnight. The offering is surprisingly wide; given that most supplies, often including fresh water, must be flown in by helicopter, and may include glucose-based snacks (such as Mars and Snickers bars) on which climbers and walkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at the hut, a variety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), and high carbohydrate dinners in the evenings. Not all huts offer a catered service, though, and visitors may need to provide for themselves. Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitors wishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cooking equipment and to cater using the facilities provided.","Mountaineering\n\nBooking for overnight stays at huts is deemed obligatory, and in many cases is essential as some popular huts; even with more than 100 bed spaces may be full during good weather and at weekends. Once made, the cancellation of a reservation is advised as a matter of courtesy – and, indeed, potentially of safety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers and walkers state they planned to walk to next. Most huts may be contacted by telephone and most take credit cards as a means of payment. In the UK the term Hut is used for any cottage or cabin used as a base for walkers or climbers and these are mostly owned by mountaineering clubs for use by members or visiting clubs and generally do not have wardens or permanent staff, but have cooking and washing facilities and heating. In the Scottish Highlands small simple unmanned shelters without cooking facilities known as Bothies are maintained to break up cross country long routes and act as base camps to certain mountains.","Mountaineering\n\nBivouac (bivy or bivvy)","Mountaineering\n\nIn the mountaineering context, a bivouac or \"biv(v)y\" is a makeshift resting or sleeping arrangement in which the climber has less than the full complement of shelter, food and equipment that would normally be present at a conventional campsite. This may involve simply getting a sleeping bag and Bivouac sack/bivvy bag and lying down to sleep. Typically bivvy bags are made from breathable waterproof membranes, which move moisture away from the climber into the outside environment while preventing outside moisture from entering the bag. Many times small partially sheltered areas such as a bergschrund, cracks in rocks or a trench dug in the snow are used to provide additional shelter from wind. These techniques were originally used only in emergency; however some climbers steadfastly committed to alpine style climbing specifically plan for bivouacs in order to save the weight of a tent when suitable snow conditions or time is unavailable for construction of a snow cave. The principal hazard associated with bivouacs is the greater level of exposure to cold and other elements present in harsh conditions high on the mountain.","Mountaineering\n\nTent","Mountaineering\n\nTents are the most common form of shelter used on the mountain. These may vary from simple tarps to much heavier designs intended to withstand harsh mountain conditions. In exposed positions, windbreaks of snow or rock may be required to shelter the tent. One of the downsides to tenting is that high winds and snow loads can be dangerous and may ultimately lead to the tent's failure and collapse. In addition, the constant flapping of the tent fabric can hinder sleep and raise doubts about the security of the shelter. When choosing a tent, alpinists tend to rely on specialised mountaineering tents that are specifically designed for high winds and moderate to heavy snow loads. Tent stakes can be buried in the snow (\"deadman\") for extra security.","Mountaineering\n\nSnow cave","Mountaineering\n\nWhere conditions permit, snow caves are another way to shelter high on the mountain. Some climbers do not use tents at high altitudes unless the snow conditions do not allow for snow caving, since snow caves are silent and much warmer than tents. They can be built relatively easily, given sufficient time, using a snow shovel. A correctly made snow cave will hover around freezing, which relative to outside temperatures can be very warm. They can be dug anywhere where there is at least four feet of snow. The addition of a good quality bivvy bag and closed cell foam sleeping mat will also increase the warmth of the snow cave. Another shelter that works well is a quinzee, which is excavated from a pile of snow that has been work hardened or sintered (typically by stomping). Igloos are used by some climbers, but are deceptively difficult to build and require specific snow conditions.","Mountaineering\n\nHazards","Mountaineering\n\nMountaineering is considered to be one of the most dangerous activities in the world. Loss of life is not uncommon on most major extreme altitude mountaineering destinations every year. Dangers in mountaineering are sometimes divided into two categories: objective hazards that exist without regard to the climber's presence, like rockfall, avalanches and inclement weather, and subjective hazards that relate only to factors introduced by the climber. Equipment failure and falls due to inattention, fatigue or inadequate technique are examples of subjective hazards. A route continually swept by avalanches and storms is said to have a high level of objective danger, whereas a technically far more difficult route that is relatively safe from these dangers may be regarded as objectively safer.","Mountaineering\n\nIn all, mountaineers must concern themselves with dangers: falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses and the dangers from altitude and weather. To select and follow a route using one's skills and experience to mitigate these dangers is to exercise the climber's craft.","Mountaineering\n\nFalling rocks","Mountaineering\n\nEvery rock mountain is slowly disintegrating due to erosion, the process being especially rapid above the snow-line. Rock faces are constantly swept by falling stones, which may be possible to dodge. Falling rocks tend to form furrows in a mountain face, and these furrows (couloirs) have to be ascended with caution, their sides often being safe when the middle is stoneswept. Rocks fall more frequently on some days than on others, according to the recent weather. Ice formed during the night may temporarily bind rocks to the face but warmth of the day or lubricating water from melting snow or rain may easily dislodge these rocks. Local experience is a valuable help on determining typical rock fall on such routes.","Mountaineering\n\nThe direction of the dip of rock strata sometimes determines the degree of danger on a particular face; the character of the rock must also be considered. Where stones fall frequently debris will be found below, whilst on snow slopes falling stones cut furrows visible from a great distance. In planning an ascent of a new peak or an unfamiliar route, mountaineers must look for such traces. When falling stones get mixed in considerable quantity with slushy snow or water a mud avalanche is formed (common in the Himalayas). It is vital to avoid camping in their possible line of fall.","Mountaineering\n\nFalling ice","Mountaineering\n\nThe places where ice may fall can always be determined beforehand. It falls in the broken parts of glaciers (seracs) and from overhanging cornices formed on the crests of narrow ridges. Large icicles are often formed on steep rock faces, and these fall frequently in fine weather following cold and stormy days. They have to be avoided like falling stones. Seracs are slow in formation, and slow in arriving (by glacier motion) at a condition of unstable equilibrium. They generally fall in or just after the hottest part of the day. A skillful and experienced ice-man will usually devise a safe route through a most intricate ice-fall, but such places should be avoided in the afternoon of a hot day. Hanging glaciers (i.e. glaciers perched on steep slopes) often discharge themselves over steep rock-faces, the snout breaking off at intervals. They can always be detected by their debris below. Their track should be avoided.","Mountaineering\n\nFalls from rocks","Mountaineering\n\nA rock climber's skill is shown by their choice of handhold and foothold, and their adhesion to the holds once chosen. Much depends on the ability to estimate the capability of the rock to support the weight placed on it. Many loose rocks are quite firm enough to bear a person's weight, but experience is needed to know which can be trusted, and skill is required in transferring the weight to them without jerking. On rotten rocks the rope must be handled with special care, lest it should dislodge loose stones on to those below. Similar care must be given to handholds and footholds, for the same reason. When a horizontal traverse has to be made across very difficult rocks, a dangerous situation may arise unless at both ends of the traverse there are firm positions. Mutual assistance on hard rocks takes all manner of forms: two, or even three, people climbing on one another's shoulders, or using an ice axe propped up by others for a foothold.","Mountaineering\n\nThe great principle is that of co-operation, all the members of the party climbing with reference to the others, and not as independent units; each when moving must know what the climber in front and the one behind are doing. After bad weather steep rocks are often found covered with a veneer of ice (verglas), which may even render them inaccessible. Crampons are useful on such occasions.","Mountaineering\n\nAvalanches","Mountaineering\n\nEvery year, 120 to 150 people die in small avalanches in the Alps alone. The vast majority of Alpine victims are reasonably experienced male skiers aged 20–35 but also include ski instructors and guides. However a significant number of climbers are killed in Scottish avalanches often on descent and often triggered by the victims. There is always a lot of pressure to risk a snow crossing. Turning back takes a lot of extra time and effort, supreme leadership, and most importantly there is seldom an avalanche that proves the right decision was made. Making the decision to turn around is especially hard if others are crossing the slope, but any next person could become the trigger.","Mountaineering\n\nThere are many types of avalanche, but two types are of the most concern. These are Snow Avalanches and Ice Avalanches:","Mountaineering\n\nSnow Avalanches","Mountaineering\n\n# Slab avalanche\n#: This type of avalanche occurs when a plate of snow breaks loose and starts sliding downhill; these are the largest and most dangerous.\n## Hard slab avalanche\n##: This type of avalanche is formed by hard-packed snow in a cohesive slab. The slab will not break up easily as it slides down the hill, resulting in large blocks tumbling down the mountain.\n## Soft slab avalanche\n##: This type of avalanche is formed again by a cohesive layer of snow bonded together, the slab tends to break up more easily.\n# Loose snow avalanche\n#: This type of avalanche is triggered by a small amount of moving snow that accumulates into a big slide. Also known as a \"wet slide or point release\" avalanche. This type of avalanche is deceptively dangerous as it can still knock a climber or skier off their feet and bury them, or sweep them over a cliff into a terrain trap.","Mountaineering\n\nDangerous slides are most likely to occur on the same slopes preferred by many skiers: long and wide open, few trees or large rocks, 30 to 45 degrees of angle, large load of fresh snow, soon after a big storm, on a slope \"lee to the storm\". Solar radiation can trigger slides as well. These will typically be a point release or wet slough type of avalanche. The added weight of the wet slide can trigger a slab avalanche. Ninety percent of reported victims are caught in avalanches triggered by themselves or others in their group.","Mountaineering\n\nIce Avalanches are a hazard that exists in glaciated mountain ranges. They are caused by the collapse of unstable ice blocks from a steep or overhanging part of a glacier, referred to as a hanging glacier. Due to the fact that they are part of a glacier, ice avalanches can have large amounts of rock in them. Ice avalanches are quite dangerous because they can travel long distances, sometimes as far as 8 km out onto the glacier valley floor. Ice avalanches are a common everyday occurrence in ranges such as the Alaska Range, Saint Elias Mountains, or Columbia Icefield.","Mountaineering\n\nWhen going off-piste or travelling in alpine terrain, parties are advised to always carry:","Mountaineering\n\n# avalanche beacon\n# probe\n# shovel (retrieving victims with a shovel instead of hands is five times faster)","Mountaineering\n\nThey are also advised to have had avalanche training. Ironically, expert skiers who have avalanche training make up a large percentage of avalanche fatalities; perhaps because they are the ones more likely to ski in areas prone to avalanches, and certainly because most people do not practice enough with their equipment to be truly fast and efficient rescuers.","Mountaineering\n\nEven with proper rescue equipment and training, there is a one-in-five chance of dying if caught in a significant avalanche, and only a 50/50 chance of being found alive if buried more than a few minutes. The best solution is to learn how to avoid risky conditions.","Mountaineering\n\nIce slopes","Mountaineering\n\nFor travel on slopes consisting of ice or hard snow, crampons are a standard part of a mountaineer's equipment. While step-cutting can sometimes be used on snow slopes of moderate angle, this can be a slow and tiring process, which does not provide the higher security of crampons. However, in soft snow or powder, crampons are easily hampered by balling of snow, which reduces their effectiveness. In either case, an ice axe not only assists with balance but provides the climber with the possibility of self-arrest in case of a slip or fall. On a true ice slope however, an ice axe is rarely able to effect a self-arrest. As an additional safety precaution on steep ice slopes, the climbing rope is attached to ice screws buried into the ice.","Mountaineering\n\nSnow slopes","Mountaineering\n\nSnow slopes are very common, and usually easy to ascend. At the foot of a snow or ice slope is generally a big crevasse, called a bergschrund, where the final slope of the mountain rises from a snow-field or glacier. Such bergschrunds are generally too wide to be stepped across, and must be crossed by a snow bridge, which needs careful testing and a painstaking use of the rope. A steep snow slope in bad condition may be dangerous, as the whole body of snow may start as an avalanche. Such slopes are less dangerous if ascended directly, rather than obliquely, for an oblique or horizontal track cuts them across and facilitates movement of the mass. New snow lying on ice is especially dangerous. Experience is needed for determining the feasibility of advancement over snow in doubtful condition. Snow on rocks is usually rotten unless it is thick; snow on snow is likely to be sound. A day or two of fine weather will usually bring new snow into sound condition. Snow cannot lie at a very steep angle, though it often deceives the eye as to its slope. Snow slopes seldom exceed 40°. Ice slopes may be much steeper.","Mountaineering\n\nSnow slopes in early morning are usually hard and safe, but the same in the afternoon are quite soft and possibly dangerous; hence the advantage of an early start.","Mountaineering\n\nCrevasses","Mountaineering\n\nCrevasses are the slits or deep chasms formed in the substance of a glacier as it passes over an uneven bed. They may be open or hidden. In the lower part of a glacier the crevasses are open. Above the snow-line they are frequently hidden by arched-over accumulations of winter snow. The detection of hidden crevasses requires care and experience. After a fresh fall of snow they can only be detected by sounding with the pole of the ice axe, or by looking to right and left where the open extension of a partially hidden crevasse may be obvious. The safeguard against accident is the rope, and no one should ever cross a snow-covered glacier unless roped to one, or even better to two companions. Anyone venturing onto crevasses should be trained in crevasse rescue.","Mountaineering\n\nWeather","Mountaineering\n\nThe primary dangers caused by bad weather center on the changes it causes in snow and rock conditions, making movement suddenly much more arduous and hazardous than under normal circumstances.","Mountaineering\n\nWhiteouts make it difficult to retrace a route while rain may prevent taking the easiest line only determined as such under dry conditions. In a storm the mountaineer who uses a compass for guidance has a great advantage over a merely empirical observer. In large snow-fields it is, of course, easier to go wrong than on rocks, but intelligence and experience are the best guides in safely navigating objective hazards.","Mountaineering\n\nSummer thunderstorms may produce intense lightning. If a climber happens to be standing on or near the summit, they risk being struck. There are many cases where people have been struck by lightning while climbing mountains. In most mountainous regions, local storms develop by late morning and early afternoon. Many climbers will get an \"alpine start\"; that is before or by first light so as to be on the way down when storms are intensifying in activity and lightning and other weather hazards are a distinct threat to safety. High winds can speed the onset of hypothermia, as well as damage equipment such as tents used for shelter. Under certain conditions, storms can also create waterfalls which can slow or stop climbing progress. A notable example is the Föhn wind acting upon the Eiger.","Mountaineering\n\nAltitude","Mountaineering\n\nRapid ascent can lead to altitude sickness. The best treatment is to descend immediately. The climber's motto at high altitude is \"climb high, sleep low\", referring to the regimen of climbing higher to acclimatise but returning to lower elevation to sleep. In the South American Andes, the chewing of coca leaves has been traditionally used to treat altitude sickness symptoms.","Mountaineering\n\nCommon symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE (High Altitude Cerebral Edema) and HAPE (High Altitude Pulmonary Edema), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours.","Mountaineering\n\nIn high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe. This is the underlying cause of altitude sickness. Everyone needs to acclimatise, even exceptional mountaineers that have been to high altitude before. Generally speaking, mountaineers start using bottled oxygen when they climb above 7,000 m. Exceptional mountaineers have climbed 8000-metre peaks (including Everest) without oxygen, almost always with a carefully planned program of acclimatisation.","Mountaineering\n\nSolar radiation","Mountaineering\n\nSolar radiation increases significantly as the atmosphere gets thinner with increasing altitude thereby absorbing less ultraviolet radiation. Snow cover reflecting the radiation can amplify the effects by up to 75% increasing the risks and damage from sunburn and snow blindness.","Mountaineering\n\nIn 2005, researcher and mountaineer John Semple established that above-average ozone concentrations on the Tibetan Plateau may pose an additional risk to climbers.","Mountaineering\n\nVolcanic activity","Mountaineering\n\nSome mountains are active volcanoes as in the case of the many stratovolcanoes that form the highest peaks in island arcs and in parts of the Andes. Some of these volcanic mountains may cause several hazards if they erupt, such as lahars, pyroclastic flows, rockfalls, lava flows, heavy tephra fall, volcanic bomb ejections and toxic gases.","Mountaineering\n\nStyles of mountaineering","Mountaineering\n\nThere are two main styles of mountaineering: Expedition style and Alpine style.","Mountaineering\n\nA mountaineer who adopts Alpine style is referred to as an Alpine Mountaineer. Alpine Mountaineers are typically found climbing in medium-sized glaciated mountain areas such as the Alps or Rocky Mountains. Medium-sized generally refers to altitudes in the intermediate altitude (7,000' to 12,000') and first half of high altitude (12,000' to 18,000') ranges. However, alpine style ascents have been done throughout history on extreme altitude (18,000' to 29,000') peaks also, albeit in lower volume to expedition style ascents. Alpine style refers to a particular style of mountain climbing that involves a mixture of snow climbing, ice climbing, rock climbing, and glacier travel, where climbers generally single carry their loads between camps, in a single push for the summit. Light and fast is the mantra of the Alpine Mountaineer.","Mountaineering\n\nThe term alpine style contrasts with expedition style (as commonly undertaken in the Himalayan region or other large ranges of the world), which could be viewed as slow and heavy, where climbers may use porters, pack animals, glacier airplanes, cooks, multiple carries between camps, usage of fixed lines etc. A mountaineer who adopts this style of climbing is referred to as an Expedition Mountaineer. Expedition mountaineers still employ the skill sets of the alpine mountaineer, except they have to deal with expanded time scale, more severe weather exposure, and additional skills unique to expeditionary climbing. The prevalence of expedition style climbing in the Himalaya is largely a function of the nature of the mountains in the region. Because Himalayan base camps can take days or weeks to trek to, and Himalayan mountains can take weeks or perhaps even months to climb, a large number of personnel and amount of supplies may be helpful. This is why expedition style climbing is frequently used on large and isolated peaks in the Himalaya. In Europe and North America there is less of a need for expedition style climbing on most medium-sized mountains.","Mountaineering\n\nThese mountains can often be easily accessed by car or air, are at a lower altitude and can be climbed in a shorter time scale. Expedition style mountaineering can be found in the larger high altitude and extreme altitude North American ranges such as the Alaska Range and Saint Elias Mountains. These remote mountaineering destinations can require up to a 2-week trek by foot, just to make it to base camp. Most expeditions in these regions choose a glacier flight to basecamp. Route length in days from basecamp can vary in these regions, typically from 10 days to 1 month during the climbing season. Winter mountaineering on major peaks in these ranges can generally consume between 30 and 60 days depending on the route, and can generally only be tackled via expedition style mountaineering during this season.","Mountaineering\n\nThe differences between, and advantages and disadvantages of, the two kinds of climbing are as follows:","Mountaineering\n\nExpedition style","Mountaineering\n\n* uses multiple trips between camps to carry supplies up to higher camps\n* group sizes are often larger than alpine style climbs because more supplies are carried between camps\n* fixed lines are often used to minimize the danger involved in continually moving between camps\n* supplemental oxygen is frequently used\n* higher margin of safety in relation to equipment, food, time, and ability to wait out storms at high camps\n* avoidance of being trapped in storms at high altitudes and being forced to descend in treacherous avalanche conditions\n* possible higher exposure to objective hazards such as avalanches or rockfall, due to slower travel times between camps\n* higher capital expenditures\n* longer time scale","Mountaineering\n\nAlpine style","Mountaineering\n\n* climbers climb the route only once because they do not continually climb up and down between camps with supplies\n* fewer supplies are used on the climb, therefore fewer personnel are needed\n* alpine-style ascents do not leave the climber exposed to objective hazards as long as an expedition-style climb does; however, because of the speed of the ascent relative to an expedition-style climb there is less time for acclimatization\n* supplemental oxygen is not used\n* danger of being trapped at high altitude due to storms, potentially being exposed to HAPE or HACE\n* lower capital expenditures\n* shorter time scale","Mountaineering\n\nLocations","Mountaineering\n\nMountaineering has become a popular sport throughout the world. In Europe the sport largely originated in the Alps, and is still immensely popular there. Other notable mountain ranges frequented by climbers include the Caucasus, the Pyrenees, Rila mountains, the Tatra Mountains and the rest of the Carpathian Mountains, as well the Sudetes. In North America climbers frequent the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada of California, the Cascades of the Pacific Northwest, the high peaks of The Alaska Range and Saint Elias Mountains.","Mountaineering\n\nThere has been a long tradition of climbers going on expeditions to the Greater Ranges, a term generally used for the Andes and the high peaks of Asia including the Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindu Kush, Pamir Mountains, Tien Shan and Kunlun Mountains. In the past this was often on exploratory trips or to make first ascents. With the advent of cheaper, long-haul air travel, mountaineering holidays in the Greater Ranges are now undertaken much more frequently and ascents of even Everest and Vinson Massif (the highest mountain in Antarctica) are offered as a \"package holiday\".","Mountaineering\n\nOther mountaineering areas of interest include the Southern Alps of New Zealand, the Coast Mountains of British Columbia, the Scottish Highlands, and the mountains of Scandinavia, especially Norway.","Sherpa people\n\nSherpa (Tibetan: \"eastern people\", from shar \"east\" and pa \"people\") are an ethnic group from the most mountainous region of Nepal, high in the Himalayas.","Sherpa people\n\nSherpa as a surname appears to be the result of the Nepalese government census takers. Not recognizing that some people only have one name, they wrote the word on census forms in the space for last name. In some cases the clan name was written and in others the ethnicity, i.e. Sherpa. These have then been adopted or forced to be used as last names, last names not being a part of Sherpa culture.","Sherpa people\n\nMost Sherpa people live in Nepal's eastern regions; however, some live farther west in the Rolwaling valley and in the Helambu region north of Kathmandu. Tengboche is the oldest Sherpa village in Nepal, they also live in Tibet, and Bhutan, as well as the Indian states of Sikkim and the northern portion of West Bengal, specifically the town of Darjeeling.