1 will eventually clear it. A gap of five orders of magnitude in Λ was found between the smallest terrestrial planets and the largest asteroids and Kuiper belt objects.","Dwarf planet\n\nUsing this parameter, Steven Soter and other astronomers argued for a distinction between planets and dwarf planets based on the inability of the latter to \"clear the neighbourhood around their orbits\": planets are able to remove smaller bodies near their orbits by collision, capture, or gravitational disturbance (or establish orbital resonances that prevent collisions), whereas dwarf planets lack the mass to do so. Soter went on to propose a parameter he called the planetary discriminant, designated with the symbol µ (mu), that represents an experimental measure of the actual degree of cleanliness of the orbital zone (where µ is calculated by dividing the mass of the candidate body by the total mass of the other objects that share its orbital zone), where µ > 100 is deemed to be cleared. There are several other schemes that try to differentiate between planets and dwarf planets, but the 2006 definition uses this concept.","Dwarf planet\n\nHydrostatic equilibrium","Dwarf planet\n\nSufficient internal pressure, caused by the body's gravitation, will turn a body plastic, and sufficient plasticity will allow high elevations to sink and hollows to fill in, a process known as gravitational relaxation. Bodies smaller than a few kilometers are dominated by non-gravitational forces and tend to have an irregular shape. Larger objects, where gravitation is significant but not dominant, are \"potato\" shaped; the more massive the body is, the higher its internal pressure and the more rounded its shape, until the pressure is sufficient to overcome its internal compressive strength and it achieves hydrostatic equilibrium. At this point a body is as round as it is possible to be, given its rotation and tidal effects, and is an ellipsoid in shape. This is the defining limit of a dwarf planet.","Dwarf planet\n\nWhen an object is in hydrostatic equilibrium, a global layer of liquid covering its surface would form a liquid surface of the same shape as the body, apart from small-scale surface features such as craters and fissures. If the body does not rotate, it will be a sphere, but the faster it does rotate, the more oblate or even scalene it becomes. However, if such a rotating body were to be heated until it melted, its overall shape would not change when liquid. The extreme example of a non-spherical body in hydrostatic equilibrium is , which is twice as long along its major axis as it is at the poles. If the body has a massive nearby companion, then tidal forces come into effect as well, distorting it into a prolate spheroid. An example of this is Jupiter's moon Io, which is the most volcanically active body in the Solar System due to effects of tidal heating. Tidal forces also cause a body's rotation to gradually become tidally locked, such that it always presents the same face to its companion. An extreme example of this is the Pluto–Charon system, where both bodies are tidally locked to each other.","Dwarf planet\n\nEarth's Moon is also tidally locked, as are many satellites of the gas giants.","Dwarf planet\n\nThe upper and lower size and mass limits of dwarf planets have not been specified by the IAU. There is no defined upper limit, and an object larger or more massive than Mercury that has not \"cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit\" would be classified as a dwarf planet.Indeed, Mike Brown has set out to find such an object. () The lower limit is determined by the requirements of achieving a hydrostatic equilibrium shape, but the size or mass at which an object attains this shape depends on its composition and thermal history. The original draft of the 2006 IAU resolution redefined hydrostatic equilibrium shape as applying \"to objects with mass above 5 kg and diameter greater than 800 km\", but this was not retained in the final draft.","Dwarf planet\n\nEmpirical observations suggest that the lower limit will vary according to the composition and thermal history of the object. For a body made of rigid silicates, such as the stony asteroids, the transition to hydrostatic equilibrium should occur at a diameter of approximately 600 km and a mass of some 3.4 kg. For a body made of less rigid water ice, the limit should be about 320 km and 1019 kg. In the asteroid belt, Ceres is the only body that clearly surpasses the silicaceous limit (though it is actually a rocky–icy body), and its shape is an equilibrium spheroid. 2 Pallas and 4 Vesta, however, are rocky and are just below the limit. Pallas, at 525–560 km and 1.85–2.4 kg, is \"nearly round\" but still somewhat irregular. Vesta, at 530 km and 2.6 kg, deviates from an ellipsoid shape primarily due to a large impact basin at its pole.","Dwarf planet\n\nDwarf planets and possible dwarf planets","Dwarf planet\n\nMany trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) are thought to have icy cores and therefore would require a diameter of perhaps 400 km (250 mi)—only about 3% of that of Earth—to relax into gravitational equilibrium. , about 150 known TNOs are thought to be probably dwarf planets, although only rough estimates of the diameters of most of these objects are available. A team is investigating thirty of these, and think that the number will eventually prove to be around 200 in the Kuiper belt, with thousands more beyond.","Dwarf planet\n\nThe IAU has recognized five bodies as dwarf planets since 2008: Ceres, Pluto, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake. Ceres and Pluto are known to be dwarf planets through direct observation. Eris is recognized as a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto (measurements by New Horizons indicate that Pluto's diameter is larger than that of Eris), whereas Haumea and Makemake qualify based on their absolute magnitudes. In relative distance from the Sun, the five are:","Dwarf planet\n\n# ⚳ – discovered on January 1, 1801, 45 years before Neptune. Considered a planet for half a century before reclassification as an asteroid. Accepted as a dwarf planet by the IAU on September 13, 2006.\n# ♇ – discovered on February 18, 1930. Classified as a planet for 76 years. Reclassified as a dwarf planet by the IAU on August 24, 2006.\n# – discovered on December 28, 2004. Accepted by the IAU as a dwarf planet on September 17, 2008.\n# – discovered on March 31, 2005. Accepted by the IAU as a dwarf planet on July 11, 2008.\n# – discovered on January 5, 2005. Called the \"tenth planet\" in media reports. Accepted by the IAU as a dwarf planet on September 13, 2006.","Dwarf planet\n\nMike Brown considers an additional six trans-Neptunian objects to be \"nearly certainly\" dwarf planets with diameters at or above 900 kilometers. These objects are:","Dwarf planet\n\n# – discovered on February 17, 2004\n# – discovered on 18 June 2002\n# – discovered on September 22, 2004\n# – discovered on June 5, 2002\n# – discovered on July 17, 2007\n# – discovered on November 14, 2003","Dwarf planet\n\nTancredi et al. advised the IAU to officially accept Orcus, Sedna and Quaoar. In addition, Gonzalo Tancredi considers the five TNOs , , , , and to be dwarf planets as well. These objects are also recognized by Mike Brown and classified as \"highly likely\". An extensive table compares the dwarf planet candidates of the two planetary astronomers in detail.","Dwarf planet\n\nVesta, the next-most-massive body in the asteroid belt after Ceres, is roughly spherical, deviating mainly because of massive impacts that formed Rheasilvia and Veneneia crater after it solidified. Furthermore, its triaxial dimensions are not consistent with hydrostatic equilibrium. \nTriton is thought to be a captured dwarf planet. Phoebe is a captured body that, like Vesta, is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, but is thought to have been so early in its history.","Dwarf planet\n\nExploration","Dwarf planet\n\nOn March 6, 2015, the Dawn spacecraft began to orbit Ceres, becoming the first spacecraft to orbit a dwarf planet. On 14 July 2015, the New Horizons space probe flew by Pluto and its five moons. Dawn has also explored the former dwarf planet, Vesta. Phoebe has been explored by Cassini (most recently) and Voyager 2, which also explored Triton. These three are thought to be former dwarf planets and therefore their exploration helps in the study of the evolution of dwarf planets.","Dwarf planet\n\nContention","Dwarf planet\n\nIn the immediate aftermath of the IAU definition of dwarf planet, a number of scientists expressed their disagreement with the IAU resolution. Campaigns included car bumper stickers and T-shirts. Mike Brown (the discoverer of Eris) agrees with the reduction of the number of planets to eight.","Dwarf planet\n\nNASA has announced that it will use the new guidelines established by the IAU. However, Alan Stern, the director of NASA's mission to Pluto, rejects the current IAU definition of planet, both in terms of defining dwarf planets as something other than a type of planet, and in using orbital characteristics (rather than intrinsic characteristics) of objects to define them as dwarf planets. Thus, in 2011, he still referred to Pluto as a planet, and accepted other dwarf planets such as Ceres and Eris, as well as the larger moons, as additional planets. Several years before the IAU definition, he used orbital characteristics to separate \"überplanets\" (the dominant eight) from \"unterplanets\" (the dwarf planets), considering both types \"planets\".","Dwarf planet\n\nPlanetary-mass moons","Dwarf planet\n\nNineteen moons are known to be massive enough to have relaxed into a rounded shape under their own gravity, and seven of them are more massive than either Eris or Pluto. They are not physically distinct from the dwarf planets, but are not dwarf planets because they do not directly orbit the Sun. The seven that are more massive than Eris are the Moon, the four Galilean moons of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto), one moon of Saturn (Titan), and one moon of Neptune (Triton). The others are six moons of Saturn (Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea, and Iapetus), five moons of Uranus (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon), and one moon of Pluto (Charon). There are additional possibilities among TNOs, including Dysnomia orbiting Eris. Alan Stern calls these moons \"satellite planets\", one of three categories of planet together with dwarf planets and classical planets. The term planemo (\"planetary-mass object\") covers all three.","Dwarf planet\n\nIn a draft resolution for the IAU definition of planet, both Pluto and Charon would have been considered dwarf planets in a binary system, given that they both satisfied the mass and shape requirements for dwarf planets and revolved around a common center of mass located between the two bodies (rather than within one of the bodies).The footnote in the original text reads: For two or more objects comprising a multiple object system.... A secondary object satisfying these conditions i.e. that of mass, shape is also designated a planet if the system barycentre resides outside the primary. Secondary objects not satisfying these criteria are \"satellites\". Under this definition, Pluto's companion Charon is a planet, making Pluto–Charon a double planet. The IAU currently states that Charon is not considered to be a dwarf planet and is just a satellite of Pluto, although the idea that Charon might qualify to be a dwarf planet in its own right may be considered at a later date. The location of the barycenter depends not only on the relative masses of the bodies, but also on the distance between them; the barycenter of the Sun–Jupiter orbit, for example, lies outside the Sun.","Small Solar System body\n\nA small Solar System body (SSSB) is an object in the Solar System that is neither a planet, nor a dwarf planet, nor a natural satellite. The term was first defined in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union.","Small Solar System body\n\nThis encompasses all comets and all minor planets other than those that are dwarf planets. Thus SSSBs are: the classical asteroids with the exception of the dwarf planet Ceres; the trojans; and the centaurs and trans-Neptunian objects with the exception of Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, Eris, and others that may turn out to be dwarf planets.","Small Solar System body\n\nDefinition","Small Solar System body\n\nIt is not presently clear whether a lower size bound will be established as part of the definition of small Solar System bodies in the future, or if it will encompass all material down to the level of meteoroids, the smallest macroscopic bodies in orbit around the Sun. (On a microscopic level there are even smaller objects such as interplanetary dust, particles of solar wind and free particles of hydrogen.)","Small Solar System body\n\nExcept for the largest, which are in hydrostatic equilibrium, natural satellites (moons) differ from small Solar System bodies not in size, but in their orbits. The orbits of natural satellites are not centered on the Sun, but around other Solar System objects such as planets, dwarf planets, and small Solar System bodies.","Small Solar System body\n\nSome of the larger small Solar System bodies may be reclassified in future as dwarf planets, pending further examination to determine whether or not they are in hydrostatic equilibrium.","Small Solar System body\n\nThe orbits of the vast majority of small Solar System bodies are located in two distinct areas, namely the asteroid belt and the Kuiper belt. These two belts possess some internal structure related to perturbations by the major planets (particularly Jupiter and Neptune, respectively), and have fairly loosely defined boundaries. Other areas of the Solar System also encompass small bodies in smaller concentrations. These include the near-Earth asteroids, centaurs, comets, and scattered disc objects."],"string":"[\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond Neptune. It was the first Kuiper belt object to be discovered. It is the largest and second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object directly orbiting the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume but is less massive than Eris, a dwarf planet in the scattered disc. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is primarily made of ice and rock and is relatively small—about one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third its volume. It has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to 49 astronomical units or AU (4.4–7.4 billion km) from the Sun. This means that Pluto periodically comes closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance with Neptune prevents them from colliding. Light from the Sun takes about 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its average distance (39.5 AU).\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930, and was originally considered the ninth planet from the Sun. After 1992, its planethood was questioned following the discovery of several objects of similar size in the Kuiper belt. In 2005, Eris, which is 27% more massive than Pluto, was discovered, which led the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to define the term \\\"planet\\\" formally for the first time the following year. This definition excluded Pluto and reclassified it as a member of the new \\\"dwarf planet\\\" category.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto has five known moons: Charon (the largest, with a diameter just over half that of Pluto), Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body. The IAU has not formalized a definition for binary dwarf planets, and Charon is officially classified as a moon of Pluto.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nOn July 14, 2015, the New Horizons spacecraft became the first spacecraft to fly by Pluto. During its brief flyby, New Horizons made detailed measurements and observations of Pluto and its moons.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nDiscovery\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nIn the 1840s, Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to predict the position of the then-undiscovered planet Neptune after analysing perturbations in the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent observations of Neptune in the late 19th century led astronomers to speculate that Uranus's orbit was being disturbed by another planet besides Neptune.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nIn 1906, Percival Lowell—a wealthy Bostonian who had founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, in 1894—started an extensive project in search of a possible ninth planet, which he termed \\\"Planet X\\\". By 1909, Lowell and William H. Pickering had suggested several possible celestial coordinates for such a planet. Lowell and his observatory conducted his search until his death in 1916, but to no avail. Unknown to Lowell, his surveys had captured two faint images of Pluto on March 19 and April 7, 1915, but they were not recognized for what they were. There are fourteen other known prediscovery observations, with the oldest made by the Yerkes Observatory on August 20, 1909.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPercival's widow, Constance Lowell, entered into a ten-year legal battle with the Lowell Observatory over her late husband's legacy, and the search for Planet X did not resume until 1929. Vesto Melvin Slipher, the observatory director, summarily handed the job of locating Planet X to 23-year-old Clyde Tombaugh, who had just arrived at the Lowell Observatory after Slipher had been impressed by a sample of his astronomical drawings.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nTombaugh's task was to systematically image the night sky in pairs of photographs, then examine each pair and determine whether any objects had shifted position. Using a blink comparator, he rapidly shifted back and forth between views of each of the plates to create the illusion of movement of any objects that had changed position or appearance between photographs. On February 18, 1930, after nearly a year of searching, Tombaugh discovered a possible moving object on photographic plates taken on January 23 and 29 of that year. A lesser-quality photograph taken on January 21 helped confirm the movement. After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs, news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13, 1930.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nName\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe discovery made headlines around the globe. The Lowell Observatory, which had the right to name the new object, received more than 1,000 suggestions from all over the world, ranging from Atlas to Zymal. Tombaugh urged Slipher to suggest a name for the new object quickly before someone else did. Constance Lowell proposed Zeus, then Percival and finally Constance. These suggestions were disregarded.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe name Pluto, after the god of the underworld, was proposed by Venetia Burney (1918–2009), a then eleven-year-old schoolgirl in Oxford, England, who was interested in classical mythology. She suggested it in a conversation with her grandfather Falconer Madan, a former librarian at the University of Oxford's Bodleian Library, who passed the name to astronomy professor Herbert Hall Turner, who cabled it to colleagues in the United States.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe object was officially named on May 25, 1930. Each member of the Lowell Observatory was allowed to vote on a short-list of three: Minerva (which was already the name for an asteroid), Cronus (which had lost reputation through being proposed by the unpopular astronomer Thomas Jefferson Jackson See), and Pluto. Pluto received every vote. The name was announced on May 1, 1930. Upon the announcement, Madan gave Venetia £5 (equivalent to GBP, or 450 USD in 2014) as a reward.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe final choice of name was helped in part by the fact that the first two letters of Pluto are the initials of Percival Lowell. Pluto's astronomical symbol (, Unicode U+2647, ♇) was then created as a monogram constructed from the letters \\\"PL\\\". Pluto's astrological symbol resembles that of Neptune (), but has a circle in place of the middle prong of the trident ().\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe name was soon embraced by wider culture. In 1930, Walt Disney was apparently inspired by it when he introduced for Mickey Mouse a canine companion named Pluto, although Disney animator Ben Sharpsteen could not confirm why the name was given. In 1941, Glenn T. Seaborg named the newly created element plutonium after Pluto, in keeping with the tradition of naming elements after newly discovered planets, following uranium, which was named after Uranus, and neptunium, which was named after Neptune.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nMost languages use the name \\\"Pluto\\\" in various transliterations. In Japanese, Houei Nojiri suggested the translation , and this was borrowed into Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese. Some Indian languages use the name Pluto, but others, such as Hindi, use the name of Yama, the Guardian of Hell in Hindu and Buddhist mythology. Polynesian languages also tend to use the indigenous god of the underworld, as in Maori Whiro.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPlanet X disproved\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nOnce found, Pluto's faintness and lack of a resolvable disc cast doubt on the idea that it was Lowell's Planet X. Estimates of Pluto's mass were revised downward throughout the 20th century.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nAstronomers initially calculated its mass based on its presumed effect on Neptune and Uranus. In 1931, Pluto was calculated to be roughly the mass of Earth, with further calculations in 1948 bringing the mass down to roughly that of Mars. In 1976, Dale Cruikshank, Carl Pilcher and David Morrison of the University of Hawaii calculated Pluto's albedo for the first time, finding that it matched that for methane ice; this meant Pluto had to be exceptionally luminous for its size and therefore could not be more than 1 percent the mass of Earth. (Pluto's albedo is times greater than that of Earth.)\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nIn 1978, the discovery of Pluto's moon Charon allowed the measurement of Pluto's mass for the first time: roughly 0.2% that of Earth, and far too small to account for the discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent searches for an alternative Planet X, notably by Robert Sutton Harrington, failed. In 1992, Myles Standish used data from Voyager 2s flyby of Neptune in 1989, which had revised the estimates of Neptune's mass downward by 0.5%—an amount comparable to the mass of Mars—to recalculate its gravitational effect on Uranus. With the new figures added in, the discrepancies, and with them the need for a Planet X, vanished. Today, the majority of scientists agree that Planet X, as Lowell defined it, does not exist. Lowell had made a prediction of Planet X's orbit and position in 1915 that was fairly close to Pluto's actual orbit and its position at that time; Ernest W. Brown concluded soon after Pluto's discovery that this was a coincidence, a view still held today.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nClassification\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nFrom 1992 onward, many bodies were discovered orbiting in the same area as Pluto, showing that Pluto is part of a population of objects called the Kuiper belt. This made its official status as a planet controversial, with many questioning whether Pluto should be considered together with or separately from its surrounding population. Museum and planetarium directors occasionally created controversy by omitting Pluto from planetary models of the Solar System. The Hayden Planetarium reopened—in February 2000, after renovation—with a model of only eight planets, which made headlines almost a year later.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nAs objects increasingly closer in size to Pluto were discovered in the region, it was argued that Pluto should be reclassified as one of the Kuiper belt objects, just as Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta eventually lost their planet status after the discovery of many other asteroids. On July 29, 2005, astronomers at Caltech announced the discovery of a new trans-Neptunian object, Eris, which was substantially more massive than Pluto and the most massive object discovered in the Solar System since Triton in 1846. Its discoverers and the press initially called it the tenth planet, although there was no official consensus at the time on whether to call it a planet. Others in the astronomical community considered the discovery the strongest argument for reclassifying Pluto as a minor planet.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nIAU classification\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe debate came to a head on August 24, 2006 with an IAU resolution that created an official definition for the term \\\"planet\\\". According to this resolution, there are three main conditions for an object in the Solar System to be considered a planet:\\n# The object must be in orbit around the Sun.\\n# The object must be massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity. More specifically, its own gravity should pull it into a shape of hydrostatic equilibrium.\\n# It must have cleared the neighborhood around its orbit.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto fails to meet the third condition, because its mass is only 0.07 times that of the mass of the other objects in its orbit (Earth's mass, by contrast, is 1.7 million times the remaining mass in its own orbit). The IAU further decided that bodies that, like Pluto, meet criteria 1 and 2 but do not meet criterion 3 would be called dwarf planets. On September 13, 2006, the IAU included Pluto, and Eris and its moon Dysnomia, in their Minor Planet Catalogue, giving them the official minor planet designations \\\"(134340) Pluto\\\", \\\"(136199) Eris\\\", and \\\"(136199) Eris I Dysnomia\\\". Had Pluto been included upon its discovery in 1930, it would have likely been designated 1164, following 1163 Saga, which was discovered a month earlier.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThere has been some resistance within the astronomical community toward the reclassification. Alan Stern, principal investigator with NASA's New Horizons mission to Pluto, publicly derided the IAU resolution, stating that \\\"the definition stinks, for technical reasons\\\". Stern's contention was that, by the terms of the new definition, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Neptune, all of which share their orbits with asteroids, would be excluded. He argued that all big spherical moons, including the Moon, should likewise be considered planets. His other claim was that because less than five percent of astronomers voted for it, the decision was not representative of the entire astronomical community. Marc W. Buie, then at Lowell Observatory, voiced his opinion on the new definition on his website and petitioned against the definition. Others have supported the IAU. Mike Brown, the astronomer who discovered Eris, said \\\"through this whole crazy circus-like procedure, somehow the right answer was stumbled on. It's been a long time coming. Science is self-correcting eventually, even when strong emotions are involved.\\\"\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPublic reception to the IAU decision was mixed. Although many accepted the reclassification, some sought to overturn the decision with online petitions urging the IAU to consider reinstatement. A resolution introduced by some members of the California State Assembly facetiously called the IAU decision a \\\"scientific heresy\\\". The New Mexico House of Representatives passed a resolution in honor of Tombaugh, a longtime resident of that state, that declared that Pluto will always be considered a planet while in New Mexican skies and that March 13, 2007, was Pluto Planet Day. The Illinois Senate passed a similar resolution in 2009, on the basis that Clyde Tombaugh, the discoverer of Pluto, was born in Illinois. The resolution asserted that Pluto was \\\"unfairly downgraded to a 'dwarf' planet\\\" by the IAU. Some members of the public have also rejected the change, citing the disagreement within the scientific community on the issue, or for sentimental reasons, maintaining that they have always known Pluto as a planet and will continue to do so regardless of the IAU decision.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nIn 2006, in its 17th annual words of the year vote, the American Dialect Society voted plutoed as the word of the year. To \\\"pluto\\\" is to \\\"demote or devalue someone or something\\\".\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nResearchers on both sides of the debate gathered on August 14–16, 2008, at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory for a conference that included back-to-back talks on the current IAU definition of a planet. Entitled \\\"The Great Planet Debate\\\", the conference published a post-conference press release indicating that scientists could not come to a consensus about the definition of planet. Just before the conference, on June 11, 2008, the IAU announced in a press release that the term \\\"plutoid\\\" would henceforth be used to refer to Pluto and other objects that have an orbital semi-major axis greater than that of Neptune and enough mass to be of near-spherical shape.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nOrbit\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto's orbital period is 248 years. Its orbital characteristics are substantially different from those of the planets, which follow nearly circular orbits around the Sun close to a flat reference plane called the ecliptic. In contrast, Pluto's orbit is moderately inclined relative to the ecliptic (over 17°) and moderately eccentric (elliptical). This eccentricity means a small region of Pluto's orbit lies nearer the Sun than Neptune's. The Pluto–Charon barycenter came to perihelion on September 5, 1989, and was last closer to the Sun than Neptune between February 7, 1979, and February 11, 1999.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nIn the long term, Pluto's orbit is chaotic. Although computer simulations can be used to predict its position for several million years (both forward and backward in time), after intervals longer than the Lyapunov time of 10–20 million years, calculations become speculative: Pluto is sensitive to immeasurably small details of the Solar System, hard-to-predict factors that will gradually change Pluto's position in its orbit.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nRelationship with Neptune\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nDespite Pluto's orbit appearing to cross that of Neptune when viewed from directly above, the two objects' orbits are aligned so that they can never collide or even approach closely. There are several reasons why.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nAt the simplest level, one can examine the two orbits and see that they do not intersect. When Pluto is closest to the Sun, and hence closest to Neptune's orbit as viewed from above, it is also the farthest above Neptune's path. Pluto's orbit passes about 8 AU above that of Neptune, preventing a collision. Pluto's ascending and descending nodes, the points at which its orbit crosses the ecliptic, are currently separated from Neptune's by over 21°.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThis alone is not enough to protect Pluto; perturbations from the planets (especially Neptune) could alter aspects of Pluto's orbit (such as its orbital precession) over millions of years so that a collision could be possible. Some other mechanism or mechanisms must therefore be at work. The most significant of these is that Pluto lies in the 2:3 mean-motion resonance with Neptune: for every two orbits that Pluto makes around the Sun, Neptune makes three. The two objects then return to their initial positions and the cycle repeats, each cycle lasting about 500 years. This pattern is such that, in each 500-year cycle, the first time Pluto is near perihelion, Neptune is over 50° behind Pluto. By Pluto's second perihelion, Neptune will have completed a further one and a half of its own orbits, and so will be a similar distance ahead of Pluto. Pluto and Neptune's minimum separation is over 17 AU, which is greater than Pluto's minimum separation from Uranus (11 AU).\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe 2:3 resonance between the two bodies is highly stable, and is preserved over millions of years. This prevents their orbits from changing relative to one another; the cycle always repeats in the same way, and so the two bodies can never pass near each other. Thus, even if Pluto's orbit were not inclined, the two bodies could never collide.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nOther factors\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nNumerical studies have shown that over periods of millions of years, the general nature of the alignment between the orbits of Pluto and Neptune does not change. There are several other resonances and interactions that govern the details of their relative motion, and enhance Pluto's stability. These arise principally from two additional mechanisms (besides the 2:3 mean-motion resonance).\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nFirst, Pluto's argument of perihelion, the angle between the point where it crosses the ecliptic and the point where it is closest to the Sun, librates around 90°. This means that when Pluto is closest to the Sun, it is at its farthest above the plane of the Solar System, preventing encounters with Neptune. This is a direct consequence of the Kozai mechanism, which relates the eccentricity of an orbit to its inclination to a larger perturbing body—in this case Neptune. Relative to Neptune, the amplitude of libration is 38°, and so the angular separation of Pluto's perihelion to the orbit of Neptune is always greater than 52° . The closest such angular separation occurs every 10,000 years.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nSecond, the longitudes of ascending nodes of the two bodies—the points where they cross the ecliptic—are in near-resonance with the above libration. When the two longitudes are the same—that is, when one could draw a straight line through both nodes and the Sun—Pluto's perihelion lies exactly at 90°, and hence it comes closest to the Sun when it is highest above Neptune's orbit. This is known as the 1:1 superresonance. All the Jovian planets, particularly Jupiter, play a role in the creation of the superresonance.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nTo understand the nature of the libration, imagine a polar point of view, looking down on the ecliptic from a distant vantage point where the planets orbit counterclockwise. After passing the ascending node, Pluto is interior to Neptune's orbit and moving faster, approaching Neptune from behind. The strong gravitational pull between the two causes angular momentum to be transferred to Pluto, at Neptune's expense. This moves Pluto into a slightly larger orbit, where it travels slightly more slowly, according to Kepler's third law. As its orbit changes, this has the gradual effect of changing the perihelion and longitude of Pluto's orbit (and, to a lesser degree, of Neptune). After many such repetitions, Pluto is sufficiently slowed, and Neptune sufficiently speeded up, that Neptune begins to catch up with Pluto at the opposite side of its orbit (near the opposing node to where we began). The process is then reversed, and Pluto loses angular momentum to Neptune, until Pluto is sufficiently speeded up that it begins to catch Neptune again at the original node. The whole process takes about 20,000 years to complete.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nQuasi-satellite\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nIn 2012, it was hypothesized that could be a quasi-satellite of Pluto, a specific type of co-orbital configuration. According to the hypothesis, the object would be a quasi-satellite of Pluto for about 350,000 years out of every two-million-year period. This hypothesis was disproven in 2016, when more-accurate observations of the position of were made by New Horizons.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nRotation\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto's rotation period, its day, is equal to 6.39 Earth days. Like Uranus, Pluto rotates on its \\\"side\\\" on its orbital plane, with an axial tilt of 120°, and so its seasonal variation is extreme; at its solstices, one-fourth of its surface is in continuous daylight, whereas another fourth is in continuous darkness.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe amount of light from the Sun on Pluto is weak, analogous to twilight on Earth. NASA has posted a \\\"Pluto Time\\\" calculator that determines when the light on Earth is equivalent to that on Pluto on a clear day. For example, on July 13, 2015, at the coordinates of the Applied Physics Laboratory where the probe was constructed, the Pluto Time was 8:38 p.m., four minutes later than the apparent sunset of 8:34 p.m. reported for that location by NOAA.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nGeology\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nDue to Pluto's distance from Earth, in-depth study from Earth is difficult. On July 14, 2015, NASA's New Horizons space probe flew through the Pluto system, and the information it gathered will be transmitted to Earth until late 2016.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nSurface\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto's surface is composed of more than 98 percent nitrogen ice, with traces of methane and carbon monoxide. Nitrogen and carbon monoxide are most abundant on the anti-Charon face of Pluto (around 180° longitude, where Tombaugh Regio's western lobe, Sputnik Planum, is located), whereas methane is most abundant near 300° east. Pluto's surface is quite varied, with large differences in both brightness and color. Pluto is one of the most contrastive bodies in the Solar System, with as much contrast as Saturn's moon Iapetus. The color varies between charcoal black, dark orange and white. Pluto's color is more similar to that of Io with slightly more orange, significantly less red than Mars. Notable geographical features include Tombaugh Regio, or the \\\"Heart\\\" (a large bright area on the side opposite Charon), Cthulhu Regio, or the \\\"Whale\\\" (a large dark area on the trailing hemisphere), and the \\\"Brass Knuckles\\\" (a series of equatorial dark areas on the leading hemisphere).\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nSputnik Planum, the western lobe of the \\\"Heart\\\", is a 1000-km-wide plain of frozen nitrogen and carbon monoxide ices, divided into polygonal cells which are interpreted as convection cells that carry floating blocks of water ice crust and sublimation pits towards their margins; there are obvious signs of glacial flows both into and out of the plain. It has no craters that were visible to New Horizons, indicating that its surface is less than 10 million years old. The New Horizons science team summarized initial findings as \\\"Pluto displays a surprisingly wide variety of geological landforms, including those resulting from glaciological and surface–atmosphere interactions as well as impact, tectonic, possible cryovolcanic, and mass-wasting processes.\\\"\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nInternal structure\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto's density is . Because the decay of radioactive elements would eventually heat the ices enough for the rock to separate from them, scientists expect that Pluto's internal structure is differentiated, with the rocky material having settled into a dense core surrounded by a mantle of water ice. The diameter of the core is hypothesized to be approximately , 70% of Pluto's diameter. It is possible that such heating continues today, creating a subsurface ocean of liquid water some thick at the core–mantle boundary.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nMass and size\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto's diameter is and its mass is , 17.7% that of the Moon (0.22% that of Earth). Its surface area is , or roughly the same surface area as Russia. Its surface gravity is 0.063 g (compared to 1 g for Earth).\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe discovery of Pluto's satellite Charon in 1978 enabled a determination of the mass of the Pluto–Charon system by application of Newton's formulation of Kepler's third law. Observations of Pluto in occultation with Charon allowed scientists to establish Pluto's diameter more accurately, whereas the invention of adaptive optics allowed them to determine its shape more accurately.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nWith less than 0.2 lunar masses, Pluto is much less massive than the terrestrial planets, and also less massive than seven moons: Ganymede, Titan, Callisto, Io, the Moon, Europa, and Triton. The mass is much less than thought before Charon was discovered.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto is more than twice the diameter and a dozen times the mass of the dwarf planet Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. It is less massive than the dwarf planet Eris, a trans-Neptunian object discovered in 2005, though Pluto has a larger diameter of 2374 km compared to Eris's approximate diameter of 2326 km.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nDeterminations of Pluto's size had been complicated by its atmosphere, and hydrocarbon haze. In March 2014, Lellouch, de Bergh et al. published findings regarding methane mixing ratios in Pluto's atmosphere consistent with a Plutonian diameter greater than 2360 km, with a \\\"best guess\\\" of 2368 km. On July 13, 2015, images from NASA's New Horizons mission Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI), along with data from the other instruments, determined Pluto's diameter to be 2370 km, which was later revised to be 2372 km on July 24, and later to .\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nAtmosphere\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto has a tenuous atmosphere consisting of nitrogen (N2), methane (CH4), and carbon monoxide (CO), which are in equilibrium with their ices on Pluto's surface. According to the measurements by New Horizons, the surface pressure is about 1 Pa (10 μbar), roughly one million to 100,000 times less than Earth's atmospheric pressure. It was initially thought that, as Pluto moves away from the Sun, its atmosphere should gradually freeze onto the surface; however, studies of New Horizons data and ground-based occultations show that Pluto's atmospheric density actually increases, and that it likely remains gaseous throughout Pluto's orbit. New Horizons observations showed that atmospheric escape of nitrogen to be 10,000 times less than expected. Alan Stern has contended that even a small increase in Pluto's surface temperature can lead to exponential increases in Pluto's atmospheric density; from 18 to as much as 280 millibars (three times that of Mars to a quarter that of the Earth). At such densities, nitrogen could flow across the surface as liquid. Just like sweat cools the body as it evaporates from the skin, the sublimation of Pluto's atmosphere cools its surface.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe presence of atmospheric gases was traced up to 1670 kilometers high, although the atmosphere does not have a sharp upper boundary.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe presence of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, in Pluto's atmosphere creates a temperature inversion, with the average temperature of its atmosphere tens of degrees warmer than its surface, though observations by New Horizons have revealed Pluto's upper atmosphere to be far colder than expected (70 K, as opposed to about 100 K). Pluto's atmosphere is divided into roughly 20 regularly spaced haze layers up to 150 km high, thought to be the result of pressure waves created by airflow across Pluto's mountains.