\nThe Sherpa language belongs to the south branch of the Tibeto-Burman languages, and it is mixed Eastern Tibet (Khamba) and Lhasa dialogue. However, this language is separate from Lhasa Tibetan and unintelligible to Lhasa speakers.","Sherpa people\n\nThe number of Sherpas migrating to the West has significantly increased in recent years, especially to the United States. New York City has the largest Sherpa community in the United States, with a population of approximately 2,500. The 2001 Nepal census recorded 154,622 Sherpas within its borders.","Sherpa people\n\nHistory","Sherpa people\n\nThe Sherpa were nomadic people who first settled in the Solukhumbu District (Khumbu), Nepal then gradually moved westward along salt trade routes. According to Sherpa oral history, four groups migrated out of Solukhumbu at different times, giving rise to the four main Sherpa clans: Minyagpa, Thimmi, Sertawa and Chawa. These four groups have since split into the more than 20 different clans that exist today. About 1840 Sherpa ancestors migrated from Kham. Mahayana Buddhism religious conflict may have contributed to the migration in the 15th and 16th centuries. Sherpa migrants traveled through Ü and Tsang, before crossing the Himalaya.","Sherpa people\n\nBy the 1800s, Khumbu Sherpa people attained autonomy within the newly formed Nepali state. In the 1960s, as tension with China increased, Nepali government influence on the Sherpa people grew. In 1976, Khumbu became a national park and tourism became a major economic force.","Sherpa people\n\nAccording to Oppitz (1968), Sherpas migrated from the Kham region in eastern Tibet to Nepal within the last 300–400 years. On the other hand, Gautam (1994) concluded that Sherpa migrated from Tibet approximately 600 years ago, through the Nangpa La pass. It is presumed that the group of people from Kham region, east of Tibet, was called \"Shyar Khamba\" (People who came from eastern Kham), and the place where they settled was called \"Shyar Khumbu\". As the time passed the \"Shyar Khamba\", inhabitants of Shyar Khumbu, were called Sherpa. A recent Nepal Ethnographic Museum (2001) study postulated that present-day Nepal became an integral part of the kingdom of Nepal. Since ancient times Sherpas, like other indigenous Kirat Nepalese tribes, would move from one place to another place within the Himalayan region as Alpine pastoralists and traders. Genetic evidence shows that the majority of Sherpa have a Tibeto-Burman origin, considerable genetic components from Indian Subcontinent have been observed in Sherpa people living in Tibet. The western Y chromosomal haplogroups R1a1a-M17, J-M304, and F*-M89 comprise almost 17% of Sherpa paternal gene pool.","Sherpa people\n\nIn the maternal side, M5c2, M21d, and U from the west also count up to 8% of Sherpa people.","Sherpa people\n\nMountaineering","Sherpa people\n\nSherpas are highly regarded as elite mountaineers and experts in their local area. They were immeasurably valuable to early explorers of the Himalayan region, serving as guides at the extreme altitudes of the peaks and passes in the region, particularly for expeditions to climb Mount Everest. Today, the term is often used by foreigners to refer to almost any guide, climbing supporter hired for mountaineering expeditions in the Himalayas, regardless of their ethnicity. Because of this usage, the term has become a slang byword for a guide or mentor in other situations. Sherpas are renowned in the international climbing and mountaineering community for their hardiness, expertise, and experience at very high altitudes. It has been speculated that a part of the Sherpas' climbing ability is the result of a genetic adaptation to living in high altitudes. Some of these adaptations include unique hemoglobin-binding capacity and doubled nitric oxide production.","Sherpa people\n\nDeaths in 2014 Everest avalanche","Sherpa people\n\nOn 18 April 2014, a serac collapsed above the Khumbu Icefall on Mount Everest, causing an avalanche of massive chunks of ice and snow which killed 16 Nepalese guides, mostly Sherpas. The 2014 avalanche is the second deadliest disaster in Everest's history, only superseded by avalanches in the Khumbu Icefall area just a year later, on 25 April 2015, caused by a magnitude 7.8 earthquake in Nepal. In response to that tragedy and others involving deaths and injuries sustained by Sherpas hired by climbers, and the lack of government support for Sherpas injured or killed while providing their services, some Sherpa climbing guides walked off the job, and some climbing companies are no longer providing guides and porters for Everest expeditions.","Sherpa people\n\nReligion","Sherpa people\n\nAccording to oral Buddhist traditions, the initial Tibetan migration was a search for a beyul (Buddhist pure-lands). Sherpas belong to the Nyingmapa, the \"Ancient\" school of Tibetan Buddhism. Allegedly the oldest Buddhist sect in Tibet, founded by Padmasambhava (commonly known as Guru Rinpoche) during the 8th century, it emphasizes mysticism and the incorporation of local deities shared by the pre-Buddhist Bon religion, which has shamanic elements. Sherpa particularly believe in hidden treasures and valleys. Traditionally, Nyingmapa practice was passed down orally through a loose network of lay practitioners. Monasteries with celibate monks and nuns, along with the belief in reincarnated spiritual leaders, are later adaptations.","Sherpa people\n\nIn addition to Buddha and the great Buddhist divinities, the Sherpa also believe in numerous deities and demons who inhabit every mountain, cave, and forest. These have to be respected or appeased through ancient practices woven into the fabric of Buddhist ritual life. Many of the great Himalayan mountains are considered sacred. The Sherpas call Mount Everest Chomolungma and respect it as the \"Mother of the World.\" Mount Makalu is respected as the deity Shankar (Shiva). Each clan reveres certain mountain peaks and their protective deities.","Sherpa people\n\nToday, the day-to-day Sherpas religious affairs are presided over by lamas (Buddhist spiritual leaders) and other religious practitioners living in the villages. The village lama who presides over ceremonies and rituals can be a celibate monk or a married householder. In addition, shamans (lhawa) and soothsayers (mindung) deal with the supernatural and the spirit world. Lamas identify witches (pem), act as the mouthpiece of deities and spirits, and diagnose spiritual illnesses.","Sherpa people\n\nAn important aspect of Sherpa religion is the monastery or gompa. There are some two dozen gompas scattered throughout the Solukhumbu region. They are communities of lamas or monks (sometimes of nuns) who take a vow of celibacy and lead a life of isolation searching for truth and religious enlightenment. They are respected by and supported by the community at large. Their contact with the outside world is focused on monastery practices and annual festivals to which the public is invited, as well as the reading of sacred texts at funerals.","Sherpa people\n\nMinority religions for Sherpas include Hinduism and Roman Catholicism.","Sherpa people\n\nTraditional clothing","Sherpa people\n\nMen wear long-sleeved robes called kitycow, which fall to slightly below the knee. Chhuba is tied at the waist with a cloth sash called kara, creating a pouch-like space called tolung which can be used for storing and carrying small items. Traditionally, chhuba were made from thick home-spun wool, or a variant called lokpa made from sheepskin. Chhuba are worn over raatuk, a blouse (traditionally made out of bure, white raw silk), trousers called kanam, and an outer jacket called tetung.","Sherpa people\n\nWomen traditionally wear long-sleeved floor-length dresses of thick wool called tongkok. A sleeveless variation called angi is worn over a raatuk (blouse) in warmer weather. These are worn with colourful striped aprons; metil aprons are worn in front, and gewe in back, and are held together by an embossed silver buckle called kyetig.","Sherpa people\n\nSherpa clothing resembles Tibetan clothing. Increasingly, home-spun wool and silk is being replaced by factory-made material. Many Sherpa people also now wear ready-made western clothing.","Sherpa people\n\nTraditional housing","Sherpa people\n\nWhen a son marries and has children, the community may help to construct a new house, as the extended family becomes too large for a single home. The neighbors often contribute food, drinks and labor to help the family. Houses are typically spaced to allow fields in between. A spiritual ceremony may be conducted at every building stage as the house must have space for deities, humans and animals. Once constructed, the house is often handed down within a family and not sold. The house style depends on the lay of the land: old river terraces, former lake beds or mountain slopes. There are stone single story, one and a half story (on a slope), and the two story houses, with ample room for animals. Many well-to-do families will have an annex shrine room for sacred statues, scriptures and ritual objects. The roof is sloping and is made from local natural materials, or imported metal. There's space in the roof to allow for fire smoke to escape. There may be an internal or external outhouse for making compost.","Sherpa people\n\nSocial Gatherings","Sherpa people\n\nA Sherpa community will most commonly get together for a party, which is held by the host with the purpose of gaining favor with the community and manipulating neighbors. Guests are invited hours before the party will start by the host’s children to reduce the chance of rejection. The men are seated by order of status, with those of lesser status sitting closer to the door and men of higher status sitting by the fireplace, while the women sit in the center with no ordering. It is polite to sit in a space lower than one’s proper place so one may be invited by the host to their proper place. The first several hours of the party will have only beer served, followed by the serving of food, and then several more hours of singing and dancing before people start to drift out. The act of manipulating one’s neighbors into cooperation by hosting a party is known as Yangdzi, and works by expecting the hospitality done by the host with the serving of food and alcohol to be repaid.","Sherpa people\n\nFamous Sherpas","Sherpa people\n\nOne of the most well known Sherpas is Tenzing Norgay. In 1953, he and Sir Edmund Hillary became the first people known to have reached the summit of Mount Everest. Norgay's son Jamling Tenzing Norgay also climbed Everest in honor of his father with the mountaineers Ed Viesturs and Araceli Segarra during the disastrous year of 1996.","Sherpa people\n\nIn 2001, Temba Tsheri became the youngest Everest climber in the world (holder of Guinness book of world record), then aged 16.","Sherpa people\n\nIn 2003, Sherpas Pemba Dorje and Lhakpa Gelu competed to see who could climb Everest from base camp the fastest. On 23 May 2003, Dorje reached the summit in 12 hours and 46 minutes. Three days later, Gelu beat his record by two hours, reaching the summit in 10 hours 46 minutes. On 21 May 2004, Dorje again improved the time by more than two hours with a total time of 8 hours and 10 minutes.","Sherpa people\n\nOn 11 May 2011, Apa Sherpa successfully reached the summit of Everest for the twenty-first time, breaking his own record for the most successful ascents. He first climbed Mount Everest in 1989 at the age of 29.","Sherpa people\n\nOne of the most famous Nepalese female mountaineers was Pasang Lhamu Sherpa, the first Nepali female climber to reach the summit of Everest, but who died during the descent. Another well-known female Sherpa was the two-time Everest summiter Pemba Doma Sherpa, who died after falling from Lhotse on 22 May 2007.","Sherpa people\n\nOn May 20, 2011, Mingma Sherpa became the first Nepali and the first South Asian to scale all 14 of the world's highest mountains. In the process, Mingma set new world record – he became the first mountaineer to climb all 14 peaks on first attempt.","Sherpa people\n\nLakpa Tsheri Sherpa is one half of a Nepali duo that was voted \"People's Choice Adventurers of the Year 2012\". In April 2011, Lakpa Tsheri and Sano Babu Sunuwar made the 'Ultimate Descent': a three-month journey in which they climbed Everest, then paraglided down the mountain and proceeded to kayak through Nepal and India until they reached the Indian Ocean.","Sherpa people\n\nOn 19 May 2012, 16-year-old Nima Chhamzi Sherpa became the youngest woman to climb Everest; the previous record holder was Nimdoma Sherpa, who summited in 2008, also at 16 years old.","Sherpa people\n\nChhurim Sherpa (Nepal) summitted Everest twice in May 2012: 12 May and 19 May. Guinness World Records recognized her for being the first female Sherpa to summit Everest twice in one climbing season.","Sherpa people\n\nIn 2013, 30-year-old Chhang Dawa Sherpa became the youngest mountaineer to summit the 14 highest peaks, the 8000'ers.","Sherpa people\n\nOn July 26, 2014, Pasang Lhamu Sherpa, Dawa Yangzum Sherpa, and Maya Sherpa crested the 28,251-foot (8,611-meter) summit of K2, the second highest mountain in the world. In doing so, the three Nepali women have become the first all-female team to climb what many mountaineers consider a much tougher challenge than Everest. The feat was announced in climbing circles as a breakthrough achievement for women in high-altitude mountaineering. Only 18 of the 376 people who have summited K2 have been women.","Sherpa people\n\nAnother notable Sherpa is cross-country skier and ultramarathoner Dachhiri Sherpa who represented Nepal at the 2006, 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics."],"string":"[\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand () is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses – that of the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu – and numerous smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1500 km east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1000 km south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of animal, fungal and plant life. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealand's capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nSometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that would later become New Zealand, and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Abel Tasman, a Dutch explorer, became the first European to sight New Zealand. In 1840, representatives of the British Crown and Māori Chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, making New Zealand a British colony. Today, the majority of New Zealand's population of 4.7 million is of European descent; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealand's culture is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers, with recent broadening arising from increased immigration. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, with English predominant.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand is a developed country with a market economy. New Zealand is a World Bank high-income economy and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Nationally, legislative authority is vested in an elected, unicameral Parliament, while executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister, who is currently John Key. Queen Elizabeth II is the country's head of state and is represented by a Governor-General. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes. The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau (a dependent territory); the Cook Islands and Niue (self-governing states in free association with New Zealand); and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nDutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, supposing it was connected to a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America. In 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nAotearoa (often translated as \\\"land of the long white cloud\\\") is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans, with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island. Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui (the fish of Māui) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura). In 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu. Note that for each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans. Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300, concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands. Over the centuries that followed, these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori. The population was divided into iwi (tribes) and hapū (subtribes) who would sometimes cooperate, sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other. At some point, a group of Māori migrated to the Chatham Islands (which they named Rēkohu) where they developed their distinct Moriori culture. The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862, largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s, although European diseases also contributed. In 1862, only 101 survived and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nThe first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642. In a hostile encounter, four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot. Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline. Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for timber, Māori food, artifacts and water. The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns. The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori. From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population. The Māori population declined to around 40 percent of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nIn 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand. The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori. In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of the Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection. Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for Great Britain and negotiate a treaty with the Māori. The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nIn response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa, Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign. With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand, still part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate Colony of New Zealand on 1 July 1841. The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854. In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy. (Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s.) Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near the Cook Strait. Wellington was chosen for its harbour and central location, with parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865. As immigrant numbers increased, conflicts over land led to the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, resulting in the loss and confiscation of much Māori land.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nIn 1891 the Liberal Party led by John Ballance came to power as the first organised political party. The Liberal Government, later led by Richard Seddon, passed many important social and economic measures. In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions. In 1898 Seddon's government passed the Old-age Pensions Act of 1898, the first general pensions scheme in the British Empire.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nIn 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a dominion within the British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status. Accordingly, the title \\\"Dominion of New Zealand\\\" dates from 1907.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nIn 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand. New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting, as part of the British Empire, in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through the Great Depression. The depression led to the election of the first Labour government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy. New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following World War II and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work. A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and the Treaty of Waitangi. In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985. The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi, although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nPolitics\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nGovernment\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy, although its constitution is not codified. Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and the head of state. The Queen is represented by the Governor-General, whom she appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Governor-General can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers, such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers, ambassadors and other key public officials, and in rare situations, the reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the Royal Assent of a bill into law). The powers of the Queen and the Governor-General are limited by constitutional constraints and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of Cabinet.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nThe New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the Queen and the House of Representatives. It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950. The supremacy of Parliament, over the Crown and other government institutions, was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand. The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a Government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats. If no majority is formed a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured. The Governor-General appoints ministers under advice from the Prime Minister, who is by convention the Parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition. Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the Prime Minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions. By convention, members of cabinet are bound by collective responsibility to decisions made by cabinet.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nAlmost all parliamentary general elections between and were held under the first-past-the-post voting system. The elections since 1930 have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour. Since the , a form of proportional representation called Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) has been used. Under the MMP system each person has two votes; one is for electoral seats (including some reserved for Māori), and the other is for a party. Since the , there have been 71 electorate seats (which includes 7 Māori electorates), and the remaining 49 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote, although a party has to win one electoral seat or 5 percent of the total party vote before it is eligible for these seats. Between March 2005 and August 2006 New Zealand became the only country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land (Head of State, Governor-General, Prime Minister, Speaker and Chief Justice) were occupied simultaneously by women.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nJudges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain constitutional independence from the government. This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions. The Privy Council in London was the country's final court of appeal until 2004, when it was replaced with the newly established Supreme Court of New Zealand. The judiciary, headed by the Chief Justice, includes the Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed nations. , the country was ranked fifth in the strength of its democratic institutions and first in government transparency and lack of corruption. New Zealand has a high level of civic participation, with 79% voter turnout during the most recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 72%. Furthermore, 67% of New Zealanders say they trust their political institutions, far higher than the OECD average of 56%.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nForeign relations and the military\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nEarly colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy. The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate their own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Savage proclaiming, \\\"Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand.\\\"\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nIn 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests, while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty. The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War, the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy. Despite the US's suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend. Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions. In 2013, there are about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is about 15 percent of the population of New Zealand. 65,000 Australians live in New Zealand.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries. A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment. Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year. A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it. New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit). New Zealand is also a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the Five Power Defence Arrangements.