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nSatellites\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto has five known natural satellites: Charon, first identified in 1978 by astronomer James Christy; Nix and Hydra, both discovered in 2005; Kerberos, discovered in 2011; and Styx, discovered in 2012. The satellites' orbits are circular (eccentricity and therefore tilted approximately 120° relative to Pluto's orbit. The Plutonian system is highly compact: the five known satellites orbit within the inner 3% of the region where prograde orbits would be stable. Closest to Pluto is Charon, which is large enough to be in hydrostatic equilibrium and to cause the barycenter of the Pluto–Charon system to be outside Pluto. Beyond Charon there are four much smaller circumbinary moons, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe orbital periods of all Pluto's moons are linked in a system of orbital resonances and near resonances. When precession is accounted for, the orbital periods of Styx, Nix, and Hydra are in an exact 18:22:33 ratio. There is a sequence of approximate ratios, 3:4:5:6, between the periods of Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra with that of Charon; the ratios become closer to being exact the further out the moons are.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe Pluto–Charon system is one of the few in the Solar System whose barycenter lies outside the primary body; 617 Patroclus is a smaller example, and the Sun–Jupiter system is the only larger one. The similar sizes of Charon and Pluto has prompted some astronomers to call it a double dwarf planet. The system is also unusual among planetary systems in that each is tidally locked to the other, which means that Pluto and Charon always have the same hemisphere facing each other. From any position on either body, the other is always at the same position in the sky, or always obscured. This also means that the rotation period of each is equal to the time it takes the entire system to rotate around its barycenter.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nIn 2007, observations by the Gemini Observatory of patches of ammonia hydrates and water crystals on the surface of Charon suggested the presence of active cryo-geysers.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto's moons are hypothesized to have been formed by a collision between Pluto and a similar-sized body, early in the history of the Solar System. The collision released material that consolidated into the moons around Pluto. However, Kerberos has a much lower albedo than the other moons of Pluto, which is difficult to explain with a giant collision.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nOrigin\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto's origin and identity had long puzzled astronomers. One early hypothesis was that Pluto was an escaped moon of Neptune, knocked out of orbit by its largest current moon, Triton. This idea was eventually rejected after dynamical studies showed it to be impossible because Pluto never approaches Neptune in its orbit.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto's true place in the Solar System began to reveal itself only in 1992, when astronomers began to find small icy objects beyond Neptune that were similar to Pluto not only in orbit but also in size and composition. This trans-Neptunian population is thought to be the source of many short-period comets. Pluto is now known to be the largest member of the Kuiper belt, a stable belt of objects located between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. As of 2011, surveys of the Kuiper belt to magnitude 21 were nearly complete and any remaining Pluto-sized objects are expected to be beyond 100 AU from the Sun. Like other Kuiper-belt objects (KBOs), Pluto shares features with comets; for example, the solar wind is gradually blowing Pluto's surface into space. It has been claimed that if Pluto were placed as near to the Sun as Earth, it would develop a tail, as comets do. This claim has been disputed with the argument that Pluto's escape velocity is too high for this to happen.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThough Pluto is the largest Kuiper belt object discovered, Neptune's moon Triton, which is slightly larger than Pluto, is similar to it both geologically and atmospherically, and is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object. Eris (see above) is about the same size as Pluto (though more massive) but is not strictly considered a member of the Kuiper belt population. Rather, it is considered a member of a linked population called the scattered disc.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nA large number of Kuiper belt objects, like Pluto, are in a 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune. KBOs with this orbital resonance are called \\\"plutinos\\\", after Pluto.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nLike other members of the Kuiper belt, Pluto is thought to be a residual planetesimal; a component of the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into a full-fledged planet. Most astronomers agree that Pluto owes its current position to a sudden migration undergone by Neptune early in the Solar System's formation. As Neptune migrated outward, it approached the objects in the proto-Kuiper belt, setting one in orbit around itself (Triton), locking others into resonances, and knocking others into chaotic orbits. The objects in the scattered disc, a dynamically unstable region overlapping the Kuiper belt, are thought to have been placed in their current positions by interactions with Neptune's migrating resonances. A computer model created in 2004 by Alessandro Morbidelli of the Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur in Nice suggested that the migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt may have been triggered by the formation of a 1:2 resonance between Jupiter and Saturn, which created a gravitational push that propelled both Uranus and Neptune into higher orbits and caused them to switch places, ultimately doubling Neptune's distance from the Sun.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe resultant expulsion of objects from the proto-Kuiper belt could also explain the Late Heavy Bombardment 600 million years after the Solar System's formation and the origin of the Jupiter trojans. It is possible that Pluto had a near-circular orbit about 33 AU from the Sun before Neptune's migration perturbed it into a resonant capture. The Nice model requires that there were about a thousand Pluto-sized bodies in the original planetesimal disk, which included Triton and Eris.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nObservation and exploration\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto's distance from Earth makes its in-depth study and exploration difficult. On July 14, 2015, NASA's New Horizons space probe flew through the Pluto system, providing much information about it.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nObservation\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nPluto's visual apparent magnitude averages 15.1, brightening to 13.65 at perihelion. To see it, a telescope is required; around 30 cm (12 in) aperture being desirable. It looks star-like and without a visible disk even in large telescopes, because its angular diameter is only 0.11\\\".\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe earliest maps of Pluto, made in the late 1980s, were brightness maps created from close observations of eclipses by its largest moon, Charon. Observations were made of the change in the total average brightness of the Pluto–Charon system during the eclipses. For example, eclipsing a bright spot on Pluto makes a bigger total brightness change than eclipsing a dark spot. Computer processing of many such observations can be used to create a brightness map. This method can also track changes in brightness over time.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nBetter maps were produced from images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), which offered higher resolution, and showed considerably more detail, resolving variations several hundred kilometers across, including polar regions and large bright spots. These maps were produced by complex computer processing, which finds the best-fit projected maps for the few pixels of the Hubble images. These remained the most detailed maps of Pluto until the flyby of New Horizons in July 2015, because the two cameras on the HST used for these maps were no longer in service.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nExploration\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nThe New Horizons spacecraft, which flew by Pluto in July 2015, is the first and so far only attempt to explore Pluto directly. Launched in 2006, it captured its first (distant) images of Pluto in late September 2006 during a test of the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager. The images, taken from a distance of approximately 4.2 billion kilometers, confirmed the spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects. In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nNew Horizons made its closest approach to Pluto on July 14, 2015 after a 3,462-day journey across the Solar System. Scientific observations of Pluto began five months before the closest approach and continued for at least a month after the encounter. Observations were conducted using a remote sensing package that included imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool, as well as spectroscopic and other experiments. The scientific goals of New Horizons were to characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon, map their surface composition, and analyze Pluto's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate.\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nGallery\",\n \"Pluto\\n\\nVideos\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nA dwarf planet is a planetary-mass object that is neither a planet nor a natural satellite. That is, it is in direct orbit of the Sun, and is massive enough for its gravity to crush itself into a hydrostatic equilibrium shape (usually a spheroid), but has not cleared the neighborhood of other material around its orbit.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nThe term dwarf planet was adopted in 2006 as part of a three-way categorization of bodies orbiting the Sun, brought about by an increase in discoveries of objects farther away from the Sun than Neptune that rivaled Pluto in size, and finally precipitated by the discovery of an even more massive object, Eris. The exclusion of dwarf planets from the roster of planets by the IAU has been both praised and criticized; it was said to be the \\\"right decision\\\" by astronomer Mike Brown, who discovered and other new dwarf planets, but has been rejected by Alan Stern, who had coined the term dwarf planet in April 1991.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nThe International Astronomical Union (IAU) currently recognizes five dwarf planets: , Pluto, , , and . Brown criticizes this official recognition: \\\"A reasonable person might think that this means that there are five known objects in the solar system which fit the IAU definition of dwarf planet, but this reasonable person would be nowhere close to correct.\\\"\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nIt is suspected that another hundred or so known objects in the Solar System are dwarf planets. Estimates are that up to 200 dwarf planets may be found when the entire region known as the Kuiper belt is explored, and that the number may exceed 10,000 when objects scattered outside the Kuiper belt are considered. Individual astronomers recognize several of these, and in August 2011 Mike Brown published a list of 390 candidate objects, ranging from \\\"nearly certain\\\" to \\\"possible\\\" dwarf planets. Brown currently identifies eleven known objects—the five accepted by the IAU plus , , , , and —as \\\"virtually certain\\\", with another dozen highly likely. Stern states that there are more than a dozen known dwarf planets.Alan Stern, [http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/overview/piPerspective.php?page\\npiPerspective_08_24_2012 The PI's Perspective], August 24, 2012\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nHowever, only two of these bodies, Ceres and Pluto, have been observed in enough detail to demonstrate that they actually fit the IAU's definition. The IAU accepted Eris as a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto. They subsequently decided that unnamed trans-Neptunian objects with an absolute magnitude brighter than +1 (and hence a diameter of ≥838 km assuming a geometric albedo of ≤1) are to be named under the assumption that they are dwarf planets. The only two such objects known at the time, Makemake and Haumea, went through this naming procedure and were declared to be dwarf planets. The question of whether other likely objects are dwarf planets has never been addressed by the IAU.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nThe classification of bodies in other planetary systems with the characteristics of dwarf planets has not been addressed.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nHistory of the concept\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nStarting in 1801, astronomers discovered Ceres and other bodies between Mars and Jupiter which were for some decades considered to be planets. Between then and around 1851, when the number of planets had reached 23, astronomers started using the word asteroid for the smaller bodies and then stopped naming or classifying them as planets.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nWith the discovery of Pluto in 1930, most astronomers considered the Solar System to have nine planets, along with thousands of significantly smaller bodies (asteroids and comets). For almost 50 years Pluto was thought to be larger than Mercury, but with the discovery in 1978 of Pluto's moon Charon, it became possible to measure Pluto's mass accurately and to determine that it was much smaller than in initial estimates. It was roughly one-twentieth the mass of Mercury, which made Pluto by far the smallest planet. Although it was still more than ten times as massive as the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, it was one-fifth that of Earth's Moon. Furthermore, having some unusual characteristics, such as large orbital eccentricity and a high orbital inclination, it became evident it was a completely different kind of body from any of the other planets.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nIn the 1990s, astronomers began to find objects in the same region of space as Pluto (now known as the Kuiper belt), and some even farther away. Many of these shared several of Pluto's key orbital characteristics, and Pluto started being seen as the largest member of a new class of objects, plutinos. This led some astronomers to stop referring to Pluto as a planet. Several terms, including subplanet and planetoid, started to be used for the bodies now known as dwarf planets. By 2005, three trans-Neptunian objects comparable in size to Pluto (Quaoar, Sedna, and Eris) had been reported. It became clear that either they would also have to be classified as planets, or Pluto would have to be reclassified. Astronomers were also confident that more objects as large as Pluto would be discovered, and the number of planets would start growing quickly if Pluto were to remain a planet.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nEris (then known as ) was discovered in January 2005, which was thought to be slightly larger than Pluto, and some reports informally referred to it as the tenth planet. As a consequence, the issue became a matter of intense debate during the IAU General Assembly in August 2006. The IAU's initial draft proposal included Charon, Eris, and Ceres in the list of planets. After many astronomers objected to this proposal, an alternative was drawn up by Uruguayan astronomer Julio Ángel Fernández, in which he created a median classification for objects large enough to be round but that had not cleared their orbits of planetesimals. Dropping Charon from the list, the new proposal also removed Pluto, Ceres, and Eris, because they have not cleared their orbits.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nThe IAU's final Resolution 5A preserved this three-category system for the celestial bodies orbiting the Sun. It reads:\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nAlthough concerns were raised about the classification of planets orbiting other stars, the issue was not resolved; it was proposed instead to decide this only when such objects start being observed.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nName\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nThe term dwarf planet has itself been somewhat controversial, as it implies that these bodies are planets, much as dwarf stars are stars. This is the conception of the Solar System that Stern promoted when he coined the phrase. The older word planetoid (\\\"having the form of a planet\\\") has no such connotation, and is also used by astronomers for bodies that fit the IAU definition. Brown states that planetoid is \\\"a perfectly good word\\\" that has been used for these bodies for years, and that the use of the term dwarf planet for a non-planet is \\\"dumb\\\", but that it was motivated by an attempt by the IAU division III plenary session to reinstate Pluto as a planet in a second resolution. Indeed, the draft of Resolution 5A had called these median bodies planetoids, but the plenary session voted unanimously to change the name to dwarf planet. The second resolution, 5B, defined dwarf planets as a subtype of planet, as Stern had originally intended, distinguished from the other eight that were to be called \\\"classical planets\\\".\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nUnder this arrangement, the twelve planets of the rejected proposal were to be preserved in a distinction between eight classical planets and four dwarf planets. However, Resolution 5B was defeated in the same session that 5A was passed. Because of the semantic inconsistency of a dwarf planet not being a planet due to the failure of Resolution 5B, alternative terms such as nanoplanet and subplanet were discussed, but there was no consensus among the CSBN to change it.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nIn most languages equivalent terms have been created by translating dwarf planet more-or-less literally: French ', Spanish ', German ', Russian karlikovaya planeta (), Arabic kaukab qazm (), Chinese ǎixíngxīng (), Korean waesohangseong (왜소행성;矮小行星), but Japanese and Latin are exceptions: In Japanese they are called junwakusei () meaning \\\"subplanets\\\" or \\\"almost-planets\\\", and the modern Latin name, ' (or ' following the Greek), is a diminutive derivation of ', hence also meaning something less than a planet.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nIAU Resolution 6a of 2006 recognizes Pluto as \\\"the prototype of a new category of trans-Neptunian objects\\\". The name and precise nature of this category were not specified but left for the IAU to establish at a later date; in the debate leading up to the resolution, the members of the category were variously referred to as plutons and plutonian objects but neither name was carried forward, perhaps due to objections from geologists that this would create confusion with their pluton. On June 11, 2008, the IAU Executive Committee announced a name, plutoid, and a definition: all trans-Neptunian dwarf planets are plutoids, though \\\"in part because of an email miscommunication, the WG-PSN [Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature] was not involved in choosing the word plutoid. ... In fact, a vote taken by the WG-PSN subsequent to the Executive Committee meeting has rejected the use of that specific term\\\", and it has not come into common use among astronomers.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nCharacteristics\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nOrbital dominance\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nAlan Stern and Harold F. Levison introduced a parameter Λ (lambda), expressing the likelihood of an encounter resulting in a given deflection of orbit. The value of this parameter in Stern's model is proportional to the square of the mass and inversely proportional to the period. This value can be used to estimate the capacity of a body to clear the neighbourhood of its orbit, where Λ > 1 will eventually clear it. A gap of five orders of magnitude in Λ was found between the smallest terrestrial planets and the largest asteroids and Kuiper belt objects.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nUsing this parameter, Steven Soter and other astronomers argued for a distinction between planets and dwarf planets based on the inability of the latter to \\\"clear the neighbourhood around their orbits\\\": planets are able to remove smaller bodies near their orbits by collision, capture, or gravitational disturbance (or establish orbital resonances that prevent collisions), whereas dwarf planets lack the mass to do so. Soter went on to propose a parameter he called the planetary discriminant, designated with the symbol µ (mu), that represents an experimental measure of the actual degree of cleanliness of the orbital zone (where µ is calculated by dividing the mass of the candidate body by the total mass of the other objects that share its orbital zone), where µ > 100 is deemed to be cleared. There are several other schemes that try to differentiate between planets and dwarf planets, but the 2006 definition uses this concept.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nHydrostatic equilibrium\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nSufficient internal pressure, caused by the body's gravitation, will turn a body plastic, and sufficient plasticity will allow high elevations to sink and hollows to fill in, a process known as gravitational relaxation. Bodies smaller than a few kilometers are dominated by non-gravitational forces and tend to have an irregular shape. Larger objects, where gravitation is significant but not dominant, are \\\"potato\\\" shaped; the more massive the body is, the higher its internal pressure and the more rounded its shape, until the pressure is sufficient to overcome its internal compressive strength and it achieves hydrostatic equilibrium. At this point a body is as round as it is possible to be, given its rotation and tidal effects, and is an ellipsoid in shape. This is the defining limit of a dwarf planet.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nWhen an object is in hydrostatic equilibrium, a global layer of liquid covering its surface would form a liquid surface of the same shape as the body, apart from small-scale surface features such as craters and fissures. If the body does not rotate, it will be a sphere, but the faster it does rotate, the more oblate or even scalene it becomes. However, if such a rotating body were to be heated until it melted, its overall shape would not change when liquid. The extreme example of a non-spherical body in hydrostatic equilibrium is , which is twice as long along its major axis as it is at the poles. If the body has a massive nearby companion, then tidal forces come into effect as well, distorting it into a prolate spheroid. An example of this is Jupiter's moon Io, which is the most volcanically active body in the Solar System due to effects of tidal heating. Tidal forces also cause a body's rotation to gradually become tidally locked, such that it always presents the same face to its companion. An extreme example of this is the Pluto–Charon system, where both bodies are tidally locked to each other.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nEarth's Moon is also tidally locked, as are many satellites of the gas giants.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nThe upper and lower size and mass limits of dwarf planets have not been specified by the IAU. There is no defined upper limit, and an object larger or more massive than Mercury that has not \\\"cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit\\\" would be classified as a dwarf planet.Indeed, Mike Brown has set out to find such an object. () The lower limit is determined by the requirements of achieving a hydrostatic equilibrium shape, but the size or mass at which an object attains this shape depends on its composition and thermal history. The original draft of the 2006 IAU resolution redefined hydrostatic equilibrium shape as applying \\\"to objects with mass above 5 kg and diameter greater than 800 km\\\", but this was not retained in the final draft.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nEmpirical observations suggest that the lower limit will vary according to the composition and thermal history of the object. For a body made of rigid silicates, such as the stony asteroids, the transition to hydrostatic equilibrium should occur at a diameter of approximately 600 km and a mass of some 3.4 kg. For a body made of less rigid water ice, the limit should be about 320 km and 1019 kg. In the asteroid belt, Ceres is the only body that clearly surpasses the silicaceous limit (though it is actually a rocky–icy body), and its shape is an equilibrium spheroid. 2 Pallas and 4 Vesta, however, are rocky and are just below the limit. Pallas, at 525–560 km and 1.85–2.4 kg, is \\\"nearly round\\\" but still somewhat irregular. Vesta, at 530 km and 2.6 kg, deviates from an ellipsoid shape primarily due to a large impact basin at its pole.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nDwarf planets and possible dwarf planets\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nMany trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) are thought to have icy cores and therefore would require a diameter of perhaps 400 km (250 mi)—only about 3% of that of Earth—to relax into gravitational equilibrium. , about 150 known TNOs are thought to be probably dwarf planets, although only rough estimates of the diameters of most of these objects are available. A team is investigating thirty of these, and think that the number will eventually prove to be around 200 in the Kuiper belt, with thousands more beyond.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nThe IAU has recognized five bodies as dwarf planets since 2008: Ceres, Pluto, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake. Ceres and Pluto are known to be dwarf planets through direct observation. Eris is recognized as a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto (measurements by New Horizons indicate that Pluto's diameter is larger than that of Eris), whereas Haumea and Makemake qualify based on their absolute magnitudes. In relative distance from the Sun, the five are:\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\n# ⚳ – discovered on January 1, 1801, 45 years before Neptune. Considered a planet for half a century before reclassification as an asteroid. Accepted as a dwarf planet by the IAU on September 13, 2006.\\n# ♇ – discovered on February 18, 1930. Classified as a planet for 76 years. Reclassified as a dwarf planet by the IAU on August 24, 2006.\\n# – discovered on December 28, 2004. Accepted by the IAU as a dwarf planet on September 17, 2008.\\n# – discovered on March 31, 2005. Accepted by the IAU as a dwarf planet on July 11, 2008.\\n# – discovered on January 5, 2005. Called the \\\"tenth planet\\\" in media reports. Accepted by the IAU as a dwarf planet on September 13, 2006.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nMike Brown considers an additional six trans-Neptunian objects to be \\\"nearly certainly\\\" dwarf planets with diameters at or above 900 kilometers. These objects are:\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\n# – discovered on February 17, 2004\\n# – discovered on 18 June 2002\\n# – discovered on September 22, 2004\\n# – discovered on June 5, 2002\\n# – discovered on July 17, 2007\\n# – discovered on November 14, 2003\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nTancredi et al. advised the IAU to officially accept Orcus, Sedna and Quaoar. In addition, Gonzalo Tancredi considers the five TNOs , , , , and to be dwarf planets as well. These objects are also recognized by Mike Brown and classified as \\\"highly likely\\\". An extensive table compares the dwarf planet candidates of the two planetary astronomers in detail.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nVesta, the next-most-massive body in the asteroid belt after Ceres, is roughly spherical, deviating mainly because of massive impacts that formed Rheasilvia and Veneneia crater after it solidified. Furthermore, its triaxial dimensions are not consistent with hydrostatic equilibrium. \\nTriton is thought to be a captured dwarf planet. Phoebe is a captured body that, like Vesta, is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, but is thought to have been so early in its history.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nExploration\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nOn March 6, 2015, the Dawn spacecraft began to orbit Ceres, becoming the first spacecraft to orbit a dwarf planet. On 14 July 2015, the New Horizons space probe flew by Pluto and its five moons. Dawn has also explored the former dwarf planet, Vesta. Phoebe has been explored by Cassini (most recently) and Voyager 2, which also explored Triton. These three are thought to be former dwarf planets and therefore their exploration helps in the study of the evolution of dwarf planets.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nContention\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nIn the immediate aftermath of the IAU definition of dwarf planet, a number of scientists expressed their disagreement with the IAU resolution. Campaigns included car bumper stickers and T-shirts. Mike Brown (the discoverer of Eris) agrees with the reduction of the number of planets to eight.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nNASA has announced that it will use the new guidelines established by the IAU. However, Alan Stern, the director of NASA's mission to Pluto, rejects the current IAU definition of planet, both in terms of defining dwarf planets as something other than a type of planet, and in using orbital characteristics (rather than intrinsic characteristics) of objects to define them as dwarf planets. Thus, in 2011, he still referred to Pluto as a planet, and accepted other dwarf planets such as Ceres and Eris, as well as the larger moons, as additional planets. Several years before the IAU definition, he used orbital characteristics to separate \\\"überplanets\\\" (the dominant eight) from \\\"unterplanets\\\" (the dwarf planets), considering both types \\\"planets\\\".\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nPlanetary-mass moons\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nNineteen moons are known to be massive enough to have relaxed into a rounded shape under their own gravity, and seven of them are more massive than either Eris or Pluto. They are not physically distinct from the dwarf planets, but are not dwarf planets because they do not directly orbit the Sun. The seven that are more massive than Eris are the Moon, the four Galilean moons of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto), one moon of Saturn (Titan), and one moon of Neptune (Triton). The others are six moons of Saturn (Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea, and Iapetus), five moons of Uranus (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon), and one moon of Pluto (Charon). There are additional possibilities among TNOs, including Dysnomia orbiting Eris. Alan Stern calls these moons \\\"satellite planets\\\", one of three categories of planet together with dwarf planets and classical planets. The term planemo (\\\"planetary-mass object\\\") covers all three.\",\n \"Dwarf planet\\n\\nIn a draft resolution for the IAU definition of planet, both Pluto and Charon would have been considered dwarf planets in a binary system, given that they both satisfied the mass and shape requirements for dwarf planets and revolved around a common center of mass located between the two bodies (rather than within one of the bodies).The footnote in the original text reads: For two or more objects comprising a multiple object system.... A secondary object satisfying these conditions i.e. that of mass, shape is also designated a planet if the system barycentre resides outside the primary. Secondary objects not satisfying these criteria are \\\"satellites\\\". Under this definition, Pluto's companion Charon is a planet, making Pluto–Charon a double planet. The IAU currently states that Charon is not considered to be a dwarf planet and is just a satellite of Pluto, although the idea that Charon might qualify to be a dwarf planet in its own right may be considered at a later date. The location of the barycenter depends not only on the relative masses of the bodies, but also on the distance between them; the barycenter of the Sun–Jupiter orbit, for example, lies outside the Sun.\",\n \"Small Solar System body\\n\\nA small Solar System body (SSSB) is an object in the Solar System that is neither a planet, nor a dwarf planet, nor a natural satellite. The term was first defined in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union.\",\n \"Small Solar System body\\n\\nThis encompasses all comets and all minor planets other than those that are dwarf planets. Thus SSSBs are: the classical asteroids with the exception of the dwarf planet Ceres; the trojans; and the centaurs and trans-Neptunian objects with the exception of Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, Eris, and others that may turn out to be dwarf planets.\",\n \"Small Solar System body\\n\\nDefinition\",\n \"Small Solar System body\\n\\nIt is not presently clear whether a lower size bound will be established as part of the definition of small Solar System bodies in the future, or if it will encompass all material down to the level of meteoroids, the smallest macroscopic bodies in orbit around the Sun. (On a microscopic level there are even smaller objects such as interplanetary dust, particles of solar wind and free particles of hydrogen.)\",\n \"Small Solar System body\\n\\nExcept for the largest, which are in hydrostatic equilibrium, natural satellites (moons) differ from small Solar System bodies not in size, but in their orbits. The orbits of natural satellites are not centered on the Sun, but around other Solar System objects such as planets, dwarf planets, and small Solar System bodies.\",\n \"Small Solar System body\\n\\nSome of the larger small Solar System bodies may be reclassified in future as dwarf planets, pending further examination to determine whether or not they are in hydrostatic equilibrium.\",\n \"Small Solar System body\\n\\nThe orbits of the vast majority of small Solar System bodies are located in two distinct areas, namely the asteroid belt and the Kuiper belt. These two belts possess some internal structure related to perturbations by the major planets (particularly Jupiter and Neptune, respectively), and have fairly loosely defined boundaries. Other areas of the Solar System also encompass small bodies in smaller concentrations. These include the near-Earth asteroids, centaurs, comets, and scattered disc objects.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":136091,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_473"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"The Greek goddess of forests and hills, childbirth, virginity, fertility, and the hunt, who is the twin sister of Apollo?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Artemis"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["locheia","agrotora","agrotara","aelurus deity","artemis locheia","aritimi","ἄρτεμις","amarynthia","alpheiusa","alpheaea","artemis","ἀρτέμιδος","aetole","hunt of artemis","artemis mythology","artemis persica","artemis alphaea","alphaea","aeginaea"],"string":"[\n \"locheia\",\n \"agrotora\",\n \"agrotara\",\n \"aelurus deity\",\n \"artemis locheia\",\n \"aritimi\",\n \"ἄρτεμις\",\n \"amarynthia\",\n \"alpheiusa\",\n \"alpheaea\",\n \"artemis\",\n \"ἀρτέμιδος\",\n \"aetole\",\n \"hunt of artemis\",\n \"artemis mythology\",\n \"artemis persica\",\n \"artemis alphaea\",\n \"alphaea\",\n \"aeginaea\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Apollo\n\nApollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: , Apollōn ( ); Doric: , Apellōn; Arcadocypriot: , Apeilōn; Aeolic: , Aploun; ) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The ideal of the kouros (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of music, truth and prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu.","Apollo\n\nAs the patron of Delphi (Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius, yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over colonists, and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the Muses (Apollon Musegetes) and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. Hermes created the lyre for him, and the instrument became a common attribute of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called paeans.","Apollo\n\nIn Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as Apollo Helios he became identified among Greeks with Helios, Titan god of the sun, and his sister Artemis similarly equated with Selene, Titan goddess of the moon. In Latin texts, on the other hand, Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with Sol among the Augustan poets of the 1st century, not even in the conjurations of Aeneas and Latinus in Aeneid XII (161–215). Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE.","Apollo\n\nEtymology","Apollo\n\nThe name of Apollo itself—though not Paean, a possible name of a precursor god to or epithet of him—is generally considered to be absent from the Linear B (Mycenean Greek) texts although it is possible that the name is in fact attested in the lacunose form ]pe-rjo-[ (Linear B: ]-[) on the KN E 842 tablet.","Apollo\n\nThe etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling ( in Classical Attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form Apellon (), is more archaic, derived from an earlier . It probably is a cognate to the Doric month Apellaios (), and the offerings apellaia () at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai (). \nAccording to some scholars the words are derived from the Doric word apella (), which originally meant \"wall,\" \"fence for animals\" and later \"assembly within the limits of the square.\"The word usually appears in plural: Hesychius: (apellai), (\"folds\"), (\"assemblies\"), (\"elections\"): Nilsson, Vol. I, p. 556 Apella () is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta, corresponding to the ecclesia (). R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun apellai and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *Apalyun.","Apollo\n\nSeveral instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb (apollymi), \"to destroy\". Plato in Cratylus connects the name with (apolysis), \"redemption\", with (apolousis), \"purification\", and with ([h]aploun), \"simple\", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, , and finally with (aeiballon), \"ever-shooting\". Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric (apella), which means \"assembly\", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation (sekos), \"fold\", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. In the Ancient Macedonian language (pella) means \"stone,\" and some toponyms may be derived from this word: (Pella, the capital of Ancient Macedonia) and (Pellēnē/Pallene).","Apollo\n\nA number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name, The Hittite form Apaliunas (d) is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter, perhaps related to Hurrian (and certainly the Etruscan) Aplu, a god of plague, in turn likely from Akkadian Aplu Enlil meaning simply \"the son of Enlil\", a title that was given to the god Nergal, who was linked to Shamash, Babylonian god of the sun. \nThe role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of Apollo Smintheus (\"mouse Apollo\") by Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks (the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is of course apotropaic, meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague).","Apollo\n\nThe Hittite testimony reflects an early form ', which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot with Doric .","Apollo\n\nA Luwian etymology suggested for Apaliunas makes Apollo \"The One of Entrapment\", perhaps in the sense of \"Hunter\".","Apollo\n\nGreco-Roman epithets","Apollo\n\nApollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of epithets applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature, chief among them Phoebus ( ; , Phoibos, literally \"bright\"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo's role as the god of light.","Apollo\n\nAs sun-god and god of light, Apollo was also known by the epithets Aegletes ( ; Αἰγλήτης, Aiglētēs, from , \"light of the sun\"), Helius ( ; , Helios, literally \"sun\"), Phanaeus ( ; , Phanaios, literally \"giving or bringing light\"), and Lyceus ( ; , Lykeios, from Proto-Greek *, \"light\"). The meaning of the epithet \"Lyceus\" later became associated with Apollo's mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia () and who was identified with the wolf (), earning him the epithets Lycegenes ( ; , Lukēgenēs, literally \"born of a wolf\" or \"born of Lycia\") and Lycoctonus ( ; , Lykoktonos, from , \"wolf\", and , \"to kill\"). As god of the sun, Apollo was called Sol ( , literally \"sun\" in Latin) by the Romans.","Apollo\n\nIn association with his birthplace, Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos, Apollo was called Cynthius ( ; , Kunthios, literally \"Cynthian\"), Cynthogenes ( ; , Kynthogenēs, literally \"born of Cynthus\"), and Delius ( ; Δήλιος, Delios, literally \"Delian\"). As Artemis's twin, Apollo had the epithet Didymaeus ( ; , Didymaios, from δίδυμος, \"twin\").","Apollo\n\nApollo was worshipped as Actiacus ( ; , Aktiakos, literally \"Actian\"), Delphinius ( ; , Delphinios, literally \"Delphic\"), and Pythius ( ; , Puthios, from Πυθώ, Pythō, the area around Delphi), after Actium () and Delphi (Δελφοί) respectively, two of his principal places of worship. An etiology in the Homeric hymns associated the epithet \"Delphinius\" with dolphins. He was worshipped as Acraephius ( ; , Akraiphios, literally \"Acraephian\") or Acraephiaeus ( ; , Akraiphiaios, literally \"Acraephian\") in the Boeotian town of Acraephia (), reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus; and as Smintheus ( ; , Smintheus, \"Sminthian\"—that is, \"of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe\"). near the Troad town of Hamaxitus. The epithet \"Smintheus\" has historically been confused with , \"mouse\", in association with Apollo's role as a god of disease. For this he was also known as Parnopius ( ; , Parnopios, from , \"locust\") and to the Romans as Culicarius ( ; from Latin culicārius, \"of midges\").","Apollo\n\nIn Apollo's role as a healer, his appellations included Acesius ( ; , Akesios, from , \"healing\"), Acestor ( ; , Akestōr, literally \"healer\"), Paean ( ; , Paiān, from , \"to touch\"), and Iatrus ( ; , Iātros, literally \"physician\"). Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora. The Romans referred to Apollo as Medicus ( ; literally \"physician\" in Latin) in this respect. A temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus at Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona.","Apollo\n\nAs a protector and founder, Apollo had the epithets Alexicacus ( ; , Alexikakos, literally \"warding off evil\"), Apotropaeus ( ; , Apotropaios, from , \"to avert\"), and Epicurius ( ; , Epikourios, from , \"to aid\"), and Archegetes ( ; , Arkhēgetēs, literally \"founder\"), Clarius ( ; , Klārios, from Doric , \"allotted lot\"), and Genetor ( ; , Genetōr, literally \"ancestor\"). To the Romans, he was known in this capacity as Averruncus ( ; from Latin āverruncare, \"to avert\"). He was also called Agyieus ( ; , Aguīeus, from , \"street\") for his role in protecting roads and homes; and Nomius ( ; , Nomios, literally \"pastoral\") and Nymphegetes ( ; , Numphēgetēs, from , \"Nymph\", and , \"leader\") for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life.","Apollo\n\nIn his role as god of prophecy and truth, Apollo had the epithets Manticus ( ; , Mantikos, literally \"prophetic\"), Leschenorius ( ; , Leskhēnorios, from , \"converser\"), and Loxias ( ; , Loxias, from , \"to say\"). The epithet \"Loxias\" has historically been associated with , \"ambiguous\". In this respect, the Romans called him Coelispex ( ; from Latin coelum, \"sky\", and specere, \"to look at\"). The epithet Iatromantis ( ; , Iātromantis, from , \"physician\", and , \"prophet\") refers to both his role as a god of healing and of prophecy. As god of music and arts, Apollo had the epithet Musagetes ( ; Doric , Mousāgetās) or Musegetes ( ; , Mousēgetēs, from , \"Muse\", and , \"leader\").","Apollo\n\nAs a god of archery, Apollo was known as Aphetor ( ; , Aphētōr, from , \"to let loose\") or Aphetorus ( ; , Aphētoros, of the same origin), Argyrotoxus ( ; , Argyrotoxos, literally \"with silver bow\"), Hecaërgus ( ; , Hekaergos, literally \"far-shooting\"), and Hecebolus ( ; , Hekēbolos, literally \"far-shooting\"). The Romans referred to Apollo as Articenens ( ; \"bow-carrying\"). Apollo was called Ismenius ( ; , Ismēnios, literally \"of Ismenus\") after Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, whom he struck with an arrow.","Apollo\n\nCeltic epithets and cult titles","Apollo\n\nApollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character. * Apollo Atepomarus (\"the great horseman\" or \"possessing a great horse\"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières (Indre). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun. * Apollo Belenus ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, Northern Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. * Apollo Cunomaglus ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at Nettleton Shrub, Wiltshire. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god. * Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo. * Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus. * Apollo Moritasgus ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians. * Apollo Vindonnus ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Châtillon-sur-Seine in present-day Burgundy.","Apollo\n\nHe was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. * Apollo Virotutis ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy (Haute-Savoie) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire).","Apollo\n\nOrigins","Apollo\n\nThe cult centers of Apollo in Greece, Delphi and Delos, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis, Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of Pytho. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In archaic Greece he was the prophet, the oracular god who in older times was connected with \"healing\". In classical Greece he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil. Walter Burkert discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed \"a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component.\"","Apollo\n\nFrom his eastern origin Apollo brought the art of inspection of \"symbols and omina\" (σημεία και τέρατα : semeia kai terata), and of the observation of the omens of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from Anatolia. The ritualism belonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the legalism, the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and perceptible order. The improvement of the old Anatolian god, and his elevation to an intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the Greek people.","Apollo\n\nHealer and god-protector from evil","Apollo\n\nThe function of Apollo as a \"healer\" is connected with Paean (), the physician of the Gods in the Iliad, who seems to come from a more primitive religion. Paeοn is probably connected with the Mycenean pa-ja-wo-ne (Linear B: ), At Google Books. but this is not certain. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease. Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song \"paean\" (). The magicians were also called \"seer-doctors\" (), and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.","Apollo\n\nIn the Iliad, Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the terrible Vedic god of disease Rudra. He sends a terrible plague () to the Achaeans. The god who sends a disease can also prevent from it; therefore, when it stops, they make a purifying ceremony and offer him a hecatomb to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases, they pray and with a song they call their own god, the beautiful Paean.","Apollo\n\nSome common epithets of Apollo as a healer are \"paion\" (, literally \"healer\" or \"helper\") \"epikourios\" (, \"help\"), \"oulios\" (, \"healed wound\", also a \"scar\" ) and \"loimios\" (, \"plague\"). In classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called \"apotropaios\" (, \"divert\", \"deter\", \"avert\") and \"alexikakos\" (from v. + n. , \"defend from evil\"). In later writers, the word, usually spelled \"Paean\", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing.","Apollo\n\nHomer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph.\nSuch songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to Dionysus, to Apollo Helios, to Apollo's son Asclepius the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won.","Apollo\n\nDorian origin","Apollo\n\nThe connection with Dorians and their initiation festival apellai is reinforced by the month Apellaios in northwest Greek calendars, but it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word \"pella\" (Pella), stone. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi (Omphalos). The \"Homeric hymn\" represents Apollo as a Northern intruder. His arrival must have occurred during the \"Dark Ages\" that followed the destruction of the Mycenaean civilization, and his conflict with Gaia (Mother Earth) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent Python.","Apollo\n\nThe earth deity had power over the ghostly world, and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle. The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated. A female dragon named Delphyne (, \"womb\"), who is obviously connected with Delphi and Apollo Delphinios, and a male serpent Typhon (, \"to smoke\"), the adversary of Zeus in the Titanomachy, who the narrators confused with Python. Python was the good daemon (ἀγαθὸς δαίμων) of the temple as it appears in Minoan religion, but she was represented as a dragon, as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East.","Apollo\n\nApollo and his sister Artemis can bring death with their arrows. The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings, or magicians is common in Germanic and Norse mythology. In Greek mythology Artemis was the leader (, \"hegemon\") of the nymphs, who had similar functions with the Nordic Elves. The \"elf-shot\" originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves, but it was later attested denoting stone arrow-heads which were used by witches to harm people, and also for healing rituals.","Apollo\n\nThe Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called \"The Archer\", and the bow is also an attribute of Shiva. Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them, and his alternative Shiba is a healer physician god. However the Indo-European component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult.","Apollo\n\nMinoan origin","Apollo\n\nIt seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the Mycenaean ages. In historical times, the priests of Delphi were called Labryaden, \"the double-axe men\", which indicates Minoan origin. The double-axe, labrys, was the holy symbol of the Cretan labyrinth. The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. Apollo Delphinios was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands, and his name indicates his connection with Delphi and the holy serpent Delphyne (\"womb\"). Apollo's sister Artemis, who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with Britomartis (Diktynna), the Minoan \"Mistress of the animals\". In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the \"Mister of the animals\", a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute. His original name is unknown, but it seems that he was absorbed by the more popular Apollo, who stood by the virgin \"Mistress of the Animals\", becoming her brother.","Apollo\n\nThe old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood, and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple. This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries, according to the local tradition. In that regard, the mythical seeress Sibyl of Anatolian origin, with her ecstatic art, looks unrelated to the oracle itself. However, the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves, which seem to be confirmed by recent studies.","Apollo\n\nPlato describes the priestesses of Delphi and Dodona as frenzied women, obsessed by \"mania\" (, \"frenzy\"), a Greek word he connected with mantis (, \"prophet\"). Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the Near East as Mari in the second millennium BC. Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC, there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages. It is more probable that this art was introduced later from Anatolia and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece.","Apollo\n\nAnatolian origin","Apollo\n\nA non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship. The name of Apollo's mother Leto has Lydian origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of Asia Minor. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from Anatolia, which is the origin of Sibyl, and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old Assyro-Babylonian texts, and these rituals were spread into the empire of the Hittites. In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain \"purification\".","Apollo\n\nA similar story is mentioned by Plutarch. He writes that the Cretan seer Epimenides purified Athens after the pollution brought by the Alcmeonidae, and that the seer's expertise in sacrifices and reform of funeral practices were of great help to Solon in his reform of the Athenian state. The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the shamanic religions of Asia, and proves, together with the Homeric hymn, that Crete had a resisting religion up to historical times. It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece, and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to Anatolia.","Apollo\n\nHomer pictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans, during the Trojan War. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to Appaliunas, a tutelary god of Wilusa (Troy) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete. The stones found in front of the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols of Apollo. The Greeks gave to him the name agyieus as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil, and his symbol was a tapered stone or column. However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon, all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (sibutu) indicates a Babylonian origin.","Apollo\n\nThe Late Bronze Age (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) Hittite and Hurrian Aplu was a god of plague, invoked during plague years. Here we have an apotropaic situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning the son of, was a title given to the god Nergal, who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun Shamash. Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god () who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods. In Iliad, his priest prays to Apollo Smintheus, the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats. All these functions, including the function of the healer-god Paean, who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo.","Apollo\n\nOracular cult","Apollo\n\nUnusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. Apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period, and the frequency of theophoric names such as Apollodorus or Apollonios and cities named Apollonia testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at Didyma and Clarus pronounced the so-called \"theological oracles\", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity. \"In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. Julian the Apostate (359 - 61) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed.\"","Apollo\n\nOracular shrines","Apollo\n\nApollo had a famous oracle in Delphi, and other notable ones in Clarus and Branchidae. His oracular shrine in Abae in Phocis, where he bore the toponymic epithet Abaeus (, Apollon Abaios), was important enough to be consulted by Croesus. His oracular shrines include:\n* Abae in Phocis. * Bassae in the Peloponnese. * At Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a pneuma, from which the priests drank. * In Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War. * At Khyrse, in Troad, the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus. * In Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. * In Delphi, the Pythia became filled with the pneuma of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton.","Apollo\n\n* In Didyma, an oracle on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by Branchus, son or lover of Apollo. * In Hierapolis Bambyce, Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise De Dea Syria, the sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image. * At Patara, in Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman. * In Segesta in Sicily.","Apollo\n\nOracles were also given by sons of Apollo.\n* In Oropus, north of Athens, the oracle Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring.\n* in Labadea, 20 mi east of Delphi, Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.","Apollo\n\nTemples of Apollo","Apollo\n\nA lot of temples dedicated to Apollo were built in Greece and in the Greek colonies, and they show the spread of the cult of Apollo, and the evolution of the Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form, and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in Crete, don't belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectangle wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered divine, and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of Doric order. The Greeks used standard types, because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve the esthetic perfection. From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were narrow to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed, some mathematical relations became necessary, in order to keep the original forms.","Apollo\n\nThis probably influenced the theory of numbers of Pythagoras, who believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics.","Apollo\n\nThe Doric order dominated during the 6th and the 5th century B.C, but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which couldn’t be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the Ionic order, but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the Corinthian order gradually during the Hellenistic age, and under Rome.","Apollo\n\nThe most important temples are:","Apollo\n\nGreek temples","Apollo\n\n*Thebes, Greece: The oldest temple probably dedicated to Apollo Ismenius was built in the 9th century B.C It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The Doric temple was built in the early 7th century B.C, but only some small parts have been found A festival called Daphnephoria was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches ( daphnai), and at the head of the procession, walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called \"daphnephoros\". *Eretria: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived to the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of Apollo Daphnephoros, \"Apollo, laurel-bearer\", or \"carrying off Daphne\", is dated to 800 BC. The temple was curvilinear hecatombedon (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurer branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century B.C, with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 BC, with the stylobate measuring 21,00 X 43,00 m. The number of pteron column was 6 x 14. *Dreros (Crete).","Apollo\n\nThe temple of Apollo Delphinios dates from the 7th century B.C, or probably from the middle of the 8th century BC. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of Delphi. `The dimensions of the plan are 10,70 X 24,00 m, and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the Minoan type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the Doric columns. *Gortyn (Crete). A temple of Pythian Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. The plan measured 19,00 X 16,70 m, and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was single door on the east side. *Thermon (West Greece): The Doric temple of Apollo Thermios, was built in the middle of the 7th century BC. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century B.C, on which a peristyle was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 X 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 X 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones.","Apollo\n\n*Napes (Lesbos): An Aeolic temple probably of Apollo Napaios was built in the 7th century BC. Some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called Aeolic, and it seems that they were borrowed from the East.D.S Robertson(1945):A handbook of Greek and Roman architecture, Cambridge University Press pp. 324-329 \n*Cyrene, Libya: The oldest Doric temple of Apollo was built in c. 600 BC. The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 X 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone. *Naukratis: An Ionic temple was a built in the early 6th century BC. Only some fragments have been found, and the earlier made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the Ionic order.","Apollo\n\n*Corinth: A Doric temple was built in the 6th century BC. The temple's stylobate measures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar with the Temple of Alcmeonidae at Delphi. The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the Doric order","Apollo\n\n*Syracuse, Sicily: A Doric temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century BC. The temple's stylobate measures 21.47 X 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch. *Selinus (Sicily):The Doric Temple C dates from 550 BC, and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple's stylobate measures 10.48 X 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at Syracuse. *Delphi: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The \"Temple of Alcmeonidae\" was built in c. 513 BC. and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple's stylobate measures 21.65 X 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15. A fest similar with Apollo's fest at Thebes, Greece was celebrated every nine years.","Apollo\n\nA boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (dopnephoros). The maidens participated with joyful songs. *Chios: An Ionic temple of Apollo Phanaios was built at the end of the 6th century BC. Only some small parts have been found, but the capitals had floral ornament. *Abae (Phocis). The temple was destroyed by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in 480 BCE, and later by the Boeotians. It was rebuilt by Hadrian. The oracle was in use from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion. *Delos: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century B.C, with a plan measuring 10,00 X 15,60 m. The Doric Great temple of Apollo, was built in c. 475 BC. The temple's stylobate measures 13.72 X 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used. *Ambracia: A Doric peripteral temple dedicated to Apollo Pythios Sotir was built in 500 B.C, and It is lying at the centre of the Greek city Arta.","Apollo\n\nOnly some parts have been found, and it seems that the temple was built on earlier sanctuaries dedicated to Apollo. The temple measures 20,75 X 44,00 m at the stylobate. The foundation which supported the statue of the god, still exists.","Apollo\n\n*Bassae (Peloponnesus):A temple dedicated to Apollo Epikourios (\"Apollo the helper\"), was built in 430 B.C and it was designed by Iktinos.It combined Doric and Ionic elements, and the earliest use of column with a Corinthian capital in the middle. The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the stylobate measuring 14.5 X 38.3 metres containing a Doric peristyle of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air.","Apollo\n\n*Didyma (near Miletus): The gigantic Ionic temple of Apollo Didymaios started around 540 BC. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 BC. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 X 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate. *Clarus (near ancient Colophon): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost. The Doric temple of Apollo Clarius was probably built in the 3rd century B.C, and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor Hadrian but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century B.C. *Hamaxitus (Troad): In Iliad, Chryses the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related with the god’s ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of Apollo Smintheus was constructed at 150–125 BC, but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century B.C.","Apollo\n\nThe temple measures 40,00 X23,00 m at the stylobate, and the number of pteron columns was 8 X 14.","Apollo\n\nEtruscan and Roman temples","Apollo\n\n*Veii (Etruria): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century B.C., and indicates the spread of Apollo’s culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called Tuscan , and a triple cella 18,50 m wide. \n*Falerii Veteres (Etruria): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th-3rd century B.C. Parts of a teraccotta capital, and a teraccotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric. A cult of Apollo Soranus is attested by one inscription found near Falerii.","Apollo\n\n*Pompeii, (Italy): The cult of Apollo, was widespread in the region of Campania, since the 6th century B.C. The temple was built in 120 B.V, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century BC. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in A.D 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles, which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a Tuscan prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 Ionic columns was placed in such a way, that the emphasis was given to the front side. * Rome: The temple of Apollo Sosianus and the temple of Apollo Medicus . The first temple building dates to 431 BC, and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 BC. It was rebuilt by Gaius Sosius, probably in 34 B.C. Only three columns with Corinthian capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century BC. *Rome:The temple of Apollo Palatinus was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city. It was dedicated by Augustus on 28 B.C.","Apollo\n\nThe façade of the original temple was Ionic, and it was constructed from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance, and a statue of Apollo in the cella. *Melite (modern Mdina, Malta): A Temple of Apollo was built in the city in the 2nd century AD. Its remains were discovered in the 18th century, and many of its architectural fragments were dispersed among private collections or reworked into new sculptures. Parts of the temple's podium were rediscovered in 2002.","Apollo\n\nMythology","Apollo\n\nBirth","Apollo\n\nWhen Zeus' wife Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on \"terra firma\". In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island. She gave birth there and was accepted by the people, offering them her promise that her son would be always favourable toward the city. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo.","Apollo\n\nIt is also stated that Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards (8 m) long, of amber. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day (, hebdomagenes) of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition—or of the month Bysios—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.","Apollo\n\nYouth","Apollo\n\nFour days after his birth, Apollo killed the chthonic dragon Python, which lived in Delphi beside the Castalian Spring. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophecies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. To protect his mother, Apollo begged Hephaestus for a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of Gaia.","Apollo\n\nHera then sent the giant Tityos to rape Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to Tartarus. There, he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of 9 acre, where a pair of vultures feasted daily on his liver.","Apollo\n\nTrojan War","Apollo\n\nApollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the Trojan War in retribution for Agamemnon's insult to Chryses, a priest of Apollo whose daughter Chryseis had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the Iliad.","Apollo\n\nIn the Iliad, when Diomedes injured Aeneas, Apollo rescued him. First, Aphrodite tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy.","Apollo\n\nApollo aided Paris in the killing of Achilles by guiding the arrow of his bow into Achilles' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering Troilus, the god's own son by Hecuba, on the very altar of the god's own temple.","Apollo\n\nAdmetus","Apollo\n\nWhen Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting Hippolytus from the dead (transgressing Themis by stealing Hades's subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the Cyclopes, who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to Tartarus forever for this, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labor, due to the intercession of his mother, Leto. During this time he served as shepherd for King Admetus of Pherae in Thessaly. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.","Apollo\n\nApollo helped Admetus win Alcestis, the daughter of King Pelias and later convinced the Fates to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but Heracles managed to \"persuade\" Thanatos, the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.","Apollo\n\nNiobe","Apollo\n\nNiobe, the queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared (Chloris, usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge.","Apollo\n\nA devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylos in Asia Minor and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.","Apollo\n\nConsorts and children","Apollo\n\nLove affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology. Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination.","Apollo\n\nFemale lovers","Apollo\n\nDaphne was a nymph, daughter of the river god Peneus, who had scorned Apollo. The myth explains the connection of Apollo with δάφνη (daphnē), the laurel whose leaves his priestess employed at Delphi. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a weapon more suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Cupid shoots a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prays to her father, Peneus, for help, and he changes her into the laurel tree, sacred to Apollo.","Apollo\n\nArtemis Daphnaia, who had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi in Antiquity, on the slopes of Mount Cnacadion near the Spartan frontier, had her own sacred laurel trees. At Eretria the identity of an excavated 7th- and 6th-century temple to Apollo Daphnephoros, \"Apollo, laurel-bearer\", or \"carrying off Daphne\", a \"place where the citizens are to take the oath\", is identified in inscriptions.","Apollo\n\nLeucothea was daughter of Orchamus and sister of Clytia. She fell in love with Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.","Apollo\n\nMarpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.","Apollo\n\nCastalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the spring at Delphi, at the base of Mt. Parnassos, which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. In the last oracle is mentioned that the \"water which could speak\", has been lost for ever.","Apollo\n\nBy Cyrene, Apollo had a son named Aristaeus, who became the patron god of cattle, fruit trees, hunting, husbandry and bee-keeping. He was also a culture-hero and taught humanity dairy skills, the use of nets and traps in hunting, and how to cultivate olives.","Apollo\n\nHecuba, was the wife of King Priam of Troy, and Apollo had a son with her named Troilus. An oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by Achilleus.","Apollo\n\nCassandra, was daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus' half-sister. Apollo fell in love with Cassandra and promised her the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gave her the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her.","Apollo\n\nCoronis, was daughter of Phlegyas, King of the Lapiths. Pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with Ischys, son of Elatus. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result, he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the centaur Chiron to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.","Apollo\n\nIn Euripides' play Ion, Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa, wife of Xuthus. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess.","Apollo\n\nAcantha, was the spirit of the acanthus tree, and Apollo had one of his other liaisons with her. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb.","Apollo\n\nAccording to the Biblioteca, the \"library\" of mythology mis-attributed to Apollodorus, he fathered the Corybantes on the Muse Thalia.","Apollo\n\nConsorts and children: extended list","Apollo\n\n# Acacallis\n## Amphithemis (Garamas) \n## Naxos, eponym of the island Naxos \n## Phylacides\n## Phylander \n# Acantha\n# Aethusa\n## Eleuther\n# Aganippe\n## Chios \n# Alciope \n## Linus (possibly)\n# Amphissa / Isse, daughter of Macareus\n# Anchiale / Acacallis\n## Oaxes \n# Areia, daughter of Cleochus / Acacallis / Deione\n## Miletus\n# Astycome, nymph\n## Eumolpus (possibly) \n# Arsinoe, daughter of Leucippus\n## Asclepius (possibly)\n## Eriopis\n# Babylo\n## Arabus \n# Bolina\n# Calliope, Muse\n## Orpheus (possibly)\n## Linus (possibly)\n## Ialemus\n# Cassandra\n# Castalia\n# Celaeno, daughter of Hyamus / Melaina / Thyia\n## Delphus\n# Chione / Philonis / Leuconoe\n## Philammon\n# Chrysorthe\n## Coronus\n# Chrysothemis\n## Parthenos\n# Coronis\n## Asclepius\n# Coryceia\n## Lycorus (Lycoreus)\n# Creusa\n## Ion\n# Cyrene\n## Aristaeus\n## Idmon (possibly)\n## Autuchus \n# Danais, Cretan nymph\n## The Curetes \n# Daphne\n# Dia, daughter of Lycaon\n## Dryops\n# Dryope\n## Amphissus\n# Euboea (daughter of Macareus of Locris)\n## Agreus\n# Evadne, daughter of Poseidon\n## Iamus\n# Gryne\n# Hecate\n## Scylla (possibly) \n# Hecuba\n## Troilus\n## Hector (possibly) \n# Hestia (wooed her unsuccessfully)\n# Hypermnestra, wife of Oicles\n## Amphiaraus (possibly)\n# Hypsipyle \n# Hyria (Thyria)\n## Cycnus\n# Lycia, nymph or daughter of Xanthus\n## Eicadius \n## Patarus \n# Manto\n## Mopsus\n# Marpessa\n# Melia\n## Ismenus \n## Tenerus \n# Ocyrhoe\n# Othreis\n## Phager\n# Parnethia, nymph\n## Cynnes \n# Parthenope\n## Lycomedes\n# Phthia\n## Dorus\n## Laodocus\n## Polypoetes\n# Prothoe \n# Procleia\n## Tenes (possibly)\n# Psamathe\n## Linus\n# Rhoeo\n## Anius\n# Rhodoessa, nymph\n## Ceos, eponym of the island Ceos \n# Rhodope\n## Cicon, eponym of the tribe Cicones \n# Sinope\n## Syrus\n# Stilbe\n## Centaurus\n## Lapithes\n## Aineus\n# Syllis / Hyllis\n## Zeuxippus\n# Thaleia, Muse / Rhetia, nymph\n## The Corybantes\n# Themisto, daughter of Zabius of Hyperborea \n## Galeotes\n## Telmessus (?)\n# Thero\n## Chaeron\n# Urania, Muse\n## Linus (possibly)\n# Urea, daughter of Poseidon\n## Ileus (Oileus?)\n# Wife of Erginus\n## Trophonius (possibly)\n# Unknown consorts\n## Acraepheus, eponym of the city Acraephia \n## Chariclo (possibly) \n## Erymanthus\n## Marathus, eponym of Marathon \n## Megarus \n## Melaneus\n## Oncius \n## Phemonoe\n## Pisus, founder of Pisa in Etruria \n## Younger Muses\n### Cephisso\n### Apollonis\n### Borysthenis","Apollo\n\nMale lovers","Apollo\n\nHyacinth or Hyacinthus was one of Apollo's male lovers. He was a Spartan prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair was practicing throwing the discus when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous Zephyrus and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief: out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a flower named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection , meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta.","Apollo\n\nAnother male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of Heracles. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the Cypress named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.","Apollo\n\nOther male lovers of Apollo include:\n* Admetus \n* Atymnius, otherwise known as a beloved of Sarpedon\n* Branchus (alternately, a son of Apollo)\n* Carnus\n* Clarus \n* Hippolytus of Sicyon (not the same as Hippolytus, the son of Theseus) \n* Hymenaios \n* Iapis\n* Leucates, who threw himself off a rock when Apollo attempted to carry him off \n* Phorbas (probably the son of Triopas) \n* Potnieus","Apollo\n\nApollo's lyre","Apollo\n\nHermes was born on Mount Cyllene in Arcadia. The story is told in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes. His mother, Maia, had been secretly impregnated by Zeus. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep.","Apollo\n\nHermes ran to Thessaly, where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a tortoise and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first lyre.","Apollo\n\nApollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became a master of the lyre.","Apollo\n\nApollo in the Oresteia","Apollo\n\nIn Aeschylus' Oresteia trilogy, Clytemnestra kills her husband, King Agamemnon because he had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia to proceed forward with the Trojan war, and Cassandra, a prophetess of Apollo. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon's son, Orestes, is to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the Erinyes (Furies, female personifications of vengeance).","Apollo\n\nApollo and the Furies argue about whether the matricide was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo.","Apollo\n\nOther stories","Apollo\n\nApollo killed the Aloadae when they attempted to storm Mt. Olympus.","Apollo\n\nCallimachus sang that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the Hyperboreans during the winter months.","Apollo\n\nApollo turned Cephissus into a sea monster.","Apollo\n\nAnother contender for the birthplace of Apollo is the Cretan islands of Paximadia.","Apollo\n\nMusical contests","Apollo\n\nPan","Apollo\n\nOnce Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the kithara, to a trial of skill. Tmolus, the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a donkey.","Apollo\n\nMarsyas","Apollo\n\nApollo has ominous aspects aside from his plague-bringing, death-dealing arrows: Marsyas was a satyr who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an aulos on the ground, tossed away after being invented by Athena because it made her cheeks puffy. The contest was judged by the Muses.","Apollo\n\nAfter they each performed, both were deemed equal until Apollo decreed they play and sing at the same time. As Apollo played the lyre, this was easy to do. Marsyas could not do this, as he only knew how to use the flute and could not sing at the same time. Apollo was declared the winner because of this. Apollo flayed Marsyas alive in a cave near Celaenae in Phrygia for his hubris to challenge a god. He then nailed Marsyas' shaggy skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas' blood turned into the river Marsyas.","Apollo\n\nAnother variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive.","Apollo\n\nCinyras","Apollo\n\nApollo also had a lyre-playing contest with Cinyras, his son, who committed suicide when he lost.","Apollo\n\nRoman Apollo","Apollo\n\nThe Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as Phoebus. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus.","Apollo\n\nOn the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the \"Apollinare\". During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE, the Ludi Apollinares (\"Apollonian Games\") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius. In the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.","Apollo\n\nAfter the battle of Actium, which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple to the god on the Palatine hill. Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and Diana formed the culmination of the Secular Games, held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.","Apollo\n\nFestivals","Apollo\n\nThe chief Apollonian festivals were the Boedromia, Carneia, Carpiae, Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Metageitnia, Pyanepsia, Pythia and Thargelia.","Apollo\n\nAttributes and symbols","Apollo\n\nApollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow. Other attributes of his included the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre), the plectrum and the sword. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in Apollo's honor every four years at Delphi. The bay laurel plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games.","Apollo\n\nThe palm tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, cicadas (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows, snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and griffins, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin.","Apollo\n\nAs god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: Hittite cuneiform texts mention a Minor Asian god called Appaliunas or Apalunas in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo's title of Lykegenes can simply be read as \"born in Lycia\", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a folk etymology).","Apollo\n\nIn literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the Borghese Vase.","Apollo\n\nApollo is often associated with the Golden Mean. This is the Greek ideal of moderation and a virtue that opposes gluttony.","Apollo\n\nApollo in the arts","Apollo\n\nApollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the Renaissance. The earliest Greek word for a statue is \"delight\" (, agalma), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought.","Apollo\n\nThe naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world.","Apollo\n\nThe evolution of the Greek sculpture can be observed in his depictions from the almost static formal Kouros type in early archaic period, to the representation of motion in a relative harmonious whole in late archaic period. In classical Greece the emphasis is not given to the illusive imaginative reality represented by the ideal forms, but to the analogies and the interaction of the members in the whole, a method created by Polykleitos. Finally Praxiteles seems to be released from any art and religious conformities, and his masterpieces are a mixture of naturalism with stylization.","Apollo\n\nArt and Greek philosophy","Apollo\n\nThe evolution of the Greek art seems to go parallel with the Greek philosophical conceptions, which changed from the natural-philosophy of Thales to the metaphysical theory of Pythagoras. Thales searched for a simple material-form directly perceptible by the senses, behind the appearances of things, and his theory is also related to the older animism. This was paralleled in sculpture by the absolute representation of vigorous life, through unnaturally simplified forms.","Apollo\n\nPythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation. The forms on earth, are imperfect imitations (, eikones, \"images\") of the celestial world of numbers. His ideas had a great influence on post-Archaic art, and the Greek architects and sculptors were always trying to find the mathematical relation, that would lead to the esthetic perfection. (canon).","Apollo\n\nIn classical Greece, Anaxagoras asserted that a divine reason (mind) gave order to the seeds of the universe, and Plato extended the Greek belief of ideal forms to his metaphysical theory of forms (ideai, \"ideas\"). The forms on earth are imperfect duplicates of the intellectual celestial ideas. The Greek words oida (, \"(I) know\") and eidos (, \"species\") have the same root as the word idea (), indicating how the Greek mind moved from the gift of the senses, to the principles beyond the senses. The artists in Plato's time moved away from his theories and art tends to be a mixture of naturalism with stylization. The Greek sculptors considered the senses more important, and the proportions were used to unite the sensible with the intellectual.","Apollo\n\nArchaic sculpture","Apollo\n\nKouros (male youth) is the modern term given to those representations of standing male youths which first appear in the archaic period in Greece. This type served certain religious needs and was first proposed for what was previously thought to be depictions of Apollo. The first statues are certainly still and formal. The formality of their stance seems to be related with the Egyptian precedent, but it was accepted for a good reason. The sculptors had a clear idea of what a young man is, and embodied the archaic smile of good manners, the firm and springy step, the balance of the body, dignity, and youthful happiness. When they tried to depict the most abiding qualities of men, it was because men had common roots with the unchanging gods. The adoption of a standard recognizable type for a long time, is probably because nature gives preference in survival of a type which has long be adopted by the climatic conditions, and also due to the general Greek belief that nature expresses itself in ideal forms that can be imagined and represented. These forms expressed immortality. Apollo was the immortal god of ideal balance and order.","Apollo\n\nHis shrine in Delphi, that he shared in winter with Dionysius had the inscriptions: (gnōthi seautón\n\"know thyself\") and (mēdén ágan, \"nothing in excess\"), and (eggýa pára d'atē, \"make a pledge and mischief is nigh\").","Apollo\n\nIn the first large-scale depictions during the early archaic period (640–580 BC), the artists tried to draw one's attention to look into the interior of the face and the body which were not represented as lifeless masses, but as being full of life. The Greeks maintained, until late in their civilization, an almost animistic idea that the statues are in some sense alive. This embodies the belief that the image was somehow the god or man himself. A fine example is the statue of the Sacred gate Kouros which was found at the cemetery of Dipylon in Athens (Dipylon Kouros). The statue is the \"thing in itself\", and his slender face with the deep eyes express an intellectual eternity. According to the Greek tradition the Dipylon master was named Daedalus, and in his statues the limbs were freed from the body, giving the impression that the statues could move. It is considered that he created also the New York kouros, which is the oldest fully preserved statue of Kouros type, and seems to be the incarnation of the god himself.","Apollo\n\nThe animistic idea as the representation of the imaginative reality, is sanctified in the Homeric poems and in Greek myths, in stories of the god Hephaestus (Phaistos) and the mythic Daedalus (the builder of the labyrinth) that made images which moved of their own accord. This kind of art goes back to the Minoan period, when its main theme was the representation of motion in a specific moment. These free-standing statues were usually marble, but also the form rendered in limestone, bronze, ivory and terracotta.","Apollo\n\nThe earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo, may be two figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of Apollo Ptoios, Boeotia alone. The last stage in the development of the Kouros type is the late archaic period (520–485 BC), in which the Greek sculpture attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used to create a relative harmonious whole. Ranking from the very few bronzes survived to us is the masterpiece bronze Piraeus Apollo. It was found in Piraeus, the harbour of Athens. The statue originally held the bow in its left hand, and a cup of pouring libation in its right hand. It probably comes from north-eastern Peloponnesus. The emphasis is given in anatomy, and it is one of the first attempts to represent a kind of motion, and beauty relative to proportions, which appear mostly in post-Archaic art. The statue throws some light on an artistic centre which, with an independently developed harder, simpler, and heavier style, restricts Ionian influence in Athens.","Apollo\n\nFinally, this is the germ from which the art of Polykleitos was to grow two or three generations later.","Apollo\n\nClassical sculpture","Apollo\n\nIn the next century which is the beginning of the Classical period, it was considered that beauty in visible things as in everything else, consisted of symmetry and proportions. The artists tried also to represent motion in a specific moment (Myron), which may be considered as the reappearance of the dormant Minoan element. Anatomy and geometry are fused in one, and each does something to the other. The Greek sculptors tried to clarify it by looking for mathematical proportions, just as they sought some reality behind appearances. Polykleitos in his Canon wrote that beauty consists in the proportion not of the elements (materials), but of the parts, that is the interrelation of parts with one another and with the whole. It seems that he was influenced by the theories of Pythagoras. The famous Apollo of Mantua and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type, in which the god holds the cithara in his left arm.","Apollo\n\nThe type is represented by neo-Attic Imperial Roman copies of the late 1st or early 2nd century, modelled upon a supposed Greek bronze original made in the second quarter of the 5th century BCE, in a style similar to works of Polykleitos but more archaic. The Apollo held the cythara against his extended left arm, of which in the Louvre example, a fragment of one twisting scrolling horn upright remains against his biceps.","Apollo\n\nThough the proportions were always important in Greek art, the appeal of the Greek sculptures eludes any explanation by proportion alone. The statues of Apollo were thought to incarnate his living presence, and these representations of illusive imaginative reality had deep roots in the Minoan period, and in the beliefs of the first Greek speaking people who entered the region during the bronze-age. Just as the Greeks saw the mountains, forests, sea and rivers as inhabited by concrete beings, so nature in all of its manifestations possesses clear form, and the form of a work of art. Spiritual life is incorporated in matter, when it is given artistic form. Just as in the arts the Greeks sought some reality behind appearances, so in mathematics they sought permanent principles which could be applied wherever the conditions were the same. Artists and sculptors tried to find this ideal order in relation with mathematics, but they believed that this ideal order revealed itself not so much to the dispassionate intellect, as to the whole sentient self. Things as we see them, and as they really are, are one, that each stresses the nature of the other in a single unity.","Apollo\n\nPediments and friezes","Apollo\n\nIn the archaic pediments and friezes of the temples, the artists had a problem to fit a group of figures into an isosceles triangle with acute angles at the base.","Apollo\n\nThe Siphnian Treasury in Delphi was one of the first Greek buildings utilizing the solution to put the dominating form in the middle, and to complete the descending scale of height with other figures sitting or kneeling. The pediment shows the story of Heracles stealing Apollo's tripod that was strongly associated with his oracular inspiration. Their two figures hold the centre. In the pediment of the temple of Zeus in Olympia, the single figure of Apollo is dominating the scene.","Apollo\n\nThese representations rely on presenting scenes directly to the eye for their own visible sake. They care for the schematic arrangements of bodies in space, but only as parts in a larger whole. While each scene has its own character and completeness it must fit into the general sequence to which it belongs. In these archaic pediments the sculptors use empty intervals, to suggest a passage to and fro a busy battlefield. The artists seem to have been dominated by geometrical pattern and order, and this was improved when classical art brought a greater freedom and economy.","Apollo\n\nHellenistic Greece-Rome","Apollo\n\nApollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a kithara (as Apollo Citharoedus) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the Apollo Lykeios and Apollo Sauroctonos types). The Apollo Belvedere is a marble sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans, from the Renaissance through the 19th century. The marble is a Hellenistic or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor Leochares, made between 350 and 325 BCE.","Apollo\n\nThe life-size so-called \"Adonis\" found in 1780 on the site of a villa suburbana near the Via Labicana in the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from El Djem, Roman Thysdrus, he is identifiable as Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire.","Apollo\n\nAnother haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse. The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict Alexander the Great. Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed.","Apollo\n\nModern reception","Apollo\n\nApollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a \"Hymn of Apollo\" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky's Apollon musagète (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band Rush released an album with songs \"Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom\"/\"Dionysus: Bringer of Love\".","Apollo\n\nIn discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the Apollonian and Dionysian impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. Friedrich Nietzsche argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. Carl Jung's Apollo archetype represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance.","Apollo\n\nIn spaceflight, the NASA program for landing astronauts on the Moon was named Apollo.","Apollo\n\nGenealogy","Artemis\n\nArtemis (; , Ártemis,) was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities. Her Roman equivalent is Diana.Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia, The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215. Some scholars believe that the name, and indeed the goddess herself, was originally pre-Greek. Homer refers to her as Artemis Agrotera, Potnia Theron: \"Artemis of the wildland, Mistress of Animals\". The Arcadians believed she was the daughter of Demeter.","Artemis\n\nIn the classical period of Greek mythology, Artemis was often described as the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and the twin sister of Apollo. She was the Hellenic goddess of the hunt, wild animals, wilderness, childbirth, virginity and protector of young girls, bringing and relieving disease in women; she often was depicted as a huntress carrying a bow and arrows. The deer and the cypress were sacred to her. In later Hellenistic times, she even assumed the ancient role of Eileithyia in aiding childbirth.","Artemis\n\nEtymology","Artemis\n\nThe name Artemis (noun, feminine) is of unknown or uncertain origin and etymology although various ones have been proposed.","Artemis\n\nFor example, according to Jablonski, the name is also Phrygian and could be \"compared with the royal appellation Artemas of Xenophon. According to Charles Anthon the primitive root of the name is probably of Persian origin from *arta, *art, *arte, all meaning \"great, excellent, holy,\" thus Artemis \"becomes identical with the great mother of Nature, even as she was worshipped at Ephesus\". Anton Goebel \"suggests the root στρατ or ῥατ, \"to shake,\" and makes Artemis mean the thrower of the dart or the shooter\". Babiniotis, while accepting that the etymology is unknown, states that the name is already attested in Mycenean Greek and is possibly of pre-Hellenic origin.","Artemis\n\nThe name could also be possibly related to Greek árktos \"bear\" (from PIE *h₂ŕ̥tḱos), supported by the bear cult that the goddess had in Attica (Brauronia) and the Neolithic remains at the Arkoudiotissa Cave, as well as the story about Callisto, which was originally about Artemis (Arcadian epithet kallisto); this cult was a survival of very old totemic and shamanistic rituals and formed part of a larger bear cult found further afield in other Indo-European cultures (e.g., Gaulish Artio). It is believed that a precursor of Artemis was worshiped in Minoan Crete as the goddess of mountains and hunting, Britomartis. While connection with Anatolian names has been suggested, the earliest attested forms of the name Artemis are the Mycenaean Greek , a-te-mi-to /Artemitos/ and , a-ti-mi-te /Artimitei/, written in Linear B at Pylos. R. S. P. Beekes suggested that the e/i interchange points to a Pre-Greek origin. Artemis was venerated in Lydia as Artimus.","Artemis\n\nAncient Greek writers, by way of folk etymology, and some modern scholars, have linked Artemis (Doric Artamis) to ἄρταμος, artamos, i.e. \"butcher\" or, like Plato did in Cratylus, to , artemḗs, i.e. \"safe\", \"unharmed\", \"uninjured\", \"pure\", \"the stainless maiden\".","Artemis\n\nArtemis in mythology","Artemis\n\nBirth","Artemis\n\nVarious conflicting accounts are given in Classical Greek mythology of the birth of Artemis and her twin brother, Apollo. All accounts agree, however, that she was the daughter of Zeus and Leto and that she was the twin sister of Apollo.","Artemis\n\nAn account by Callimachus has it that Hera forbade Leto to give birth on either terra firma (the mainland) or on an island. Hera was angry with Zeus, her husband, because he had impregnated Leto. But the island of Delos (or Ortygia in the Homeric Hymn to Artemis) disobeyed Hera, and Leto gave birth there.","Artemis\n\nIn ancient Cretan history Leto was worshipped at Phaistos and in Cretan mythology Leto gave birth to Apollo and Artemis at the islands known today as the Paximadia.","Artemis\n\nA scholium of Servius on Aeneid iii. 72 accounts for the island's archaic name Ortygia by asserting that Zeus transformed Leto into a quail (ortux) in order to prevent Hera from finding out his infidelity, and Kenneth McLeish suggested further that in quail form Leto would have given birth with as few birth-pains as a mother quail suffers when it lays an egg.","Artemis\n\nThe myths also differ as to whether Artemis was born first, or Apollo. Most stories depict Artemis as born first, becoming her mother's mid-wife upon the birth of her brother Apollo.","Artemis\n\nChildhood","Artemis\n\nThe childhood of Artemis is not fully related in any surviving myth. The Iliad reduced the figure of the dread goddess to that of a girl, who, having been thrashed by Hera, climbs weeping into the lap of Zeus. A poem of Callimachus to the goddess \"who amuses herself on mountains with archery\" imagines some charming vignettes: according to Callimachus, at the age of three years, Artemis, while sitting on the knee of her father, Zeus, asked him to grant her six wishes: to remain always a virgin; to have many names to set her apart from her brother Apollo; to be the Phaesporia or Light Bringer; to have a bow and arrow and a knee-length tunic so that she could hunt; to have sixty \"daughters of Okeanos\", all nine years of age, to be her choir; and for twenty Amnisides Nymphs as handmaidens to watch her dogs and bow while she rested. She wished for no city dedicated to her, but to rule the mountains, and for the ability to help women in the pains of childbirth.","Artemis\n\nArtemis believed that she had been chosen by the Fates to be a midwife, particularly since she had assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin brother, Apollo. All of her companions remained virgins, and Artemis closely guarded her own chastity. Her symbols included the golden bow and arrow, the hunting dog, the stag, and the moon. Callimachus tells how Artemis spent her girlhood seeking out the things that she would need to be a huntress, how she obtained her bow and arrows from the isle of Lipara, where Hephaestus and the Cyclops worked.","Artemis\n\nOkeanus' daughters were filled with fear, but the young Artemis bravely approached and asked for bow and arrows. Callimachus then tells how Artemis visited Pan, the god of the forest, who gave her seven bitches and six dogs. She then captured six golden-horned deer to pull her chariot. Artemis practiced with her bow first by shooting at trees and then at wild beasts.","Artemis\n\nIntimacy","Artemis\n\nAs a virgin, Artemis had interested many gods and men, but only her hunting companion, Orion, won her heart. Orion was accidentally killed either by Artemis or by Gaia.","Artemis\n\nAlpheus, a river god, was in love with Artemis, but he realizes that he can do nothing to win her heart. So he decides to capture her. Artemis, who is with her companions at Letrenoi, goes to Alpheus, but, suspicious of his motives, she covers her face with mud so that the river god does not recognize her. In another story, Alphaeus tries to rape Artemis' attendant Arethusa. Artemis pities Arethusa and saves her by transforming Arethusa into a spring in Artemis' temple, Artemis Alphaea in Letrini, where the goddess and her attendant drink.","Artemis\n\nBouphagos, the son of the Titan Iapetos, sees Artemis and thinks about raping her. Reading his sinful thoughts, Artemis strikes him at Mount Pholoe.","Artemis\n\nSipriotes is a boy, who, either because he accidentally sees Artemis bathing or because he attempts to rape her, is turned into a girl by the goddess.","Artemis\n\nActaeon","Artemis\n\nMultiple versions of the Actaeon myth survive, though many are fragmentary. The details vary but at the core they involve a great hunter, Actaeon who Artemis turns into a stag for a transgression and who is then killed by hunting dogs. Usually the dogs are his own, who no longer recognize their master. Sometimes they are Artemis' hounds.","Artemis\n\nAccording to the standard modern text on the work, Lamar Ronald Lacey's The Myth of Aktaion: Literary and Iconographic Studies, the most likely original version of the myth is that Actaeon was the hunting companion of the goddess who, seeing her naked in her sacred spring, attempts to force himself on her. For this hubris he is turned into a stag and devoured by his own hounds. However, in some surviving versions Actaeon is a stranger who happens upon her. Different tellings also diverge in the hunter's transgression, which is sometimes merely seeing the virgin goddess naked, sometimes boasting he is a better hunter than she, or even merely being a rival of Zeus for the affections of Semele.","Artemis\n\nAdonis","Artemis\n\nIn some versions of the story of Adonis, who was a late addition to Greek mythology during the Hellenistic period, Artemis sent a wild boar to kill Adonis as punishment for his hubristic boast that he was a better hunter than she.","Artemis\n\nIn other versions, Artemis killed Adonis for revenge. In later myths, Adonis had been related as a favorite of Aphrodite, and Aphrodite was responsible for the death of Hippolytus, who had been a favorite of Artemis. Therefore, Artemis killed Adonis to avenge Hippolytus’s death.","Artemis\n\nIn yet another version, Adonis was not killed by Artemis, but by Ares, as punishment for being with Aphrodite.","Artemis\n\nOrion","Artemis\n\nOrion was Artemis' hunting companion. In some versions, he is killed by Artemis, while in others he is killed by a scorpion sent by Gaia. In some versions, Orion tries to seduce Opis, one of Artemis' followers, and she kills him. In a version by Aratus, Orion takes hold of Artemis' robe and she kills him in self-defense.","Artemis\n\nIn yet another version, Apollo sends the scorpion. According to Hyginus Artemis once loved Orion (in spite of the late source, this version appears to be a rare remnant of her as the pre-Olympian goddess, who took consorts, as Eos did), but was tricked into killing him by her brother Apollo, who was \"protective\" of his sister's maidenhood.","Artemis\n\nThe Aloadae","Artemis\n\nThese twin sons of Iphidemia and Poseidon, Otos and Ephialtes, grew enormously at a young age. They were aggressive, great hunters, and could not be killed unless they killed each other. The growth of the Aloadae never stopped, and they boasted that as soon as they could reach heaven, they would kidnap Artemis and Hera and take them as wives. The gods were afraid of them, except for Artemis who captured a fine deer (or in another version of the story, she changed herself into a doe) and jumped out between them. The Aloadae threw their spears and so mistakenly killed each other.","Artemis\n\nCallisto","Artemis\n\nCallisto was the daughter of Lycaon, King of Arcadia and also was one of Artemis's hunting attendants. As a companion of Artemis, she took a vow of chastity. Zeus appeared to her disguised as Artemis, or in some stories Apollo, gained her confidence, then took advantage of her (or raped her, according to Ovid). As a result of this encounter she conceived a son, Arcas.","Artemis\n\nEnraged, Hera or Artemis (some accounts say both) changed her into a bear. Arcas almost killed the bear, but Zeus stopped him just in time. Out of pity, Zeus placed Callisto the bear into the heavens, thus the origin of Callisto the Bear as a constellation. Some stories say that he placed both Arcas and Callisto into the heavens as bears, forming the Ursa Minor and Ursa Major constellations.","Artemis\n\nIphigenia and the Taurian Artemis","Artemis\n\nArtemis punished Agamemnon after he killed a sacred stag in a sacred grove and boasted that he was a better hunter than the goddess. When the Greek fleet was preparing at Aulis to depart for Troy to begin the Trojan War, Artemis becalmed the winds. The seer Calchas advised Agamemnon that the only way to appease Artemis was to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia. Artemis then snatched Iphigenia from the altar and substituted a deer. Various myths have been told around what happened after Artemis took her. Either she was brought to Tauros and led the priests there, or became Artemis' immortal companion.","Artemis\n\nNiobe","Artemis\n\nA Queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, Niobe boasted of her superiority to Leto because while she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven boys and seven girls, Leto had only one of each. When Artemis and Apollo heard this impiety, Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, and Artemis shot her daughters, who died instantly without a sound. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions two of the Niobids were spared, one boy and one girl. Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, killed himself. A devastated Niobe and her remaining children were turned to stone by Artemis as they wept. The gods themselves entombed them.","Artemis\n\nChione","Artemis\n\nChione was a princess of Pokis. She was beloved by two gods, Hermes and Apollo, and boasted that she was prettier than Artemis because she made two gods fall in love with her at once. Artemis was furious and killed Chione with her arrow or struck her dumb by shooting off her tongue. However, some versions of this myth say Apollo and Hermes protected her from Artemis' wrath.","Artemis\n\nAtalanta, Oeneus and the Meleagrids","Artemis\n\nArtemis saved the infant Atalanta from dying of exposure after her father abandoned her. She sent a female bear to suckle the baby, who was then raised by hunters. But she later sent a bear to hurt Atalanta because people said Atalanta was a better hunter. This is in some stories.","Artemis\n\nAmong other adventures, Atalanta participated in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar, which Artemis had sent to destroy Calydon because King Oeneus had forgotten her at the harvest sacrifices. In the hunt, Atalanta drew the first blood, and was awarded the prize of the skin. She hung it in a sacred grove at Tegea as a dedication to Artemis.","Artemis\n\nMeleager was a hero of Aetolia. King Oeneus had him gather heroes from all over Greece to hunt the Calydonian Boar. After the death of Meleager, Artemis turned his grieving sisters, the Meleagrids into guineafowl that Artemis loved very much.","Artemis\n\nAura","Artemis\n\nIn Nonnus Dionysiaca, Aura was Greek goddess of breezes and cool air, daughter of Lelantos and Periboia. She was a virgin huntress, just like Artemis and proud of her maidenhood. One day, she claimed that the body of Artemis was too womanly and she doubted her virginity. Artemis asked Nemesis for help to avenge her dignity and caused the rape of Aura by Dionysus. Aura became a mad and dangerous killer. When she bore twin sons, she ate one of them while the other one, Iakhos, was saved by Artemis. Iakhos later became an attendant of Demeter and the leader of Eleusinian Mysteries.","Artemis\n\nPolyphonte","Artemis\n\nPolyphonte was a young woman who fled home preferring the idea of a virginal life with Artemis to the conventional life of marriage and children favoured by Aphrodite. As a punishment Aphrodite cursed her, causing her to have children by a bear. The resulting offspring, Agrius and Oreius, were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of Zeus. Ultimately the whole family were transformed into birds and more specifically ill portents for mankind.","Artemis\n\nTrojan War","Artemis\n\nArtemis may have been represented as a supporter of Troy because her brother Apollo was the patron god of the city and she herself was widely worshipped in western Anatolia in historical times. In the Iliad she came to blows with Hera, when the divine allies of the Greeks and Trojans engaged each other in conflict. Hera struck Artemis on the ears with her own quiver, causing the arrows to fall out. As Artemis fled crying to Zeus, Leto gathered up the bow and arrows.","Artemis\n\nArtemis played quite a large part in this war. Like her mother and brother, who was widely worshiped at Troy, Artemis took the side of the Trojans. At the Greek's journey to Troy, Artemis becalmed the sea and stopped the journey until an oracle came and said they could win the goddess' heart by sacrificing Iphigenia, Agamemnon's daughter. Agamemnon once promised the goddess he would sacrifice the dearest thing to him, which was Iphigenia, but broke the promise. Other sources said he boasted about his hunting ability and provoked the goddess' anger. Artemis saved Iphigenia because of her bravery. In some versions of the myth, Artemis made Iphigenia her attendant or turned her into Hecate, goddess of night, witchcraft, and the underworld.","Artemis\n\nAeneas was helped by Artemis, Leto, and Apollo. Apollo found him wounded by Diomedes and lifted him to heaven. There, the three of them secretly healed him in a great chamber.","Artemis\n\nWorship of Artemis","Artemis\n\nArtemis, the goddess of forests and hills, was worshipped throughout ancient Greece. Her best known cults were on the island of Delos\n(her birthplace), in Attica at Brauron and Mounikhia (near Piraeus), and in Sparta. She was often depicted in paintings and statues in a forest setting, carrying a bow and arrows, and accompanied by a deer.","Artemis\n\nThe ancient Spartans used to sacrifice to her as one of their patron goddesses before starting a new military campaign.","Artemis\n\nAthenian festivals in honor of Artemis included Elaphebolia, Mounikhia, Kharisteria, and Brauronia. The festival of Artemis Orthia was observed in Sparta.","Artemis\n\nPre-pubescent and adolescent Athenian girls were sent to the sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron to serve the Goddess for one year. During this time, the girls were known as arktoi, or little she-bears. A myth explaining this servitude states that a bear had formed the habit of regularly visiting the town of Brauron, and the people there fed it, so that, over time, the bear became tame. A girl teased the bear, and, in some versions of the myth, it killed her, while, in other versions, it clawed out her eyes. Either way, the girl's brothers killed the bear, and Artemis was enraged. She demanded that young girls \"act the bear\" at her sanctuary in atonement for the bear's death.","Artemis\n\nVirginal Artemis was worshipped as a fertility/childbirth goddess in some places, assimilating Ilithyia, since, according to some myths, she assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin. During the Classical period in Athens, she was identified with Hecate. Artemis also assimilated Caryatis (Carya).","Artemis\n\nEpithets","Artemis\n\nAs Aeginaea, she was worshiped in Sparta; the name means either huntress of chamois, or the wielder of the javelin (). \nAlso in Sparta, Artemis Lygodesma was worshipped. This epithet means \"willow-bound\" from the Gr. lygos (λυγός, willow) and desmos (δεσμός, bond). The willow tree appears in several ancient Greek myths and rituals.","Artemis\n\nShe was worshipped at Naupactus as Aetole; in her temple in that town there was a statue of white marble representing her throwing a javelin. This \"Aetolian Artemis\" would not have been introduced at Naupactus, anciently a place of Ozolian Locris, until it was awarded to the Aetolians by Philip II of Macedon. Strabo records another precinct of \"Aetolian Artemos\" at the head of the Adriatic. As Agoraea she was the protector of the agora.","Artemis\n\nAs Agrotera, she was especially associated as the patron goddess of hunters. In Athens Artemis was often associated with the local Aeginian goddess, Aphaea. As Potnia Theron, she was the patron of wild animals; Homer used this title. As Kourotrophos, she was the nurse of youths. As Locheia, she was the goddess of childbirth and midwives.","Artemis\n\nShe was sometimes known as Cynthia, from her birthplace on Mount Cynthus on Delos, or Amarynthia from a festival in her honor originally held at Amarynthus in Euboea.","Artemis\n\nShe was sometimes identified by the name Phoebe, the feminine form of her brother Apollo's solar epithet Phoebus.","Artemis\n\nAlphaea, Alpheaea, or Alpheiusa (Gr. , , or ) was an epithet that Artemis derived from the river god Alpheius, who was said to have been in love with her. It was under this name that she was worshiped at Letrini in Elis, and in Ortygia. Artemis Alphaea was associated with the wearing of masks, largely because of the legend that while fleeing the advances of Alpheius, she and her nymphs escaped him by covering their faces.","Artemis\n\nAs (Artemis) Anaitis, the 'Persian Artemis' was identified with Anahita. As Apanchomene, she was worshipped as a hanged goddess.","Artemis\n\nFestivals","Artemis\n\nArtemis was born on the sixth day, which made it sacred for her. * Festival of Artemis in Brauron, where girls, aged between five and ten, dressed in saffron robes and played at being bears, or \"act the bear\" to appease the goddess after she sent the plague when her bear was killed. * Festival of Amarysia is a celebration to worship Artemis Amarysia in Attica. In 2007, a team of Swiss and Greek archaeologists found the ruin of Artemis Amarysia Temple, at Euboea, Greece. * Festival of Artemis Saronia, a festival to celebrate Artemis in Trozeinos, a town in Argolis. A king named Saron built a sanctuary for the goddess after the goddess saved his life when he went hunting and was swept away by a wave. He held a festival inner honor. * On the 16th day of Metageitnio (second month on the Athenian calendar), people sacrificed to Artemis and Hecate at Deme in Erchia. * Kharisteria Festival on 6th of Boidromion (third month) celebrates the victory of the Battle of Marathon, also known as the Athenian \"Thanksgiving\".","Artemis\n\n* Day six of Elaphobolia (ninth month) festival of Artemis the Deer Huntress where she was offered cakes shaped like stags, made from dough, honey and sesame seeds. * Day 6 or 16 of Mounikhion (tenth month) is a celebration of her as the goddess of nature and animals. A goat was sacrificed to her. * Day 6 of Thargelion (eleventh month), is the Goddess's birthday, while the seventh was Apollo's. * A festival for Artemis Diktynna (of the net) was held in Hypsous. * Laphria, a festival for Artemis in Patrai. The procession starts by setting logs of wood around the altar, each of them 16 cubits long. On the altar, within the circle, the driest wood is placed. Just before the festival, a smooth ascent to the altar is built by piling earth upon the altar steps. The festival begins with a splendid procession in honor of Artemis, and the maiden officiating as priestess rides last in the procession upon a chariot yoked to four deer, Artemis' traditional mode of transport (see below). However, the sacrifice is not offered until the next day.","Artemis\n\n* In Orchomenus, a sanctuary was built for Artemis Hymnia where her festival was celebrated every year.","Artemis\n\nModern","Artemis\n\nArtemis in art","Artemis\n\nThe oldest representations of Artemis in Greek Archaic art portray her as Potnia Theron (\"Queen of the Beasts\"): a winged goddess holding a stag and leopard in her hands, or sometimes a leopard and a lion. This winged Artemis lingered in ex-votos as Artemis Orthia, with a sanctuary close by Sparta.","Artemis\n\nIn Greek classical art she is usually portrayed as a maiden huntress, young, tall and slim, clothed in a girl's short skirt, with hunting boots, a quiver, a bow and arrows. Often, she is shown in the shooting pose, and is accompanied by a hunting dog or stag. When portrayed as a moon goddess, Artemis wore a long robe and sometimes a veil covered her head. Her darker side is revealed in some vase paintings, where she is shown as the death-bringing goddess whose arrows fell young maidens and women, such as the daughters of Niobe.","Artemis\n\nArtemis was sometimes represented in Classical art with the crown of the crescent moon, such as also found on Luna and others.","Artemis\n\nOn June 7, 2007, a Roman era bronze sculpture of Artemis and the Stag was sold at Sotheby's auction house in New York state by the Albright-Knox Art Gallery for $25.5 million.","Artemis\n\nAttributes","Artemis\n\n* Bow and arrow","Artemis\n\nAccording to the Homeric Hymn to Artemis, she had golden bow and arrows, as her epithet was Khryselakatos, \"of the Golden Shaft\", and Iokheira (Showered by Arrows). The arrows of Artemis could also bring sudden death and disease to girls and women. Artemis got her bow and arrow for the first time from The Kyklopes, as the one she asked from her father. The bow of Artemis also became the witness of Callisto's oath of her virginity. In later cult, the bow became the symbol of waxing moon. \n* Chariots\nArtemis' chariot was made of gold and was pulled by four golden horned deer (Elaphoi Khrysokeroi). The bridles of her chariot were also made of gold.\n* Spears, nets, and lyre","Artemis\n\nAlthough quite seldom, Artemis is sometimes portrayed with a hunting spear. Her cult in Aetolia, the Artemis Aetolian, showed her with a hunting spear. The description about Artemis' spear can be found in Ovid's Metamorphosis, while Artemis with a fishing spear connected with her cult as a patron goddess of fishing.","Artemis\n\nAs a goddess of maiden dances and songs, Artemis is often portrayed with a lyre.","Artemis\n\nFauna","Artemis\n\n* Deer\nDeer were the only animals held sacred to Artemis herself. On seeing a deer larger than a bull with horns shining, she fell in love with these creatures and held them sacred. Deer were also the first animals she captured. She caught five golden horned deer called Elaphoi Khrysokeroi and harnessed them to her chariot. The third labour of Heracles, commanded by Eurystheus, consisted in catching the Cerynitian Hind alive. Heracles begged Artemis for forgiveness and promised to return it alive. Artemis forgave him but targeted Eurystheus for her wrath. * Hunting dog\nArtemis got her hunting dogs from Pan in the forest of Arcadia. Pan gave Artemis two black-and-white dogs, three reddish ones, and one spotted one - these dogs were able to hunt even lions. Pan also gave Artemis seven bitches of the finest Arcadian race. However, Artemis only ever brought seven dogs hunting with her at any one time. * Bear\nThe sacrifice of a bear for Artemis started with the Brauron cult. Every year a girl between five and ten years of age was sent to Artemis' temple at Brauron. The Byzantine writer Suidos relayed the legend in Arktos e Brauroniois.","Artemis\n\nA bear was tamed by Artemis and introduced to the people of Athens. They touched it and played with it until one day a group of girls poked the bear until it attacked them. A brother of one of the girls killed the bear, so Artemis sent a plague in revenge. The Athenians consulted an oracle to understand how to end the plague. The oracle suggested that, in payment for the bear's blood, no Athenian virgin should be allowed to marry until she had served Artemis in her temple ('played the bear for the goddess'). * Boar\nThe boar is one of the favorite animals of the hunters, and also hard to tame. In honor of Artemis' skill, they sacrificed it to her. Oineus and Adonis were both killed by Artemis' boar. * Guinea fowl\nArtemis felt pity for the Meleagrids as they mourned for their lost brother, Meleagor, so she transformed them into Guinea Fowl to be her favorite animals. * Buzzard hawk\nHawks were the favored birds of many of the gods, Artemis included.","Artemis\n\nFlora","Artemis\n\nPalm and Cypress were issued to be her birthplace. Other plants sacred to Artemis are Amaranth and Asphodel.","Artemis\n\nArtemis as the Lady of Ephesus","Artemis\n\nAt Ephesus in Ionia, Turkey, her temple became one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It was probably the best known center of her worship except for Delos. There the Lady whom the Ionians associated with Artemis through interpretatio graeca was worshiped primarily as a mother goddess, akin to the Phrygian goddess Cybele, in an ancient sanctuary where her cult image depicted the \"Lady of Ephesus\" adorned with multiple rounded breast-like protuberances on her chest. They have been variously interpreted as multiple accessory breasts, as eggs, grapes, acorns, or even bull testes. Excavation at the site of the Artemision in 1987-88 identified a multitude of tear-shaped amber beads that had adorned the ancient wooden cult image or xoanon. In Acts of the Apostles, Ephesian metalsmiths who felt threatened by Saint Paul's preaching of Christianity, jealously rioted in her defense, shouting “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!” Of the 121 columns of her temple, only one composite, made up of fragments, still stands as a marker of the temple's location. The rest were used for making churches, roads, and forts.","Artemis\n\nArtemis in astronomy","Artemis\n\nA minor planet, 105 Artemis; a lunar crater; the Artemis Chasma and the Artemis Corona have all been named for her.","Artemis\n\nArtemis is the acronym for \"Architectures de bolometres pour des Telescopes a grand champ de vue dans le domaine sub-Millimetrique au Sol\", a large bolometer camera in the submillimeter range that was installed in 2010 at the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX), located in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile."],"string":"[\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: , Apollōn ( ); Doric: , Apellōn; Arcadocypriot: , Apeilōn; Aeolic: , Aploun; ) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The ideal of the kouros (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of music, truth and prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAs the patron of Delphi (Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius, yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over colonists, and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the Muses (Apollon Musegetes) and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. Hermes created the lyre for him, and the instrument became a common attribute of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called paeans.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as Apollo Helios he became identified among Greeks with Helios, Titan god of the sun, and his sister Artemis similarly equated with Selene, Titan goddess of the moon. In Latin texts, on the other hand, Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with Sol among the Augustan poets of the 1st century, not even in the conjurations of Aeneas and Latinus in Aeneid XII (161–215). Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe name of Apollo itself—though not Paean, a possible name of a precursor god to or epithet of him—is generally considered to be absent from the Linear B (Mycenean Greek) texts although it is possible that the name is in fact attested in the lacunose form ]pe-rjo-[ (Linear B: ]-[) on the KN E 842 tablet.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling ( in Classical Attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form Apellon (), is more archaic, derived from an earlier . It probably is a cognate to the Doric month Apellaios (), and the offerings apellaia () at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai (). \\nAccording to some scholars the words are derived from the Doric word apella (), which originally meant \\\"wall,\\\" \\\"fence for animals\\\" and later \\\"assembly within the limits of the square.\\\"The word usually appears in plural: Hesychius: (apellai), (\\\"folds\\\"), (\\\"assemblies\\\"), (\\\"elections\\\"): Nilsson, Vol. I, p. 556 Apella () is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta, corresponding to the ecclesia (). R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun apellai and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *Apalyun.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nSeveral instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb (apollymi), \\\"to destroy\\\". Plato in Cratylus connects the name with (apolysis), \\\"redemption\\\", with (apolousis), \\\"purification\\\", and with ([h]aploun), \\\"simple\\\", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, , and finally with (aeiballon), \\\"ever-shooting\\\". Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric (apella), which means \\\"assembly\\\", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation (sekos), \\\"fold\\\", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. In the Ancient Macedonian language (pella) means \\\"stone,\\\" and some toponyms may be derived from this word: (Pella, the capital of Ancient Macedonia) and (Pellēnē/Pallene).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name, The Hittite form Apaliunas (d) is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter, perhaps related to Hurrian (and certainly the Etruscan) Aplu, a god of plague, in turn likely from Akkadian Aplu Enlil meaning simply \\\"the son of Enlil\\\", a title that was given to the god Nergal, who was linked to Shamash, Babylonian god of the sun. \\nThe role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of Apollo Smintheus (\\\"mouse Apollo\\\") by Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks (the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is of course apotropaic, meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe Hittite testimony reflects an early form ', which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot with Doric .\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA Luwian etymology suggested for Apaliunas makes Apollo \\\"The One of Entrapment\\\", perhaps in the sense of \\\"Hunter\\\".\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nGreco-Roman epithets\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of epithets applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature, chief among them Phoebus ( ; , Phoibos, literally \\\"bright\\\"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo's role as the god of light.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAs sun-god and god of light, Apollo was also known by the epithets Aegletes ( ; Αἰγλήτης, Aiglētēs, from , \\\"light of the sun\\\"), Helius ( ; , Helios, literally \\\"sun\\\"), Phanaeus ( ; , Phanaios, literally \\\"giving or bringing light\\\"), and Lyceus ( ; , Lykeios, from Proto-Greek *, \\\"light\\\"). The meaning of the epithet \\\"Lyceus\\\" later became associated with Apollo's mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia () and who was identified with the wolf (), earning him the epithets Lycegenes ( ; , Lukēgenēs, literally \\\"born of a wolf\\\" or \\\"born of Lycia\\\") and Lycoctonus ( ; , Lykoktonos, from , \\\"wolf\\\", and , \\\"to kill\\\"). As god of the sun, Apollo was called Sol ( , literally \\\"sun\\\" in Latin) by the Romans.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn association with his birthplace, Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos, Apollo was called Cynthius ( ; , Kunthios, literally \\\"Cynthian\\\"), Cynthogenes ( ; , Kynthogenēs, literally \\\"born of Cynthus\\\"), and Delius ( ; Δήλιος, Delios, literally \\\"Delian\\\"). As Artemis's twin, Apollo had the epithet Didymaeus ( ; , Didymaios, from δίδυμος, \\\"twin\\\").\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo was worshipped as Actiacus ( ; , Aktiakos, literally \\\"Actian\\\"), Delphinius ( ; , Delphinios, literally \\\"Delphic\\\"), and Pythius ( ; , Puthios, from Πυθώ, Pythō, the area around Delphi), after Actium () and Delphi (Δελφοί) respectively, two of his principal places of worship. An etiology in the Homeric hymns associated the epithet \\\"Delphinius\\\" with dolphins. He was worshipped as Acraephius ( ; , Akraiphios, literally \\\"Acraephian\\\") or Acraephiaeus ( ; , Akraiphiaios, literally \\\"Acraephian\\\") in the Boeotian town of Acraephia (), reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus; and as Smintheus ( ; , Smintheus, \\\"Sminthian\\\"—that is, \\\"of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe\\\"). near the Troad town of Hamaxitus. The epithet \\\"Smintheus\\\" has historically been confused with , \\\"mouse\\\", in association with Apollo's role as a god of disease. For this he was also known as Parnopius ( ; , Parnopios, from , \\\"locust\\\") and to the Romans as Culicarius ( ; from Latin culicārius, \\\"of midges\\\").\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn Apollo's role as a healer, his appellations included Acesius ( ; , Akesios, from , \\\"healing\\\"), Acestor ( ; , Akestōr, literally \\\"healer\\\"), Paean ( ; , Paiān, from , \\\"to touch\\\"), and Iatrus ( ; , Iātros, literally \\\"physician\\\"). Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora. The Romans referred to Apollo as Medicus ( ; literally \\\"physician\\\" in Latin) in this respect. A temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus at Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAs a protector and founder, Apollo had the epithets Alexicacus ( ; , Alexikakos, literally \\\"warding off evil\\\"), Apotropaeus ( ; , Apotropaios, from , \\\"to avert\\\"), and Epicurius ( ; , Epikourios, from , \\\"to aid\\\"), and Archegetes ( ; , Arkhēgetēs, literally \\\"founder\\\"), Clarius ( ; , Klārios, from Doric , \\\"allotted lot\\\"), and Genetor ( ; , Genetōr, literally \\\"ancestor\\\"). To the Romans, he was known in this capacity as Averruncus ( ; from Latin āverruncare, \\\"to avert\\\"). He was also called Agyieus ( ; , Aguīeus, from , \\\"street\\\") for his role in protecting roads and homes; and Nomius ( ; , Nomios, literally \\\"pastoral\\\") and Nymphegetes ( ; , Numphēgetēs, from , \\\"Nymph\\\", and , \\\"leader\\\") for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn his role as god of prophecy and truth, Apollo had the epithets Manticus ( ; , Mantikos, literally \\\"prophetic\\\"), Leschenorius ( ; , Leskhēnorios, from , \\\"converser\\\"), and Loxias ( ; , Loxias, from , \\\"to say\\\"). The epithet \\\"Loxias\\\" has historically been associated with , \\\"ambiguous\\\". In this respect, the Romans called him Coelispex ( ; from Latin coelum, \\\"sky\\\", and specere, \\\"to look at\\\"). The epithet Iatromantis ( ; , Iātromantis, from , \\\"physician\\\", and , \\\"prophet\\\") refers to both his role as a god of healing and of prophecy. As god of music and arts, Apollo had the epithet Musagetes ( ; Doric , Mousāgetās) or Musegetes ( ; , Mousēgetēs, from , \\\"Muse\\\", and , \\\"leader\\\").\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAs a god of archery, Apollo was known as Aphetor ( ; , Aphētōr, from , \\\"to let loose\\\") or Aphetorus ( ; , Aphētoros, of the same origin), Argyrotoxus ( ; , Argyrotoxos, literally \\\"with silver bow\\\"), Hecaërgus ( ; , Hekaergos, literally \\\"far-shooting\\\"), and Hecebolus ( ; , Hekēbolos, literally \\\"far-shooting\\\"). The Romans referred to Apollo as Articenens ( ; \\\"bow-carrying\\\"). Apollo was called Ismenius ( ; , Ismēnios, literally \\\"of Ismenus\\\") after Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, whom he struck with an arrow.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nCeltic epithets and cult titles\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character. * Apollo Atepomarus (\\\"the great horseman\\\" or \\\"possessing a great horse\\\"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières (Indre). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun. * Apollo Belenus ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, Northern Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. * Apollo Cunomaglus ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at Nettleton Shrub, Wiltshire. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god. * Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo. * Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus. * Apollo Moritasgus ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians. * Apollo Vindonnus ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Châtillon-sur-Seine in present-day Burgundy.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHe was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. * Apollo Virotutis ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy (Haute-Savoie) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOrigins\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe cult centers of Apollo in Greece, Delphi and Delos, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis, Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of Pytho. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In archaic Greece he was the prophet, the oracular god who in older times was connected with \\\"healing\\\". In classical Greece he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil. Walter Burkert discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed \\\"a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component.\\\"\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nFrom his eastern origin Apollo brought the art of inspection of \\\"symbols and omina\\\" (σημεία και τέρατα : semeia kai terata), and of the observation of the omens of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from Anatolia. The ritualism belonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the legalism, the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and perceptible order. The improvement of the old Anatolian god, and his elevation to an intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the Greek people.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHealer and god-protector from evil\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe function of Apollo as a \\\"healer\\\" is connected with Paean (), the physician of the Gods in the Iliad, who seems to come from a more primitive religion. Paeοn is probably connected with the Mycenean pa-ja-wo-ne (Linear B: ), At Google Books. but this is not certain. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease. Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song \\\"paean\\\" (). The magicians were also called \\\"seer-doctors\\\" (), and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn the Iliad, Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the terrible Vedic god of disease Rudra. He sends a terrible plague () to the Achaeans. The god who sends a disease can also prevent from it; therefore, when it stops, they make a purifying ceremony and offer him a hecatomb to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases, they pray and with a song they call their own god, the beautiful Paean.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nSome common epithets of Apollo as a healer are \\\"paion\\\" (, literally \\\"healer\\\" or \\\"helper\\\") \\\"epikourios\\\" (, \\\"help\\\"), \\\"oulios\\\" (, \\\"healed wound\\\", also a \\\"scar\\\" ) and \\\"loimios\\\" (, \\\"plague\\\"). In classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called \\\"apotropaios\\\" (, \\\"divert\\\", \\\"deter\\\", \\\"avert\\\") and \\\"alexikakos\\\" (from v. + n. , \\\"defend from evil\\\"). In later writers, the word, usually spelled \\\"Paean\\\", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHomer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph.\\nSuch songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to Dionysus, to Apollo Helios, to Apollo's son Asclepius the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nDorian origin\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe connection with Dorians and their initiation festival apellai is reinforced by the month Apellaios in northwest Greek calendars, but it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word \\\"pella\\\" (Pella), stone. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi (Omphalos). The \\\"Homeric hymn\\\" represents Apollo as a Northern intruder. His arrival must have occurred during the \\\"Dark Ages\\\" that followed the destruction of the Mycenaean civilization, and his conflict with Gaia (Mother Earth) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent Python.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe earth deity had power over the ghostly world, and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle. The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated. A female dragon named Delphyne (, \\\"womb\\\"), who is obviously connected with Delphi and Apollo Delphinios, and a male serpent Typhon (, \\\"to smoke\\\"), the adversary of Zeus in the Titanomachy, who the narrators confused with Python. Python was the good daemon (ἀγαθὸς δαίμων) of the temple as it appears in Minoan religion, but she was represented as a dragon, as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo and his sister Artemis can bring death with their arrows. The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings, or magicians is common in Germanic and Norse mythology. In Greek mythology Artemis was the leader (, \\\"hegemon\\\") of the nymphs, who had similar functions with the Nordic Elves. The \\\"elf-shot\\\" originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves, but it was later attested denoting stone arrow-heads which were used by witches to harm people, and also for healing rituals.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called \\\"The Archer\\\", and the bow is also an attribute of Shiva. Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them, and his alternative Shiba is a healer physician god. However the Indo-European component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nMinoan origin\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIt seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the Mycenaean ages. In historical times, the priests of Delphi were called Labryaden, \\\"the double-axe men\\\", which indicates Minoan origin. The double-axe, labrys, was the holy symbol of the Cretan labyrinth. The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. Apollo Delphinios was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands, and his name indicates his connection with Delphi and the holy serpent Delphyne (\\\"womb\\\"). Apollo's sister Artemis, who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with Britomartis (Diktynna), the Minoan \\\"Mistress of the animals\\\". In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the \\\"Mister of the animals\\\", a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute. His original name is unknown, but it seems that he was absorbed by the more popular Apollo, who stood by the virgin \\\"Mistress of the Animals\\\", becoming her brother.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood, and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple. This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries, according to the local tradition. In that regard, the mythical seeress Sibyl of Anatolian origin, with her ecstatic art, looks unrelated to the oracle itself. However, the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves, which seem to be confirmed by recent studies.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nPlato describes the priestesses of Delphi and Dodona as frenzied women, obsessed by \\\"mania\\\" (, \\\"frenzy\\\"), a Greek word he connected with mantis (, \\\"prophet\\\"). Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the Near East as Mari in the second millennium BC. Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC, there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages. It is more probable that this art was introduced later from Anatolia and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAnatolian origin\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship. The name of Apollo's mother Leto has Lydian origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of Asia Minor. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from Anatolia, which is the origin of Sibyl, and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old Assyro-Babylonian texts, and these rituals were spread into the empire of the Hittites. In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain \\\"purification\\\".\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA similar story is mentioned by Plutarch. He writes that the Cretan seer Epimenides purified Athens after the pollution brought by the Alcmeonidae, and that the seer's expertise in sacrifices and reform of funeral practices were of great help to Solon in his reform of the Athenian state. The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the shamanic religions of Asia, and proves, together with the Homeric hymn, that Crete had a resisting religion up to historical times. It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece, and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to Anatolia.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHomer pictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans, during the Trojan War. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to Appaliunas, a tutelary god of Wilusa (Troy) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete. The stones found in front of the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols of Apollo. The Greeks gave to him the name agyieus as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil, and his symbol was a tapered stone or column. However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon, all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (sibutu) indicates a Babylonian origin.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe Late Bronze Age (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) Hittite and Hurrian Aplu was a god of plague, invoked during plague years. Here we have an apotropaic situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning the son of, was a title given to the god Nergal, who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun Shamash. Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god () who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods. In Iliad, his priest prays to Apollo Smintheus, the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats. All these functions, including the function of the healer-god Paean, who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOracular cult\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nUnusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. Apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period, and the frequency of theophoric names such as Apollodorus or Apollonios and cities named Apollonia testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at Didyma and Clarus pronounced the so-called \\\"theological oracles\\\", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity. \\\"In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. Julian the Apostate (359 - 61) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed.\\\"\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOracular shrines\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo had a famous oracle in Delphi, and other notable ones in Clarus and Branchidae. His oracular shrine in Abae in Phocis, where he bore the toponymic epithet Abaeus (, Apollon Abaios), was important enough to be consulted by Croesus. His oracular shrines include:\\n* Abae in Phocis. * Bassae in the Peloponnese. * At Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a pneuma, from which the priests drank. * In Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War. * At Khyrse, in Troad, the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus. * In Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. * In Delphi, the Pythia became filled with the pneuma of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n* In Didyma, an oracle on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by Branchus, son or lover of Apollo. * In Hierapolis Bambyce, Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise De Dea Syria, the sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image. * At Patara, in Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman. * In Segesta in Sicily.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOracles were also given by sons of Apollo.\\n* In Oropus, north of Athens, the oracle Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring.\\n* in Labadea, 20 mi east of Delphi, Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nTemples of Apollo\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA lot of temples dedicated to Apollo were built in Greece and in the Greek colonies, and they show the spread of the cult of Apollo, and the evolution of the Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form, and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in Crete, don't belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectangle wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered divine, and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of Doric order. The Greeks used standard types, because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve the esthetic perfection. From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were narrow to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed, some mathematical relations became necessary, in order to keep the original forms.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThis probably influenced the theory of numbers of Pythagoras, who believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe Doric order dominated during the 6th and the 5th century B.C, but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which couldn’t be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the Ionic order, but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the Corinthian order gradually during the Hellenistic age, and under Rome.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe most important temples are:\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nGreek temples\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Thebes, Greece: The oldest temple probably dedicated to Apollo Ismenius was built in the 9th century B.C It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The Doric temple was built in the early 7th century B.C, but only some small parts have been found A festival called Daphnephoria was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches ( daphnai), and at the head of the procession, walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called \\\"daphnephoros\\\". *Eretria: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived to the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of Apollo Daphnephoros, \\\"Apollo, laurel-bearer\\\", or \\\"carrying off Daphne\\\", is dated to 800 BC. The temple was curvilinear hecatombedon (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurer branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century B.C, with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 BC, with the stylobate measuring 21,00 X 43,00 m. The number of pteron column was 6 x 14. *Dreros (Crete).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe temple of Apollo Delphinios dates from the 7th century B.C, or probably from the middle of the 8th century BC. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of Delphi. `The dimensions of the plan are 10,70 X 24,00 m, and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the Minoan type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the Doric columns. *Gortyn (Crete). A temple of Pythian Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. The plan measured 19,00 X 16,70 m, and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was single door on the east side. *Thermon (West Greece): The Doric temple of Apollo Thermios, was built in the middle of the 7th century BC. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century B.C, on which a peristyle was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 X 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 X 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Napes (Lesbos): An Aeolic temple probably of Apollo Napaios was built in the 7th century BC. Some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called Aeolic, and it seems that they were borrowed from the East.D.S Robertson(1945):A handbook of Greek and Roman architecture, Cambridge University Press pp. 324-329 \\n*Cyrene, Libya: The oldest Doric temple of Apollo was built in c. 600 BC. The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 X 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone. *Naukratis: An Ionic temple was a built in the early 6th century BC. Only some fragments have been found, and the earlier made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the Ionic order.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Corinth: A Doric temple was built in the 6th century BC. The temple's stylobate measures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar with the Temple of Alcmeonidae at Delphi. The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the Doric order\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Syracuse, Sicily: A Doric temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century BC. The temple's stylobate measures 21.47 X 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch. *Selinus (Sicily):The Doric Temple C dates from 550 BC, and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple's stylobate measures 10.48 X 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at Syracuse. *Delphi: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The \\\"Temple of Alcmeonidae\\\" was built in c. 513 BC. and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple's stylobate measures 21.65 X 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15. A fest similar with Apollo's fest at Thebes, Greece was celebrated every nine years.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (dopnephoros). The maidens participated with joyful songs. *Chios: An Ionic temple of Apollo Phanaios was built at the end of the 6th century BC. Only some small parts have been found, but the capitals had floral ornament. *Abae (Phocis). The temple was destroyed by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in 480 BCE, and later by the Boeotians. It was rebuilt by Hadrian. The oracle was in use from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion. *Delos: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century B.C, with a plan measuring 10,00 X 15,60 m. The Doric Great temple of Apollo, was built in c. 475 BC. The temple's stylobate measures 13.72 X 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used. *Ambracia: A Doric peripteral temple dedicated to Apollo Pythios Sotir was built in 500 B.C, and It is lying at the centre of the Greek city Arta.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOnly some parts have been found, and it seems that the temple was built on earlier sanctuaries dedicated to Apollo. The temple measures 20,75 X 44,00 m at the stylobate. The foundation which supported the statue of the god, still exists.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Bassae (Peloponnesus):A temple dedicated to Apollo Epikourios (\\\"Apollo the helper\\\"), was built in 430 B.C and it was designed by Iktinos.It combined Doric and Ionic elements, and the earliest use of column with a Corinthian capital in the middle. The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the stylobate measuring 14.5 X 38.3 metres containing a Doric peristyle of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Didyma (near Miletus): The gigantic Ionic temple of Apollo Didymaios started around 540 BC. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 BC. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 X 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate. *Clarus (near ancient Colophon): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost. The Doric temple of Apollo Clarius was probably built in the 3rd century B.C, and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor Hadrian but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century B.C. *Hamaxitus (Troad): In Iliad, Chryses the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related with the god’s ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of Apollo Smintheus was constructed at 150–125 BC, but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century B.C.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe temple measures 40,00 X23,00 m at the stylobate, and the number of pteron columns was 8 X 14.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nEtruscan and Roman temples\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Veii (Etruria): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century B.C., and indicates the spread of Apollo’s culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called Tuscan , and a triple cella 18,50 m wide. \\n*Falerii Veteres (Etruria): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th-3rd century B.C. Parts of a teraccotta capital, and a teraccotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric. A cult of Apollo Soranus is attested by one inscription found near Falerii.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n*Pompeii, (Italy): The cult of Apollo, was widespread in the region of Campania, since the 6th century B.C. The temple was built in 120 B.V, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century BC. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in A.D 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles, which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a Tuscan prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 Ionic columns was placed in such a way, that the emphasis was given to the front side. * Rome: The temple of Apollo Sosianus and the temple of Apollo Medicus . The first temple building dates to 431 BC, and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 BC. It was rebuilt by Gaius Sosius, probably in 34 B.C. Only three columns with Corinthian capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century BC. *Rome:The temple of Apollo Palatinus was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city. It was dedicated by Augustus on 28 B.C.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe façade of the original temple was Ionic, and it was constructed from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance, and a statue of Apollo in the cella. *Melite (modern Mdina, Malta): A Temple of Apollo was built in the city in the 2nd century AD. Its remains were discovered in the 18th century, and many of its architectural fragments were dispersed among private collections or reworked into new sculptures. Parts of the temple's podium were rediscovered in 2002.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nMythology\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nBirth\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nWhen Zeus' wife Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on \\\"terra firma\\\". In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island. She gave birth there and was accepted by the people, offering them her promise that her son would be always favourable toward the city. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIt is also stated that Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards (8 m) long, of amber. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day (, hebdomagenes) of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition—or of the month Bysios—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nYouth\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nFour days after his birth, Apollo killed the chthonic dragon Python, which lived in Delphi beside the Castalian Spring. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophecies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. To protect his mother, Apollo begged Hephaestus for a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of Gaia.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHera then sent the giant Tityos to rape Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to Tartarus. There, he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of 9 acre, where a pair of vultures feasted daily on his liver.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nTrojan War\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the Trojan War in retribution for Agamemnon's insult to Chryses, a priest of Apollo whose daughter Chryseis had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the Iliad.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn the Iliad, when Diomedes injured Aeneas, Apollo rescued him. First, Aphrodite tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo aided Paris in the killing of Achilles by guiding the arrow of his bow into Achilles' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering Troilus, the god's own son by Hecuba, on the very altar of the god's own temple.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAdmetus\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nWhen Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting Hippolytus from the dead (transgressing Themis by stealing Hades's subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the Cyclopes, who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to Tartarus forever for this, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labor, due to the intercession of his mother, Leto. During this time he served as shepherd for King Admetus of Pherae in Thessaly. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo helped Admetus win Alcestis, the daughter of King Pelias and later convinced the Fates to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but Heracles managed to \\\"persuade\\\" Thanatos, the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nNiobe\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nNiobe, the queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared (Chloris, usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nA devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylos in Asia Minor and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nConsorts and children\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nLove affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology. Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nFemale lovers\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nDaphne was a nymph, daughter of the river god Peneus, who had scorned Apollo. The myth explains the connection of Apollo with δάφνη (daphnē), the laurel whose leaves his priestess employed at Delphi. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a weapon more suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Cupid shoots a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prays to her father, Peneus, for help, and he changes her into the laurel tree, sacred to Apollo.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nArtemis Daphnaia, who had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi in Antiquity, on the slopes of Mount Cnacadion near the Spartan frontier, had her own sacred laurel trees. At Eretria the identity of an excavated 7th- and 6th-century temple to Apollo Daphnephoros, \\\"Apollo, laurel-bearer\\\", or \\\"carrying off Daphne\\\", a \\\"place where the citizens are to take the oath\\\", is identified in inscriptions.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nLeucothea was daughter of Orchamus and sister of Clytia. She fell in love with Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nMarpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nCastalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the spring at Delphi, at the base of Mt. Parnassos, which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. In the last oracle is mentioned that the \\\"water which could speak\\\", has been lost for ever.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nBy Cyrene, Apollo had a son named Aristaeus, who became the patron god of cattle, fruit trees, hunting, husbandry and bee-keeping. He was also a culture-hero and taught humanity dairy skills, the use of nets and traps in hunting, and how to cultivate olives.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHecuba, was the wife of King Priam of Troy, and Apollo had a son with her named Troilus. An oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by Achilleus.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nCassandra, was daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus' half-sister. Apollo fell in love with Cassandra and promised her the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gave her the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nCoronis, was daughter of Phlegyas, King of the Lapiths. Pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with Ischys, son of Elatus. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result, he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the centaur Chiron to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn Euripides' play Ion, Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa, wife of Xuthus. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAcantha, was the spirit of the acanthus tree, and Apollo had one of his other liaisons with her. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAccording to the Biblioteca, the \\\"library\\\" of mythology mis-attributed to Apollodorus, he fathered the Corybantes on the Muse Thalia.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nConsorts and children: extended list\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\n# Acacallis\\n## Amphithemis (Garamas) \\n## Naxos, eponym of the island Naxos \\n## Phylacides\\n## Phylander \\n# Acantha\\n# Aethusa\\n## Eleuther\\n# Aganippe\\n## Chios \\n# Alciope \\n## Linus (possibly)\\n# Amphissa / Isse, daughter of Macareus\\n# Anchiale / Acacallis\\n## Oaxes \\n# Areia, daughter of Cleochus / Acacallis / Deione\\n## Miletus\\n# Astycome, nymph\\n## Eumolpus (possibly) \\n# Arsinoe, daughter of Leucippus\\n## Asclepius (possibly)\\n## Eriopis\\n# Babylo\\n## Arabus \\n# Bolina\\n# Calliope, Muse\\n## Orpheus (possibly)\\n## Linus (possibly)\\n## Ialemus\\n# Cassandra\\n# Castalia\\n# Celaeno, daughter of Hyamus / Melaina / Thyia\\n## Delphus\\n# Chione / Philonis / Leuconoe\\n## Philammon\\n# Chrysorthe\\n## Coronus\\n# Chrysothemis\\n## Parthenos\\n# Coronis\\n## Asclepius\\n# Coryceia\\n## Lycorus (Lycoreus)\\n# Creusa\\n## Ion\\n# Cyrene\\n## Aristaeus\\n## Idmon (possibly)\\n## Autuchus \\n# Danais, Cretan nymph\\n## The Curetes \\n# Daphne\\n# Dia, daughter of Lycaon\\n## Dryops\\n# Dryope\\n## Amphissus\\n# Euboea (daughter of Macareus of Locris)\\n## Agreus\\n# Evadne, daughter of Poseidon\\n## Iamus\\n# Gryne\\n# Hecate\\n## Scylla (possibly) \\n# Hecuba\\n## Troilus\\n## Hector (possibly) \\n# Hestia (wooed her unsuccessfully)\\n# Hypermnestra, wife of Oicles\\n## Amphiaraus (possibly)\\n# Hypsipyle \\n# Hyria (Thyria)\\n## Cycnus\\n# Lycia, nymph or daughter of Xanthus\\n## Eicadius \\n## Patarus \\n# Manto\\n## Mopsus\\n# Marpessa\\n# Melia\\n## Ismenus \\n## Tenerus \\n# Ocyrhoe\\n# Othreis\\n## Phager\\n# Parnethia, nymph\\n## Cynnes \\n# Parthenope\\n## Lycomedes\\n# Phthia\\n## Dorus\\n## Laodocus\\n## Polypoetes\\n# Prothoe \\n# Procleia\\n## Tenes (possibly)\\n# Psamathe\\n## Linus\\n# Rhoeo\\n## Anius\\n# Rhodoessa, nymph\\n## Ceos, eponym of the island Ceos \\n# Rhodope\\n## Cicon, eponym of the tribe Cicones \\n# Sinope\\n## Syrus\\n# Stilbe\\n## Centaurus\\n## Lapithes\\n## Aineus\\n# Syllis / Hyllis\\n## Zeuxippus\\n# Thaleia, Muse / Rhetia, nymph\\n## The Corybantes\\n# Themisto, daughter of Zabius of Hyperborea \\n## Galeotes\\n## Telmessus (?)\\n# Thero\\n## Chaeron\\n# Urania, Muse\\n## Linus (possibly)\\n# Urea, daughter of Poseidon\\n## Ileus (Oileus?)\\n# Wife of Erginus\\n## Trophonius (possibly)\\n# Unknown consorts\\n## Acraepheus, eponym of the city Acraephia \\n## Chariclo (possibly) \\n## Erymanthus\\n## Marathus, eponym of Marathon \\n## Megarus \\n## Melaneus\\n## Oncius \\n## Phemonoe\\n## Pisus, founder of Pisa in Etruria \\n## Younger Muses\\n### Cephisso\\n### Apollonis\\n### Borysthenis\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nMale lovers\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHyacinth or Hyacinthus was one of Apollo's male lovers. He was a Spartan prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair was practicing throwing the discus when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous Zephyrus and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief: out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a flower named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection , meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAnother male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of Heracles. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the Cypress named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOther male lovers of Apollo include:\\n* Admetus \\n* Atymnius, otherwise known as a beloved of Sarpedon\\n* Branchus (alternately, a son of Apollo)\\n* Carnus\\n* Clarus \\n* Hippolytus of Sicyon (not the same as Hippolytus, the son of Theseus) \\n* Hymenaios \\n* Iapis\\n* Leucates, who threw himself off a rock when Apollo attempted to carry him off \\n* Phorbas (probably the son of Triopas) \\n* Potnieus\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo's lyre\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHermes was born on Mount Cyllene in Arcadia. The story is told in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes. His mother, Maia, had been secretly impregnated by Zeus. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHermes ran to Thessaly, where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a tortoise and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first lyre.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became a master of the lyre.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo in the Oresteia\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn Aeschylus' Oresteia trilogy, Clytemnestra kills her husband, King Agamemnon because he had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia to proceed forward with the Trojan war, and Cassandra, a prophetess of Apollo. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon's son, Orestes, is to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the Erinyes (Furies, female personifications of vengeance).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo and the Furies argue about whether the matricide was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOther stories\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo killed the Aloadae when they attempted to storm Mt. Olympus.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nCallimachus sang that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the Hyperboreans during the winter months.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo turned Cephissus into a sea monster.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAnother contender for the birthplace of Apollo is the Cretan islands of Paximadia.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nMusical contests\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nPan\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOnce Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the kithara, to a trial of skill. Tmolus, the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a donkey.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nMarsyas\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo has ominous aspects aside from his plague-bringing, death-dealing arrows: Marsyas was a satyr who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an aulos on the ground, tossed away after being invented by Athena because it made her cheeks puffy. The contest was judged by the Muses.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAfter they each performed, both were deemed equal until Apollo decreed they play and sing at the same time. As Apollo played the lyre, this was easy to do. Marsyas could not do this, as he only knew how to use the flute and could not sing at the same time. Apollo was declared the winner because of this. Apollo flayed Marsyas alive in a cave near Celaenae in Phrygia for his hubris to challenge a god. He then nailed Marsyas' shaggy skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas' blood turned into the river Marsyas.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAnother variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nCinyras\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo also had a lyre-playing contest with Cinyras, his son, who committed suicide when he lost.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nRoman Apollo\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as Phoebus. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nOn the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the \\\"Apollinare\\\". During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE, the Ludi Apollinares (\\\"Apollonian Games\\\") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius. In the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAfter the battle of Actium, which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple to the god on the Palatine hill. Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and Diana formed the culmination of the Secular Games, held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nFestivals\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe chief Apollonian festivals were the Boedromia, Carneia, Carpiae, Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Metageitnia, Pyanepsia, Pythia and Thargelia.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAttributes and symbols\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow. Other attributes of his included the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre), the plectrum and the sword. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in Apollo's honor every four years at Delphi. The bay laurel plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe palm tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, cicadas (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows, snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and griffins, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAs god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: Hittite cuneiform texts mention a Minor Asian god called Appaliunas or Apalunas in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo's title of Lykegenes can simply be read as \\\"born in Lycia\\\", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a folk etymology).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the Borghese Vase.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo is often associated with the Golden Mean. This is the Greek ideal of moderation and a virtue that opposes gluttony.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo in the arts\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the Renaissance. The earliest Greek word for a statue is \\\"delight\\\" (, agalma), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe evolution of the Greek sculpture can be observed in his depictions from the almost static formal Kouros type in early archaic period, to the representation of motion in a relative harmonious whole in late archaic period. In classical Greece the emphasis is not given to the illusive imaginative reality represented by the ideal forms, but to the analogies and the interaction of the members in the whole, a method created by Polykleitos. Finally Praxiteles seems to be released from any art and religious conformities, and his masterpieces are a mixture of naturalism with stylization.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nArt and Greek philosophy\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe evolution of the Greek art seems to go parallel with the Greek philosophical conceptions, which changed from the natural-philosophy of Thales to the metaphysical theory of Pythagoras. Thales searched for a simple material-form directly perceptible by the senses, behind the appearances of things, and his theory is also related to the older animism. This was paralleled in sculpture by the absolute representation of vigorous life, through unnaturally simplified forms.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nPythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation. The forms on earth, are imperfect imitations (, eikones, \\\"images\\\") of the celestial world of numbers. His ideas had a great influence on post-Archaic art, and the Greek architects and sculptors were always trying to find the mathematical relation, that would lead to the esthetic perfection. (canon).\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn classical Greece, Anaxagoras asserted that a divine reason (mind) gave order to the seeds of the universe, and Plato extended the Greek belief of ideal forms to his metaphysical theory of forms (ideai, \\\"ideas\\\"). The forms on earth are imperfect duplicates of the intellectual celestial ideas. The Greek words oida (, \\\"(I) know\\\") and eidos (, \\\"species\\\") have the same root as the word idea (), indicating how the Greek mind moved from the gift of the senses, to the principles beyond the senses. The artists in Plato's time moved away from his theories and art tends to be a mixture of naturalism with stylization. The Greek sculptors considered the senses more important, and the proportions were used to unite the sensible with the intellectual.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nArchaic sculpture\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nKouros (male youth) is the modern term given to those representations of standing male youths which first appear in the archaic period in Greece. This type served certain religious needs and was first proposed for what was previously thought to be depictions of Apollo. The first statues are certainly still and formal. The formality of their stance seems to be related with the Egyptian precedent, but it was accepted for a good reason. The sculptors had a clear idea of what a young man is, and embodied the archaic smile of good manners, the firm and springy step, the balance of the body, dignity, and youthful happiness. When they tried to depict the most abiding qualities of men, it was because men had common roots with the unchanging gods. The adoption of a standard recognizable type for a long time, is probably because nature gives preference in survival of a type which has long be adopted by the climatic conditions, and also due to the general Greek belief that nature expresses itself in ideal forms that can be imagined and represented. These forms expressed immortality. Apollo was the immortal god of ideal balance and order.