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nThe New Zealand Defence Force has three branches: the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. New Zealand's national defence needs are modest because of the unlikelihood of direct attack, although it does have a global presence. The country fought in both world wars, with notable campaigns in Gallipoli, Crete, El Alamein and Cassino. The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand's national identity and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia. According to Mary Edmond-Paul, \\\"World War I had left scars on New Zealand society, with nearly 18,500 in total dying as a result of the war, more than 41,000 wounded, and others affected emotionally, out of an overseas fighting force of about 103,000 and a population of just over a million.\\\" New Zealand also played key parts in the naval Battle of the River Plate and the Battle of Britain air campaign. During World War II, the United States had more than 400,000 American military personnel stationed in New Zealand.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nIn addition to Vietnam and the two world wars, New Zealand fought in the Korean War, the Second Boer War, the Malayan Emergency, the Gulf War and the Afghanistan War. It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions, such as those in Cyprus, Somalia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Sinai, Angola, Cambodia, the Iran–Iraq border, Bougainville, East Timor, and the Solomon Islands. New Zealand also sent a unit of army engineers to help rebuild Iraqi infrastructure for one year during the Iraq War.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand ranks 8th in the Center for Global Development's 2012 Commitment to Development Index, which ranks the world's most developed countries on their dedication to policies that benefit poorer nations. New Zealand is considered the fourth most peaceful country in the world according to the 2014 Global Peace Index.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nLocal government and external territories\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nOfficially, New Zealand is divided into 16 regions.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nThe early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of autonomy. Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876. As a result, New Zealand now has no separately represented subnational entities. The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays and sporting rivalries.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nSince 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government. In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities. The 249 municipalities that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils. The regional councils' role is to regulate \\\"the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management\\\", while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents and other local matters. Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils. The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand is one of 16 realms within the Commonwealth. The Realm of New Zealand is the territory over which the Queen of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands and Niue. The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand. The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is a non-self-governing territory that uses the New Zealand flag and anthem, but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll). The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates the Scott Base research facility. New Zealand citizenship law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau and the Ross Dependency before 2006 are New Zealand citizens. Further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nEnvironment\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nSee also: Atlas of New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and is made up of two main islands and a number of smaller islands. The two main islands (the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu) are separated by the Cook Strait, 22 km wide at its narrowest point. Besides the North and South Islands, the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island, the Chatham Islands, Great Barrier Island (in the Hauraki Gulf), d'Urville Island (in the Marlborough Sounds) and Waiheke Island (about 22 km from central Auckland). The country's islands lie between latitudes 29° and 53°S, and longitudes 165° and 179°E.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand is long and narrow (over 1600 km along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 km), with about 15000 km of coastline and a total land area of 268000 km2. Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its Exclusive Economic Zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nThe South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand, and is divided along its length by the Southern Alps. There are 18 peaks over 3000 m, the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3754 m. Fiordland's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this south-western corner of the South Island. The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism. The highly active Taupo Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau, punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu (2797 m). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, Lake Taupo, nestled in the caldera of one of the world's most active supervolcanoes.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nThe country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates. New Zealand is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent. About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault. Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches further north.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand and Australia are both part of the wider regions known as Australasia and Oceania. The term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent, New Zealand and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nFile:NZ Landscape.jpg|Rural scene\\nFile:Emerald Lakes, New Zealand.jpg|The Emerald Lakes, Mt Tongariro.\\nFile:Lake Gunn.jpg|Lake Gunn\\nFile:Pencarrow Head, Wellington, New Zealand from Santa Regina, 24 Feb. 2007.jpg|Pencarrow Head, Wellington\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand has a mild and temperate maritime climate (Köppen: Cfb) with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C in the south to 16 °C in the north. Historical maxima and minima are in Rangiora, Canterbury and in Ranfurly, Otago. Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland. Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 640 mm of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount. Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and south-western parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and north-eastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours. The general snow season is about early June until early October in the South Island. Snowfall is less common on the North Island, although it does occur.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nFile:Autumn in New Zealand.jpg|Autumn in Wellington\\nFile:New Zealand snow.jpg|Central Plateau in winter. Much of this region has a cool continental climate with regular snowfall.\\nFile:Scorching Bay.jpg|Scorching Bay beach in summer\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nThe table below lists climate normals for the warmest and coldest month in the six largest cities of New Zealand. The North Island cities are generally slightly warmer in February, but the South Island cities are warmest in January.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nBiodiversity\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species of animals, fungi and plants. Physical isolation has not caused biological isolation, and this has resulted in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of very distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species. About 82 percent of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants are endemic, covering 1,944 species across 65 genera and includes a single endemic family. The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand and 40 percent of these are endemic. The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps, or by southern beech in cooler climates. The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nBefore the arrival of humans an estimated 80 percent of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees. Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement. Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23 percent of the land.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nThe forests were dominated by birds, and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi, kakapo, weka and takahē evolving flightlessness. The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of rats, ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species, including large birds like the moa and Haast's eagle.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nOther indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (tuataras, skinks and geckos), frogs, spiders (katipo), insects (weta) and snails. Some, such as the wrens and tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils. Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old. Marine mammals however are abundant, with almost half the world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters. Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country. More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nSince human arrival almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced. However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other selected areas. According to the 2012 Environmental Performance Index, New Zealand is considered a \\\"strong performer\\\" in environmental protection, ranking 14th out of 132 assessed countries.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand has a modern, prosperous and developed market economy with an estimated gross domestic product (GDP) at purchasing power parity (PPP) per capita of roughly NZ$47,784. The currency is the New Zealand dollar, informally known as the \\\"Kiwi dollar\\\"; it also circulates in the Cook Islands (see Cook Islands dollar), Niue, Tokelau, and the Pitcairn Islands. New Zealand was ranked sixth in the 2013 Human Development Index, fourth in The Heritage Foundation's 2012 Index of Economic Freedom, and 13th in INSEAD's 2012 Global Innovation Index.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nHistorically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focussing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber. With the development of refrigerated shipping in the 1880s meat and dairy products were exported to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand. High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1973, New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Community and other compounding factors, such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crisis, led to a severe economic depression. Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank. Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a highly protectionist economy to a liberalised free-trade economy.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nUnemployment peaked above 10 percent in 1991 and 1992, following the 1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to a record low of 3.4 percent in 2007 (ranking fifth from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations). However, the global financial crisis that followed had a major impact on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years, and unemployment rising back to 7 percent in late 2009. At May 2012, the general unemployment rate was around 6.7 percent, while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 21 was 13.6 percent. In the September 2014 quarter, unemployment was 5.4%. New Zealand has experienced a series of \\\"brain drains\\\" since the 1970s that still continue today. Nearly one quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation. In recent years, however, a \\\"brain gain\\\" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nTrade\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade, particularly in agricultural products. Exports account for 24 percent of its output, making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. Food products made up 55% of the value of all the country's exports in 2014; wood was the second largest earner (7%). Its major export partners are Australia, United States, Japan, China, and the United Kingdom. On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country. The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction. Tourism plays a significant role in New Zealand's economy, contributing $15.0 billion to New Zealand’s total GDP and supporting 9.6 percent of the total workforce in 2010. International visitors to New Zealand increased by 3.1 percent in the year to October 2010 and are expected to increase at a rate of 2.5 percent annually up to 2015.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nIn 1984 New Zealand eliminated agricultural subsidies.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nWool was New Zealand’s major agricultural export during the late 19th century. Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues, but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers. In contrast dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007, to become New Zealand's largest export earner. In the year to June 2009, dairy products accounted for 21 percent ($9.1 billion) of total merchandise exports, and the country's largest company, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade. Other agricultural exports in 2009 were meat 13.2 percent, wool 6.3 percent, fruit 3.5 percent and fishing 3.3 percent. New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period, overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nInfrastructure\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nIn 2014, renewable energy generated 39.5 percent of New Zealand's gross energy supply, primarily hydroelectric power and geothermal power.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand's transport network comprises 93805 km of roads, including 199 km of motorways, and 4128 km of railway lines. Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport. The railways were privatised in 1993, but were re-nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008. The state-owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways, with the exception of Auckland commuter services which are operated by Transdev. Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers. Most international visitors arrive via air and New Zealand has six international airports, but only the Auckland and Christchurch airports connect directly with countries other than Australia or Fiji.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nThe New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications until 1987 when Telecom New Zealand was formed, initially as a state-owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990. Telecom was rebranded as Spark New Zealand in 2014. Chorus, which was split from Telecom in 2011, still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure, but competition from other providers has increased. The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 12th in the development of information and communications infrastructure, having moved up four places between 2008 and 2010.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nWater supply and sanitation\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nWater supply and sanitation in New Zealand is universal and of good quality in urban areas. It is provided by \\nlocal government called Territorial Authorities in New Zealand. \\nTerritorial Authorities consist of 14 city councils in urban areas and \\n53 district councils in rural areas. The legal framework includes the \\nHealth Act 1956 amended in 2007, the Local Government Act 2002 and the Resource Management Act 1991.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nDemography\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nAs of June 2015, the population of New Zealand is estimated at 4.597 million. New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 72 percent of the population living in 16 main urban areas and 53 percent living in the four largest cities of Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington, and Hamilton. New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2010 Auckland was ranked the world's 4th most liveable city and Wellington the 12th by the Mercer Quality of Life Survey.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nLife expectancy for New Zealanders in 2012 was 84 years for females, and 80.2 years for males. Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline. New Zealand's fertility rate of 2.1 is relatively high for a developed country, and natural births account for a significant proportion of population growth. Consequently, the country has a young population compared to most industrialized nations, with 20 percent of New Zealanders being 14 years old or younger. By 2050 the population is forecast to reach 5.3 million, the median age to rise from 36 years to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18 percent to 29 percent. Despite the high life expectancy, mortality from heart disease is higher in New Zealand than it is in various other developed Western countries such as Australia, the United Kingdom and Canada.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nEthnicity and immigration\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nIn the 2013 census, 74.0% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European, and 14.9% as Māori. Other major ethnic groups include Asian (11.8%) and Pacific peoples (7.4%), of which two-thirds live in the Auckland region. \\nThe population has become more diverse in recent decades: in 1961, the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92 percent European and 7 percent Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1 percent.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nWhile the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal \\\"Kiwi\\\" is commonly used both internationally and by locals. The Māori loanword Pākehā has been used to refer to New Zealanders of European descent, although others reject this appellation. The word Pākehā today is increasingly used to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nThe Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the white Australian policies. There was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian, Italian, and German immigration, together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa. Following the Great Depression policies were relaxed and migrant diversity increased. In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service—more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents. Just over 25% of New Zealand's population was born overseas, with the majority (52%) living in the Auckland region. The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand's overseas population, with a quarter of all overseas-born New Zealanders born there; other major sources of New Zealand's overseas-born population are China, India, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and Samoa. The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nLanguage\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nEnglish is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 98 percent of the population. New Zealand English is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart. The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-\\\"i\\\" sound (as in \\\"kit\\\") has centralised towards the schwa sound (the \\\"a\\\" in \\\"comma\\\" and \\\"about\\\"); the short-\\\"e\\\" sound (as in \\\"dress\\\") has moved towards the short-\\\"i\\\" sound; and the short-\\\"a\\\" sound (as in \\\"trap\\\") has moved to the short-\\\"e\\\" sound. Hence, the New Zealand pronunciation of words such as \\\"bad\\\", \\\"dead\\\", \\\"fish\\\" and \\\"chips\\\" sound like \\\"bed\\\", \\\"did\\\", \\\"fush\\\" and \\\"chups\\\" to non-New Zealanders.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nAfter the Second World War, Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language (te reo Māori) in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas. It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation, being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987, and is spoken by 4.1 percent of the population. There are now Māori language immersion schools and two Māori Television channels, the only nationwide television channels to have the majority of their prime-time content delivered in Māori. Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised. Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language in New Zealand (2.3 percent), followed by Hindi, Mandarin Chinese, French, and Yue Chinese (Cantonese). New Zealand Sign Language is used by about 28,000 people. It was declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nPrimary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority attending from the age of 5. There are 13 school years and attending state (public) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday. New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent, and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification. There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions: universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, specialist colleges, and wānanga, in addition to private training establishments. In the adult population 14.2 percent have a bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22.4 percent have no formal qualification. The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand's education system as the 7th best in the world, with students performing exceptionally well in reading, mathematics and science.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nChristianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand, although its society is among the most secular in the world. In the 2013 Census, 55.0 percent of the population identified with one or more religions, including 49.0 percent identifying as Christians. Another 41.9 percent indicated that they had no religion. The main Christian denominations are Roman Catholicism (12.6 percent), Anglicanism (11.8 percent), Presbyterianism (8.5 percent) and \\\"Christian not further defined\\\" (i.e. people identifying as Christian but not stating the denomination, 5.5 percent). The Māori-based Ringatū and Rātana religions (1.4 percent) are also Christian. Other significant minority religions include Hinduism (2.3 percent), Buddhism (1.5 percent) and Islam (1.2 percent). The indigenous Māori Christians tend to be associated with the Anglican and Catholic churches, while Pacific people tend to be Presbyterian, Methodist, Catholic and Latter-day Saint adherents.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nEarly Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whanau), sub-tribes (hapu) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira) whose position was subject to the community's approval. The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture, particularly with the introduction of Christianity. However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples. More recently American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nThe largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers. Modesty was expected and enforced through the \\\"tall poppy syndrome\\\", where high achievers received harsh criticism. At the time New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country. From the early 20th century until the late 1960s Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders. In the 1960s, as higher education became more available and cities expanded urban culture began to dominate. Even though the majority of the population now lives in cities, much of New Zealand's art, literature, film and humour has rural themes. From around the middle of the 20th century, many cultural icons called Kiwiana, started to emerge that now help to define what it means to be a New Zealander; such as the silver fern and the paua shell.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nArt\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nAs part of the resurgence of Māori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence. Most Māori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a grotesque head. Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings. The pre-eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nMāori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of red ochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls. Māori tattoos (moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel. Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand. Portraits of Māori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as \\\"noble savages\\\", exotic beauties or friendly natives. The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to developed their own distinctive style of regionalism. During the 1960s and 70s many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms. New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the \\\"Paradise Now\\\" exhibition in New York in 2004.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nMāori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes. Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being the hei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side. Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions. Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre. However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nLiterature\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nMāori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form. Most early English literature was obtained from Britain and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known. Although still largely influenced by global trends (modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit. Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished. Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nMedia and entertainment\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand music has been influenced by blues, jazz, country, rock and roll and hip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation. Māori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient South-East Asian origins, and after centuries of isolation created a unique \\\"monotonous\\\" and \\\"doleful\\\" sound. Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments or as signalling devices during war or special occasions. Early settlers brought over their ethnic music, with brass bands and choral music being popular, and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s. Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century. The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States. Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence. The New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by Recorded Music NZ; the awards were first held in 1965 by Reckitt & Colman as the Loxene Golden Disc awards. Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country's official weekly record charts.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nRadio first arrived in New Zealand in 1922 and television in 1960. The number of New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s. In 1978 the New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film-makers and many films attained a world audience, some receiving international acknowledgement. The highest grossing New Zealand movies include: Hunt for the Wilderpeople, Boy, The World's Fastest Indian, Once Were Warriors, and Whale Rider. Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations. New Zealand television primarily broadcasts American and British programming, along with a large number of Australian and local shows. The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives, have encouraged some producers to film big budget movies in New Zealand, including Avatar, The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit, The Chronicles of Narnia, King Kong and The Last Samurai. The New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies, most of which are foreign-owned, although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations. Between 2003 and 2008, Reporters Without Borders consistently ranked New Zealand's press freedom in the top twenty.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\n, New Zealand was ranked 13th worldwide in press freedom by Freedom House, with the 2nd freest media in the Asia-Pacific region after Palau.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nSports\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nMost of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins. Rugby union is considered the national sport and attracts the most spectators. Golf, netball, tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation, while netball, rugby union and football (soccer) is popular among young people. Around 54 percent of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school. Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity. Horseracing was also a popular spectator sport and became part of the \\\"Rugby, Racing and Beer\\\" culture during the 1960s. Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby and the country's team performs a haka, a traditional Māori challenge, before international matches.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand has competitive international teams in rugby union, netball, cricket, rugby league, and softball and has traditionally done well in triathlons, rowing, yachting and cycling. New Zealand participated at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1912 as a joint team with Australia, before first participating on its own in 1920. The country has ranked highly on a medals-to-population ratio at recent Games. The All Blacks, the national men's rugby union team, are the most successful in the history of international rugby and the reigning World Cup champions. New Zealand is known for its extreme sports, adventure tourism and strong mountaineering tradition, as seen in the success of notable New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary. Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling, fishing, swimming, running, tramping, canoeing, hunting, snowsports and surfing are also popular. The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has increased in popularity and is now an international sport involving teams from all over the Pacific.\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"New Zealand\\n\\nNew Zealand's cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, drawing inspiration from Europe, Asia and Polynesia. For dishes that have a distinctly New Zealand style, there's lamb, pork and cervena (venison), salmon, crayfish (lobster), Bluff oysters, whitebait, paua (abalone), mussels, scallops, pipis and tuatua (both are types of New Zealand shellfish), kumara (sweet potato), kiwifruit, tamarillo and pavlova, the national dessert. A Hāngi is a traditional New Zealand Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven. New Zealand food's distinctiveness is more in the way New Zealanders eat, generally preferring as relaxed and unaffected as possible, in keeping with the laidback Kiwi psyche. New Zealand's climate is ideal for fine wine growing, wineries and vineyards.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe term mountaineering describes the sport of mountain climbing, including ski mountaineering. Hiking in the mountains can also be a simple form of mountaineering when it involves scrambling, or short stretches of the more basic grades of rock climbing, as well as crossing glaciers.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nWhile mountaineering began as attempts to reach the highest point of unclimbed big mountains it has branched into specializations that address different aspects of the mountain and consists of three (3) areas: rock-craft, snow-craft, and skiing, depending on whether the route chosen is over rock, snow or ice. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge to maintain safety.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nMountaineering is often called Alpinism, especially in European languages, which implies climbing with difficulty such high, and often snow and ice-covered mountains as the Alps. A mountaineer with such great skill is called an Alpinist. The word alpinism was born in the 19th century to refer to climbing for the purpose of enjoying climbing itself as a sport or recreation, distinct from merely climbing while hunting or as a religious pilgrimage that had been done generally at that time.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe UIAA or Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme is the world governing body in mountaineering and climbing, addressing issues like access, medical, mountain protection, safety, youth and ice climbing.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nFirst climbs\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nHistorically, many cultures have harbored superstitions about mountains, which they often regarded as sacred due to their proximity with heaven, such as Mount Olympus for the Ancient Greeks.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nIn 1492, Antoine de Ville, lord of Domjulien and Beaupré, was the first to ascend the Mont Aiguille, in France, with a little team, using ladders and ropes. It appears to be the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty, and has been said to mark the beginning of mountaineering.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nIn 1573 Francesco De Marchi and Francesco Di Domenico ascended Corno Grande, the highest peak in the Apennine Mountains. During the Enlightenment, as a product of the new spirit of curiosity for the natural world, many mountain summits were surmounted for the first time. Richard Pococke and William Windham made a historic visit to Chamonix in 1741. In 1760, the Swiss scientist, Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, offered a reward for the first person to ascend Mont Blanc in France, which was claimed in 1786.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nBy the early 19th century many of the alpine peaks were reached; the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nEmergence as a sport\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe beginning of mountaineering as a systematic sport is generally dated to the ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854 by Sir Alfred Wills who made mountaineering fashionable, especially in Britain. This inaugurated what became known as the Golden age of alpinism, with the first mountaineering club - the Alpine Club - being founded in 1857.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nProminent figures of the period include Lord Francis Douglas, Florence Crauford Grove, Charles Hudson, E. S. Kennedy, William Mathews, A. W. Moore, Leslie Stephen, Francis Fox Tuckett, John Tyndall, Horace Walker and Edward Whymper. Well-known guides of the era include Christian Almer, Jakob Anderegg, Melchior Anderegg, J. J. Bennen, Michel Croz, Johannes Zumtaugwald.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nIn the early years of the \\\"golden age\\\", scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years of the \\\"golden age\\\", it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and alpine mountaineering overall.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nOne of the most dramatic events was the spectacular first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865, by a party led by the English illustrator, Edward Whymper - four of the party members fell to their deaths. This ascent is generally regarded as marking the end of the mountaineering golden age. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a body of professional guides, equipment and fixed guidelines.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nExpansion around the world\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nFocus shifted toward the exploration of other ranges such as the Pyrenees and the Caucasus Mountains; the latter owed much to the initiative of D. W. Freshfield who was the first man to conquer the summit of Mount Kazbek. Most of its great peaks were successfully conquered by the late 1880s.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nMountaineering in the Americas became popular in the 1800s. In North America, Pikes Peak (14410 ft) in the Colorado Rockies, was first climbed by Edwin James and two others in 1820. Though lower than Pikes Peak, the heavily glaciated Fremont Peak (13745 ft) in Wyoming was thought to be the tallest mountain in the Rockies when it was first climbed by John C. Frémont and two others in 1842. Pico de Orizaba (18491 ft), the tallest peak in Mexico and third tallest in North America, was first summited by U.S. military personnel which included William F. Raynolds and a half dozen other climbers in 1848. Heavily glaciated and more technical climbs in North American were not achieved until the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1897, Mount Saint Elias (18008 ft) on the Alaska-Yukon border was summited by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party. But it was not until 1913 that Mount Mckinley (20237 ft), the tallest peak in North America, was successfully climbed. Mount Logan (19551 ft), the tallest peak in Canada, was first summitted by a half dozen climbers in 1925 in an expedition that took more than two months.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe exploration of the highest Andes in South America begun in 1879-1880, when Whymper climbed Chimborazo (20564 ft) and explored the mountains of Ecuador. The Cordillera between Chile and Argentina was visited by Paul Güssfeldt in 1883, who ascended the volcano Maipo (17270 ft) and attempted to climb the tallest mountain in the Americas, Aconcagua (22837 ft) that same year but was unsuccessful. The summit of Aconcagua was finally reached in 1897 by Matthias Zurbriggen during an expedition led by Edward FitzGerald that lasted several months. The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898, who later visited the mountains of Tierra del Fuego on the southern tip of South America.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nNew Zealand's Southern Alps were first visited in 1882 by the Reverend Green and in 1894 Tom Fyfe and party climbed Aoraki / Mount Cook. By the turn of the century, mountaineering had acquired a more international flavour; Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa was climbed in 1889 by Ludwig Purtscheller and Hans Meyer, Mt. Kenya in 1899 by Halford Mackinder, and a peak of Ruwenzori by H. J. Moore in 1900.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe last frontier: The Himalayas\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe last and greatest mountain range was the Himalayas in Central Asia. They had initially been surveyed by the British Empire for military and strategic reasons. In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway explored the Karakoram Himalayas, and climbed a peak of 23000 ft In 1895 Albert F. Mummery died while attempting Nanga Parbat, while in 1899 D. W. Freshfield took an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim. In 1899, 1903, 1906 and 1908 Mrs Fannie Bullock Workman made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (23,300 ft). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Charles Granville Bruce, and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nIn 1902, the Eckenstein-Crowley Expedition, led by English mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and author and occultist Aleister Crowley, was the first to attempt to scale Chogo Ri (now known as K2 in the west). They reached 22000 ft before turning back due to weather and other mishaps. Undaunted, in 1905 Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world. Four members of the party were killed in an avalanche and they failed to reach the summit.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nEckenstein was also a pioneer in developing new equipment and climbing methods. He started using shorter ice axes which could be used single-handed, designed the modern crampons and improved on the nail patterns used for the climbing boots.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nBy the 1950s, all the eight-thousanders but two had been climbed starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal. The last great peak was the highest of them all, Mount Everest. The British had made several attempts in the 1920s; the 1922 expedition reached 8320 m before being aborted on the third summit attempt after an avalanche killed seven porters. The 1924 expedition saw another height record achieved but still failed to reach the summit with confirmation when George Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappeared on the final attempt. The summit was finally reached on May 29, 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay from the south side in Nepal.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nJust a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), a siege-style expedition culminating in a last 1,300 meters walking alone, being under the influence of drugs: pervitin (based on the stimulant methamphetamine used by soldiers during World War II), padutin and tea from coca leaves. K2 (8,611 m), the second-highest peak in the world, was first scaled in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni. In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was Shishapangma (8,013 m), the lowest of all the 8,000 metre peaks.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nTechnique\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nMountaineering techniques vary greatly depending on location, season, and the particular route a mountaineer chooses to climb. Mountaineers train to climb on all types of terrain whether it be snow, glacier, glacial Ice, water ice, or rock. Each type of terrain presents its own hazards. Climbers must be skilled in dealing with the different challenges that could arise from different terrain.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nSnow\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nCompacted snow conditions allow mountaineers to progress on foot. Frequently crampons are required to travel efficiently over snow and ice. Crampons attach to a mountaineer's boots to provide additional traction on hard snow (névé) and ice. Using various techniques from alpine skiing and mountaineering to ascend/descend a mountain is a form of the sport by itself, called ski mountaineering. Ascending and descending a snow slope safely requires the use of an ice axe and many different footwork techniques that have been developed over the past century, mainly in Europe (e.g. French technique and German technique). The progression of footwork from the lowest angle slopes to the steepest terrain is first to splay the feet to a rising traverse, to kicking steps, to front pointing the crampons. The progression of ice axe technique from the lowest angle slopes to the steepest terrain is to use the ice axe first as a walking stick, then a stake, then to use the front pick as a dagger below the shoulders or above, and finally to swinging the pick into the slope over the head.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThese various techniques may involve questions of differing ice-axe design depending on terrain, and even whether a mountaineer uses one or two ice axes. Anchors for the rope in snow are sometimes unreliable, and include the snow stakes, called pickets, deadman devices called flukes which are fashioned from aluminium, or devised from buried objects that might include an ice axe, skis, rocks or other objects. Bollards, which are simply carved out of consolidated snow or ice, also sometimes serve as anchors.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nGlaciers\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nWhen travelling over glaciers, crevasses pose a grave danger. These giant cracks in the ice are not always visible as snow can be blown and freeze over the top to make a snowbridge. At times snowbridges can be as thin as a few inches. Climbers use a system of ropes to protect themselves from such hazards. Basic gear for glacier travel includes crampons and ice axes. Teams of two to five climbers tie into a rope equally spaced. If a climber begins to fall the other members of the team perform a self-arrest to stop the fall. The other members of the team enact a crevasse rescue to pull the fallen climber from the crevasse.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nIce\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nMultiple methods are used to travel safely over ice. The lead climber can place ice screws in the ice and attach the rope for protection. Each climber on the team must clip past the anchor, and the last climber picks up the anchor itself. Occasionally, slinged icicles or bollards are also used. This allows for safety should the entire team be taken off their feet. This technique is known as Simul-climbing and is sometimes also used on steep snow and easy rock.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nIf the terrain becomes too steep, standard ice climbing techniques are used in which each climber is belayed, moving one at a time.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nRock\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nAlpine rock climbing involves technical skills including the ability to place traditional protection (cams, nuts, hexes) into the rock to safely ascend a mountain. Climbers will climb multiple pitches of rock in order to reach the top. Typically, teams of 2 will climb with one leader placing the protection, and a follower belaying. The leader will reach a point on the rock to build an anchor. This anchor could be created by using slings around a tree, a large rock horn or boulder, or by using protection devices like cams and nuts to build an anchor in cracks. Once anchored, the leader will then belay the follower up to their position. The leader will then transfer all the necessary protection devices (known as a rack) to the follower. The follower then becomes the leader and will ascend the next pitch. This process will continue until the climbers either reach the top, or run into different terrain. In alpine climbing, it is common for climbers to see routes of mixed terrain. This means climbers may need to move efficiently from climbing glacier, to rock, to ice, back and forth in a number of variations.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nShelter\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nClimbers use a few different forms of shelter depending on the situation and conditions. Shelter is a very important aspect of safety for the climber as the weather in the mountains may be very unpredictable. Tall mountains may require many days of camping on the mountain.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nBase Camp\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe \\\"Base Camp\\\" of a mountain is an area used for staging an attempt at the summit. Base camps are positioned to be safe from the harsher conditions above. There are base camps on many popular or dangerous mountains. Where the summit cannot be reached from base camp in a single day, a mountain will have additional camps above base camp. For example, the southeast ridge route on Mount Everest has Base Camp plus (normally) camps I through IV.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nHut\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe European alpine regions, in particular, have a network of mountain huts (called \\\"refuges\\\" in France, \\\"rifugi\\\" in Italy, \\\"cabanes\\\" in Switzerland, \\\"Hütten\\\" in Germany and Austria, \\\"Bothies\\\" in Scotland, \\\"koča\\\" in Slovenia, \\\"chaty\\\" in Slovakia, \\\"schroniska\\\" in Poland, \\\"refugios\\\" in Spain, \\\"hytte\\\" or \\\"koie\\\" in Norway, and \\\"cabane\\\" in Romanian). Such huts exist at many different heights, including in the high mountains themselves – in extremely remote areas, more rudimentary shelters may exist. The mountain huts are of varying size and quality, but each is typically centred on a communal dining room and have dormitories equipped with mattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows; guests are expected to bring and to use their own sleeping bag liner. The facilities are usually rudimentary but, given their locations, huts offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (by allowing journeys to be broken and reducing the weight of equipment needing to be carried), and offer good value. In Europe, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June to mid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-March to mid-May). Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nHuts also may have a part that is always open, but unmanned, a so-called winter hut. When open and manned, the huts are generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on a voluntary basis by members of Alpine clubs (such as Swiss Alpine Club and Club alpin français) or in North America by Alpine Club of Canada. The manager of the hut, termed a guardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sell refreshments and meals; both to those visiting only for the day and to those staying overnight. The offering is surprisingly wide; given that most supplies, often including fresh water, must be flown in by helicopter, and may include glucose-based snacks (such as Mars and Snickers bars) on which climbers and walkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at the hut, a variety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), and high carbohydrate dinners in the evenings. Not all huts offer a catered service, though, and visitors may need to provide for themselves. Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitors wishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cooking equipment and to cater using the facilities provided.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nBooking for overnight stays at huts is deemed obligatory, and in many cases is essential as some popular huts; even with more than 100 bed spaces may be full during good weather and at weekends. Once made, the cancellation of a reservation is advised as a matter of courtesy – and, indeed, potentially of safety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers and walkers state they planned to walk to next. Most huts may be contacted by telephone and most take credit cards as a means of payment. In the UK the term Hut is used for any cottage or cabin used as a base for walkers or climbers and these are mostly owned by mountaineering clubs for use by members or visiting clubs and generally do not have wardens or permanent staff, but have cooking and washing facilities and heating. In the Scottish Highlands small simple unmanned shelters without cooking facilities known as Bothies are maintained to break up cross country long routes and act as base camps to certain mountains.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nBivouac (bivy or bivvy)\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nIn the mountaineering context, a bivouac or \\\"biv(v)y\\\" is a makeshift resting or sleeping arrangement in which the climber has less than the full complement of shelter, food and equipment that would normally be present at a conventional campsite. This may involve simply getting a sleeping bag and Bivouac sack/bivvy bag and lying down to sleep. Typically bivvy bags are made from breathable waterproof membranes, which move moisture away from the climber into the outside environment while preventing outside moisture from entering the bag. Many times small partially sheltered areas such as a bergschrund, cracks in rocks or a trench dug in the snow are used to provide additional shelter from wind. These techniques were originally used only in emergency; however some climbers steadfastly committed to alpine style climbing specifically plan for bivouacs in order to save the weight of a tent when suitable snow conditions or time is unavailable for construction of a snow cave. The principal hazard associated with bivouacs is the greater level of exposure to cold and other elements present in harsh conditions high on the mountain.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nTent\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nTents are the most common form of shelter used on the mountain. These may vary from simple tarps to much heavier designs intended to withstand harsh mountain conditions. In exposed positions, windbreaks of snow or rock may be required to shelter the tent. One of the downsides to tenting is that high winds and snow loads can be dangerous and may ultimately lead to the tent's failure and collapse. In addition, the constant flapping of the tent fabric can hinder sleep and raise doubts about the security of the shelter. When choosing a tent, alpinists tend to rely on specialised mountaineering tents that are specifically designed for high winds and moderate to heavy snow loads. Tent stakes can be buried in the snow (\\\"deadman\\\") for extra security.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nSnow cave\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nWhere conditions permit, snow caves are another way to shelter high on the mountain. Some climbers do not use tents at high altitudes unless the snow conditions do not allow for snow caving, since snow caves are silent and much warmer than tents. They can be built relatively easily, given sufficient time, using a snow shovel. A correctly made snow cave will hover around freezing, which relative to outside temperatures can be very warm. They can be dug anywhere where there is at least four feet of snow. The addition of a good quality bivvy bag and closed cell foam sleeping mat will also increase the warmth of the snow cave. Another shelter that works well is a quinzee, which is excavated from a pile of snow that has been work hardened or sintered (typically by stomping). Igloos are used by some climbers, but are deceptively difficult to build and require specific snow conditions.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nHazards\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nMountaineering is considered to be one of the most dangerous activities in the world. Loss of life is not uncommon on most major extreme altitude mountaineering destinations every year. Dangers in mountaineering are sometimes divided into two categories: objective hazards that exist without regard to the climber's presence, like rockfall, avalanches and inclement weather, and subjective hazards that relate only to factors introduced by the climber. Equipment failure and falls due to inattention, fatigue or inadequate technique are examples of subjective hazards. A route continually swept by avalanches and storms is said to have a high level of objective danger, whereas a technically far more difficult route that is relatively safe from these dangers may be regarded as objectively safer.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nIn all, mountaineers must concern themselves with dangers: falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses and the dangers from altitude and weather. To select and follow a route using one's skills and experience to mitigate these dangers is to exercise the climber's craft.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nFalling rocks\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nEvery rock mountain is slowly disintegrating due to erosion, the process being especially rapid above the snow-line. Rock faces are constantly swept by falling stones, which may be possible to dodge. Falling rocks tend to form furrows in a mountain face, and these furrows (couloirs) have to be ascended with caution, their sides often being safe when the middle is stoneswept. Rocks fall more frequently on some days than on others, according to the recent weather. Ice formed during the night may temporarily bind rocks to the face but warmth of the day or lubricating water from melting snow or rain may easily dislodge these rocks. Local experience is a valuable help on determining typical rock fall on such routes.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe direction of the dip of rock strata sometimes determines the degree of danger on a particular face; the character of the rock must also be considered. Where stones fall frequently debris will be found below, whilst on snow slopes falling stones cut furrows visible from a great distance. In planning an ascent of a new peak or an unfamiliar route, mountaineers must look for such traces. When falling stones get mixed in considerable quantity with slushy snow or water a mud avalanche is formed (common in the Himalayas). It is vital to avoid camping in their possible line of fall.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nFalling ice\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe places where ice may fall can always be determined beforehand. It falls in the broken parts of glaciers (seracs) and from overhanging cornices formed on the crests of narrow ridges. Large icicles are often formed on steep rock faces, and these fall frequently in fine weather following cold and stormy days. They have to be avoided like falling stones. Seracs are slow in formation, and slow in arriving (by glacier motion) at a condition of unstable equilibrium. They generally fall in or just after the hottest part of the day. A skillful and experienced ice-man will usually devise a safe route through a most intricate ice-fall, but such places should be avoided in the afternoon of a hot day. Hanging glaciers (i.e. glaciers perched on steep slopes) often discharge themselves over steep rock-faces, the snout breaking off at intervals. They can always be detected by their debris below. Their track should be avoided.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nFalls from rocks\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nA rock climber's skill is shown by their choice of handhold and foothold, and their adhesion to the holds once chosen. Much depends on the ability to estimate the capability of the rock to support the weight placed on it. Many loose rocks are quite firm enough to bear a person's weight, but experience is needed to know which can be trusted, and skill is required in transferring the weight to them without jerking. On rotten rocks the rope must be handled with special care, lest it should dislodge loose stones on to those below. Similar care must be given to handholds and footholds, for the same reason. When a horizontal traverse has to be made across very difficult rocks, a dangerous situation may arise unless at both ends of the traverse there are firm positions. Mutual assistance on hard rocks takes all manner of forms: two, or even three, people climbing on one another's shoulders, or using an ice axe propped up by others for a foothold.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe great principle is that of co-operation, all the members of the party climbing with reference to the others, and not as independent units; each when moving must know what the climber in front and the one behind are doing. After bad weather steep rocks are often found covered with a veneer of ice (verglas), which may even render them inaccessible. Crampons are useful on such occasions.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nAvalanches\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nEvery year, 120 to 150 people die in small avalanches in the Alps alone. The vast majority of Alpine victims are reasonably experienced male skiers aged 20–35 but also include ski instructors and guides. However a significant number of climbers are killed in Scottish avalanches often on descent and often triggered by the victims. There is always a lot of pressure to risk a snow crossing. Turning back takes a lot of extra time and effort, supreme leadership, and most importantly there is seldom an avalanche that proves the right decision was made. Making the decision to turn around is especially hard if others are crossing the slope, but any next person could become the trigger.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThere are many types of avalanche, but two types are of the most concern. These are Snow Avalanches and Ice Avalanches:\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nSnow Avalanches\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\n# Slab avalanche\\n#: This type of avalanche occurs when a plate of snow breaks loose and starts sliding downhill; these are the largest and most dangerous.\\n## Hard slab avalanche\\n##: This type of avalanche is formed by hard-packed snow in a cohesive slab. The slab will not break up easily as it slides down the hill, resulting in large blocks tumbling down the mountain.\\n## Soft slab avalanche\\n##: This type of avalanche is formed again by a cohesive layer of snow bonded together, the slab tends to break up more easily.\\n# Loose snow avalanche\\n#: This type of avalanche is triggered by a small amount of moving snow that accumulates into a big slide. Also known as a \\\"wet slide or point release\\\" avalanche. This type of avalanche is deceptively dangerous as it can still knock a climber or skier off their feet and bury them, or sweep them over a cliff into a terrain trap.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nDangerous slides are most likely to occur on the same slopes preferred by many skiers: long and wide open, few trees or large rocks, 30 to 45 degrees of angle, large load of fresh snow, soon after a big storm, on a slope \\\"lee to the storm\\\". Solar radiation can trigger slides as well. These will typically be a point release or wet slough type of avalanche. The added weight of the wet slide can trigger a slab avalanche. Ninety percent of reported victims are caught in avalanches triggered by themselves or others in their group.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nIce Avalanches are a hazard that exists in glaciated mountain ranges. They are caused by the collapse of unstable ice blocks from a steep or overhanging part of a glacier, referred to as a hanging glacier. Due to the fact that they are part of a glacier, ice avalanches can have large amounts of rock in them. Ice avalanches are quite dangerous because they can travel long distances, sometimes as far as 8 km out onto the glacier valley floor. Ice avalanches are a common everyday occurrence in ranges such as the Alaska Range, Saint Elias Mountains, or Columbia Icefield.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nWhen going off-piste or travelling in alpine terrain, parties are advised to always carry:\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\n# avalanche beacon\\n# probe\\n# shovel (retrieving victims with a shovel instead of hands is five times faster)\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThey are also advised to have had avalanche training. Ironically, expert skiers who have avalanche training make up a large percentage of avalanche fatalities; perhaps because they are the ones more likely to ski in areas prone to avalanches, and certainly because most people do not practice enough with their equipment to be truly fast and efficient rescuers.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nEven with proper rescue equipment and training, there is a one-in-five chance of dying if caught in a significant avalanche, and only a 50/50 chance of being found alive if buried more than a few minutes. The best solution is to learn how to avoid risky conditions.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nIce slopes\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nFor travel on slopes consisting of ice or hard snow, crampons are a standard part of a mountaineer's equipment. While step-cutting can sometimes be used on snow slopes of moderate angle, this can be a slow and tiring process, which does not provide the higher security of crampons. However, in soft snow or powder, crampons are easily hampered by balling of snow, which reduces their effectiveness. In either case, an ice axe not only assists with balance but provides the climber with the possibility of self-arrest in case of a slip or fall. On a true ice slope however, an ice axe is rarely able to effect a self-arrest. As an additional safety precaution on steep ice slopes, the climbing rope is attached to ice screws buried into the ice.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nSnow slopes\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nSnow slopes are very common, and usually easy to ascend. At the foot of a snow or ice slope is generally a big crevasse, called a bergschrund, where the final slope of the mountain rises from a snow-field or glacier. Such bergschrunds are generally too wide to be stepped across, and must be crossed by a snow bridge, which needs careful testing and a painstaking use of the rope. A steep snow slope in bad condition may be dangerous, as the whole body of snow may start as an avalanche. Such slopes are less dangerous if ascended directly, rather than obliquely, for an oblique or horizontal track cuts them across and facilitates movement of the mass. New snow lying on ice is especially dangerous. Experience is needed for determining the feasibility of advancement over snow in doubtful condition. Snow on rocks is usually rotten unless it is thick; snow on snow is likely to be sound. A day or two of fine weather will usually bring new snow into sound condition. Snow cannot lie at a very steep angle, though it often deceives the eye as to its slope. Snow slopes seldom exceed 40°. Ice slopes may be much steeper.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nSnow slopes in early morning are usually hard and safe, but the same in the afternoon are quite soft and possibly dangerous; hence the advantage of an early start.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nCrevasses\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nCrevasses are the slits or deep chasms formed in the substance of a glacier as it passes over an uneven bed. They may be open or hidden. In the lower part of a glacier the crevasses are open. Above the snow-line they are frequently hidden by arched-over accumulations of winter snow. The detection of hidden crevasses requires care and experience. After a fresh fall of snow they can only be detected by sounding with the pole of the ice axe, or by looking to right and left where the open extension of a partially hidden crevasse may be obvious. The safeguard against accident is the rope, and no one should ever cross a snow-covered glacier unless roped to one, or even better to two companions. Anyone venturing onto crevasses should be trained in crevasse rescue.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nWeather\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe primary dangers caused by bad weather center on the changes it causes in snow and rock conditions, making movement suddenly much more arduous and hazardous than under normal circumstances.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nWhiteouts make it difficult to retrace a route while rain may prevent taking the easiest line only determined as such under dry conditions. In a storm the mountaineer who uses a compass for guidance has a great advantage over a merely empirical observer. In large snow-fields it is, of course, easier to go wrong than on rocks, but intelligence and experience are the best guides in safely navigating objective hazards.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nSummer thunderstorms may produce intense lightning. If a climber happens to be standing on or near the summit, they risk being struck. There are many cases where people have been struck by lightning while climbing mountains. In most mountainous regions, local storms develop by late morning and early afternoon. Many climbers will get an \\\"alpine start\\\"; that is before or by first light so as to be on the way down when storms are intensifying in activity and lightning and other weather hazards are a distinct threat to safety. High winds can speed the onset of hypothermia, as well as damage equipment such as tents used for shelter. Under certain conditions, storms can also create waterfalls which can slow or stop climbing progress. A notable example is the Föhn wind acting upon the Eiger.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nAltitude\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nRapid ascent can lead to altitude sickness. The best treatment is to descend immediately. The climber's motto at high altitude is \\\"climb high, sleep low\\\", referring to the regimen of climbing higher to acclimatise but returning to lower elevation to sleep. In the South American Andes, the chewing of coca leaves has been traditionally used to treat altitude sickness symptoms.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nCommon symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE (High Altitude Cerebral Edema) and HAPE (High Altitude Pulmonary Edema), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nIn high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe. This is the underlying cause of altitude sickness. Everyone needs to acclimatise, even exceptional mountaineers that have been to high altitude before. Generally speaking, mountaineers start using bottled oxygen when they climb above 7,000 m. Exceptional mountaineers have climbed 8000-metre peaks (including Everest) without oxygen, almost always with a carefully planned program of acclimatisation.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nSolar radiation\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nSolar radiation increases significantly as the atmosphere gets thinner with increasing altitude thereby absorbing less ultraviolet radiation. Snow cover reflecting the radiation can amplify the effects by up to 75% increasing the risks and damage from sunburn and snow blindness.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nIn 2005, researcher and mountaineer John Semple established that above-average ozone concentrations on the Tibetan Plateau may pose an additional risk to climbers.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nVolcanic activity\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nSome mountains are active volcanoes as in the case of the many stratovolcanoes that form the highest peaks in island arcs and in parts of the Andes. Some of these volcanic mountains may cause several hazards if they erupt, such as lahars, pyroclastic flows, rockfalls, lava flows, heavy tephra fall, volcanic bomb ejections and toxic gases.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nStyles of mountaineering\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThere are two main styles of mountaineering: Expedition style and Alpine style.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nA mountaineer who adopts Alpine style is referred to as an Alpine Mountaineer. Alpine Mountaineers are typically found climbing in medium-sized glaciated mountain areas such as the Alps or Rocky Mountains. Medium-sized generally refers to altitudes in the intermediate altitude (7,000' to 12,000') and first half of high altitude (12,000' to 18,000') ranges. However, alpine style ascents have been done throughout history on extreme altitude (18,000' to 29,000') peaks also, albeit in lower volume to expedition style ascents. Alpine style refers to a particular style of mountain climbing that involves a mixture of snow climbing, ice climbing, rock climbing, and glacier travel, where climbers generally single carry their loads between camps, in a single push for the summit. Light and fast is the mantra of the Alpine Mountaineer.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe term alpine style contrasts with expedition style (as commonly undertaken in the Himalayan region or other large ranges of the world), which could be viewed as slow and heavy, where climbers may use porters, pack animals, glacier airplanes, cooks, multiple carries between camps, usage of fixed lines etc. A mountaineer who adopts this style of climbing is referred to as an Expedition Mountaineer. Expedition mountaineers still employ the skill sets of the alpine mountaineer, except they have to deal with expanded time scale, more severe weather exposure, and additional skills unique to expeditionary climbing. The prevalence of expedition style climbing in the Himalaya is largely a function of the nature of the mountains in the region. Because Himalayan base camps can take days or weeks to trek to, and Himalayan mountains can take weeks or perhaps even months to climb, a large number of personnel and amount of supplies may be helpful. This is why expedition style climbing is frequently used on large and isolated peaks in the Himalaya. In Europe and North America there is less of a need for expedition style climbing on most medium-sized mountains.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThese mountains can often be easily accessed by car or air, are at a lower altitude and can be climbed in a shorter time scale. Expedition style mountaineering can be found in the larger high altitude and extreme altitude North American ranges such as the Alaska Range and Saint Elias Mountains. These remote mountaineering destinations can require up to a 2-week trek by foot, just to make it to base camp. Most expeditions in these regions choose a glacier flight to basecamp. Route length in days from basecamp can vary in these regions, typically from 10 days to 1 month during the climbing season. Winter mountaineering on major peaks in these ranges can generally consume between 30 and 60 days depending on the route, and can generally only be tackled via expedition style mountaineering during this season.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThe differences between, and advantages and disadvantages of, the two kinds of climbing are as follows:\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nExpedition style\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\n* uses multiple trips between camps to carry supplies up to higher camps\\n* group sizes are often larger than alpine style climbs because more supplies are carried between camps\\n* fixed lines are often used to minimize the danger involved in continually moving between camps\\n* supplemental oxygen is frequently used\\n* higher margin of safety in relation to equipment, food, time, and ability to wait out storms at high camps\\n* avoidance of being trapped in storms at high altitudes and being forced to descend in treacherous avalanche conditions\\n* possible higher exposure to objective hazards such as avalanches or rockfall, due to slower travel times between camps\\n* higher capital expenditures\\n* longer time scale\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nAlpine style\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\n* climbers climb the route only once because they do not continually climb up and down between camps with supplies\\n* fewer supplies are used on the climb, therefore fewer personnel are needed\\n* alpine-style ascents do not leave the climber exposed to objective hazards as long as an expedition-style climb does; however, because of the speed of the ascent relative to an expedition-style climb there is less time for acclimatization\\n* supplemental oxygen is not used\\n* danger of being trapped at high altitude due to storms, potentially being exposed to HAPE or HACE\\n* lower capital expenditures\\n* shorter time scale\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nLocations\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nMountaineering has become a popular sport throughout the world. In Europe the sport largely originated in the Alps, and is still immensely popular there. Other notable mountain ranges frequented by climbers include the Caucasus, the Pyrenees, Rila mountains, the Tatra Mountains and the rest of the Carpathian Mountains, as well the Sudetes. In North America climbers frequent the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada of California, the Cascades of the Pacific Northwest, the high peaks of The Alaska Range and Saint Elias Mountains.\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nThere has been a long tradition of climbers going on expeditions to the Greater Ranges, a term generally used for the Andes and the high peaks of Asia including the Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindu Kush, Pamir Mountains, Tien Shan and Kunlun Mountains. In the past this was often on exploratory trips or to make first ascents. With the advent of cheaper, long-haul air travel, mountaineering holidays in the Greater Ranges are now undertaken much more frequently and ascents of even Everest and Vinson Massif (the highest mountain in Antarctica) are offered as a \\\"package holiday\\\".\",\n \"Mountaineering\\n\\nOther mountaineering areas of interest include the Southern Alps of New Zealand, the Coast Mountains of British Columbia, the Scottish Highlands, and the mountains of Scandinavia, especially Norway.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nSherpa (Tibetan: \\\"eastern people\\\", from shar \\\"east\\\" and pa \\\"people\\\") are an ethnic group from the most mountainous region of Nepal, high in the Himalayas.