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHis shrine in Delphi, that he shared in winter with Dionysius had the inscriptions: (gnōthi seautón\\n\\\"know thyself\\\") and (mēdén ágan, \\\"nothing in excess\\\"), and (eggýa pára d'atē, \\\"make a pledge and mischief is nigh\\\").\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn the first large-scale depictions during the early archaic period (640–580 BC), the artists tried to draw one's attention to look into the interior of the face and the body which were not represented as lifeless masses, but as being full of life. The Greeks maintained, until late in their civilization, an almost animistic idea that the statues are in some sense alive. This embodies the belief that the image was somehow the god or man himself. A fine example is the statue of the Sacred gate Kouros which was found at the cemetery of Dipylon in Athens (Dipylon Kouros). The statue is the \\\"thing in itself\\\", and his slender face with the deep eyes express an intellectual eternity. According to the Greek tradition the Dipylon master was named Daedalus, and in his statues the limbs were freed from the body, giving the impression that the statues could move. It is considered that he created also the New York kouros, which is the oldest fully preserved statue of Kouros type, and seems to be the incarnation of the god himself.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe animistic idea as the representation of the imaginative reality, is sanctified in the Homeric poems and in Greek myths, in stories of the god Hephaestus (Phaistos) and the mythic Daedalus (the builder of the labyrinth) that made images which moved of their own accord. This kind of art goes back to the Minoan period, when its main theme was the representation of motion in a specific moment. These free-standing statues were usually marble, but also the form rendered in limestone, bronze, ivory and terracotta.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo, may be two figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of Apollo Ptoios, Boeotia alone. The last stage in the development of the Kouros type is the late archaic period (520–485 BC), in which the Greek sculpture attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used to create a relative harmonious whole. Ranking from the very few bronzes survived to us is the masterpiece bronze Piraeus Apollo. It was found in Piraeus, the harbour of Athens. The statue originally held the bow in its left hand, and a cup of pouring libation in its right hand. It probably comes from north-eastern Peloponnesus. The emphasis is given in anatomy, and it is one of the first attempts to represent a kind of motion, and beauty relative to proportions, which appear mostly in post-Archaic art. The statue throws some light on an artistic centre which, with an independently developed harder, simpler, and heavier style, restricts Ionian influence in Athens.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nFinally, this is the germ from which the art of Polykleitos was to grow two or three generations later.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nClassical sculpture\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn the next century which is the beginning of the Classical period, it was considered that beauty in visible things as in everything else, consisted of symmetry and proportions. The artists tried also to represent motion in a specific moment (Myron), which may be considered as the reappearance of the dormant Minoan element. Anatomy and geometry are fused in one, and each does something to the other. The Greek sculptors tried to clarify it by looking for mathematical proportions, just as they sought some reality behind appearances. Polykleitos in his Canon wrote that beauty consists in the proportion not of the elements (materials), but of the parts, that is the interrelation of parts with one another and with the whole. It seems that he was influenced by the theories of Pythagoras. The famous Apollo of Mantua and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type, in which the god holds the cithara in his left arm.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe type is represented by neo-Attic Imperial Roman copies of the late 1st or early 2nd century, modelled upon a supposed Greek bronze original made in the second quarter of the 5th century BCE, in a style similar to works of Polykleitos but more archaic. The Apollo held the cythara against his extended left arm, of which in the Louvre example, a fragment of one twisting scrolling horn upright remains against his biceps.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThough the proportions were always important in Greek art, the appeal of the Greek sculptures eludes any explanation by proportion alone. The statues of Apollo were thought to incarnate his living presence, and these representations of illusive imaginative reality had deep roots in the Minoan period, and in the beliefs of the first Greek speaking people who entered the region during the bronze-age. Just as the Greeks saw the mountains, forests, sea and rivers as inhabited by concrete beings, so nature in all of its manifestations possesses clear form, and the form of a work of art. Spiritual life is incorporated in matter, when it is given artistic form. Just as in the arts the Greeks sought some reality behind appearances, so in mathematics they sought permanent principles which could be applied wherever the conditions were the same. Artists and sculptors tried to find this ideal order in relation with mathematics, but they believed that this ideal order revealed itself not so much to the dispassionate intellect, as to the whole sentient self. Things as we see them, and as they really are, are one, that each stresses the nature of the other in a single unity.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nPediments and friezes\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn the archaic pediments and friezes of the temples, the artists had a problem to fit a group of figures into an isosceles triangle with acute angles at the base.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe Siphnian Treasury in Delphi was one of the first Greek buildings utilizing the solution to put the dominating form in the middle, and to complete the descending scale of height with other figures sitting or kneeling. The pediment shows the story of Heracles stealing Apollo's tripod that was strongly associated with his oracular inspiration. Their two figures hold the centre. In the pediment of the temple of Zeus in Olympia, the single figure of Apollo is dominating the scene.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThese representations rely on presenting scenes directly to the eye for their own visible sake. They care for the schematic arrangements of bodies in space, but only as parts in a larger whole. While each scene has its own character and completeness it must fit into the general sequence to which it belongs. In these archaic pediments the sculptors use empty intervals, to suggest a passage to and fro a busy battlefield. The artists seem to have been dominated by geometrical pattern and order, and this was improved when classical art brought a greater freedom and economy.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nHellenistic Greece-Rome\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a kithara (as Apollo Citharoedus) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the Apollo Lykeios and Apollo Sauroctonos types). The Apollo Belvedere is a marble sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans, from the Renaissance through the 19th century. The marble is a Hellenistic or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor Leochares, made between 350 and 325 BCE.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nThe life-size so-called \\\"Adonis\\\" found in 1780 on the site of a villa suburbana near the Via Labicana in the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from El Djem, Roman Thysdrus, he is identifiable as Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nAnother haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse. The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict Alexander the Great. Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nModern reception\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nApollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a \\\"Hymn of Apollo\\\" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky's Apollon musagète (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band Rush released an album with songs \\\"Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom\\\"/\\\"Dionysus: Bringer of Love\\\".\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the Apollonian and Dionysian impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. Friedrich Nietzsche argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. Carl Jung's Apollo archetype represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nIn spaceflight, the NASA program for landing astronauts on the Moon was named Apollo.\",\n \"Apollo\\n\\nGenealogy\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis (; , Ártemis,) was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities. Her Roman equivalent is Diana.Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia, The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215. Some scholars believe that the name, and indeed the goddess herself, was originally pre-Greek. Homer refers to her as Artemis Agrotera, Potnia Theron: \\\"Artemis of the wildland, Mistress of Animals\\\". The Arcadians believed she was the daughter of Demeter.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nIn the classical period of Greek mythology, Artemis was often described as the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and the twin sister of Apollo. She was the Hellenic goddess of the hunt, wild animals, wilderness, childbirth, virginity and protector of young girls, bringing and relieving disease in women; she often was depicted as a huntress carrying a bow and arrows. The deer and the cypress were sacred to her. In later Hellenistic times, she even assumed the ancient role of Eileithyia in aiding childbirth.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nThe name Artemis (noun, feminine) is of unknown or uncertain origin and etymology although various ones have been proposed.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nFor example, according to Jablonski, the name is also Phrygian and could be \\\"compared with the royal appellation Artemas of Xenophon. According to Charles Anthon the primitive root of the name is probably of Persian origin from *arta, *art, *arte, all meaning \\\"great, excellent, holy,\\\" thus Artemis \\\"becomes identical with the great mother of Nature, even as she was worshipped at Ephesus\\\". Anton Goebel \\\"suggests the root στρατ or ῥατ, \\\"to shake,\\\" and makes Artemis mean the thrower of the dart or the shooter\\\". Babiniotis, while accepting that the etymology is unknown, states that the name is already attested in Mycenean Greek and is possibly of pre-Hellenic origin.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nThe name could also be possibly related to Greek árktos \\\"bear\\\" (from PIE *h₂ŕ̥tḱos), supported by the bear cult that the goddess had in Attica (Brauronia) and the Neolithic remains at the Arkoudiotissa Cave, as well as the story about Callisto, which was originally about Artemis (Arcadian epithet kallisto); this cult was a survival of very old totemic and shamanistic rituals and formed part of a larger bear cult found further afield in other Indo-European cultures (e.g., Gaulish Artio). It is believed that a precursor of Artemis was worshiped in Minoan Crete as the goddess of mountains and hunting, Britomartis. While connection with Anatolian names has been suggested, the earliest attested forms of the name Artemis are the Mycenaean Greek , a-te-mi-to /Artemitos/ and , a-ti-mi-te /Artimitei/, written in Linear B at Pylos. R. S. P. Beekes suggested that the e/i interchange points to a Pre-Greek origin. Artemis was venerated in Lydia as Artimus.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAncient Greek writers, by way of folk etymology, and some modern scholars, have linked Artemis (Doric Artamis) to ἄρταμος, artamos, i.e. \\\"butcher\\\" or, like Plato did in Cratylus, to , artemḗs, i.e. \\\"safe\\\", \\\"unharmed\\\", \\\"uninjured\\\", \\\"pure\\\", \\\"the stainless maiden\\\".\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis in mythology\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nBirth\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nVarious conflicting accounts are given in Classical Greek mythology of the birth of Artemis and her twin brother, Apollo. All accounts agree, however, that she was the daughter of Zeus and Leto and that she was the twin sister of Apollo.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAn account by Callimachus has it that Hera forbade Leto to give birth on either terra firma (the mainland) or on an island. Hera was angry with Zeus, her husband, because he had impregnated Leto. But the island of Delos (or Ortygia in the Homeric Hymn to Artemis) disobeyed Hera, and Leto gave birth there.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nIn ancient Cretan history Leto was worshipped at Phaistos and in Cretan mythology Leto gave birth to Apollo and Artemis at the islands known today as the Paximadia.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nA scholium of Servius on Aeneid iii. 72 accounts for the island's archaic name Ortygia by asserting that Zeus transformed Leto into a quail (ortux) in order to prevent Hera from finding out his infidelity, and Kenneth McLeish suggested further that in quail form Leto would have given birth with as few birth-pains as a mother quail suffers when it lays an egg.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nThe myths also differ as to whether Artemis was born first, or Apollo. Most stories depict Artemis as born first, becoming her mother's mid-wife upon the birth of her brother Apollo.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nChildhood\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nThe childhood of Artemis is not fully related in any surviving myth. The Iliad reduced the figure of the dread goddess to that of a girl, who, having been thrashed by Hera, climbs weeping into the lap of Zeus. A poem of Callimachus to the goddess \\\"who amuses herself on mountains with archery\\\" imagines some charming vignettes: according to Callimachus, at the age of three years, Artemis, while sitting on the knee of her father, Zeus, asked him to grant her six wishes: to remain always a virgin; to have many names to set her apart from her brother Apollo; to be the Phaesporia or Light Bringer; to have a bow and arrow and a knee-length tunic so that she could hunt; to have sixty \\\"daughters of Okeanos\\\", all nine years of age, to be her choir; and for twenty Amnisides Nymphs as handmaidens to watch her dogs and bow while she rested. She wished for no city dedicated to her, but to rule the mountains, and for the ability to help women in the pains of childbirth.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis believed that she had been chosen by the Fates to be a midwife, particularly since she had assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin brother, Apollo. All of her companions remained virgins, and Artemis closely guarded her own chastity. Her symbols included the golden bow and arrow, the hunting dog, the stag, and the moon. Callimachus tells how Artemis spent her girlhood seeking out the things that she would need to be a huntress, how she obtained her bow and arrows from the isle of Lipara, where Hephaestus and the Cyclops worked.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nOkeanus' daughters were filled with fear, but the young Artemis bravely approached and asked for bow and arrows. Callimachus then tells how Artemis visited Pan, the god of the forest, who gave her seven bitches and six dogs. She then captured six golden-horned deer to pull her chariot. Artemis practiced with her bow first by shooting at trees and then at wild beasts.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nIntimacy\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAs a virgin, Artemis had interested many gods and men, but only her hunting companion, Orion, won her heart. Orion was accidentally killed either by Artemis or by Gaia.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAlpheus, a river god, was in love with Artemis, but he realizes that he can do nothing to win her heart. So he decides to capture her. Artemis, who is with her companions at Letrenoi, goes to Alpheus, but, suspicious of his motives, she covers her face with mud so that the river god does not recognize her. In another story, Alphaeus tries to rape Artemis' attendant Arethusa. Artemis pities Arethusa and saves her by transforming Arethusa into a spring in Artemis' temple, Artemis Alphaea in Letrini, where the goddess and her attendant drink.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nBouphagos, the son of the Titan Iapetos, sees Artemis and thinks about raping her. Reading his sinful thoughts, Artemis strikes him at Mount Pholoe.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nSipriotes is a boy, who, either because he accidentally sees Artemis bathing or because he attempts to rape her, is turned into a girl by the goddess.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nActaeon\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nMultiple versions of the Actaeon myth survive, though many are fragmentary. The details vary but at the core they involve a great hunter, Actaeon who Artemis turns into a stag for a transgression and who is then killed by hunting dogs. Usually the dogs are his own, who no longer recognize their master. Sometimes they are Artemis' hounds.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAccording to the standard modern text on the work, Lamar Ronald Lacey's The Myth of Aktaion: Literary and Iconographic Studies, the most likely original version of the myth is that Actaeon was the hunting companion of the goddess who, seeing her naked in her sacred spring, attempts to force himself on her. For this hubris he is turned into a stag and devoured by his own hounds. However, in some surviving versions Actaeon is a stranger who happens upon her. Different tellings also diverge in the hunter's transgression, which is sometimes merely seeing the virgin goddess naked, sometimes boasting he is a better hunter than she, or even merely being a rival of Zeus for the affections of Semele.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAdonis\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nIn some versions of the story of Adonis, who was a late addition to Greek mythology during the Hellenistic period, Artemis sent a wild boar to kill Adonis as punishment for his hubristic boast that he was a better hunter than she.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nIn other versions, Artemis killed Adonis for revenge. In later myths, Adonis had been related as a favorite of Aphrodite, and Aphrodite was responsible for the death of Hippolytus, who had been a favorite of Artemis. Therefore, Artemis killed Adonis to avenge Hippolytus’s death.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nIn yet another version, Adonis was not killed by Artemis, but by Ares, as punishment for being with Aphrodite.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nOrion\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nOrion was Artemis' hunting companion. In some versions, he is killed by Artemis, while in others he is killed by a scorpion sent by Gaia. In some versions, Orion tries to seduce Opis, one of Artemis' followers, and she kills him. In a version by Aratus, Orion takes hold of Artemis' robe and she kills him in self-defense.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nIn yet another version, Apollo sends the scorpion. According to Hyginus Artemis once loved Orion (in spite of the late source, this version appears to be a rare remnant of her as the pre-Olympian goddess, who took consorts, as Eos did), but was tricked into killing him by her brother Apollo, who was \\\"protective\\\" of his sister's maidenhood.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nThe Aloadae\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nThese twin sons of Iphidemia and Poseidon, Otos and Ephialtes, grew enormously at a young age. They were aggressive, great hunters, and could not be killed unless they killed each other. The growth of the Aloadae never stopped, and they boasted that as soon as they could reach heaven, they would kidnap Artemis and Hera and take them as wives. The gods were afraid of them, except for Artemis who captured a fine deer (or in another version of the story, she changed herself into a doe) and jumped out between them. The Aloadae threw their spears and so mistakenly killed each other.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nCallisto\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nCallisto was the daughter of Lycaon, King of Arcadia and also was one of Artemis's hunting attendants. As a companion of Artemis, she took a vow of chastity. Zeus appeared to her disguised as Artemis, or in some stories Apollo, gained her confidence, then took advantage of her (or raped her, according to Ovid). As a result of this encounter she conceived a son, Arcas.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nEnraged, Hera or Artemis (some accounts say both) changed her into a bear. Arcas almost killed the bear, but Zeus stopped him just in time. Out of pity, Zeus placed Callisto the bear into the heavens, thus the origin of Callisto the Bear as a constellation. Some stories say that he placed both Arcas and Callisto into the heavens as bears, forming the Ursa Minor and Ursa Major constellations.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nIphigenia and the Taurian Artemis\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis punished Agamemnon after he killed a sacred stag in a sacred grove and boasted that he was a better hunter than the goddess. When the Greek fleet was preparing at Aulis to depart for Troy to begin the Trojan War, Artemis becalmed the winds. The seer Calchas advised Agamemnon that the only way to appease Artemis was to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia. Artemis then snatched Iphigenia from the altar and substituted a deer. Various myths have been told around what happened after Artemis took her. Either she was brought to Tauros and led the priests there, or became Artemis' immortal companion.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nNiobe\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nA Queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, Niobe boasted of her superiority to Leto because while she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven boys and seven girls, Leto had only one of each. When Artemis and Apollo heard this impiety, Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, and Artemis shot her daughters, who died instantly without a sound. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions two of the Niobids were spared, one boy and one girl. Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, killed himself. A devastated Niobe and her remaining children were turned to stone by Artemis as they wept. The gods themselves entombed them.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nChione\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nChione was a princess of Pokis. She was beloved by two gods, Hermes and Apollo, and boasted that she was prettier than Artemis because she made two gods fall in love with her at once. Artemis was furious and killed Chione with her arrow or struck her dumb by shooting off her tongue. However, some versions of this myth say Apollo and Hermes protected her from Artemis' wrath.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAtalanta, Oeneus and the Meleagrids\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis saved the infant Atalanta from dying of exposure after her father abandoned her. She sent a female bear to suckle the baby, who was then raised by hunters. But she later sent a bear to hurt Atalanta because people said Atalanta was a better hunter. This is in some stories.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAmong other adventures, Atalanta participated in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar, which Artemis had sent to destroy Calydon because King Oeneus had forgotten her at the harvest sacrifices. In the hunt, Atalanta drew the first blood, and was awarded the prize of the skin. She hung it in a sacred grove at Tegea as a dedication to Artemis.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nMeleager was a hero of Aetolia. King Oeneus had him gather heroes from all over Greece to hunt the Calydonian Boar. After the death of Meleager, Artemis turned his grieving sisters, the Meleagrids into guineafowl that Artemis loved very much.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAura\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nIn Nonnus Dionysiaca, Aura was Greek goddess of breezes and cool air, daughter of Lelantos and Periboia. She was a virgin huntress, just like Artemis and proud of her maidenhood. One day, she claimed that the body of Artemis was too womanly and she doubted her virginity. Artemis asked Nemesis for help to avenge her dignity and caused the rape of Aura by Dionysus. Aura became a mad and dangerous killer. When she bore twin sons, she ate one of them while the other one, Iakhos, was saved by Artemis. Iakhos later became an attendant of Demeter and the leader of Eleusinian Mysteries.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nPolyphonte\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nPolyphonte was a young woman who fled home preferring the idea of a virginal life with Artemis to the conventional life of marriage and children favoured by Aphrodite. As a punishment Aphrodite cursed her, causing her to have children by a bear. The resulting offspring, Agrius and Oreius, were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of Zeus. Ultimately the whole family were transformed into birds and more specifically ill portents for mankind.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nTrojan War\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis may have been represented as a supporter of Troy because her brother Apollo was the patron god of the city and she herself was widely worshipped in western Anatolia in historical times. In the Iliad she came to blows with Hera, when the divine allies of the Greeks and Trojans engaged each other in conflict. Hera struck Artemis on the ears with her own quiver, causing the arrows to fall out. As Artemis fled crying to Zeus, Leto gathered up the bow and arrows.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis played quite a large part in this war. Like her mother and brother, who was widely worshiped at Troy, Artemis took the side of the Trojans. At the Greek's journey to Troy, Artemis becalmed the sea and stopped the journey until an oracle came and said they could win the goddess' heart by sacrificing Iphigenia, Agamemnon's daughter. Agamemnon once promised the goddess he would sacrifice the dearest thing to him, which was Iphigenia, but broke the promise. Other sources said he boasted about his hunting ability and provoked the goddess' anger. Artemis saved Iphigenia because of her bravery. In some versions of the myth, Artemis made Iphigenia her attendant or turned her into Hecate, goddess of night, witchcraft, and the underworld.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAeneas was helped by Artemis, Leto, and Apollo. Apollo found him wounded by Diomedes and lifted him to heaven. There, the three of them secretly healed him in a great chamber.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nWorship of Artemis\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis, the goddess of forests and hills, was worshipped throughout ancient Greece. Her best known cults were on the island of Delos\\n(her birthplace), in Attica at Brauron and Mounikhia (near Piraeus), and in Sparta. She was often depicted in paintings and statues in a forest setting, carrying a bow and arrows, and accompanied by a deer.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nThe ancient Spartans used to sacrifice to her as one of their patron goddesses before starting a new military campaign.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAthenian festivals in honor of Artemis included Elaphebolia, Mounikhia, Kharisteria, and Brauronia. The festival of Artemis Orthia was observed in Sparta.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nPre-pubescent and adolescent Athenian girls were sent to the sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron to serve the Goddess for one year. During this time, the girls were known as arktoi, or little she-bears. A myth explaining this servitude states that a bear had formed the habit of regularly visiting the town of Brauron, and the people there fed it, so that, over time, the bear became tame. A girl teased the bear, and, in some versions of the myth, it killed her, while, in other versions, it clawed out her eyes. Either way, the girl's brothers killed the bear, and Artemis was enraged. She demanded that young girls \\\"act the bear\\\" at her sanctuary in atonement for the bear's death.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nVirginal Artemis was worshipped as a fertility/childbirth goddess in some places, assimilating Ilithyia, since, according to some myths, she assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin. During the Classical period in Athens, she was identified with Hecate. Artemis also assimilated Caryatis (Carya).\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nEpithets\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAs Aeginaea, she was worshiped in Sparta; the name means either huntress of chamois, or the wielder of the javelin (). \\nAlso in Sparta, Artemis Lygodesma was worshipped. This epithet means \\\"willow-bound\\\" from the Gr. lygos (λυγός, willow) and desmos (δεσμός, bond). The willow tree appears in several ancient Greek myths and rituals.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nShe was worshipped at Naupactus as Aetole; in her temple in that town there was a statue of white marble representing her throwing a javelin. This \\\"Aetolian Artemis\\\" would not have been introduced at Naupactus, anciently a place of Ozolian Locris, until it was awarded to the Aetolians by Philip II of Macedon. Strabo records another precinct of \\\"Aetolian Artemos\\\" at the head of the Adriatic. As Agoraea she was the protector of the agora.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAs Agrotera, she was especially associated as the patron goddess of hunters. In Athens Artemis was often associated with the local Aeginian goddess, Aphaea. As Potnia Theron, she was the patron of wild animals; Homer used this title. As Kourotrophos, she was the nurse of youths. As Locheia, she was the goddess of childbirth and midwives.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nShe was sometimes known as Cynthia, from her birthplace on Mount Cynthus on Delos, or Amarynthia from a festival in her honor originally held at Amarynthus in Euboea.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nShe was sometimes identified by the name Phoebe, the feminine form of her brother Apollo's solar epithet Phoebus.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAlphaea, Alpheaea, or Alpheiusa (Gr. , , or ) was an epithet that Artemis derived from the river god Alpheius, who was said to have been in love with her. It was under this name that she was worshiped at Letrini in Elis, and in Ortygia. Artemis Alphaea was associated with the wearing of masks, largely because of the legend that while fleeing the advances of Alpheius, she and her nymphs escaped him by covering their faces.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAs (Artemis) Anaitis, the 'Persian Artemis' was identified with Anahita. As Apanchomene, she was worshipped as a hanged goddess.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nFestivals\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis was born on the sixth day, which made it sacred for her. * Festival of Artemis in Brauron, where girls, aged between five and ten, dressed in saffron robes and played at being bears, or \\\"act the bear\\\" to appease the goddess after she sent the plague when her bear was killed. * Festival of Amarysia is a celebration to worship Artemis Amarysia in Attica. In 2007, a team of Swiss and Greek archaeologists found the ruin of Artemis Amarysia Temple, at Euboea, Greece. * Festival of Artemis Saronia, a festival to celebrate Artemis in Trozeinos, a town in Argolis. A king named Saron built a sanctuary for the goddess after the goddess saved his life when he went hunting and was swept away by a wave. He held a festival inner honor. * On the 16th day of Metageitnio (second month on the Athenian calendar), people sacrificed to Artemis and Hecate at Deme in Erchia. * Kharisteria Festival on 6th of Boidromion (third month) celebrates the victory of the Battle of Marathon, also known as the Athenian \\\"Thanksgiving\\\".\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\n* Day six of Elaphobolia (ninth month) festival of Artemis the Deer Huntress where she was offered cakes shaped like stags, made from dough, honey and sesame seeds. * Day 6 or 16 of Mounikhion (tenth month) is a celebration of her as the goddess of nature and animals. A goat was sacrificed to her. * Day 6 of Thargelion (eleventh month), is the Goddess's birthday, while the seventh was Apollo's. * A festival for Artemis Diktynna (of the net) was held in Hypsous. * Laphria, a festival for Artemis in Patrai. The procession starts by setting logs of wood around the altar, each of them 16 cubits long. On the altar, within the circle, the driest wood is placed. Just before the festival, a smooth ascent to the altar is built by piling earth upon the altar steps. The festival begins with a splendid procession in honor of Artemis, and the maiden officiating as priestess rides last in the procession upon a chariot yoked to four deer, Artemis' traditional mode of transport (see below). However, the sacrifice is not offered until the next day.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\n* In Orchomenus, a sanctuary was built for Artemis Hymnia where her festival was celebrated every year.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nModern\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis in art\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nThe oldest representations of Artemis in Greek Archaic art portray her as Potnia Theron (\\\"Queen of the Beasts\\\"): a winged goddess holding a stag and leopard in her hands, or sometimes a leopard and a lion. This winged Artemis lingered in ex-votos as Artemis Orthia, with a sanctuary close by Sparta.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nIn Greek classical art she is usually portrayed as a maiden huntress, young, tall and slim, clothed in a girl's short skirt, with hunting boots, a quiver, a bow and arrows. Often, she is shown in the shooting pose, and is accompanied by a hunting dog or stag. When portrayed as a moon goddess, Artemis wore a long robe and sometimes a veil covered her head. Her darker side is revealed in some vase paintings, where she is shown as the death-bringing goddess whose arrows fell young maidens and women, such as the daughters of Niobe.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis was sometimes represented in Classical art with the crown of the crescent moon, such as also found on Luna and others.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nOn June 7, 2007, a Roman era bronze sculpture of Artemis and the Stag was sold at Sotheby's auction house in New York state by the Albright-Knox Art Gallery for $25.5 million.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAttributes\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\n* Bow and arrow\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAccording to the Homeric Hymn to Artemis, she had golden bow and arrows, as her epithet was Khryselakatos, \\\"of the Golden Shaft\\\", and Iokheira (Showered by Arrows). The arrows of Artemis could also bring sudden death and disease to girls and women. Artemis got her bow and arrow for the first time from The Kyklopes, as the one she asked from her father. The bow of Artemis also became the witness of Callisto's oath of her virginity. In later cult, the bow became the symbol of waxing moon. \\n* Chariots\\nArtemis' chariot was made of gold and was pulled by four golden horned deer (Elaphoi Khrysokeroi). The bridles of her chariot were also made of gold.\\n* Spears, nets, and lyre\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAlthough quite seldom, Artemis is sometimes portrayed with a hunting spear. Her cult in Aetolia, the Artemis Aetolian, showed her with a hunting spear. The description about Artemis' spear can be found in Ovid's Metamorphosis, while Artemis with a fishing spear connected with her cult as a patron goddess of fishing.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAs a goddess of maiden dances and songs, Artemis is often portrayed with a lyre.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nFauna\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\n* Deer\\nDeer were the only animals held sacred to Artemis herself. On seeing a deer larger than a bull with horns shining, she fell in love with these creatures and held them sacred. Deer were also the first animals she captured. She caught five golden horned deer called Elaphoi Khrysokeroi and harnessed them to her chariot. The third labour of Heracles, commanded by Eurystheus, consisted in catching the Cerynitian Hind alive. Heracles begged Artemis for forgiveness and promised to return it alive. Artemis forgave him but targeted Eurystheus for her wrath. * Hunting dog\\nArtemis got her hunting dogs from Pan in the forest of Arcadia. Pan gave Artemis two black-and-white dogs, three reddish ones, and one spotted one - these dogs were able to hunt even lions. Pan also gave Artemis seven bitches of the finest Arcadian race. However, Artemis only ever brought seven dogs hunting with her at any one time. * Bear\\nThe sacrifice of a bear for Artemis started with the Brauron cult. Every year a girl between five and ten years of age was sent to Artemis' temple at Brauron. The Byzantine writer Suidos relayed the legend in Arktos e Brauroniois.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nA bear was tamed by Artemis and introduced to the people of Athens. They touched it and played with it until one day a group of girls poked the bear until it attacked them. A brother of one of the girls killed the bear, so Artemis sent a plague in revenge. The Athenians consulted an oracle to understand how to end the plague. The oracle suggested that, in payment for the bear's blood, no Athenian virgin should be allowed to marry until she had served Artemis in her temple ('played the bear for the goddess'). * Boar\\nThe boar is one of the favorite animals of the hunters, and also hard to tame. In honor of Artemis' skill, they sacrificed it to her. Oineus and Adonis were both killed by Artemis' boar. * Guinea fowl\\nArtemis felt pity for the Meleagrids as they mourned for their lost brother, Meleagor, so she transformed them into Guinea Fowl to be her favorite animals. * Buzzard hawk\\nHawks were the favored birds of many of the gods, Artemis included.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nFlora\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nPalm and Cypress were issued to be her birthplace. Other plants sacred to Artemis are Amaranth and Asphodel.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis as the Lady of Ephesus\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nAt Ephesus in Ionia, Turkey, her temple became one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It was probably the best known center of her worship except for Delos. There the Lady whom the Ionians associated with Artemis through interpretatio graeca was worshiped primarily as a mother goddess, akin to the Phrygian goddess Cybele, in an ancient sanctuary where her cult image depicted the \\\"Lady of Ephesus\\\" adorned with multiple rounded breast-like protuberances on her chest. They have been variously interpreted as multiple accessory breasts, as eggs, grapes, acorns, or even bull testes. Excavation at the site of the Artemision in 1987-88 identified a multitude of tear-shaped amber beads that had adorned the ancient wooden cult image or xoanon. In Acts of the Apostles, Ephesian metalsmiths who felt threatened by Saint Paul's preaching of Christianity, jealously rioted in her defense, shouting “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!” Of the 121 columns of her temple, only one composite, made up of fragments, still stands as a marker of the temple's location. The rest were used for making churches, roads, and forts.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis in astronomy\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nA minor planet, 105 Artemis; a lunar crater; the Artemis Chasma and the Artemis Corona have all been named for her.\",\n \"Artemis\\n\\nArtemis is the acronym for \\\"Architectures de bolometres pour des Telescopes a grand champ de vue dans le domaine sub-Millimetrique au Sol\\\", a large bolometer camera in the submillimeter range that was installed in 2010 at the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX), located in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":136092,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_474"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Super Bowl XLIV was the apparently the most watched television show in US history, attracting some 106.5 million people. The final show of what long running TV series previously held the record for 27 years?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"MASH"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["m• •s•h","m s h disambiguation","mash","m s h","mash disambiguation"],"string":"[\n \"m• •s•h\",\n \"m s h disambiguation\",\n \"mash\",\n \"m s h\",\n \"mash disambiguation\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Super Bowl XLIV\n\nSuper Bowl XLIV was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion New Orleans Saints and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Indianapolis Colts to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2009 season. The Saints defeated the Colts by a score of 31–17, earning their first Super Bowl win. The game was played at Sun Life Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida for the fifth time (and in South Florida for the tenth time), on February 7, 2010, the latest calendar date for a Super Bowl yet.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThis was the Saints' first Super Bowl appearance and the fourth for the Colts franchise, their second appearance in four seasons. The Saints entered the game with a 13–3 record for the 2009 regular season, compared to the Colts' 14–2 record. In the playoff games, both teams placed first in their respective conferences, marking the first time since Super Bowl XXVIII (16 years previously) that both number one seeds have reached the Super Bowl. The Colts entered the Super Bowl off victories over the Baltimore Ravens and New York Jets, while the Saints advanced after defeating the previous year's runners up the Arizona Cardinals and then overcoming the Minnesota Vikings in the Conference Championship. It was also the first time both teams started out with a thirteen-game winning streak.