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nSherpa as a surname appears to be the result of the Nepalese government census takers. Not recognizing that some people only have one name, they wrote the word on census forms in the space for last name. In some cases the clan name was written and in others the ethnicity, i.e. Sherpa. These have then been adopted or forced to be used as last names, last names not being a part of Sherpa culture.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nMost Sherpa people live in Nepal's eastern regions; however, some live farther west in the Rolwaling valley and in the Helambu region north of Kathmandu. Tengboche is the oldest Sherpa village in Nepal, they also live in Tibet, and Bhutan, as well as the Indian states of Sikkim and the northern portion of West Bengal, specifically the town of Darjeeling.\\nThe Sherpa language belongs to the south branch of the Tibeto-Burman languages, and it is mixed Eastern Tibet (Khamba) and Lhasa dialogue. However, this language is separate from Lhasa Tibetan and unintelligible to Lhasa speakers.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nThe number of Sherpas migrating to the West has significantly increased in recent years, especially to the United States. New York City has the largest Sherpa community in the United States, with a population of approximately 2,500. The 2001 Nepal census recorded 154,622 Sherpas within its borders.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nThe Sherpa were nomadic people who first settled in the Solukhumbu District (Khumbu), Nepal then gradually moved westward along salt trade routes. According to Sherpa oral history, four groups migrated out of Solukhumbu at different times, giving rise to the four main Sherpa clans: Minyagpa, Thimmi, Sertawa and Chawa. These four groups have since split into the more than 20 different clans that exist today. About 1840 Sherpa ancestors migrated from Kham. Mahayana Buddhism religious conflict may have contributed to the migration in the 15th and 16th centuries. Sherpa migrants traveled through Ü and Tsang, before crossing the Himalaya.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nBy the 1800s, Khumbu Sherpa people attained autonomy within the newly formed Nepali state. In the 1960s, as tension with China increased, Nepali government influence on the Sherpa people grew. In 1976, Khumbu became a national park and tourism became a major economic force.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nAccording to Oppitz (1968), Sherpas migrated from the Kham region in eastern Tibet to Nepal within the last 300–400 years. On the other hand, Gautam (1994) concluded that Sherpa migrated from Tibet approximately 600 years ago, through the Nangpa La pass. It is presumed that the group of people from Kham region, east of Tibet, was called \\\"Shyar Khamba\\\" (People who came from eastern Kham), and the place where they settled was called \\\"Shyar Khumbu\\\". As the time passed the \\\"Shyar Khamba\\\", inhabitants of Shyar Khumbu, were called Sherpa. A recent Nepal Ethnographic Museum (2001) study postulated that present-day Nepal became an integral part of the kingdom of Nepal. Since ancient times Sherpas, like other indigenous Kirat Nepalese tribes, would move from one place to another place within the Himalayan region as Alpine pastoralists and traders. Genetic evidence shows that the majority of Sherpa have a Tibeto-Burman origin, considerable genetic components from Indian Subcontinent have been observed in Sherpa people living in Tibet. The western Y chromosomal haplogroups R1a1a-M17, J-M304, and F*-M89 comprise almost 17% of Sherpa paternal gene pool.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nIn the maternal side, M5c2, M21d, and U from the west also count up to 8% of Sherpa people.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nMountaineering\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nSherpas are highly regarded as elite mountaineers and experts in their local area. They were immeasurably valuable to early explorers of the Himalayan region, serving as guides at the extreme altitudes of the peaks and passes in the region, particularly for expeditions to climb Mount Everest. Today, the term is often used by foreigners to refer to almost any guide, climbing supporter hired for mountaineering expeditions in the Himalayas, regardless of their ethnicity. Because of this usage, the term has become a slang byword for a guide or mentor in other situations. Sherpas are renowned in the international climbing and mountaineering community for their hardiness, expertise, and experience at very high altitudes. It has been speculated that a part of the Sherpas' climbing ability is the result of a genetic adaptation to living in high altitudes. Some of these adaptations include unique hemoglobin-binding capacity and doubled nitric oxide production.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nDeaths in 2014 Everest avalanche\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nOn 18 April 2014, a serac collapsed above the Khumbu Icefall on Mount Everest, causing an avalanche of massive chunks of ice and snow which killed 16 Nepalese guides, mostly Sherpas. The 2014 avalanche is the second deadliest disaster in Everest's history, only superseded by avalanches in the Khumbu Icefall area just a year later, on 25 April 2015, caused by a magnitude 7.8 earthquake in Nepal. In response to that tragedy and others involving deaths and injuries sustained by Sherpas hired by climbers, and the lack of government support for Sherpas injured or killed while providing their services, some Sherpa climbing guides walked off the job, and some climbing companies are no longer providing guides and porters for Everest expeditions.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nAccording to oral Buddhist traditions, the initial Tibetan migration was a search for a beyul (Buddhist pure-lands). Sherpas belong to the Nyingmapa, the \\\"Ancient\\\" school of Tibetan Buddhism. Allegedly the oldest Buddhist sect in Tibet, founded by Padmasambhava (commonly known as Guru Rinpoche) during the 8th century, it emphasizes mysticism and the incorporation of local deities shared by the pre-Buddhist Bon religion, which has shamanic elements. Sherpa particularly believe in hidden treasures and valleys. Traditionally, Nyingmapa practice was passed down orally through a loose network of lay practitioners. Monasteries with celibate monks and nuns, along with the belief in reincarnated spiritual leaders, are later adaptations.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nIn addition to Buddha and the great Buddhist divinities, the Sherpa also believe in numerous deities and demons who inhabit every mountain, cave, and forest. These have to be respected or appeased through ancient practices woven into the fabric of Buddhist ritual life. Many of the great Himalayan mountains are considered sacred. The Sherpas call Mount Everest Chomolungma and respect it as the \\\"Mother of the World.\\\" Mount Makalu is respected as the deity Shankar (Shiva). Each clan reveres certain mountain peaks and their protective deities.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nToday, the day-to-day Sherpas religious affairs are presided over by lamas (Buddhist spiritual leaders) and other religious practitioners living in the villages. The village lama who presides over ceremonies and rituals can be a celibate monk or a married householder. In addition, shamans (lhawa) and soothsayers (mindung) deal with the supernatural and the spirit world. Lamas identify witches (pem), act as the mouthpiece of deities and spirits, and diagnose spiritual illnesses.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nAn important aspect of Sherpa religion is the monastery or gompa. There are some two dozen gompas scattered throughout the Solukhumbu region. They are communities of lamas or monks (sometimes of nuns) who take a vow of celibacy and lead a life of isolation searching for truth and religious enlightenment. They are respected by and supported by the community at large. Their contact with the outside world is focused on monastery practices and annual festivals to which the public is invited, as well as the reading of sacred texts at funerals.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nMinority religions for Sherpas include Hinduism and Roman Catholicism.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nTraditional clothing\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nMen wear long-sleeved robes called kitycow, which fall to slightly below the knee. Chhuba is tied at the waist with a cloth sash called kara, creating a pouch-like space called tolung which can be used for storing and carrying small items. Traditionally, chhuba were made from thick home-spun wool, or a variant called lokpa made from sheepskin. Chhuba are worn over raatuk, a blouse (traditionally made out of bure, white raw silk), trousers called kanam, and an outer jacket called tetung.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nWomen traditionally wear long-sleeved floor-length dresses of thick wool called tongkok. A sleeveless variation called angi is worn over a raatuk (blouse) in warmer weather. These are worn with colourful striped aprons; metil aprons are worn in front, and gewe in back, and are held together by an embossed silver buckle called kyetig.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nSherpa clothing resembles Tibetan clothing. Increasingly, home-spun wool and silk is being replaced by factory-made material. Many Sherpa people also now wear ready-made western clothing.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nTraditional housing\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nWhen a son marries and has children, the community may help to construct a new house, as the extended family becomes too large for a single home. The neighbors often contribute food, drinks and labor to help the family. Houses are typically spaced to allow fields in between. A spiritual ceremony may be conducted at every building stage as the house must have space for deities, humans and animals. Once constructed, the house is often handed down within a family and not sold. The house style depends on the lay of the land: old river terraces, former lake beds or mountain slopes. There are stone single story, one and a half story (on a slope), and the two story houses, with ample room for animals. Many well-to-do families will have an annex shrine room for sacred statues, scriptures and ritual objects. The roof is sloping and is made from local natural materials, or imported metal. There's space in the roof to allow for fire smoke to escape. There may be an internal or external outhouse for making compost.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nSocial Gatherings\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nA Sherpa community will most commonly get together for a party, which is held by the host with the purpose of gaining favor with the community and manipulating neighbors. Guests are invited hours before the party will start by the host’s children to reduce the chance of rejection. The men are seated by order of status, with those of lesser status sitting closer to the door and men of higher status sitting by the fireplace, while the women sit in the center with no ordering. It is polite to sit in a space lower than one’s proper place so one may be invited by the host to their proper place. The first several hours of the party will have only beer served, followed by the serving of food, and then several more hours of singing and dancing before people start to drift out. The act of manipulating one’s neighbors into cooperation by hosting a party is known as Yangdzi, and works by expecting the hospitality done by the host with the serving of food and alcohol to be repaid.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nFamous Sherpas\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nOne of the most well known Sherpas is Tenzing Norgay. In 1953, he and Sir Edmund Hillary became the first people known to have reached the summit of Mount Everest. Norgay's son Jamling Tenzing Norgay also climbed Everest in honor of his father with the mountaineers Ed Viesturs and Araceli Segarra during the disastrous year of 1996.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nIn 2001, Temba Tsheri became the youngest Everest climber in the world (holder of Guinness book of world record), then aged 16.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nIn 2003, Sherpas Pemba Dorje and Lhakpa Gelu competed to see who could climb Everest from base camp the fastest. On 23 May 2003, Dorje reached the summit in 12 hours and 46 minutes. Three days later, Gelu beat his record by two hours, reaching the summit in 10 hours 46 minutes. On 21 May 2004, Dorje again improved the time by more than two hours with a total time of 8 hours and 10 minutes.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nOn 11 May 2011, Apa Sherpa successfully reached the summit of Everest for the twenty-first time, breaking his own record for the most successful ascents. He first climbed Mount Everest in 1989 at the age of 29.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nOne of the most famous Nepalese female mountaineers was Pasang Lhamu Sherpa, the first Nepali female climber to reach the summit of Everest, but who died during the descent. Another well-known female Sherpa was the two-time Everest summiter Pemba Doma Sherpa, who died after falling from Lhotse on 22 May 2007.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nOn May 20, 2011, Mingma Sherpa became the first Nepali and the first South Asian to scale all 14 of the world's highest mountains. In the process, Mingma set new world record – he became the first mountaineer to climb all 14 peaks on first attempt.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nLakpa Tsheri Sherpa is one half of a Nepali duo that was voted \\\"People's Choice Adventurers of the Year 2012\\\". In April 2011, Lakpa Tsheri and Sano Babu Sunuwar made the 'Ultimate Descent': a three-month journey in which they climbed Everest, then paraglided down the mountain and proceeded to kayak through Nepal and India until they reached the Indian Ocean.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nOn 19 May 2012, 16-year-old Nima Chhamzi Sherpa became the youngest woman to climb Everest; the previous record holder was Nimdoma Sherpa, who summited in 2008, also at 16 years old.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nChhurim Sherpa (Nepal) summitted Everest twice in May 2012: 12 May and 19 May. Guinness World Records recognized her for being the first female Sherpa to summit Everest twice in one climbing season.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nIn 2013, 30-year-old Chhang Dawa Sherpa became the youngest mountaineer to summit the 14 highest peaks, the 8000'ers.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nOn July 26, 2014, Pasang Lhamu Sherpa, Dawa Yangzum Sherpa, and Maya Sherpa crested the 28,251-foot (8,611-meter) summit of K2, the second highest mountain in the world. In doing so, the three Nepali women have become the first all-female team to climb what many mountaineers consider a much tougher challenge than Everest. The feat was announced in climbing circles as a breakthrough achievement for women in high-altitude mountaineering. Only 18 of the 376 people who have summited K2 have been women.\",\n \"Sherpa people\\n\\nAnother notable Sherpa is cross-country skier and ultramarathoner Dachhiri Sherpa who represented Nepal at the 2006, 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}}],"truncated":false,"partial":false},"paginationData":{"pageIndex":1370,"numItemsPerPage":100,"numTotalItems":138384,"offset":137000,"length":100}},"jwt":"eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSIsImtpZCI6IjVHZDBvd0g5MTM2eDZjc1FvbE1zcktNWUZoRVFoUm5PVVVybEpjOUhaUEEifQ.eyJyZWFkIjp0cnVlLCJwZXJtaXNzaW9ucyI6eyJyZXBvLmNvbnRlbnQucmVhZCI6dHJ1ZX0sImlhdCI6MTc4OTgzMzk3NSwianRpIjoiNTRjZmQ1MzUtMzVmNy00YzMzLWI0ZGYtMTZkM2EzMTkzMjRhIiwic3ViIjoiL2RhdGFzZXRzL01lbW9yeUFzTW9kYWxpdHkvVHJpdmlhUUEiLCJleHAiOjE3ODk4Mzc1NzUsImlzcyI6Imh0dHBzOi8vaHVnZ2luZ2ZhY2UuY28ifQ.vENSY2bx2Nris9fq9d1IfxZ97FuK3Z7bjUGBrnCd97rUoqjl2aK4vNRB5_5dXpHmhLlqkTM70FA8pNVoZaTIAQ","displayUrls":true,"splitSizeSummaries":[{"config":"default","split":"train","numRows":138384,"numBytesParquet":4149441207},{"config":"default","split":"validation","numRows":17944,"numBytesParquet":531588839},{"config":"default","split":"test","numRows":17210,"numBytesParquet":506953567}]},"discussionsStats":{"closed":0,"open":0,"total":0},"fullWidth":true,"hasGatedAccess":true,"hasFullAccess":true,"isEmbedded":false,"savedQueries":{"community":[],"user":[]}}">
id stringlengths 4 10 | question stringlengths 18 1.2k | answer stringlengths 1 179 | answer_aliases listlengths 0 358 | documents listlengths 1 1.63k |
|---|---|---|---|---|
qg_2173 | What was the name of the character who owned Mayberry's only barber shop on The Andy Griffith Show? | Floyd | [
"floyd",
"floyd disambiguation"
] | [
"Mayberry\n\nMayberry is a community that was the setting for two popular American television sitcoms, The Andy Griffith Show and Mayberry R.F.D. Mayberry was also the setting for a 1986 reunion television movie titled Return to Mayberry. Mayberry was set in North Carolina and is said to be based on Andy Griffith'... |
qg_2174 | What can be a Greek god, a fashion house, and a fictional bureaucrat? | Hermes | [
"psychopompus",
"hermes criophorus",
"hermês",
"cyllenius",
"hermes",
"hermese",
"cylleneius",
"enagonios",
"hermoea",
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"hermes logios",
"cult of hermes",
"hermes mythology",
"hermes greek religion and mythology",
"atlantiades",
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"hermes psychopompus",... | [
"Ancient Greece\n\nAncient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to c.5th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (Circa| 600 AD). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in... |
qg_2175 | What was the name of the Greenpeace ship, the former fishing trawler Sir William Hardy, that was sunk in Auckland harbor by French Secret Service agents to prevent it interfering with planned nuclear tests? | Rainbow Warrior | [
"warriors of rainbow",
"rainbow warrior",
"rainbow warrier",
"warriors of rainbow disambiguation",
"rainbow warriors",
"rainbow warrior disambiguation"
] | [
"Greenpeace\n\nGreenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over 40 countries and with an international coordinating body in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Founded by Canadian environmental activists in 1971, Greenpeace states its goal is to \"ensure the ability of the Earth to nurtur... |
qg_2177 | July 12, 1862 saw the creation of what decoration, the highest military medal able to be awarded? | Medal of Honor | [
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"congressional medal of honour",
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"valor 24",
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"congressional medal of honor society of united states of america",
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"Medal of Honor\n\nThe Medal of Honor is the United States of America's highest military honor, awarded for personal acts of valor above and beyond the call of duty. The medal is awarded by the President of the United States in the name of the U.S. Congress to U.S. military personnel only. There are three versions ... |
qg_2178 | Negev, Atacama, and Namib are all types off what? | Deserts | [
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"desert basin",
"hot desert",
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"arid region",
"desert",
"desert flowers",
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"Negev\n\nThe Negev (, Tiberian vocalization: ') or Naqab ( an-Naqab) is a desert and semidesert region of southern Israel. The region's largest city and administrative capital is Beersheba (pop. 196,000), in the north. At its southern end is the Gulf of Aqaba and the resort city of Eilat. It contains several deve... |
qg_2179 | Known as The Sunshine State, what was the 27th state to join the union on March 3, 1845? | Florida | [
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"tourism in florida",
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"Florida\n\nFlorida (Spanish for \"land of flowers\") is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and to the south by the Straits of Florida and Cuba. Florida is t... |
qg_2180 | What does the giant ape use as weapons against Jumpman in the original, 1981 Donkey Kong game? | Barrels | [
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"cask",
"angels share",
"aging barrel",
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"barrel",
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"wooden barrel",
"aging barrels",
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"barrel ageing",
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"Mario\n\n(;) is a fictional character in the Mario video game franchise, created by Nintendo's Japanese video game designer, Shigeru Miyamoto. Serving as the company's mascot and the eponymous protagonist of the series, Mario has appeared in over 200 video games since his creation. Depicted as a short, pudgy, Ital... |
qg_2182 | Three musicians make a trio, while 4 comprise a quartet. How many musicians are there in a nonet? | 9 | [
"nine"
] | [
"Nonet (music)\n\nIn music, a nonet is a composition which requires nine musicians for a performance, or a musical group that consists of nine people. The standard nonet scoring is for wind quintet, violin, viola, cello, and contrabass, though other combinations are also found. Composers of nonets often mix stringe... |
qg_2183 | What can be a medical condition caused by inadequate oxygen consumption, a suspension component, and a WNBA team? | Shock | [
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] | [
"Blood\n\nBlood is a body fluid in animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.",
"Blood\n\nIn vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma. Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fl... |
qg_2184 | July 12, 1976 saw the debut of what long running TV series, originally hosted by Richard Dawkins, before John O'Hurley and now Steve Harvey took over the job? | Family Feud | [
"family feud 2009 video game",
"new family feud",
"family feud video game",
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"family feud challenge",
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"family feud rules and production",
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"family fued",... | [
"John O'Hurley\n\nJohn George O'Hurley (born October 9, 1954) is an American actor, voice actor, author and television personality. He is known for the role of J. Peterman on the NBC sitcom Seinfeld and was host of the game show Family Feud from 2006 to 2010.",
"John O'Hurley\n\nEarly life",
"John O'Hurley\n\n... |
qg_2185 | July 16, 1917 saw the death of what leader, Emperor of Russia, Grand Prince of Finland, and titular King of Poland, and his children Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Alexei? | Tsar Nicholas II | [
"nicholas ii of finland",
"nicholas ii emperor of russia",
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"czar nic... | [
"Russian Empire\n\nThe Russian Empire (also All-Russian Empire or Russia) was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived liberal February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in world history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass ... |
qg_2186 | The Pacific Aero Products Co company, which had its founding on July 15, 1915 on the banks of the Duwamish, is better known today as what? | Boeing | [
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"Boeing\n\nThe Boeing Company is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services. Boeing is among the largest global aircraft manufacturers, is the second-largest defe... |
qg_2187 | The nuclear age was born on July 16, 1945 when the first atomic bomb was tested at White Sands Proving Grounds outside Socorro in what Southwestern state? | New Mexico | [
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... | [
"Nuclear weapon\n\nA nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion (thermonuclear weapon). Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first test ... |
qg_2188 | Including such tasks as slaying the Nemean lion, cleaning the Augean stables in a single day, and obtaining the Girdle of the Amazon Queen, how many labors was Hercules supposed to perform? | 12 | [
"twelve"
] | [
"Amazons\n\nIn Greek mythology, the Amazons (, ', singular , ') were a race of woman warriors. Herodotus reported that they were related to the Scythians (an Iranian people) and placed them in a region bordering Scythia in Sarmatia (modern territory of Ukraine). Other historiographers place them in Anatolia, or so... |
qg_2189 | STS-135, the last planned mission for NASA's space shuttle fleet, launched which shuttle on a 13 day trip to international space station? | Atlantis | [
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"STS-135\n\nSTS-135 (ISS assembly flight ULF7) was the 135th and final mission of the American Space Shuttle program. It used the orbiter Atlantis and hardware originally processed for the STS-335 contingency mission, which was not flown. STS-135 launched on 8 July 2011, and landed on 21 July 2011, following a one... |
qg_2191 | Does the boiling point of water increase or decrease as you gain elevation? | Decrease | [
"decrease",
"decrease knitting"
] | [
"Boiling point\n\nThe boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.",
"Boiling point\n\nThe boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental pressure. A liqui... |
qg_2193 | Which metal is extracted from the ore bauxite? | Aluminium | [
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"Metal\n\nA metal (from Greek μέταλλον métallon, \"mine, quarry, metal\" ) is a material (an element, compound, or alloy) that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable — that is, they can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape witho... |
qg_2194 | To prevent interference in an atomic test on the island of Moruroa, the French intelligence directorate sunk the ship Rainbow Warrior, operated by which non-governmental environmental organization, in Aukland harbor? | Greenpeace | [
"greenpeace international",
"greenpeace uk",
"exxonsecrets",
"greenpeace environmental trust",
"greenpeace",
"greenpeace canada",
"visi bersama kelautan indonesia 2025",
"greenpeace chile",
"green peace"
] | [
"Moruroa\n\nMoruroa (Mururoa, Mururura), also historically known as Aopuni, is an atoll which forms part of the Tuamotu Archipelago in French Polynesia in the southern Pacific Ocean. It is located about 1250 km southeast of Tahiti. Administratively Moruroa Atoll is part of the commune of Tureia, which includes th... |
qg_2195 | In the game of craps, if one rolls snake eyes, what numbers appear on the dice? | Ones | [
"ones",
"ones disambiguation"
] | [
"Craps\n\nCraps is a dice game in which the players make wagers on the outcome of the roll, or a series of rolls, of a pair of dice. Players may wager money against each other (playing \"street craps\", also known as \"shooting dice\" or \"rolling dice\") or a bank (playing \"casino craps\", also known as \"table c... |
qg_2198 | Making possible the understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphs, what was discovered outside an Egyptian village by a French soldier on July 15, 1799? | The Rosetta Stone | [
"rosseta stone",
"stone of rosetta",
"rossetta stone",
"rosetta stone",
"rosetta inscription",
"pierre de rosette",
"decree of memphis ptolemy v",
"rashid stone",
"roseta stone"
] | [
"Egyptian hieroglyphs\n\nEgyptian hieroglyphs ( ; Egyptian: mdw·w-nṯr, \"god's words\") were a formal writing system used by the ancient Egyptians that combined logographic and alphabetic elements. Egyptians used cursive hieroglyphs for religious literature on papyrus and wood. Hieroglyphs are related to two other ... |
qg_2202 | The oldest of the grand slam tennis tournaments, what is the only one still played on grass? | Wimbledon | [
"wimbolden",
"thе wimbles",
"wimbleton",
"wimbledon",
"wimbeldon",
"wimbldon",
"wimbledom",
"wimbledon disambiguation"
] | [
"Grand Slam (tennis)\n\nThe Grand Slam tournaments, also called majors, are the four most important annual tennis events. They offer the most ranking points, prize money, public and media attention, the greatest strength and size of field, and greater number of \"best of\" sets for men. The Grand Slam itinerary co... |
qg_2203 | Choctaw, Lummi, and Otoe are all types of what? | Native American tribes | [
"tribe american indian",
"tribal nation",
"tribe native american",
"native american tribe",
"tribe indian",
"american indian tribe",
"indian tribe",
"native american tribes",
"american indian tribes",
"indian tribes in united states",
"concept of indian tribes in united states"
] | [
"Choctaw\n\nThe Choctaw (In the Choctaw language, Chahta)Common misspellings and variations in other languages include Chacta, Tchakta and Chocktaw. are Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States (modern-day Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, and Louisiana). The Choctaw language belongs to th... |
qg_2204 | For a point each, name the 4 countries surrounding Rwanda | Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. | [
"uganda tanzania burundi and democratic republic of congo"
] | [
"Rwanda\n\nRwanda ( or (); ), officially the Republic of Rwanda (; ), is a sovereign state in central and east Africa and one of the smallest countries on the African mainland. Located a few degrees south of the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Rwand... |
qg_2205 | Which US President, born Leslie Lynch King on July 14, 1913, was the longest lived US President at 93 years, 165 days? | Gerald Ford | [
"president gerald r ford",
"leslie lynch king",
"gerald ford",
"gerald ford jr",
"presidency of gerald ford administration",
"jerry ford",
"assassination attempts on gerald ford",
"gerald fod",
"presidency of gerald ford",
"leslie king jr",
"gerry ford",
"birth and life of gerald ford",
"for... | [
"President of the United States\n\nThe President of the United States of America (POTUS) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.",
"President of th... |
qg_2207 | With an atomic number of 11, what element gets its' from the Latin natrium? | Sodium | [
"natrium",
"sodium metabolism",
"sodium compounds",
"nitrium german",
"sodanum",
"sodium mirror",
"sodium",
"sodium 23",
"liquid sodium",
"7440 23 5",
"d lines",
"dietary sodium",
"na",
"na element",
"sodium ion",
"element 11"
] | [
"Chemical element\n\nA chemical element or element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei (i.e. the same atomic number, Z). There are 118 elements that have been identified, of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements. There ... |
qg_2208 | What famed Italian based fashion house has been struggling ever since major asshat Andrew Cunanan gunned down the founder and creative genius outside his Miami Beach mansion on July 15, 1997? | Versace | [
"gianni versace spa",
"versace classic",
"versace sport",
"gianni versace s p",
"versace jeans couture",
"versace precious items",
"versace"
] | [
"Andrew Cunanan\n\nAndrew Phillip Cunanan (August 31, 1969 – July 23, 1997) was an American serial killer who murdered at least five people, including fashion designer Gianni Versace, during a three-month period in 1997. On June 12, 1997, Cunanan became the 449th fugitive to be listed by the FBI on the FBI Ten Mos... |
qg_2210 | Which stock market trend is associated with increased investor confidence? Bull? Or Bear? | Bull | [
"male genitalia of bulls",
"bull penis",
"sexual anatomy of bulls",
"bovine male reproductive system",
"bull s testicles",
"artificial insemination of cattle",
"bull s penis",
"gentleman cow",
"reproductive anatomy of bulls",
"herd bull",
"bull s scrotum",
"bull",
"penises of bulls",
"bovi... | [
"Market trend\n\nA market trend is a perceived tendency of financial markets to move in a particular direction over time. These trends are classified as secular for long time frames, primary for medium time frames, and secondary for short time frames. Traders identify market trends using technical analysis, a fram... |
qg_2211 | July 17, 1890 marked the death of what Scottish moral philosopher, considered the father of modern economics, who wrote such classics as An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments? | Adam Smith | [
"smith",
"vile maxim",
"adam smith"
] | [
"Ethics\n\nEthics or moral philosophy is the branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term ethics derives from the Ancient Greek word ἠθικός ethikos, which is derived from the word ἦθος ethos (habit, \"custom\"). The branch of philosophy... |
qg_2215 | In what country did the Sandinista National Liberation Front overthrow the Somoza regime in 1979? | Nicaragua | [
"republic of nicaragua",
"nicaragua central america",
"nicarugua",
"republica de nicaragua",
"etymology of nicaragua",
"bibliography of nicaragua",
"health in nicaragua",
"nicaragua",
"subdivisions of nicaragua",
"nicaraguan",
"administrative divisions of nicaragua",
"república de nicaragua",
... | [
"Sandinista National Liberation Front\n\nThe Sandinista National Liberation Front (, FSLN) is now a democratic socialist political party in Nicaragua. Its members are called Sandinistas in both English and Spanish. The party is named after Augusto César Sandino, who led the Nicaraguan resistance against the Unite... |
qg_2216 | In craps, if one rolls boxcars, what numbers appear on the dice? | Sixes | [
"sixes georgia",
"sixes"
] | [
"Craps\n\nCraps is a dice game in which the players make wagers on the outcome of the roll, or a series of rolls, of a pair of dice. Players may wager money against each other (playing \"street craps\", also known as \"shooting dice\" or \"rolling dice\") or a bank (playing \"casino craps\", also known as \"table c... |
qg_2217 | July 15, 1951 marked the birth of what famed professional wrestler, known as The Body, who also spent 4 years as the governor of Minnesota? | Jesse Ventura | [
"jesse 22the body 22 ventura",
"jesse ventura",
"gov jesse ventura",
"james g janos",
"jesse ventura s america",
"jessie ventura",
"james janos",
"jesse body ventura",
"jessee ventura",
"governor ventura",
"jim janos",
"james george janos"
] | [
"Professional wrestling\n\nProfessional wrestling (colloquially abbreviated to pro wrestling or wrestling) is an athletic form of entertainment based on a portrayal of a combat sport. Taking the form of live events held by touring promotions, it portrays a unique style of combat based on a combination of adopted s... |
qg_2218 | Commercial tuna fishing no longer uses nets, but mostly switched to using lines, due to public outcry over the accidental netting and subsequent killing of what marine animals? | Dolphins | [
"sexual behavior of dolphins",
"sexuality of dolphins",
"dolphin",
"reproductive behavior of dolphins",
"dolphin habitat",
"dorphin",
"dolphin diet",
"dolphin mythology",
"aquatic mammal dolphin",
"list of dolphin species",
"dolphin lore",
"genital slit",
"mating dolphins",
"social behavio... | [
"Tuna\n\nA tuna is a saltwater finfish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a sub-grouping of the mackerel family (Scombridae) – which together with the tunas, also includes the bonitos, mackerels, and Spanish mackerels. Thunnini comprises fifteen species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, ranging... |
qg_2219 | What comic strip, introduced by Chester Gould in 1931, features the adventures of a hard hitting, fast-shooting, and intelligent police detective? | Dick Tracy | [
"dick tracy radio series",
"dick tracy watch",
"plainclothes tracy",
"dick tracey",
"dick tracy"
] | [
"Comic strip\n\nA comic strip is a sequence of drawings arranged in interrelated panels to display brief humor or form a narrative, often serialized, with text in balloons and captions. Traditionally, throughout the 20th century and into the 21st, these have been published in newspapers and magazines, with horizont... |
qg_2223 | What famed fashion designer was gunned down outside his Miami home by certified asshat Andrew Cunanan on July 15, 1997? | Gianni Versace | [
"gianni versace",
"giani versaci"
] | [
"Andrew Cunanan\n\nAndrew Phillip Cunanan (August 31, 1969 – July 23, 1997) was an American serial killer who murdered at least five people, including fashion designer Gianni Versace, during a three-month period in 1997. On June 12, 1997, Cunanan became the 449th fugitive to be listed by the FBI on the FBI Ten Mos... |
qg_2224 | In what traditional nursery rhyme do we see 4 and 20 blackbirds baked in a pie? | Sing a Song of Sixpence | [
"sing song of sixpence"
] | [
"Sing a Song of Sixpence\n\n\"Sing a Song of Sixpence\" is a well-known English nursery rhyme, perhaps originating in the 18th century. It is also listed in the Roud Folk Song Index as number 13191.",
"Sing a Song of Sixpence\n\nLyrics",
"Sing a Song of Sixpence\n\nA common modern version is:\nSing a song of si... |
qg_2225 | According to the fictional sea shanty, were do we find 15 men, yo-ho-ho and a bottle of rum? | a Dead Man's Chest | [
"fifteen men on dead man s chest",
"dead man s chest",
"fifteen men"
] | [
"Sea shanty\n\nA sea shanty, chantey, or chanty is a type of work song that was once commonly sung to accompany labor on board large merchant sailing vessels. The term shanty most accurately refers to a specific style of work song belonging to this historical repertoire. However, in recent, popular usage, the scope... |
qg_2227 | The Trinity test site, outside of Alamogordo, NM, saw the first test of the atomic bomb on July 16, 1945. Headed by J. Robert Oppenheimer, what was the name of the project that developed the bomb? | Manhattan project | [
"development of substitute materials",
"manhattan project",
"manhattan district",
"manhatten project",
"nathan safferstein",
"development of atomic bomb",
"united states army corps of engineers manhattan district",
"project manhattan",
"military policy committee",
"manhattan engineer district",
... | [
"Trinity (nuclear test)\n\nTrinity was the code name of the first detonation of a nuclear weapon, conducted by the United States Army on July 16, 1945, as part of the Manhattan Project. The test was conducted in the Jornada del Muerto desert about 35 mi southeast of Socorro, New Mexico, on what was then the USAAF A... |
qg_2228 | "Ladies and gentlemen: the story you are about to hear is true. Only the names have been changed to protect the innocent." | Dragnet | [
"dragnet film",
"dragnet",
"dragnet disambiguation"
] | [
"Dragnet (franchise)\n\nDragnet was an American radio, television and motion picture series, enacting the cases of a dedicated Los Angeles police detective, Sergeant Joe Friday, and his partners. The show takes its name from the police term \"dragnet\", meaning a system of coordinated measures for apprehending crim... |
qg_2229 | “Following in his father’s footsteps as a naval aviator, Lieutenant Commander Harmon Rabb, Jr. suffered a crash while landing his Tomcat on a storm tossed carrier at sea. Diagnosed with night-blindness, Harm transferred to the Navy’s Judge Advocate General Corps which investigates, defends and prosecutes the law of the... | JAG | [
"jag",
"jag disambiguation"
] | [
"Harmon Rabb\n\nCaptain Harmon 'Harm' Rabb, Jr., JAGC, USN, (played by David James Elliott) is a fictional and lead character in the American television series JAG.",
"Harmon Rabb\n\nIn the pilot episode, he is introduced as a young Navy lieutenant serving as a Judge Advocate. The viewer follows his naval career ... |
qg_2230 | "In the criminal justice system, the people are represented by two separate yet equally important groups: the police, who investigate crime, and the district attorneys, who prosecute the offenders. These are their stories." | Law and Order | [
"laura norda",
"law and order disambiguation",
"law n order",
"law order",
"law and order"
] | [
"Police\n\nA police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the legitimized use of force. The term is most commonly associated with police services of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the pol... |
qg_2231 | You got big dreams? You want fame? Well, fame costs. And right here is where you start paying–in sweat.” | Fame | [
"fame song",
"fame movie tv series and theme song",
"fame",
"f m e",
"fame disambiguation",
"fame film",
"fame tv show",
"fame tv series"
] | [
"Debbie Allen\n\nDeborrah Kaye \"Debbie\" Allen (born January 16, 1950) is an American actress, dancer, choreographer, television director, television producer, and a member of the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities. She is perhaps best known for her work on the 1982 musical-drama television series ... |
qg_2233 | Here’s how it is: Earth got used up, so we terraformed a whole new galaxy of Earths, some rich and flush with the new technologies, some, not so much. Central Planets, them as formed The Alliance, waged war to bring everyone under their rule. A few idiots tried to fight it, among them, myself. I’m Malcolm Reynolds, Cap... | Firefly | [
"lightning beetle",
"light bug",
"lampyridae",
"firefly",
"cucullo",
"lucciola",
"fireflies",
"peenie wallie",
"firefly flashing"
] | [
"Malcolm Reynolds\n\nMalcolm \"Mal\" Reynolds is a fictional character and the protagonist of the Firefly franchise. Mal is played by actor Nathan Fillion in the 2002 TV series Firefly and the 2005 film Serenity. In the series, Mal is a former Browncoat sergeant and the captain of the Firefly-class spaceship Sereni... |
qg_2234 | What you are about to witness is real. The participants are not actors. They are the actual people who have already either filed suit or been served a summons to appear in a California municipal court. Both parties in the suit have agreed to dismiss their court cases and have their disputes settled here, in our forum: ... | The People's Court | [
"rusty burrell",
"doug llewelyn",
"peoples court",
"people s court",
"people s court uk"
] | [
"The People's Court\n\nThe People's Court is an American arbitration-based reality court show currently presided over by retired Florida State Circuit Court Judge Marilyn Milian (her 15th season as the show's arbitrator by September 7, 2015). Milian, the show's longest-reigning arbiter, handles small claims dispute... |
qg_2235 | Housed in a distinctive red case, July 12, 1960 saw the introduction of what popular toy, manufactered by The Ohio Art Company, which was originally called "The Magic Screen"? | Etch A Sketch | [
"etch sketch",
"etchasketch",
"etch sketch animator",
"etch sketch animator 2000",
"etch s sketch",
"magic screen"
] | [
"Ohio Art Company\n\nThe Ohio Art Company () is an American manufacturing company founded in 1908. Based in Bryan, Ohio, the company is principally engaged in two lines of business. The first line of business is the sales, marketing, and distribution of toys including the Etch A Sketch, and Nanoblock. (The Etch A S... |
qg_2237 | The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954 was awarded to Ernest Hemingway for "his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in what novella, featuring as a main character a tired gentleman named Santiago, and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style". | The Old Man and the Sea | [
"ye olde man and sea",
"old man and sea",
"old man sea"
] | [
"Ernest Hemingway\n\nErnest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American novelist, short story writer, and journalist. His economical and understated style had a strong influence on 20th-century fiction, while his life of adventure and his public image influenced later generations. Hemingway prod... |
qg_2239 | Former Governor-General of the Phillipines, who is the only person ever to hold the positions of both US President and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court? | William Howard Taft | [
"taft president",
"william h taft",
"presidency of william howard taft",
"billy possum",
"big bill taft",
"william taft",
"wh taft",
"william howard taft",
"president taft",
"willliam howard taft",
"w h taft",
"27th president of united states",
"howard taft",
"justice taft",
"chief justi... | [
"President of the United States\n\nThe President of the United States of America (POTUS) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.",
"President of th... |
qg_2241 | What city is missing from the following group: Phoenix, Houston, Chicago, Los Angeles? | New York City | [
"new york n y",
"city that never sleeps city",
"new york city new york united states",
"new york city ny",
"n y city",
"n y c",
"new york city nyc usa",
"city of new york new york",
"nyc",
"ny c",
"city of ny",
"city of n y",
"new york city n y",
"new york ny usa",
"center school manhatt... | [
"Phoenix, Arizona\n\nPhoenix is the capital and largest city of the U.S. state of Arizona. With 1,563,025 people (as of 2015), Phoenix is the sixth most populous city nationwide, the most populous state capital in the United States, and the only state capital with a population of more than 1 million residents.",
... |
qg_2243 | According to the 1973 motion picture, what was “Soylent Green”? | People | [
"people",
"👥",
"peeple"
] | [
"Film industry\n\nThe film industry or motion picture industry comprises the technological and commercial institutions of filmmaking, i.e., film production companies, film studios, cinematography, film production, screenwriting, pre-production, post production, film festivals, distribution; and actors, film directo... |
qg_2244 | Burgess Meredith and Danny Devito have both played which Batman character? | The Penguin | [
"actors to portray penguin",
"penguin comics",
"oswald cobblepot",
"oswald chesterfield cobblepot",
"penguin oswald chesterfield cobblepot",
"cobblepot",
"penguin",
"penguin character"
] | [
"Burgess Meredith\n\nOliver Burgess Meredith (November 16, 1907 – September 9, 1997), known professionally as Burgess Meredith, was an American actor, director, producer, and writer in theater, film, and television. Active for more than six decades, Meredith has been called \"a virtuosic actor\" and \"one of the ... |
qg_2245 | Cesar Romero and Jack Nicholson have both played which Batman character? | The Joker | [
"mr j",
"joker s asylum",
"joe kerr",
"clown prince of crime",
"joker last laugh",
"joker venom",
"harlequin of hate",
"joker villain",
"joker batman",
"joker bibliography",
"oberon sexton",
"joker villian",
"gaggy gagsworthy",
"joker",
"joker from batman",
"j man",
"joker brand",
... | [
"Cesar Romero\n\nCesar Julio Romero Jr. (February 15, 1907 – January 1, 1994) was an American actor, singer, dancer, voice artist, and comedian who was active in film, radio, and television for almost 60 years.",
"Cesar Romero\n\nHis wide range of screen roles included Latin lovers, historical figures in costume ... |
qg_2247 | If a team at contract bridge wins a grand slam, how many tricks have they won? | 13 | [
"thirteen"
] | [
"Contract bridge\n\nContract bridge, or simply bridge, is a trick-taking game using a standard 52-card deck. It is played by four players in two competing partnerships, with partners sitting opposite each other around a table. Millions of people play bridge worldwide in clubs, tournaments, online and with friends... |
qg_2248 | While filming the documentary Super Size Me, Morgan Spurlock ate at what fast food restaurant exclusively for 30 days? | McDonald's | [
"mcdonalds com",
"mchappy day",
"mckinley mac",
"der schotte",
"mcdonald s",
"mcd s",
"mcdonald s restaraunt",
"mcdonalds corporation",
"micky ds",
"mcdonald s hamburgers",
"mddonalds",
"list of assets owned by mcdonald s",
"global impact of mcdonald s",
"salads plus",
"maccas",
"macky... | [
"Super Size Me\n\nSuper Size Me is a 2004 American documentary film directed by and starring Morgan Spurlock, an American independent filmmaker. Spurlock's film follows a 30-day period from February 1 to March 2, 2003, during which he ate only McDonald's food. The film documents this lifestyle's drastic effect on S... |
qg_2250 | How many cups are in a gallon? | 16 | [
"sixteen"
] | [
"United States customary units\n\nUnited States customary units are a system of measurements commonly used in the United States. The United States customary system (USCS or USC) developed from English units which were in use in the British Empire before American independence. However, the British system of measures... |
qg_2251 | Which stock market trend is associated with decreased investor confidence? Bull? Or Bear? | Bear | [
"ursidae",
"bear cub",
"cub bear",
"bear hibernation",
"ursoidea",
"bear",
"reproductive behavior of bears",
"honey pig",
"ursoid",
"bears",
"mating bears",
"ursine",
"🐻",
"arctos",
"bear zoology",
"sexual behavior of bears"
] | [
"Stock market\n\nA stock market, equity market or share market is the aggregation of buyers and sellers (a loose network of economic transactions, not a physical facility or discrete entity) of stocks (also called shares); these may include securities listed on a stock exchange as well as those only traded privatel... |
qg_2253 | On July 16, 1945, the nuclear age was ushered in with the explosion of a test bomb at the Trinity test site in what US state? | New Mexico | [
"new mexcio",
"new mexico united states",
"47th state",
"culture of new mexico",
"insignia of state of new mexico",
"climate of new mexico",
"nueva mexico",
"demographics of new mexico",
"new mexico u s state",
"tierra del encanto",
"newmexico",
"new mexico state",
"estado de nuevo mexico",
... | [
"Atomic Age\n\nThe Atomic Age, also known as the Atomic Era, is the period of history following the detonation of the first nuclear (\"atomic\") bomb, Trinity, on July 16, 1945, during World War II. Although nuclear chain reactions had been hypothesized in 1933 and the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain... |
qg_2255 | The March of Dimes was originally started to raise money to combat what disease? | Polio | [
"bulbar poliomyelitis",
"poliomylitis",
"abortive poliomyelitis",
"debility of lower extremities",
"paralytic poliomyelitis",
"poliomyelitis",
"heine medin s disease",
"bulbar polio",
"acute poliomyelitis",
"poliomyelitiss",
"heine medin disease",
"poliomyelitis paralytic",
"poliomyelitis bu... | [
"March of Dimes\n\nThe March of Dimes Foundation is a United States nonprofit organization that works to improve the health of mothers and babies. It was founded by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1938, as the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, to combat polio. It has since taken up promoting general... |
qg_2256 | Much to the dismay of Paul Simon, what Kodak product was recently retired after a 74 year run? | Kodachrome | [
"kodochrome",
"kodachrome"
] | [
"Paul Simon\n\nPaul Frederic Simon (born October 13, 1941) is an American musician, singer-songwriter and actor. Simon's fame, influence, and commercial success began as part of the duo Simon & Garfunkel, formed in 1964 with musical partner Art Garfunkel.",
"Paul Simon\n\nSimon wrote nearly all of the pair's song... |
qg_2257 | At what address did fictional detective Sherlock Holmes live/work with Dr. Watson? | 221B Baker Street | [
"221 b baker street",
"221b",
"21b baker street",
"221b baker street"
] | [
"Detective fiction\n\nDetective fiction is a subgenre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which an investigator or a detective—either professional or amateur—investigates a crime, often murder.",
"Detective fiction\n\nBeginnings of detective fiction",
"Detective fiction\n\nIn ancient literature",
"Detecti... |
qg_2259 | In the English language version of Scrabble, what is the point value of the vowels? | 1 | [
"one"
] | [
"English language\n\nEnglish is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now a global lingua franca. English is either the official language or an official language in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the most commonly spoken language in the United Kingdom, the United States,... |
qg_2262 | In the stupid celebrity kids name category, what superhero inspired name did Nicholas Cage bestow upon his son? | Kal-El | [
"supes",
"superman clark kent",