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nDown 10–6 at halftime of Super Bowl XLIV, in what many consider the turning point of the game, New Orleans successfully recovered a surprise onside kick on the second half kickoff, then took their first lead of the game on Pierre Thomas' 16-yard touchdown reception. The Colts responded with Joseph Addai's 4-yard touchdown run to regain the lead at 17-13. The Saints then scored 18 unanswered points, including Tracy Porter's 74-yard interception return for a touchdown, to clinch the victory. New Orleans quarterback Drew Brees, who completed 32 of 39 passes for 288 yards and two touchdowns, was named the Super Bowl MVP. His 32 completions tied a Super Bowl record set by Tom Brady in Super Bowl XXXVIII.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe live broadcast of the game on CBS was watched by an average US audience of 106.5 million viewers, making it the then-third most-watched Super Bowl. The National Anthem was sung by Carrie Underwood and the halftime show featured the British rock band The Who.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nBackground","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nHost selection process","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe league initially voted on March 23, 2005, that New York City host the game, contingent on the completion of the proposed West Side Stadium being built for the New York Jets by 2008. After New York state government officials declined to approve $400million for the stadium, the NFL decided to reopen the bidding for the game's site. The league reconsidered the other, unsuccessful candidates for Super Bowl XLIII: Atlanta, Houston, and Miami. On October 6, 2006, the league selected Miami as the host city.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThis was the tenth time the Super Bowl has been held in the Miami Metro area at the home stadium of the Miami Dolphins: the now-Sun Life Stadium had hosted four previous Super Bowls (XXIII, XXIX, XXXIII, and XLI) and five were played in the Dolphins' now demolished former home, the Miami Orange Bowl (II, III, V, X, XIII). The Colts franchise was playing its 4th Super Bowl, all of which were played in Miami. Two at the Orange Bowl and two at Sun Life Stadium. They are the only franchise to play all of its Super Bowls in the same city and the second to play two or more Super Bowls in two different stadiums (joining the Broncos who played two at Qualcomm Stadium in San Diego and two at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nWith Tampa as the host of Super Bowl XLIII, Super Bowl XLIV also marked the third time that consecutive Super Bowls have been played in the same state. Super Bowls II and III were both played at the Orange Bowl. Super Bowls XXI and XXII were both played in California: XXI at Pasadena's Rose Bowl Stadium and XXII at San Diego's Jack Murphy Stadium.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nMiami became the first city to host two Super Bowls designated as a National Special Security Event (NSSE). In the wake of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, every Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXXVI has been designated as an NSSE. Super Bowl XLI was Miami's first Super Bowl designated as an NSSE.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nPro Bowl changes","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe 2010 Pro Bowl was played on January 31, during the off-week between the conference championships and the Super Bowl, breaking with the precedent of scheduling the game for the Sunday after the Super Bowl. The game also changed venues from Aloha Stadium in Honolulu, Hawaii, where it had been held since 1979, to Sun Life Stadium in Miami (the same city and stadium hosting the Super Bowl itself). Fourteen players from the Super Bowl participants, seven from each team, had been selected but were unable to participate due to the change. The new schedule took advantage of the bye week given to the conference champions to rest and prepare for the Super Bowl. The NFL has indicated this may not be a permanent transition, and has discussed a possible rotating location for the Pro Bowl in the future. The game has been played in Hawaii every year since 2011.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe move also meant that the Pro Bowl, which was won by the AFC by a score of 41–34, would avoid competing against the 2010 NBA All-Star Game, the second full day of competition in the 2010 Winter Olympics, and the 52nd running of the Daytona 500, as would have been the case had the game been played on February 14 per its traditional post-Super Bowl scheduling.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nTeams","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nNew Orleans Saints","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe New Orleans Saints finished the season with an NFC best 13–3 record and went on to advance to the first Super Bowl in their 43 years as an NFL team. After joining the NFL in 1967, it took them 21 years to record their first winning season and another 13 years after that to win their first playoff game. Five years later, the New Orleans area suffered another setback when the Louisiana Superdome was devastated with the rest of the city by Hurricane Katrina, forcing them to play all of their home games in elsewhere as they finished with a 3–13 record (see Effect of Hurricane Katrina on the New Orleans Saints). But in the offseason, the team's fortunes began to turn. First, they signed free agent quarterback Drew Brees, who would go on to throw for more passing yards than any other quarterback over the next four seasons. They also drafted multi-talented Heisman Trophy winning (since vacated) running back Reggie Bush, receiver Marques Colston, and guard Jahri Evans, three players who would become major contributors on the Saints' offense.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe following season, New Orleans improved to 10–6 and advanced to the NFC title game for the first time, which they lost to the Chicago Bears. Although they failed to make the playoffs over the next two seasons, they continued to sign new talent, and by 2009 they were ready to make another run at the Super Bowl.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe Saints' offense led the NFL in scoring, averaging just under 32 points per game. Brees finished the season as the NFL's top rated quarterback (109.6), completing an NFL-record 70.6% of his passes for 4,338 yards and 34 touchdowns, with just 11 interceptions. His top target was Colston, who caught 70 passes for 1,074 yards and 9 touchdowns, but he had plenty of other weapons, such as receivers Devery Henderson (51 receptions) and Robert Meachem (45), along with tight ends Jeremy Shockey (48) and Dave Thomas (35). With fullback Heath Evans out of action due to injury for most of the season, Dave Thomas often lined up as a fullback, with tackle Zach Strief serving as an extra blocker on short yardage plays. The ground attack was led by running backs Pierre Thomas and Mike Bell. Thomas rushed for 793 yards and caught 39 passes for 302, while Bell added 654 yards on the ground. Bush was also a major contributor, rushing for 390 yards (with a 5.6 yards per carry average), catching 47 passes for 335 yards, and adding another 130 yards returning punts.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nNew Orleans also had a strong offensive line with three Pro Bowl selections: guard Jahri Evans, center Jonathan Goodwin, and tackle Jon Stinchcomb.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nDefensive lineman Will Smith led the team in sacks with 13. Another big weapon on defense was linebacker Jonathan Vilma, who led the team with 87 tackles and intercepted three passes. The Saints' secondary was led by 12-year veteran safety Darren Sharper, who recorded 9 interceptions and set an NFL record by returning them for 376 yards and three touchdowns. Cornerback Tracy Porter was also effective, recording 49 tackles and 4 picks with one touchdown.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe Saints started out the season strong, winning their first 13 games. But then they became the first 13–0 team ever to lose their last three games of the year. After losing their 14th game to the Dallas Cowboys 24–17, they suffered a narrow loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (20–17 in overtime) after Garrett Hartley missed a potential game winning field goal. With the team's playoff seed clinched, Head Coach Sean Payton chose to rest Brees and other starters in the final game of the season, resulting in a 23–10 loss to the Carolina Panthers. The string of defeats cast a cloud over the team's postseason chances. Still, they clinched the #1 NFC playoff seed and scored 76 points in their two playoff wins en route to their first ever Super Bowl.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nIndianapolis Colts","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nIndianapolis had the NFL-best 14–2 record, winning seven games by less than a touchdown,[http://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/clt/2009.htm 2009 Indianapolis Colts Statistics & Players - Pro-Football-Reference.com] on their way to earning their second Super Bowl appearance in the last four years. Once again, the Colts boasted a powerful offense led by 10-time Pro Bowl quarterback Peyton Manning, who threw for over 4,500 yards and 33 touchdowns during the season, with only 16 interceptions, earning him a 99.9 passer rating and a league record fourth National Football League Most Valuable Player Award. Under the protection of Pro Bowl center Jeff Saturday and the rest of the line, Manning had been sacked just 13 times during the regular season, the fewest in the NFL. His top targets were veteran receiver Reggie Wayne and tight end Dallas Clark, who both recorded 100 receptions and 10 touchdowns. Wayne led the team with 1,260 yards, while Clark was second with 1,106. Manning also had other reliable targets, such as recently drafted receivers Austin Collie (60 receptions for 676 yards and 7 touchdowns) and Pierre Garçon (47 receptions for 765 yards and 4 touchdowns).","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nRunning back Joseph Addai led the Colts' ground game with 821 rushing yards and 10 touchdowns, while also catching 51 passes for another 336 yards and 3 scores.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nIndianapolis' defensive line was led by Pro Bowl defensive ends Robert Mathis and Dwight Freeney. Freeney led the team with 13.5 sacks, while Mathis added 9.5 sacks and forced 5 fumbles. Behind them, the Colts had a solid corps of linebackers featuring Clint Session and Gary Brackett, who each recorded 80 tackles. Pro Bowl safety Antoine Bethea led the secondary with 70 tackles and four interceptions.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nUnder their new coach Jim Caldwell, the Colts started off the season with 14 consecutive wins before suffering their first loss to the New York Jets, 29–15, a game in which Caldwell made the controversial decision to rest his starters after the team took a slim lead rather than keep them in to play for a chance at a 16–0 season. Indianapolis finished the season at 14–2 following a loss to the Buffalo Bills, in which they rested their starters and went on to advance to the Super Bowl, making them perfect in all their games in which their starters played all four quarters.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nCaldwell led the Colts to the Super Bowl the season after Tony Dungy retired, just like in Tampa Bay when Jon Gruden led the Bucs to Super Bowl XXXVII after Dungy was fired. Senior offensive line coach Howard Mudd retired following the game.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nPlayoffs","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nIndianapolis' first opponent was the Baltimore Ravens, a 9–7 squad that had advanced to the divisional round by beating the New England Patriots 33–14, forcing four turnovers from their all-pro quarterback Tom Brady. Against the Colts however, all they could manage was a field goal on their opening drive. Indianapolis built up a 17–3 first half lead with a Matt Stover field goal and Manning's touchdown passes to Wayne and Collie. In the second half, the Colts survived two interceptions from Baltimore safety Ed Reed on one drive, one of which Reed fumbled, and the other which was called back by a penalty. Stover, who spent 18 years with the Modell franchise, finished the drive with his second field goal to make final score 20–3, as their defense put the game away by forcing two consecutive turnovers.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nTheir next opponent was the Jets, who had made the playoffs in part due to Caldwell's decision to bench his starters in their Week 16 meeting. This time, the Colts would have to mount a comeback, as New York built up a 17–6 first half lead. Yet Indianapolis would step up to the challenge, scoring 24 unanswered points. First, Manning completed three passes to Collie for 80 yards, the last one a 16-yard touchdown completion to cut the score to 17–13 at the end of the half. Manning added two more touchdown passes in the second half, one to Garçon and one to Clark, and Stover added a 21-yard field goal to close out the scoring. Manning finished the game with 377 passing yards and three touchdowns, while Garçon and Collie had over 100 receiving yards each.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nMeanwhile, New Orleans started off their playoff run with a dominating 45–14 win over the defending NFC champion Arizona Cardinals. Arizona was coming off a 51–45 overtime win over the Green Bay Packers in which they racked up 531 yards against a defense ranked second in the league in total yards allowed. However, although Arizona scored on their first play of the game, New Orleans dominated the Cardinals with 35 points in the first half. First, Lynell Hamilton scored on a 1-yard run. Then, Sharper recovered a fumble from Arizona, setting up Brees' touchdown pass to Shockey. Following a punt, Bush scored on a franchise playoff record 46-yard run. In the second quarter, Brees added two more touchdown passes, one to Henderson on a flea flicker and the other to Colston that was set up by a Will Smith interception, giving them a 35–14 first half lead before adding 10 more points in the second half on a Hartley field goal and Bush's 83-yard punt return. Bush racked up 217 all-purpose yards, while Brees threw for 247 yards and three touchdowns.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nTheir opponent in the NFC championship game was the Minnesota Vikings, led by 11-time Pro Bowl quarterback Brett Favre, who had thrown four touchdown passes in their divisional round win over the Dallas Cowboys. Even though the Saints' offense could only muster 257 total yards, their defense made up for it by forcing five turnovers. Additionally, the Saints outgained the Vikings in punt and kickoff return yards 166 to 50. The key play of the game occurred late in the fourth quarter with the score tied 28–28 and the Vikings driving for a potential game-winning field goal. With less than a minute left, they reached the Saints 33-yard line. But after two runs for no gain and a penalty that pushed them back to the 38, Porter picked off a pass from Favre to send the game into overtime. After New Orleans won the coin toss, Pierre Thomas' 40-yard kickoff return set up a 10-play, 39-yard drive that ended with a game winning 40-yard field goal by Hartley, sending the Saints to their first ever Super Bowl.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThis is the first Super Bowl matchup in which both teams had a first-round bye since Super Bowl XXXIX. All four of the Super Bowls in-between had one team that played all three rounds (two of which were wild-card teams), with three of those teams (including the Colts in Super Bowl XLI) winning it all.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nBroadcasting","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nTelevision","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nUnited States","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe game was televised live in the United States on CBS, capping the network's 50th season of NFL coverage (1956–93; 1998–present). This was the 17th Super Bowl telecast for CBS, the largest total among the \"big four\" US television networks. CBS had also broadcast the previous Super Bowl held in South Florida (XLI). Play-by-play announcer Jim Nantz and color commentator Phil Simms were in the broadcast booth, with Steve Tasker and Solomon Wilcots serving as sideline reporters. The game was preceded by The Super Bowl Today, a four-hour pregame show hosted by James Brown and featuring analysts Dan Marino, Boomer Esiason, Shannon Sharpe and Bill Cowher along with several other commentators,[http://www.cbssports.com/cbssports/story/12879282/cbs-sports-super-bowl-today-features-set-for-super-bowl-xliv CBS Sports' \"Super Bowl Today\" features set for Super Bowl XLIV - CBSSports.com] which started at 2pm EST. A kickoff show for the game aired from 6pm EST to 6:28pm EST.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nWith an average US audience of 106.5 million viewers, this was the third most-watched Super Bowl, trailing only the 111 million viewers for Super Bowl XLV the following year and 111.3 million viewers for Super Bowl XLVI. At the time, it was the most-watched program of any kind in American television history, beating the 27-year-long record previously held by the final episode of M*A*S*H, \"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\", which coincidentally, also aired on CBS, and was watched by 105.97 million viewers. An estimated 153.4 million total viewers watched all or part of the game. The game drew a national Nielsen rating of 45.0 with a 68 share, the highest for a Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXX in 1996 (46.0/68). The telecast drew a 56.3 rating in New Orleans and a 54.2 rating in Indianapolis, first and fourth respectively among local markets.[http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/media_entertainment/super-bowl-xliv-most-watched-super-bowl-of-all-time/ Super Bowl XLIV most watched Super Bowl of all time/] Nielsen Blogs","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nCommercials","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nNotable returnees and absences","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nPerennial Super Bowl advertisers Anheuser–Busch InBev and CareerBuilder stated their commitment to advertise in Super Bowl XLIV, showing eight and two different spots during the game, respectively. A 30-second spot cost US $2.8million with several advertisers getting discounts, down from the previous year's $3million. All advertising slots were sold out on February 1, 2010, six days before the game. Pepsi-Cola had previously stated their commitment to advertise, but then said they would not be buying any commercial time, marking the first time in 23 years that Pepsi did not run an ad during the Super Bowl itself. FedEx also stated that they would not buy ad time. Both Pepsi and FedEx are official NFL sponsors. Coca-Cola and Dr Pepper Snapple Group capitalized on Pepsi's absence by buying ads in the game; Dr Pepper's ad featured KISS performing \"Calling Dr. Love\", while one of Coca-Cola's three ads featured Montgomery Burns (of FOX's The Simpsons) losing everything he owns. Also for the second straight year, one of the Big Three American automobile makers — General Motors — did not have a commercial in the game. Ford had one commercial for the Ford Edge featuring Mike Rowe.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nChrysler's Dodge brand did advertise this year for its Dodge Charger, narrated by Michael C. Hall.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nWhat aired","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nFrito-Lay's Doritos brand, in turn owned by PepsiCo, had four consumer-created advertisements scheduled. The first three ads – running in the first quarter – featured a sly dog using an anti-bark collar to his advantage to steal a man's Doritos, a fast-handed boy defending his Doritos and his mother from a potential suitor, and a man faking his death for free Doritos. The fourth ad, featuring an angry gym rat who was overprotective for his Doritos being stolen, aired in the fourth quarter. Had three of the ads topped the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter rankings, the commercial's creators would have won a total of US $5million ($1million for first, $600,000 for second and $400,000 for third, plus a $1million bonus for each of the three finalists). The previous year, Joe and David Herbert's \"Free Doritos\" ad topped the survey and won $1million. The United States Census Bureau spent $2.5million on a 30-second spot, directed by noted independent filmmaker Christopher Guest, for the 2010 United States Census, which urged Americans to answer its questionnaires that will be sent out in the next few weeks.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nMcDonald's aired a commercial, updating a famous ad from the early 1990s, in which NBA superstars LeBron James and Dwight Howard (replacing Michael Jordan and Larry Bird) play an otherworldly game of H-O-R-S-E, with a McDonald's lunch going to the winner – however, they soon look over and see that Bird has helped himself to it. Mars Chocolate returned three years after its controversial Snickers ad that was protested by gay groups with two men kissing one another that was pulled one day following the game (see Super Bowl XLI: Commercials). The commercial – winner of the annual Ad Meter survey – featured veteran actors Betty White and Abe Vigoda playing full-contact backyard football.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe rest of the Top Five:\n2. The aforementioned Doritos' amateur ad featuring a dog strapped to an anti-bark collar getting revenge on a teasing man.\n3. A Bud Light ad with a house completely made of beer cans of the sponsor's product.\n4. A Budweiser ad featuring the relationship between a Clydesdale and a Longhorn steer.\n5. Coca-Cola's man walking through an African savanna in the middle of the night.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe YouTube Top Five of their \"2010 Ad Blitz\" were:","Super Bowl XLIV\n\n# Another Doritos ad that showed a kid slapping his mom's suitor.\n# E-Trade's baby with his girlfriend.\n#The Doritos dog collar ad.\n#The Snickers Betty White/Abe Vigoda ad.\n# The Doritos commercial with the gym rat.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nADBOWL results reflected the following ranking:\n# Snickers: You’re Not You – Betty White & Abe Vigoda\n# Doritos: House Rules\n# Volkswagen: \"Punch Dub\" Game\n# Google: Parisian Love\n# Doritos: Underdog","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nInternet domain registrar GoDaddy, which created a racy ad the year after the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy, bought two ads in the Super Bowl for the sixth consecutive year. Advertising Age reported that Paramount Pictures bought a Super Bowl spot for the upcoming films Iron Man 2 and The Last Airbender. A trailer for the HBO miniseries The Pacific was also aired.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nOther advertisers for 2010 included Homeaway Inc., paying tribute to National Lampoon's Vacation with their stars Chevy Chase and Beverly D'Angelo, and Diamond Foods, who returned to promote both its Emerald Nuts brand and Pop Secret popcorn, which they bought from General Mills two years before. Boost Mobile aired a special ad, celebrating the 25th Anniversary of The Super Bowl Shuffle, featuring many of the 1985 Chicago Bears to advertise their US $50 per month service. Also, in a CBS-produced promo for the Late Show with David Letterman, the eponymous host and his longtime talk show rival, Jay Leno, appeared together with Oprah Winfrey.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nControversies","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThree advertisers in particular raised eyebrows with their choice to advertise during the Super Bowl. One new advertiser, Focus on the Family, aired a commercial featuring 2007 Heisman Trophy winner Tim Tebow and his mother that elicited criticism from some women's groups who demanded CBS cancel the ad because they claimed it would be divisive, under the impression that it would mention Tebow's mother was advised, for health issues, to abort her son Tim, but she chose to give birth to him. In the first quarter, CBS aired the advertisement, which had not been pre-released to the public. Per a statement released earlier, the ad did not mention the topic of abortion explicitly.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nOne proposed sponsor, ManCrunch, a gay dating site that bills itself as a place \"where many many many men come out to play\", had expressed interest in purchasing a 30-second advertisement. The ManCrunch advertisement would have depicted a male Green Bay Packers fan and a male Minnesota Vikings fan reaching into the same bowl of potato chips at the same time and, after a brief pause, begin to passionately kiss. ManCrunch's ad, which has since been released to the public, was initially put on a waiting list before the network outright rejected it due to it violating CBS's broadcast standards. ManCrunch immediately accused CBS of discrimination. Some observers suspect that their advertisement was an attempt at ambush marketing and free publicity. Another ad that was rejected by CBS for failure to meet standards was for the texting service kgb, which focuses on two men with CGI-enhanced images bent over with their heads in their posteriors, while an actor, Sean Gunn, portraying an agent stated that \"They had their head up their [backsides]\". kgb instead aired an ad with two people who had to find the Japanese word for \"I surrender\" before being run over by a sumo wrestler.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nAnother ad for Bud Light which was rejected showed workers stripping down for a charity clothes drive in exchange for free beer. All of the rejected ads were shown on YouTube.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nAmong other rejected or modified ads were one for Electronic Arts' Dante's Inferno, which had to be edited for content (the closing phrase, originally intended to read \"go to Hell\", was replaced with \"Hell awaits\"), and GoDaddy's originally planned advertisement. Career Builder's ad, showing people dressed too casually for \"Casual Friday\" and a Dockers ad to promote a free pair of their pants with men in shirts but sans trousers aired back-to-back early in the second quarter.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nAn E*TRADE advertisement, continuing their theme of talking babies on a Web cam, featured a boyfriend-stealing, \"milkaholic\" baby girl named \"Lindsay.\" Actress Lindsay Lohan, who has a history of alcoholism and was noted for having tried in the early 2000s (decade) to date popular young men who were already dating other women, attempted to sue E*TRADE over the advertisement, seeking US$100,000,000 in damages, under the impression that the advertisement defamed her via subliminal messaging and violated her personality rights. E*TRADE denied the allegations and stated the name \"Lindsay\" came from a member of the accounting staff. Lohan and E*TRADE settled the lawsuit in September 2010; the terms were confidential.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nInternational telecasts","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nViewers worldwide were able to watch on the following channels:\n*North America:\n*: CTV (English) and RDS (French) (subject to simsub due to CRTC mandates all cable/satellite providers to replace the American feed.)\n*: Televisa, TV Azteca (broadcasting in HD).\n*: Tropical Vision Limited, Great Belize Television.\n*: ESPN, Fox Sports Latin America.\n*: ESPN, Fox Sports Latin America.\n*: ESPN, Fox Sports Latin America.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\n*Oceania\n*: Fox Sports 3, ESPN, Channel Ten and One HD\n*: Sky Sport 2 and ESPN\n*Europe:\n*: Puls 4 started at 23:30 (CET)\n*: Prime Sport\n*: TV3+/TV3+ HD starting at 22:00 (CET)\n*: ESPN America.\n*: Nelonen Sport Pro and on Viasat Sport/Viasat Sport HD started at 00:00 (CET)\n*: W9\n*: ARD Das Erste started at 23:35 (CET)\n* : Nova Sports started 01:30 (EET)\n*: Sport 1\n* and : BBC One and on Sky Sports 1 and HD 1 at 10:55pm and 11pm (GMT)\n*: Rai Sport Più started at 22:00 (CET), Rai Due started at 00:15 (CET), broadcast also in HD in selected areas.\n*: NRK1 started at 23:15 (CET) and on Viasat Sport/Viasat Sport HD\n*: Polsat Sport/Polsat Sport HD started at 00:00 (CET)\n*: SportTV 2 and on SportTV HD started at 23:00 (WET)\n*: Sport 1 started 01:00 (EET)\n*: NTV Plus\n*: Šport TV 1\n*: Canal+\n*: TV6 No longer available on TV6. Super Bowl is broadcast on TV10 and on Viasat Sport/Viasat Sport HD started at 00:00 (CET).\n*: Turkey′′′: Fox Sports [Turkey] Spormax HD started 01.00 (EET)","Super Bowl XLIV\n\n*South America:\n*: ESPN\n*: ESPN and Esporte Interativo\n* and : ESPN, Fox Sports Latin America\n*: ESPN\n*: ESPN","Super Bowl XLIV\n\n*Asia:\n*: CCTV-5, G-Sports, Guangdong Sports, Sina TV\n*: ATV\n*: NHK, NTV","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nRadio","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nOn radio, Westwood One had the national English-language broadcast rights to the game in the United States and Canada. Marv Albert (play-by-play) and Boomer Esiason (color commentator) called the game for the network; it was the last broadcast Albert would do for Westwood One, due to his desire to focus on his basketball coverage duties. The teams' flagship stations also carried the game with their respective local announcers: WLHK-FM and WFNI-AM in Indianapolis (with Bob Lamey and Will Wolford announcing) and WWL-FM/AM in New Orleans (with Jim Henderson and Hokie Gajan announcing). Univision Radio aired a Spanish-language feed for Hispanophone American listeners (with Clemson Smith-Muñiz and David Crommett announcing).","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nSirius XM Satellite Radio carried 14 game feeds in ten languages to Sirius subscribers, as well as to XM subscribers with the \"Best of Sirius\" package. In addition to the four US feeds mentioned above, Sirius carried the following international feeds:","Super Bowl XLIV\n\n*: BBC Radio 5 Live (English; Arlo White announcing)\n*: Canal+ Spain (Spanish)\n*: NTV Plus (Russian)\n*: W9 (French)\n*: NHK (Japanese)\n*: ARD (German)\n*: RAI (Italian)\n*: Sport1 (Hungarian)\n*: Prime Sport (Dutch)\n*: Viasat (Danish)","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nFieldPass, the subscription Internet radio service provided by the league at NFL.com, also carried most of these feeds. Due to contractual restrictions, only Sirius XM and FieldPass were permitted to carry the local team broadcasts along with WLHK, WFNI and WWL, with the teams' other network radio affiliates instead airing the Westwood One feed.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nEntertainment and other ceremonies","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nPregame","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nBarenaked Ladies played the Super Bowl Saturday Night event with O.A.R. and Robert Randolph & The Family Band. Chris Daughtry, Steve Winwood and Queen Latifah performed during the Super Bowl pre-game tailgate party, which started at 2 p.m.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nCarrie Underwood sang the National Anthem and Queen Latifah sang \"America the Beautiful.\" Underwood's selection marks the third straight year that an alumnus of American Idol has been chosen to perform \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", joining Jordin Sparks at Super Bowl XLII and Jennifer Hudson a year later. Translation of both songs into American Sign Language was provided by Kinesha Battles, a student at the Florida School for the Deaf and Blind.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nTo commemorate the 15th anniversary of the San Francisco 49ers' fifth Super Bowl victory, which took place at this stadium, Jerry Rice, who had also been MVP of Super Bowl XXIII, another Super Bowl played at this stadium, joined the coin toss ceremonies. Rice had just been named to the Pro Football Hall of Fame Class of 2010. The rest of the class – Rickey Jackson, Dick LeBeau, Floyd Little, Russ Grimm, John Randle, and Emmitt Smith – were named the day before. The Saints won the coin toss, marking the 13th straight Super Bowl the NFC won the toss (the Cardinals won the toss in Super Bowl XLIII but elected to defer to the second half, giving the Steelers the ball to open the game).","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nHalftime","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe Who performed at the Super Bowl XLIV halftime show. The band played a medley of their hits, consisting of \"Pinball Wizard\", \"Baba O'Riley\", \"Who Are You\", \"See Me, Feel Me\", and \"Won't Get Fooled Again\". For the first time since the Super Bowl XXXIV halftime show, there was no crowd of fans surrounding the halftime stage. This performance was also released as downloadable content for the Rock Band series, named \"The Who Super Bowl S-mashup\".","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nMerchandising","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nRetailers had ordered much more New Orleans Saints merchandise prior to the game than they had ordered Colts merchandise. The NFL estimated that US$100million worth of Super Bowl merchandise would be sold.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nGame summary","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nFirst quarter","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe Saints won the toss and chose to receive, but their first possession resulted in a punt after going three-and-out.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe Colts offense took the field for the first time, with the ball spotted at their own 27-yard line. The Colts put together a drive that went 53 yards and resulted in a 38-yard field goal by kicker Matt Stover. At 42 years old, Stover became the oldest person in NFL history to play in a Super Bowl.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nFollowing the game's first score, Courtney Roby returned the ensuing kickoff to the New Orleans 26-yard line. Approaching the 25-yard line, Roby swooped into a dive and appeared to fumble the ball, but he was ruled down by contact. This time, the Saints managed to get a first down with a 16-yard completion from Drew Brees to Reggie Bush, but they were eventually forced to punt again. Punter Thomas Morstead pinned the Colts back at their own 4-yard line with a 46-yard kick.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nIndianapolis responded with a 96-yard scoring drive, tying the record for the longest drive in Super Bowl history. Joseph Addai rushed three times for 53 yards on the drive, while Manning completed three passes for 35 yards, the last one a 19-yard touchdown pass to Pierre Garçon, increasing the Colts lead to 10–0.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nSecond quarter","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe Saints' next drive carried over from the previous quarter. Brees completed three passes for 36 yards as the Saints advanced to the Colts' 22-yard line. But on third down, Brees was sacked for a 7-yard loss by Dwight Freeney, forcing New Orleans to settle for a 46-yard field goal from Garrett Hartley. After scoring points on their first 2 drives, the Colts looked to add more, but Garcon dropped a pass on 3rd down. The Colts were forced to punt and the Saints took over driving down into Colt territory. They drove down the field to a 1st-and-goal at the Colts' 3-yard line. A false start penalty set them back to the 8, and after getting a yard away from the end zone, they attempted 3rd and 4th down runs. They failed to convert both times. The Colts ran three straight running plays in an effort to wind down the clock and go to halftime with a seven-point lead, but the Saints kept the Colts from getting another first down.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nFollowing Bush's 4-yard punt return to the New Orleans 48, with only one timeout left to use in the half, the Saints got back into field goal territory, and Hartley hit a 44-yard field goal as time expired, with the Colts still leading 10–6. This was the first 10–6 halftime score in Super Bowl history.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThird quarter","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe Colts were set to receive the ball to start the second half, but were caught by surprise when the Saints executed an onside kick. This was the first onside kick attempted before the fourth quarter in Super Bowl history, a play the Saints referred to as \"Ambush.\" Thomas Morstead kicked the ball to his left, and after traveling almost 15 yards, the ball bounced off the facemask of the Colts' Hank Baskett, who failed to make a clean recovery. Several players dove for the loose ball, creating a pile that took over a minute for the officiating crew to separate. When the dust finally cleared, linebacker Jonathan Casillas of New Orleans was officially credited with the recovery on the 42-yard line, but Casillas and other Saints players insisted that it was actually safety Chris Reis who came up with the football. The Saints' offense took over and stormed down the field on an effective 58-yard drive in which they never faced a third down.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nBrees completed five consecutive passes for 58 yards on the drive and capped it off with a 'check-down' pass on the right side to Pierre Thomas, who took it 16 yards to the end zone behind blocks from Jonathan Goodwin, Jahri Evans, Devery Henderson, Kyle Eckel, Carl Nicks and Jeremy Shockey, to give the Saints their first lead of the game at 13–10.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nManning and the Colts answered with their own touchdown drive, moving the ball 76 yards in ten plays. Clark caught 3 passes for 45 yards, while Joseph Addai finished the drive off with a 4-yard touchdown run to put the Colts back on top 17–13 with 6:05 remaining in the quarter. For just the second time in Super Bowl history both teams scored touchdowns on their initial possessions of the second half; the only other time occurred in Super Bowl XIV.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nHartley would bring the Saints to within one point of tying the game at 17–16, with his third field goal, launched from 47 yards away. In doing so he became the first kicker in Super Bowl history to score three field goals of 40 or more yards in one game.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThis was the first one-point lead after the third quarter in Super Bowl history and second closest game after three quarters, behind Super Bowl XXXIX which was tied between the New England Patriots and Philadelphia Eagles.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nFourth quarter","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nIndianapolis responded with a drive to the New Orleans 33-yard line, only to have Stover miss a 51-yard field goal attempt, giving the ball back to the Saints with good field position on their 41-yard line. After that, Brees led the Saints on another touchdown drive featuring seven different players getting the ball. Bush started off the drive with a 12-yard run, and then Devery Henderson caught a pass on the Colts' 36-yard line. Following an 8-yard catch and run by Bush, Brees completed passes to Colston, Robert Meachem and tight end David Thomas, moving the ball to the 5-yard line. After a 3-yard run by Pierre Thomas, Brees threw a 2-yard touchdown pass to tight end Jeremy Shockey. Rather than settle for a six-point lead, and risk a potential Colts game-winning touchdown, the Saints chanced a two-point conversion. Lance Moore received a pass and attempted to stretch the ball out over the goal line as he fell to the ground and rolled over on his head. The ball was kicked away from his hands by defender Jacob Lacey, and the play was ruled an incomplete pass, prompting a coach's challenge from Sean Payton.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nAfter the review, the ruling on the field was overturned when it was determined that Moore maintained possession of the ball long enough and the ball had crossed the plane of the goal line for a successful conversion, giving the Saints a 24–17 advantage.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nOn the ensuing drive, Manning led the Colts into Saints territory; however, Tracy Porter intercepted a pass by Manning at the Saints 26 for the first takeaway of the game and returned it 74 yards for a touchdown; following the successful extra point, the Saints lead grew to 31–17 with 3:12 remaining. Porter's interception return for a touchdown improved teams to 10–0 in Super Bowls when returning an interception for a touchdown.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nNow down by two possessions, the Colts needed a touchdown on their next drive to stay alive, though they still had all three of their timeouts to use. They were able to drive to the New Orleans 3-yard line. When an offensive pass interference penalty on 1st and goal pushed them back 10 yards, the Colts got those 10 yards back on the next play. The next three plays saw a tipped pass that went off of the goal post and incomplete, a loss of two yards on a rushing play, and a pass that went through the hands of wide receiver Reggie Wayne and incomplete, effectively sealing the win for the Saints. Brees knelt the ball with 0:44 left on the clock, ending Super Bowl XLIV and winning the Saints' first league championship in franchise history.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nBox score","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nStatistical overview","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nDrew Brees was named Super Bowl MVP for tying a Super Bowl record by completing 32 of 39 passes, with 288 passing yards and two touchdowns. After the game, Brees said, \"Four years ago, who ever thought this would be happening when 85 percent of the city was under water? Most people left not knowing if New Orleans would ever come back, or if the organization would ever come back. We just all looked at one another and said, 'We are going to rebuild together. We are going to lean on each other.' This is the culmination in all that belief.\"","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nFinal statistics","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nSource: [http://www.nfl.com/gamecenter/2010020700/2009/POST22/saints@colts#menuhighlights&tab\nanalyze NFL.com Super Bowl XLIV]","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nStatistical comparison","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nIndividual leaders","Super Bowl XLIV\n\n1Completions/attempts\n2Carries\n3Long gain\n4Receptions\n5Tackles\n6Forced Fumbles","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nSuper Bowl records","Super Bowl XLIV\n\n*New Orleans recorded the first successful onside kick attempt in a Super Bowl outside of the fourth quarter. *Indianapolis' place kicker Matt Stover became the oldest player to participate, as well as to score, in a Super Bowl at 42 years and 11 days of age. *New Orleans' place kicker Garrett Hartley became the first kicker in Super Bowl history to kick three field goals of 40 or more yards. *New Orleans' victory marked the sixth straight win by the team wearing its white jersey. *New Orleans quarterback Drew Brees had the second highest completion percentage in Super Bowl history (Phil Simms in Super Bowl XXI has the highest.) Brees also tied the mark for most completions in a Super Bowl, with 32. Drew Brees then broke the record when he made a 33rd pass completion in the game on a two-point conversion pass to Lance Moore in the 4th quarter. *This was the first Super Bowl played in Sun Life Stadium not to have a kickoff returned for a touchdown; because the Colts did not have a return TD, they also became the 1st team ever to lose a Super Bowl at Sun Life without achieving that.