"kal el",
"supertman",
"übermensch",
"man of tomorrow",
"more powerful than locomotive",
"kirk brent",
"codename patriot",
"stalmannen",
"superman comics",
"faster than speeding bullet",
"superman costume",
"superman secret files",
"superman fictional char... | [
"Superhero\n\nIn modern popular fiction, a superhero (sometimes rendered super-hero or super hero) is a type of costumed heroic character who possesses supernatural or superhuman powers and who is dedicated to fighting crime, protecting the public, and usually battling supervillains. A female superhero is sometimes... |
qg_2265 | What makeup slathered asshat, along with her husband Jim, bilked millions from unsuspecting believers, as head of the daily religious TV show, the PTL club? | Tammy Faye Bakker | [
"tammy fay bakker",
"tammy faye baker",
"tammy faye",
"tamara faye messner",
"tammy fay baker",
"tamara faye baker",
"tammy faye lavalley",
"tammy faye bakker messner",
"tammy faye messner",
"tammy faye bakker",
"tamara faye lavalle",
"tammy faye meissner",
"tammy messner",
"tammy fay mess... | [
"The PTL Club\n\nThe PTL Club (PTL stands for \"Praise The Lord\" or \"People That Love\"), later called The Jim and Tammy Show, and in its last days PTL Today and Heritage Today, was a Christian television program first hosted by evangelists Jim and Tammy Faye Bakker, which ran from 1974 to 1989. The PTL Club, whi... |
qg_2266 | Lake Ontario is the smallest of the Great Lakes by area. What is the smallest by volume? | Erie | [
"erie pennsylvania",
"un locode useri",
"pa erie",
"erie pa",
"erie",
"erpa",
"dreary erie",
"erie pennsylvania metropolitan area"
] | [
"Lake Ontario\n\nLake Ontario () is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. It is surrounded on the north, west, and southwest by the Canadian province of Ontario, and on the south and east by the American state of New York, whose water boundaries meet in the middle of the lake. Ontario, Canada's most populou... |
qg_2267 | Founded in 1892, Ezra Fitch hooked up with whom in order to open their first sporting good store, before ultimately settling on fashion? | Abercrombie | [
"abercrombie disambiguation",
"abercrombie",
"abrecrombie"
] | [
"Ezra Fitch\n\nEzra Hasbrouck Fitch (September 27, 1865 – June 16, 1930) was the co-founder of the modern lifestyle brand Abercrombie & Fitch and is attributed with the introduction of Mahjong to the United States.",
"Ezra Fitch\n\nA wealthy New York manager, Fitch began as one of the company's first customers, u... |
qg_2270 | Where do the 12 Greek gods call home? | Olympus | [
"olýmpos",
"mount olympus disambiguation",
"olympos",
"olympus",
"olympus disambiguation"
] | [
"Greek mythology\n\nGreek mythology is the body of myths and teachings that belong to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. It was a part of the religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars refer to and ... |
qg_2271 | George Washington was the first US president. Who was the second? | John Adams | [
"2nd president of united states",
"adams 2",
"john adams inaugural speeech",
"john adams administration",
"adams john",
"second us president",
"john adams jr",
"novanglus",
"presidency of john adams",
"second president of united states",
"john adams inaugural speech",
"john adam s administrati... | [
"George Washington\n\nGeorge Washington (Contemporary records, which used the Julian calendar and the Annunciation Style of enumerating years, recorded his birth as February 11, 1731. The provisions of the British Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, implemented in 1752, altered the official British dating method to the ... |
qg_2276 | Michael Jackson’s number one hit “Ben” was an ode to what type of animal? | Rat | [
"list of rat species",
"true rat",
"rat subspecies",
"rats",
"subspecies of rat",
"rat species",
"🐀",
"ratus genus",
"species of rat",
"rat iq",
"stenomys",
"rattus rattus domesticus",
"rat",
"rattus",
"rat feces",
"ringie"
] | [
"Michael Jackson\n\nMichael Joseph Jackson (August 29, 1958 – June 25, 2009) was an American singer, songwriter, record producer, dancer, and actor. Called the King of Pop, his contributions to music, dance and fashion along with his publicized personal life made him a global figure in popular culture for o... |
qg_2278 | According to the fairy tale Goldilocks, whose bed was too hard? | Papa bear | [
"papa bear disambiguation",
"papa bear"
] | [
"Goldilocks and the Three Bears\n\n\"Goldilocks and the Three Bears\" and the older \"The Story of the Three Bears\" are two variations of an old fairy tale. The original tale tells of an ugly, old woman who enters the forest home of three bachelor bears whilst they are away. She sits in their chairs, eats some of ... |
qg_2279 | Before being supposedly discovered at the counter of Schwab's Drug store, Marilyn Monroe was known as who? | Norma Jean Baker | [
"norma jeane",
"norma jean dougherty",
"norma jean dimaggio",
"norma jean baker",
"marylin monroe",
"marilyn munro",
"marilyn monroe miller",
"norma jean mortenson",
"norma jean baker mortenson",
"marliyn monroe",
"charles stanley gifford",
"norma jean mortensen",
"norma jeane mortenson",
... | [
"Marilyn Monroe\n\nMarilyn Monroe (born Norma Jeane Mortenson; June 1, 1926 – August 5, 1962) was an American actress and model. Famous for playing \"dumb blonde\" characters, she became one of the most popular sex symbols of the 1950s, emblematic of the era's attitudes towards sexuality. Although she was a top-bil... |
qg_2280 | What "melts in your mouth, not in your hands?" | M&Ms | [
"mega m m s",
"m m s minis",
"m and m s",
"m m s peanuts",
"mini m m",
"m m s characters",
"metm",
"peanut m ms",
"m et m",
"m m s",
"mnms",
"m ms",
"peanut m m s",
"m m",
"crispy m m s",
"m and ms",
"m m candies",
"candy cow",
"peanut butter m ms",
"meganems"
] | [
"Galaxy Minstrels\n\nGalaxy Minstrels, also known as Minstrels, are milk chocolate buttons with a hard glazed shell sold in several countries including the UK, Ireland, South Africa, Kenya, Cyprus, Malta, Canada, and Spain.",
"Galaxy Minstrels\n\nThey originally had the slogan \"They melt in your mouth, not in yo... |
qg_2281 | The detonation of the first atomic bomb, Trinity, ushered in the Atomic Age, when the bomb was tested outside of Alamogordo in what US state on July 16, 1945? | New Mexico | [
"new mexcio",
"new mexico united states",
"47th state",
"culture of new mexico",
"insignia of state of new mexico",
"climate of new mexico",
"nueva mexico",
"demographics of new mexico",
"new mexico u s state",
"tierra del encanto",
"newmexico",
"new mexico state",
"estado de nuevo mexico",
... | [
"Nuclear weapon\n\nA nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion (thermonuclear weapon). Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first test ... |
qg_2282 | What does one have a pocketful of in the nursery rhyme “Sing a Song of Sixpence”? | Rye | [
"rye",
"rye botany",
"secale cereale",
"ryep",
"centeio",
"oralmat",
"rye grain",
"rye extract",
"winter rye"
] | [
"Sing a Song of Sixpence\n\n\"Sing a Song of Sixpence\" is a well-known English nursery rhyme, perhaps originating in the 18th century. It is also listed in the Roud Folk Song Index as number 13191.",
"Sing a Song of Sixpence\n\nLyrics",
"Sing a Song of Sixpence\n\nA common modern version is:\nSing a song of si... |
qg_2283 | Which author of books such as The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, First Things First, Principle-Centered Leadership, and The Seven Habits of Highly Effective Families, died on Monday due to complications from a bicycle accident? | Stephen R. Covey | [
"stephen covy",
"stephen r covey",
"steven r covey",
"steven covy",
"leader in me—how schools and parents around world are inspiring greatness one child at time",
"steven covey",
"stephen covey"
] | [
"The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People\n\nThe 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, first published in 1989, is a business and self-help book written by Stephen R. Covey. Covey presents an approach to being effective in attaining goals by aligning oneself to what he calls \"true north\" principles of a character ... |
qg_2284 | Signed on July 16, 1790, the Residence Act established what as the US Capitol? | Washington DC | [
"distric of columbia",
"government of d c",
"city of washington",
"one district",
"district of columbia government",
"federal district of united states",
"us dc",
"capital of usa",
"washington dc",
"dist of columbia",
"washingtondc",
"american federal district",
"us capital",
"distict of c... | [
"United States Capitol\n\nThe United States Capitol, often called the Capitol Building or Capitol Hill, is the seat of the United States Congress, the legislative branch of the U.S. federal government. It sits atop Capitol Hill, at the eastern end of the National Mall in Washington, D.C. Though not at the geographi... |
qg_2286 | What is the more common name for a lexicon, of which Dr. Johnson's is an early example? | Dictionary | [
"dictonary",
"standard dictionary",
"dictionaries",
"usage dictionary",
"dictinonary",
"list of english dictionaries",
"dictionary use",
"mono lingual dictionary",
"dictionary software",
"dictionary",
"dictionarist",
"قاموس",
"english dictionary",
"online dictionary",
"phrase dictionary"... | [
"Samuel Johnson\n\nSamuel Johnson (18 September 1709 – 13 December 1784), often referred to as Dr Johnson, was an English writer who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer. Johnson was a devout Anglican and committed Tor... |
qg_2287 | Which Mesoamerican culture worshipped the feathered serpent known as Quetzalcoatl? | Aztecs | [
"aztecs",
"mexicas",
"aztec ways",
"aztec civilization",
"origin of aztec term to refer to mexica",
"aztec civilizations",
"aztekoj",
"aztec people",
"aztec civilisation",
"aztec culture",
"aztec"
] | [
"Mesoamerica\n\nMesoamerica is a region and cultural area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica, within which pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th... |
qg_2288 | In theater terminology, which part of a stage is closest to the audience: upstage or downstage? | Downstage | [
"upstage",
"up stage",
"down stage",
"downstage",
"stage direction",
"stage directions",
"house left",
"blocking stage",
"stage left",
"camera blocking",
"stage right",
"house right"
] | [
"Stage (theatre)\n\nIn theatre or performance arts, the stage (sometimes referred to as the deck in stagecraft) is a designated space for the performance of productions. The stage serves as a space for actors or performers and a focal point (the screen in cinema theaters) for the members of the audience. As an arc... |
qg_2292 | Although it was headquartered at Oak Ridge, TN, and the University of Chicago, what was the name of the WWII project that created the atomic bomb? | The Manhattan project | [
"development of substitute materials",
"manhattan project",
"manhattan district",
"manhatten project",
"nathan safferstein",
"development of atomic bomb",
"united states army corps of engineers manhattan district",
"project manhattan",
"military policy committee",
"manhattan engineer district",
... | [
"Oak Ridge, Tennessee\n\nOak Ridge is a city in Anderson and Roane counties in the eastern part of the U.S. state of Tennessee, about 25 mi west of Knoxville. Oak Ridge's population was 29,330 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Knoxville Metropolitan Area. Oak Ridge's nicknames include the Atomic City, the Sec... |
qg_2293 | If you are eating salted, unfertilized sturgeon roe, what are you eating? | Caviar | [
"iranian caviar",
"caviar substitute",
"caviar caviare",
"black caviar",
"caviar",
"cavier",
"fish caviar",
"keviar",
"caviare",
"ikra"
] | [
"Sturgeon\n\nSturgeon is the common name for the 27 species of fish belonging to the family Acipenseridae. Their evolution dates back to the Triassic some 245 to 208 million years ago. The family is grouped into four genera: Acipenser, Huso, Scaphirhynchus and Pseudoscaphirhynchus. Four species may now be extinct.... |
qg_2298 | Obtained from the ore cinnabar, vermilion is a shade of what color? | Red | [
"red colour",
"incarnadined",
"reddened",
"aztec red",
"255 0 0",
"color red",
"incarnadines",
"reddeners",
"reddens",
"raudur",
"firebrick red",
"incarnadine",
"redest",
"reddener",
"rauður",
"red political adjective",
"redly",
"reddishness",
"redness",
"red",
"reddest",
"... | [
"Ore\n\nAn ore is a type of rock that contains sufficient minerals with important elements including metals that can be economically extracted from the rock. The ores are extracted from the earth through mining; they are then refined (often via smelting) to extract the valuable element, or elements.",
"Ore\n\nTh... |
qg_2299 | Monday marked the 61st anniversary of the publication of noted recluse J. D. Salinger's only novel, which was what? | The Catcher in the Rye | [
"catcher in rye",
"little shirley beans",
"catcher and rye",
"mr antolini",
"club ernies",
"agerstown pa",
"db caulfield",
"d b caulfield",
"faith cavendish",
"sally hayes",
"edmont hotel",
"mr spencer",
"agerstown pennsylvania",
"estelle fletcher",
"jane gallagher",
"phoebe caulfield"... | [
"J. D. Salinger\n\nJerome David Salinger (; January 1, 1919 January 27, 2010) was an American writer who won acclaim early in life. He led a very private life for more than a half-century. He published his final original work in 1965 and gave his last interview in 1980.",
"J. D. Salinger\n\nSalinger was raised i... |
qg_2302 | Whose Wild West show, which ran from 1883 until 1908, featured such performers as Annie Oakley, Sitting Bull, and Frank Butler, among many others? | Buffalo Bill | [
"william frederick 22buffalo bill 22 cody",
"buffalo bill",
"buffalo bill s wild west",
"buffalo bill s wild west show",
"bill cody",
"william f cody",
"wild west rocky mountain and prairie exhibition",
"buffalo bill cody s wild west show",
"william frank buffalo bill cody",
"william frederick cod... | [
"Wild West shows\n\nWild West shows were traveling vaudeville performances in the United States and Europe. The first and prototypical Wild West show was Buffalo Bill's, formed in 1883 and lasting until 1913. The shows introduced many western performers and personalities, and a romanticized version of the American ... |
qg_2303 | The Oscar winning song "A Whole New World" accompanies Aladdin and Jasmine when they explore the world atop of what? | Magic Carpet | [
"magic carpet disambiguation",
"magic carpet"
] | [
"A Whole New World\n\n\"A Whole New World\" is a song from Disney's 1992 animated feature film Aladdin, with music by Alan Menken and lyrics by Tim Rice. The song is a ballad between the primary characters Aladdin and Jasmine about the new world they are going to discover together while riding on Aladdin's magic ca... |
qg_2304 | First settled in 1565, what is the oldest, continually occupied European-established city in the continental US? | St. Augustine, FL | [
"st augustine flordida",
"st augustine florida",
"saint augustine city",
"saint augustine fl",
"st augustine fla",
"st augustine fl",
"excelsior high school st augustine florida",
"saint augustine florida"
] | [
"St. Augustine, Florida\n\nSt. Augustine () is a city in northeastern Florida. It is the oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement within the borders of the contiguous United States.",
"St. Augustine, Florida\n\nThe county seat of St. Johns County, it is part of Florida's First Coast region an... |
qg_2305 | Durum, Spelt, and Einkorn are all types of what? | Wheat | [
"atcvet code qa06ac07",
"wheat grains",
"triticum genus",
"dwarf wheat",
"cracked wheat",
"atc code a06ac07",
"triticum spp",
"triticum",
"triticum sphaerococcum",
"wheat",
"wheat grain",
"wheats"
] | [
"Durum\n\nDurum wheat, pasta wheat or macaroni wheat (Triticum durum or Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) is the only tetraploid species of wheat of commercial importance that is widely cultivated today. It was developed by artificial selection of the domesticated emmer wheat strains formerly grown in Central Euro... |
qg_2308 | For a point each, name the 2 countries that share a border with the Republic of Ecuador. | Colombia, Peru | [
"colombia peru"
] | [
"Ecuador\n\nEcuador ( ,), officially the Republic of Ecuador (, which literally translates as \"Republic of the Equator\"), is a representative democratic republic in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Ecuador also includes ... |
qg_2311 | What is ursus arctos horribilis commonly known as? | Grizzly bear | [
"hunting status on grizzly bears in british columbia canada",
"peninsular grizzly",
"grizzly bear",
"montana state mammal",
"ursus arctos horribilis",
"grizzlie bear",
"grizzly bears and their habitat",
"ursus arctos gyas",
"grizzly bears",
"silvertip bear",
"grizzlar bear",
"mainland grizzly"... | [
"Grizzly bear\n\nThe grizzly bear (Ursus arctos ssp.) less commonly called the silvertip bear, is any North American morphological form or subspecies of brown bear, including the mainland grizzly (Ursus arctos horribilis), Kodiak bear (U. a. middendorffi), peninsular grizzly (U. a. gyas), and the recently extinct C... |
qg_2313 | Gonzo journalism, a style in which reporters involve themselves in the action to such a degree that they become the central figures of their stories, was created by whom? | Hunter S. Thompson | [
"hunter thompson s",
"sandra dawn conklin",
"hunter thompson",
"hunter s thompson",
"hunter stockton thompson",
"dr hunter s thompson",
"anita bejmuk",
"hunter s thomson"
] | [
"Gonzo journalism\n\nGonzo journalism is a style of journalism that is written without claims of objectivity, often including the reporter as part of the story via a first-person narrative. The word \"gonzo\" is believed to have been first used in 1970 to describe an article by Hunter S. Thompson, who later popular... |
qg_2315 | Born Lee Jun-fan in San Francisco, what famed martial artist, who died on Jul 20, 1973, founded the martial art known as Jeet Kune Do? | Bruce Lee | [
"sai fon",
"bruce j lee",
"ley siw long",
"unstoppable punch",
"li jhen fan",
"li zhen fan",
"bruce lee foundation",
"sai feng",
"bruce lee",
"léih síulùhng",
"physical fitness and nutrition of bruce lee",
"lee jun fan",
"李小龙",
"lǐ xiǎolóng",
"lee bruce",
"bruce junfan lee",
"fight h... | [
"Bruce Lee\n\nLee Jun-fan (; November 27, 1940 – July 20, 1973), known professionally as Bruce Lee, was a Hong Kong American martial artist, actor, philosopher, filmmaker, and founder of the martial art Jeet Kune Do. Lee was the son of Cantonese opera star Lee Hoi-Chuen. He is widely considered by commentators, cr... |
qg_2317 | Doing something that must surely have earned him an asswhuppin, for what did Jack of Jack and the Beanstalk fame, trade the cow he was supposed to sell at the market? | Magic Beans | [
"magic beans",
"jack beanstalk",
"beanstalk",
"beanstalk film",
"jack and giant",
"jack and beanstalk 2010 film",
"jack and beanstalk"
] | [
"Jack and the Beanstalk\n\n\"Jack and the Beanstalk\" is an English fairy tale. It appeared as \"The Story of Jack Spriggins and the Enchanted Bean\" in 1734 4th edition On Commons and as Benjamin Tabart's moralised \"The History of Jack and the Bean-Stalk\" in 1807. \"Felix Summerly\" (Henry Cole) popularised the... |
qg_2318 | What sport features a scrum, in which three rows of opposing players lock together and compete for a ball placed on the ground? | Rugby | [
"rugby disambiguation",
"rubgy",
"rugby"
] | [
"Rugby union gameplay\n\nRugby union is a contact sport that consists of two teams of fifteen players. The objective is to obtain more points than the opposition through scoring tries or kicking goals over eighty minutes of playing time. Play is started with one team drop kicking the ball from the halfway line towa... |
qg_2320 | Which part of the human body does impetigo affect? | The skin | [
"s k i n",
"s k i n japanese band",
"skin japanese band",
"s k i n musical project",
"skin"
] | [
"Human body\n\nThe human body is the entire structure of a human being and comprises a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet.\nEvery part of the body is composed of various types of cells, the fundamental unit of life.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?... |
qg_2321 | What famous outlaw committed the Wild West's first train robbery on July 21, 1873 in Adair, Iowa? | Jesse James | [
"jesse james outlaw",
"jesse james",
"mr howard",
"jesse w james",
"jesse james northfield raid",
"jesse woodson james"
] | [
"American frontier\n\nThe American Frontier comprises the geography, history, folklore, and cultural expression of life in the forward wave of American expansion that began with English colonial settlements in the early 17th century and ended with the admission of the last mainland territories as states in 1912. ... |
qg_2322 | What jazz legend was commonly known as Satchmo, short for satchelmouth, and has the New Orleans airport named for him? | Louis Armstrong | [
"armstrong louis 22satchmo 22",
"louis 22satchmo 22 armstrong",
"armstrong louis",
"armstrong louis pops",
"louis armstrong",
"louis pops armstrong",
"sachimo",
"luois armstrong",
"louis 22pops 22 armstrong",
"louis satchmo armstrong",
"louis “satchmo” armstrong",
"louie armstrong",
"daniel ... | [
"Jazz\n\nJazz is a music genre that originated from African American communities of New Orleans in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It emerged in the form of independent traditional and popular musical styles, all linked by the common bonds of African American and European American m... |
qg_2323 | According to Greek mythology, both blessed and cursed by the god Apollo, which daughter of King Priam was given the gift of prophecy with the rub that nobody would believe her? | Cassandra | [
"she who entangles men",
"kasandra",
"cassandra effect",
"κασσάνδρα",
"cassandra"
] | [
"Greek mythology\n\nGreek mythology is the body of myths and teachings that belong to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. It was a part of the religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars refer to and ... |
qg_2324 | What can be a South American capital, a pepper, or a Porsche? | Cayenne | [
"cayena",
"cayenne french guiana",
"capital of french guiana",
"cayenne",
"cayenne france",
"isle de cayenne",
"caiena",
"america cayenne"
] | [
"Porsche\n\nDr.-Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, usually shortened to Porsche AG, is a German automobile manufacturer specializing in high-performance sports cars, SUVs and sedans. Porsche AG is headquartered in Stuttgart, and is owned by Volkswagen AG, which is itself majority-owned by Porsche Automobil Holding SE. Porsch... |
qg_2325 | July 18, 1925 saw the publication of the first volume of the book whose title translates as My Struggle or My Battle, written by what 20th century total asshat? | Adolf Hitler | [
"hitler s medical health",
"adlof hitler",
"adolf hiedler",
"hitler adolf",
"hitleradolf",
"adolpf hitler",
"history of adolf hitler",
"hitleradolph",
"adolphhitler",
"adolf hitler s health",
"adoff hitler",
"hitlar",
"adolf hiler",
"adolph hiedler",
"adolf hitle",
"aldof hilter",
"a... | [
"Mein Kampf\n\nMein Kampf (, \"My Struggle\") is an autobiography by the National Socialist leader Adolf Hitler, in which he outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germany. Volume 1 of Mein Kampf was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926. The book was edited by Hitler's deputy Rudolf Hess.",
"Mein... |
qg_2326 | Produced by the The Herman Goelitz Candy Company, Jelly Bellys, a favorite of Ronald Reagan, are what type of candy? | Jelly Beans | [
"candy bean",
"jellybean",
"jellybeans",
"candy beans",
"jelly beans",
"jelly bean"
] | [
"Jelly Belly\n\nJelly Belly Candy Company, formerly known as Herman Goelitz Candy Company and Goelitz Confectionery Company, manufactures Jelly Belly jelly beans and other candy. The company is based in Fairfield, California, with a second manufacturing facility in North Chicago, Illinois and a distribution center... |
qg_2327 | What was the number of the mobile hospital unit on TVs M*A*S*H? | 4077th | [
"m s h series",
"m s h tv",
"mash television program",
"m s h television program",
"there is nothing like nurse",
"mash television",
"mash tv show",
"mash tv series",
"mash tv",
"m s h television",
"m s h tv show",
"m s h show",
"m s h television series",
"m s h tv series"
] | [
"M*A*S*H (TV series)\n\nM*A*S*H is an American television series developed by Larry Gelbart, adapted from the 1970 feature film MASH (which was itself based on the 1968 novel MASH: A Novel About Three Army Doctors, by Richard Hooker). The series, which was produced in association with 20th Century Fox Television fo... |
qg_2328 | On July 17, 1938 Douglas "Wrong Way" Corrigan filed a flight plan that indicated he was flying from New York to Low Angeles. True to his name, where did he end up? | Ireland | [
"irlandia",
"erin s isle",
"héireann",
"airlann",
"ireland",
"irelanders",
"airlan",
"mikra britannia",
"irelander",
"population of ireland",
"west coast of ireland",
"scotia major",
"symbol of ireland",
"irland",
"auld sod",
"island of ireland",
"ireland region",
"irlanda",
"ire... | [
"Douglas Corrigan\n\nDouglas Corrigan (January 22, 1907 – December 9, 1995) was an American aviator born in Galveston, Texas. He was nicknamed \"Wrong Way\" in 1938. After a transcontinental flight from Long Beach, California, to New York, he flew from Floyd Bennett Field in Brooklyn, New York, to Ireland, though h... |
qg_2329 | July 20, 1919, was the birth of what New Zealand mountaineer, explorer and philanthropist, who made sherpa Tenzing Norgay an international celebrity? | Sir Edmund Hillary | [
"sir edmund",
"edmond hillary",
"sir edmund hillary",
"edmund hillary",
"sir edmund percival hillary",
"edmund hilary",
"sir ed",
"ed hillary",
"sir edmund hilary",
"edmund percival hillary"
] | [
"New Zealand\n\nNew Zealand () is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses – that of the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu – and numerous smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1500 km east of Australia a... |
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