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\n*New Orleans became the third team to win the Super Bowl after trailing at halftime AND failing to score a first-half touchdown. The New York Giants in Super Bowl XLII and the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl XXVIII are the only other two teams to do so. *The Saints' 25 points in the second half is the fourth highest total in Super Bowl history. The New York Giants scored 30 in Super Bowl XXI while 28 was scored by both the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl XXIV and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Super Bowl XXXVII. *The Saints also became the seventh team to win a Super Bowl after trailing to start the fourth quarter. The others to do so were: the Giants in Super Bowl XLII, the 49ers in Super Bowl XXIII, the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XVII, the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowls X and XIV and the Colts in Super Bowl V. *Brees and Peyton Manning combined for a Super Bowl record 75% completion rate (63 of 84). They also accounted for the most combined pass completions in a Super Bowl, with 63.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\n*The Colts became just the sixth team to score 10 or more points in the first quarter and lose the game, joining the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI, Miami Dolphins in Super Bowl XIX, the Denver Broncos in both Super Bowls XXI and XXII, and the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XXXI\n*Having been down 10 points in the first quarter, the Saints tied a record for the biggest comeback win in Super Bowl history, set in Super Bowl XXII when the Washington Redskins faced a 10-point first quarter deficit of their own. * The Saints are the 9th team to win the Super Bowl on their first attempt. The others are the Green Bay Packers of Super Bowl I, the New York Jets of Super Bowl III, the Pittsburgh Steelers of Super Bowl IX, the San Francisco 49ers of Super Bowl XVI, the Chicago Bears of Super Bowl XX, the New York Giants of Super Bowl XXI, the Baltimore Ravens of Super Bowl XXXV, and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers of Super Bowl XXXVII.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nStarting lineups","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nSource: [http://www.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/54814/IND_Gamebook.pdf NFL.com Super Bowl XLIV Gamebook]","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nAftermath","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe Saints finished the next season with an 11-5 record, but failed to defend their league title after they were eliminated by the Seattle Seahawks in the Wild Card playoff round. Super Bowl XLIV later became the subject of the wider New Orleans Saints bounty scandal, also known as \"Bountygate\", in which the NFL alleged in 2012 that several Saints defenders operated a slush fund that was in operation from the 2009 season and Super Bowl XLIV, through 2011. This alleged slush fund paid out bonuses, or \"bounties\", for in-game performance in violation of NFL rules, including deliberately injuring or knocking opposing players out of games. The league responded with some of the most severe sanctions in the league's 92-year history, and among the most severe punishments for an on-field incident in North American professional sports history. In 2012, New Orleans failed to make the playoffs for the first time since their Super Bowl win, with the sanctions for Bountygate cited as one of the primary causes. The Saints rebounded in 2013, but were eliminated in the Divisional playoff round by the eventual Super Bowl XLVIII champion Seahawks.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThus, New Orleans have not advanced to the Conference Championship Game since Super Bowl XLIV.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nThe game was the first of three straight playoff losses for the Colts. The team would not win another playoff game until their comeback win at home against the Kansas City Chiefs in the Wildcard Round of the 2013 playoffs. They also would not advance to the Conference Championship Game until the 2014 playoffs. Peyton Manning would later suffer a neck injury that kept him out of the 2011 season. The Colts fell to 2–14 in 2011, causing the team to release Manning, and fire Jim Caldwell and most of its coaching and front office staff. With the first pick in the 2012 NFL Draft, the Colts selected Andrew Luck, quarterback from Stanford. Manning then signed with the Denver Broncos, and later led Denver to a Super Bowl XLVIII loss after the 2013 regular season and two seasons later, a Super Bowl 50 win after the 2015 regular season.","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nOfficials","Super Bowl XLIV\n\n*Referee – Scott Green (#19)\n*Umpire – Undrey Wash (#96)\n*Head Linesman – John McGrath (#5)\n*Line Judge – Jeff Seeman (#45)\n*Field Judge – Rob Vernatchi (#75)\n*Side Judge – Greg Meyer (#78)\n*Back Judge – Greg Steed (#12)\n*Alternate Referee – Gene Steratore\n*Alternate Umpire – Ruben Fowler\n*Alternate Flank – Jim Mello\n*Alternate Deep – Jeff Lamberth\n*Alternate Back Judge – Kirk Dornan","Super Bowl XLIV\n\nGame time and weather conditions","Super Bowl XLIV\n\n* Kickoff was at 6:32 p.m. EST (23:32 UTC).\n* Weather at kickoff was 66 °F, clear.\n* Game length was 3 hrs. 14 min."],"string":"[\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nSuper Bowl XLIV was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion New Orleans Saints and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Indianapolis Colts to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2009 season. The Saints defeated the Colts by a score of 31–17, earning their first Super Bowl win. The game was played at Sun Life Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida for the fifth time (and in South Florida for the tenth time), on February 7, 2010, the latest calendar date for a Super Bowl yet.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThis was the Saints' first Super Bowl appearance and the fourth for the Colts franchise, their second appearance in four seasons. The Saints entered the game with a 13–3 record for the 2009 regular season, compared to the Colts' 14–2 record. In the playoff games, both teams placed first in their respective conferences, marking the first time since Super Bowl XXVIII (16 years previously) that both number one seeds have reached the Super Bowl. The Colts entered the Super Bowl off victories over the Baltimore Ravens and New York Jets, while the Saints advanced after defeating the previous year's runners up the Arizona Cardinals and then overcoming the Minnesota Vikings in the Conference Championship. It was also the first time both teams started out with a thirteen-game winning streak.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nDown 10–6 at halftime of Super Bowl XLIV, in what many consider the turning point of the game, New Orleans successfully recovered a surprise onside kick on the second half kickoff, then took their first lead of the game on Pierre Thomas' 16-yard touchdown reception. The Colts responded with Joseph Addai's 4-yard touchdown run to regain the lead at 17-13. The Saints then scored 18 unanswered points, including Tracy Porter's 74-yard interception return for a touchdown, to clinch the victory. New Orleans quarterback Drew Brees, who completed 32 of 39 passes for 288 yards and two touchdowns, was named the Super Bowl MVP. His 32 completions tied a Super Bowl record set by Tom Brady in Super Bowl XXXVIII.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe live broadcast of the game on CBS was watched by an average US audience of 106.5 million viewers, making it the then-third most-watched Super Bowl. The National Anthem was sung by Carrie Underwood and the halftime show featured the British rock band The Who.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nBackground\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nHost selection process\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe league initially voted on March 23, 2005, that New York City host the game, contingent on the completion of the proposed West Side Stadium being built for the New York Jets by 2008. After New York state government officials declined to approve $400million for the stadium, the NFL decided to reopen the bidding for the game's site. The league reconsidered the other, unsuccessful candidates for Super Bowl XLIII: Atlanta, Houston, and Miami. On October 6, 2006, the league selected Miami as the host city.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThis was the tenth time the Super Bowl has been held in the Miami Metro area at the home stadium of the Miami Dolphins: the now-Sun Life Stadium had hosted four previous Super Bowls (XXIII, XXIX, XXXIII, and XLI) and five were played in the Dolphins' now demolished former home, the Miami Orange Bowl (II, III, V, X, XIII). The Colts franchise was playing its 4th Super Bowl, all of which were played in Miami. Two at the Orange Bowl and two at Sun Life Stadium. They are the only franchise to play all of its Super Bowls in the same city and the second to play two or more Super Bowls in two different stadiums (joining the Broncos who played two at Qualcomm Stadium in San Diego and two at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nWith Tampa as the host of Super Bowl XLIII, Super Bowl XLIV also marked the third time that consecutive Super Bowls have been played in the same state. Super Bowls II and III were both played at the Orange Bowl. Super Bowls XXI and XXII were both played in California: XXI at Pasadena's Rose Bowl Stadium and XXII at San Diego's Jack Murphy Stadium.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nMiami became the first city to host two Super Bowls designated as a National Special Security Event (NSSE). In the wake of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, every Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXXVI has been designated as an NSSE. Super Bowl XLI was Miami's first Super Bowl designated as an NSSE.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nPro Bowl changes\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe 2010 Pro Bowl was played on January 31, during the off-week between the conference championships and the Super Bowl, breaking with the precedent of scheduling the game for the Sunday after the Super Bowl. The game also changed venues from Aloha Stadium in Honolulu, Hawaii, where it had been held since 1979, to Sun Life Stadium in Miami (the same city and stadium hosting the Super Bowl itself). Fourteen players from the Super Bowl participants, seven from each team, had been selected but were unable to participate due to the change. The new schedule took advantage of the bye week given to the conference champions to rest and prepare for the Super Bowl. The NFL has indicated this may not be a permanent transition, and has discussed a possible rotating location for the Pro Bowl in the future. The game has been played in Hawaii every year since 2011.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe move also meant that the Pro Bowl, which was won by the AFC by a score of 41–34, would avoid competing against the 2010 NBA All-Star Game, the second full day of competition in the 2010 Winter Olympics, and the 52nd running of the Daytona 500, as would have been the case had the game been played on February 14 per its traditional post-Super Bowl scheduling.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nTeams\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nNew Orleans Saints\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe New Orleans Saints finished the season with an NFC best 13–3 record and went on to advance to the first Super Bowl in their 43 years as an NFL team. After joining the NFL in 1967, it took them 21 years to record their first winning season and another 13 years after that to win their first playoff game. Five years later, the New Orleans area suffered another setback when the Louisiana Superdome was devastated with the rest of the city by Hurricane Katrina, forcing them to play all of their home games in elsewhere as they finished with a 3–13 record (see Effect of Hurricane Katrina on the New Orleans Saints). But in the offseason, the team's fortunes began to turn. First, they signed free agent quarterback Drew Brees, who would go on to throw for more passing yards than any other quarterback over the next four seasons. They also drafted multi-talented Heisman Trophy winning (since vacated) running back Reggie Bush, receiver Marques Colston, and guard Jahri Evans, three players who would become major contributors on the Saints' offense.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe following season, New Orleans improved to 10–6 and advanced to the NFC title game for the first time, which they lost to the Chicago Bears. Although they failed to make the playoffs over the next two seasons, they continued to sign new talent, and by 2009 they were ready to make another run at the Super Bowl.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe Saints' offense led the NFL in scoring, averaging just under 32 points per game. Brees finished the season as the NFL's top rated quarterback (109.6), completing an NFL-record 70.6% of his passes for 4,338 yards and 34 touchdowns, with just 11 interceptions. His top target was Colston, who caught 70 passes for 1,074 yards and 9 touchdowns, but he had plenty of other weapons, such as receivers Devery Henderson (51 receptions) and Robert Meachem (45), along with tight ends Jeremy Shockey (48) and Dave Thomas (35). With fullback Heath Evans out of action due to injury for most of the season, Dave Thomas often lined up as a fullback, with tackle Zach Strief serving as an extra blocker on short yardage plays. The ground attack was led by running backs Pierre Thomas and Mike Bell. Thomas rushed for 793 yards and caught 39 passes for 302, while Bell added 654 yards on the ground. Bush was also a major contributor, rushing for 390 yards (with a 5.6 yards per carry average), catching 47 passes for 335 yards, and adding another 130 yards returning punts.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nNew Orleans also had a strong offensive line with three Pro Bowl selections: guard Jahri Evans, center Jonathan Goodwin, and tackle Jon Stinchcomb.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nDefensive lineman Will Smith led the team in sacks with 13. Another big weapon on defense was linebacker Jonathan Vilma, who led the team with 87 tackles and intercepted three passes. The Saints' secondary was led by 12-year veteran safety Darren Sharper, who recorded 9 interceptions and set an NFL record by returning them for 376 yards and three touchdowns. Cornerback Tracy Porter was also effective, recording 49 tackles and 4 picks with one touchdown.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe Saints started out the season strong, winning their first 13 games. But then they became the first 13–0 team ever to lose their last three games of the year. After losing their 14th game to the Dallas Cowboys 24–17, they suffered a narrow loss to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (20–17 in overtime) after Garrett Hartley missed a potential game winning field goal. With the team's playoff seed clinched, Head Coach Sean Payton chose to rest Brees and other starters in the final game of the season, resulting in a 23–10 loss to the Carolina Panthers. The string of defeats cast a cloud over the team's postseason chances. Still, they clinched the #1 NFC playoff seed and scored 76 points in their two playoff wins en route to their first ever Super Bowl.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nIndianapolis Colts\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nIndianapolis had the NFL-best 14–2 record, winning seven games by less than a touchdown,[http://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/clt/2009.htm 2009 Indianapolis Colts Statistics & Players - Pro-Football-Reference.com] on their way to earning their second Super Bowl appearance in the last four years. Once again, the Colts boasted a powerful offense led by 10-time Pro Bowl quarterback Peyton Manning, who threw for over 4,500 yards and 33 touchdowns during the season, with only 16 interceptions, earning him a 99.9 passer rating and a league record fourth National Football League Most Valuable Player Award. Under the protection of Pro Bowl center Jeff Saturday and the rest of the line, Manning had been sacked just 13 times during the regular season, the fewest in the NFL. His top targets were veteran receiver Reggie Wayne and tight end Dallas Clark, who both recorded 100 receptions and 10 touchdowns. Wayne led the team with 1,260 yards, while Clark was second with 1,106. Manning also had other reliable targets, such as recently drafted receivers Austin Collie (60 receptions for 676 yards and 7 touchdowns) and Pierre Garçon (47 receptions for 765 yards and 4 touchdowns).\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nRunning back Joseph Addai led the Colts' ground game with 821 rushing yards and 10 touchdowns, while also catching 51 passes for another 336 yards and 3 scores.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nIndianapolis' defensive line was led by Pro Bowl defensive ends Robert Mathis and Dwight Freeney. Freeney led the team with 13.5 sacks, while Mathis added 9.5 sacks and forced 5 fumbles. Behind them, the Colts had a solid corps of linebackers featuring Clint Session and Gary Brackett, who each recorded 80 tackles. Pro Bowl safety Antoine Bethea led the secondary with 70 tackles and four interceptions.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nUnder their new coach Jim Caldwell, the Colts started off the season with 14 consecutive wins before suffering their first loss to the New York Jets, 29–15, a game in which Caldwell made the controversial decision to rest his starters after the team took a slim lead rather than keep them in to play for a chance at a 16–0 season. Indianapolis finished the season at 14–2 following a loss to the Buffalo Bills, in which they rested their starters and went on to advance to the Super Bowl, making them perfect in all their games in which their starters played all four quarters.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nCaldwell led the Colts to the Super Bowl the season after Tony Dungy retired, just like in Tampa Bay when Jon Gruden led the Bucs to Super Bowl XXXVII after Dungy was fired. Senior offensive line coach Howard Mudd retired following the game.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nPlayoffs\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nIndianapolis' first opponent was the Baltimore Ravens, a 9–7 squad that had advanced to the divisional round by beating the New England Patriots 33–14, forcing four turnovers from their all-pro quarterback Tom Brady. Against the Colts however, all they could manage was a field goal on their opening drive. Indianapolis built up a 17–3 first half lead with a Matt Stover field goal and Manning's touchdown passes to Wayne and Collie. In the second half, the Colts survived two interceptions from Baltimore safety Ed Reed on one drive, one of which Reed fumbled, and the other which was called back by a penalty. Stover, who spent 18 years with the Modell franchise, finished the drive with his second field goal to make final score 20–3, as their defense put the game away by forcing two consecutive turnovers.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nTheir next opponent was the Jets, who had made the playoffs in part due to Caldwell's decision to bench his starters in their Week 16 meeting. This time, the Colts would have to mount a comeback, as New York built up a 17–6 first half lead. Yet Indianapolis would step up to the challenge, scoring 24 unanswered points. First, Manning completed three passes to Collie for 80 yards, the last one a 16-yard touchdown completion to cut the score to 17–13 at the end of the half. Manning added two more touchdown passes in the second half, one to Garçon and one to Clark, and Stover added a 21-yard field goal to close out the scoring. Manning finished the game with 377 passing yards and three touchdowns, while Garçon and Collie had over 100 receiving yards each.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nMeanwhile, New Orleans started off their playoff run with a dominating 45–14 win over the defending NFC champion Arizona Cardinals. Arizona was coming off a 51–45 overtime win over the Green Bay Packers in which they racked up 531 yards against a defense ranked second in the league in total yards allowed. However, although Arizona scored on their first play of the game, New Orleans dominated the Cardinals with 35 points in the first half. First, Lynell Hamilton scored on a 1-yard run. Then, Sharper recovered a fumble from Arizona, setting up Brees' touchdown pass to Shockey. Following a punt, Bush scored on a franchise playoff record 46-yard run. In the second quarter, Brees added two more touchdown passes, one to Henderson on a flea flicker and the other to Colston that was set up by a Will Smith interception, giving them a 35–14 first half lead before adding 10 more points in the second half on a Hartley field goal and Bush's 83-yard punt return. Bush racked up 217 all-purpose yards, while Brees threw for 247 yards and three touchdowns.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nTheir opponent in the NFC championship game was the Minnesota Vikings, led by 11-time Pro Bowl quarterback Brett Favre, who had thrown four touchdown passes in their divisional round win over the Dallas Cowboys. Even though the Saints' offense could only muster 257 total yards, their defense made up for it by forcing five turnovers. Additionally, the Saints outgained the Vikings in punt and kickoff return yards 166 to 50. The key play of the game occurred late in the fourth quarter with the score tied 28–28 and the Vikings driving for a potential game-winning field goal. With less than a minute left, they reached the Saints 33-yard line. But after two runs for no gain and a penalty that pushed them back to the 38, Porter picked off a pass from Favre to send the game into overtime. After New Orleans won the coin toss, Pierre Thomas' 40-yard kickoff return set up a 10-play, 39-yard drive that ended with a game winning 40-yard field goal by Hartley, sending the Saints to their first ever Super Bowl.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThis is the first Super Bowl matchup in which both teams had a first-round bye since Super Bowl XXXIX. All four of the Super Bowls in-between had one team that played all three rounds (two of which were wild-card teams), with three of those teams (including the Colts in Super Bowl XLI) winning it all.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nBroadcasting\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nTelevision\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nUnited States\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe game was televised live in the United States on CBS, capping the network's 50th season of NFL coverage (1956–93; 1998–present). This was the 17th Super Bowl telecast for CBS, the largest total among the \\\"big four\\\" US television networks. CBS had also broadcast the previous Super Bowl held in South Florida (XLI). Play-by-play announcer Jim Nantz and color commentator Phil Simms were in the broadcast booth, with Steve Tasker and Solomon Wilcots serving as sideline reporters. The game was preceded by The Super Bowl Today, a four-hour pregame show hosted by James Brown and featuring analysts Dan Marino, Boomer Esiason, Shannon Sharpe and Bill Cowher along with several other commentators,[http://www.cbssports.com/cbssports/story/12879282/cbs-sports-super-bowl-today-features-set-for-super-bowl-xliv CBS Sports' \\\"Super Bowl Today\\\" features set for Super Bowl XLIV - CBSSports.com] which started at 2pm EST. A kickoff show for the game aired from 6pm EST to 6:28pm EST.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nWith an average US audience of 106.5 million viewers, this was the third most-watched Super Bowl, trailing only the 111 million viewers for Super Bowl XLV the following year and 111.3 million viewers for Super Bowl XLVI. At the time, it was the most-watched program of any kind in American television history, beating the 27-year-long record previously held by the final episode of M*A*S*H, \\\"Goodbye, Farewell and Amen\\\", which coincidentally, also aired on CBS, and was watched by 105.97 million viewers. An estimated 153.4 million total viewers watched all or part of the game. The game drew a national Nielsen rating of 45.0 with a 68 share, the highest for a Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXX in 1996 (46.0/68). The telecast drew a 56.3 rating in New Orleans and a 54.2 rating in Indianapolis, first and fourth respectively among local markets.[http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/media_entertainment/super-bowl-xliv-most-watched-super-bowl-of-all-time/ Super Bowl XLIV most watched Super Bowl of all time/] Nielsen Blogs\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nCommercials\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nNotable returnees and absences\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nPerennial Super Bowl advertisers Anheuser–Busch InBev and CareerBuilder stated their commitment to advertise in Super Bowl XLIV, showing eight and two different spots during the game, respectively. A 30-second spot cost US $2.8million with several advertisers getting discounts, down from the previous year's $3million. All advertising slots were sold out on February 1, 2010, six days before the game. Pepsi-Cola had previously stated their commitment to advertise, but then said they would not be buying any commercial time, marking the first time in 23 years that Pepsi did not run an ad during the Super Bowl itself. FedEx also stated that they would not buy ad time. Both Pepsi and FedEx are official NFL sponsors. Coca-Cola and Dr Pepper Snapple Group capitalized on Pepsi's absence by buying ads in the game; Dr Pepper's ad featured KISS performing \\\"Calling Dr. Love\\\", while one of Coca-Cola's three ads featured Montgomery Burns (of FOX's The Simpsons) losing everything he owns. Also for the second straight year, one of the Big Three American automobile makers — General Motors — did not have a commercial in the game. Ford had one commercial for the Ford Edge featuring Mike Rowe.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nChrysler's Dodge brand did advertise this year for its Dodge Charger, narrated by Michael C. Hall.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nWhat aired\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nFrito-Lay's Doritos brand, in turn owned by PepsiCo, had four consumer-created advertisements scheduled. The first three ads – running in the first quarter – featured a sly dog using an anti-bark collar to his advantage to steal a man's Doritos, a fast-handed boy defending his Doritos and his mother from a potential suitor, and a man faking his death for free Doritos. The fourth ad, featuring an angry gym rat who was overprotective for his Doritos being stolen, aired in the fourth quarter. Had three of the ads topped the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter rankings, the commercial's creators would have won a total of US $5million ($1million for first, $600,000 for second and $400,000 for third, plus a $1million bonus for each of the three finalists). The previous year, Joe and David Herbert's \\\"Free Doritos\\\" ad topped the survey and won $1million. The United States Census Bureau spent $2.5million on a 30-second spot, directed by noted independent filmmaker Christopher Guest, for the 2010 United States Census, which urged Americans to answer its questionnaires that will be sent out in the next few weeks.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nMcDonald's aired a commercial, updating a famous ad from the early 1990s, in which NBA superstars LeBron James and Dwight Howard (replacing Michael Jordan and Larry Bird) play an otherworldly game of H-O-R-S-E, with a McDonald's lunch going to the winner – however, they soon look over and see that Bird has helped himself to it. Mars Chocolate returned three years after its controversial Snickers ad that was protested by gay groups with two men kissing one another that was pulled one day following the game (see Super Bowl XLI: Commercials). The commercial – winner of the annual Ad Meter survey – featured veteran actors Betty White and Abe Vigoda playing full-contact backyard football.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe rest of the Top Five:\\n2. The aforementioned Doritos' amateur ad featuring a dog strapped to an anti-bark collar getting revenge on a teasing man.\\n3. A Bud Light ad with a house completely made of beer cans of the sponsor's product.\\n4. A Budweiser ad featuring the relationship between a Clydesdale and a Longhorn steer.\\n5. Coca-Cola's man walking through an African savanna in the middle of the night.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe YouTube Top Five of their \\\"2010 Ad Blitz\\\" were:\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\n# Another Doritos ad that showed a kid slapping his mom's suitor.\\n# E-Trade's baby with his girlfriend.\\n#The Doritos dog collar ad.\\n#The Snickers Betty White/Abe Vigoda ad.\\n# The Doritos commercial with the gym rat.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nADBOWL results reflected the following ranking:\\n# Snickers: You’re Not You – Betty White & Abe Vigoda\\n# Doritos: House Rules\\n# Volkswagen: \\\"Punch Dub\\\" Game\\n# Google: Parisian Love\\n# Doritos: Underdog\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nInternet domain registrar GoDaddy, which created a racy ad the year after the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy, bought two ads in the Super Bowl for the sixth consecutive year. Advertising Age reported that Paramount Pictures bought a Super Bowl spot for the upcoming films Iron Man 2 and The Last Airbender. A trailer for the HBO miniseries The Pacific was also aired.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nOther advertisers for 2010 included Homeaway Inc., paying tribute to National Lampoon's Vacation with their stars Chevy Chase and Beverly D'Angelo, and Diamond Foods, who returned to promote both its Emerald Nuts brand and Pop Secret popcorn, which they bought from General Mills two years before. Boost Mobile aired a special ad, celebrating the 25th Anniversary of The Super Bowl Shuffle, featuring many of the 1985 Chicago Bears to advertise their US $50 per month service. Also, in a CBS-produced promo for the Late Show with David Letterman, the eponymous host and his longtime talk show rival, Jay Leno, appeared together with Oprah Winfrey.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nControversies\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThree advertisers in particular raised eyebrows with their choice to advertise during the Super Bowl. One new advertiser, Focus on the Family, aired a commercial featuring 2007 Heisman Trophy winner Tim Tebow and his mother that elicited criticism from some women's groups who demanded CBS cancel the ad because they claimed it would be divisive, under the impression that it would mention Tebow's mother was advised, for health issues, to abort her son Tim, but she chose to give birth to him. In the first quarter, CBS aired the advertisement, which had not been pre-released to the public. Per a statement released earlier, the ad did not mention the topic of abortion explicitly.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nOne proposed sponsor, ManCrunch, a gay dating site that bills itself as a place \\\"where many many many men come out to play\\\", had expressed interest in purchasing a 30-second advertisement. The ManCrunch advertisement would have depicted a male Green Bay Packers fan and a male Minnesota Vikings fan reaching into the same bowl of potato chips at the same time and, after a brief pause, begin to passionately kiss. ManCrunch's ad, which has since been released to the public, was initially put on a waiting list before the network outright rejected it due to it violating CBS's broadcast standards. ManCrunch immediately accused CBS of discrimination. Some observers suspect that their advertisement was an attempt at ambush marketing and free publicity. Another ad that was rejected by CBS for failure to meet standards was for the texting service kgb, which focuses on two men with CGI-enhanced images bent over with their heads in their posteriors, while an actor, Sean Gunn, portraying an agent stated that \\\"They had their head up their [backsides]\\\". kgb instead aired an ad with two people who had to find the Japanese word for \\\"I surrender\\\" before being run over by a sumo wrestler.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nAnother ad for Bud Light which was rejected showed workers stripping down for a charity clothes drive in exchange for free beer. All of the rejected ads were shown on YouTube.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nAmong other rejected or modified ads were one for Electronic Arts' Dante's Inferno, which had to be edited for content (the closing phrase, originally intended to read \\\"go to Hell\\\", was replaced with \\\"Hell awaits\\\"), and GoDaddy's originally planned advertisement. Career Builder's ad, showing people dressed too casually for \\\"Casual Friday\\\" and a Dockers ad to promote a free pair of their pants with men in shirts but sans trousers aired back-to-back early in the second quarter.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nAn E*TRADE advertisement, continuing their theme of talking babies on a Web cam, featured a boyfriend-stealing, \\\"milkaholic\\\" baby girl named \\\"Lindsay.\\\" Actress Lindsay Lohan, who has a history of alcoholism and was noted for having tried in the early 2000s (decade) to date popular young men who were already dating other women, attempted to sue E*TRADE over the advertisement, seeking US$100,000,000 in damages, under the impression that the advertisement defamed her via subliminal messaging and violated her personality rights. E*TRADE denied the allegations and stated the name \\\"Lindsay\\\" came from a member of the accounting staff. Lohan and E*TRADE settled the lawsuit in September 2010; the terms were confidential.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nInternational telecasts\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nViewers worldwide were able to watch on the following channels:\\n*North America:\\n*: CTV (English) and RDS (French) (subject to simsub due to CRTC mandates all cable/satellite providers to replace the American feed.)\\n*: Televisa, TV Azteca (broadcasting in HD).\\n*: Tropical Vision Limited, Great Belize Television.\\n*: ESPN, Fox Sports Latin America.\\n*: ESPN, Fox Sports Latin America.\\n*: ESPN, Fox Sports Latin America.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\n*Oceania\\n*: Fox Sports 3, ESPN, Channel Ten and One HD\\n*: Sky Sport 2 and ESPN\\n*Europe:\\n*: Puls 4 started at 23:30 (CET)\\n*: Prime Sport\\n*: TV3+/TV3+ HD starting at 22:00 (CET)\\n*: ESPN America.\\n*: Nelonen Sport Pro and on Viasat Sport/Viasat Sport HD started at 00:00 (CET)\\n*: W9\\n*: ARD Das Erste started at 23:35 (CET)\\n* : Nova Sports started 01:30 (EET)\\n*: Sport 1\\n* and : BBC One and on Sky Sports 1 and HD 1 at 10:55pm and 11pm (GMT)\\n*: Rai Sport Più started at 22:00 (CET), Rai Due started at 00:15 (CET), broadcast also in HD in selected areas.\\n*: NRK1 started at 23:15 (CET) and on Viasat Sport/Viasat Sport HD\\n*: Polsat Sport/Polsat Sport HD started at 00:00 (CET)\\n*: SportTV 2 and on SportTV HD started at 23:00 (WET)\\n*: Sport 1 started 01:00 (EET)\\n*: NTV Plus\\n*: Šport TV 1\\n*: Canal+\\n*: TV6 No longer available on TV6. Super Bowl is broadcast on TV10 and on Viasat Sport/Viasat Sport HD started at 00:00 (CET).\\n*: Turkey′′′: Fox Sports [Turkey] Spormax HD started 01.00 (EET)\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\n*South America:\\n*: ESPN\\n*: ESPN and Esporte Interativo\\n* and : ESPN, Fox Sports Latin America\\n*: ESPN\\n*: ESPN\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\n*Asia:\\n*: CCTV-5, G-Sports, Guangdong Sports, Sina TV\\n*: ATV\\n*: NHK, NTV\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nRadio\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nOn radio, Westwood One had the national English-language broadcast rights to the game in the United States and Canada. Marv Albert (play-by-play) and Boomer Esiason (color commentator) called the game for the network; it was the last broadcast Albert would do for Westwood One, due to his desire to focus on his basketball coverage duties. The teams' flagship stations also carried the game with their respective local announcers: WLHK-FM and WFNI-AM in Indianapolis (with Bob Lamey and Will Wolford announcing) and WWL-FM/AM in New Orleans (with Jim Henderson and Hokie Gajan announcing). Univision Radio aired a Spanish-language feed for Hispanophone American listeners (with Clemson Smith-Muñiz and David Crommett announcing).\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nSirius XM Satellite Radio carried 14 game feeds in ten languages to Sirius subscribers, as well as to XM subscribers with the \\\"Best of Sirius\\\" package. In addition to the four US feeds mentioned above, Sirius carried the following international feeds:\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\n*: BBC Radio 5 Live (English; Arlo White announcing)\\n*: Canal+ Spain (Spanish)\\n*: NTV Plus (Russian)\\n*: W9 (French)\\n*: NHK (Japanese)\\n*: ARD (German)\\n*: RAI (Italian)\\n*: Sport1 (Hungarian)\\n*: Prime Sport (Dutch)\\n*: Viasat (Danish)\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nFieldPass, the subscription Internet radio service provided by the league at NFL.com, also carried most of these feeds. Due to contractual restrictions, only Sirius XM and FieldPass were permitted to carry the local team broadcasts along with WLHK, WFNI and WWL, with the teams' other network radio affiliates instead airing the Westwood One feed.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nEntertainment and other ceremonies\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nPregame\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nBarenaked Ladies played the Super Bowl Saturday Night event with O.A.R. and Robert Randolph & The Family Band. Chris Daughtry, Steve Winwood and Queen Latifah performed during the Super Bowl pre-game tailgate party, which started at 2 p.m.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nCarrie Underwood sang the National Anthem and Queen Latifah sang \\\"America the Beautiful.\\\" Underwood's selection marks the third straight year that an alumnus of American Idol has been chosen to perform \\\"The Star-Spangled Banner\\\", joining Jordin Sparks at Super Bowl XLII and Jennifer Hudson a year later. Translation of both songs into American Sign Language was provided by Kinesha Battles, a student at the Florida School for the Deaf and Blind.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nTo commemorate the 15th anniversary of the San Francisco 49ers' fifth Super Bowl victory, which took place at this stadium, Jerry Rice, who had also been MVP of Super Bowl XXIII, another Super Bowl played at this stadium, joined the coin toss ceremonies. Rice had just been named to the Pro Football Hall of Fame Class of 2010. The rest of the class – Rickey Jackson, Dick LeBeau, Floyd Little, Russ Grimm, John Randle, and Emmitt Smith – were named the day before. The Saints won the coin toss, marking the 13th straight Super Bowl the NFC won the toss (the Cardinals won the toss in Super Bowl XLIII but elected to defer to the second half, giving the Steelers the ball to open the game).\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nHalftime\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe Who performed at the Super Bowl XLIV halftime show. The band played a medley of their hits, consisting of \\\"Pinball Wizard\\\", \\\"Baba O'Riley\\\", \\\"Who Are You\\\", \\\"See Me, Feel Me\\\", and \\\"Won't Get Fooled Again\\\". For the first time since the Super Bowl XXXIV halftime show, there was no crowd of fans surrounding the halftime stage. This performance was also released as downloadable content for the Rock Band series, named \\\"The Who Super Bowl S-mashup\\\".\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nMerchandising\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nRetailers had ordered much more New Orleans Saints merchandise prior to the game than they had ordered Colts merchandise. The NFL estimated that US$100million worth of Super Bowl merchandise would be sold.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nGame summary\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nFirst quarter\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe Saints won the toss and chose to receive, but their first possession resulted in a punt after going three-and-out.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe Colts offense took the field for the first time, with the ball spotted at their own 27-yard line. The Colts put together a drive that went 53 yards and resulted in a 38-yard field goal by kicker Matt Stover. At 42 years old, Stover became the oldest person in NFL history to play in a Super Bowl.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nFollowing the game's first score, Courtney Roby returned the ensuing kickoff to the New Orleans 26-yard line. Approaching the 25-yard line, Roby swooped into a dive and appeared to fumble the ball, but he was ruled down by contact. This time, the Saints managed to get a first down with a 16-yard completion from Drew Brees to Reggie Bush, but they were eventually forced to punt again. Punter Thomas Morstead pinned the Colts back at their own 4-yard line with a 46-yard kick.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nIndianapolis responded with a 96-yard scoring drive, tying the record for the longest drive in Super Bowl history. Joseph Addai rushed three times for 53 yards on the drive, while Manning completed three passes for 35 yards, the last one a 19-yard touchdown pass to Pierre Garçon, increasing the Colts lead to 10–0.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nSecond quarter\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe Saints' next drive carried over from the previous quarter. Brees completed three passes for 36 yards as the Saints advanced to the Colts' 22-yard line. But on third down, Brees was sacked for a 7-yard loss by Dwight Freeney, forcing New Orleans to settle for a 46-yard field goal from Garrett Hartley. After scoring points on their first 2 drives, the Colts looked to add more, but Garcon dropped a pass on 3rd down. The Colts were forced to punt and the Saints took over driving down into Colt territory. They drove down the field to a 1st-and-goal at the Colts' 3-yard line. A false start penalty set them back to the 8, and after getting a yard away from the end zone, they attempted 3rd and 4th down runs. They failed to convert both times. The Colts ran three straight running plays in an effort to wind down the clock and go to halftime with a seven-point lead, but the Saints kept the Colts from getting another first down.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nFollowing Bush's 4-yard punt return to the New Orleans 48, with only one timeout left to use in the half, the Saints got back into field goal territory, and Hartley hit a 44-yard field goal as time expired, with the Colts still leading 10–6. This was the first 10–6 halftime score in Super Bowl history.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThird quarter\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe Colts were set to receive the ball to start the second half, but were caught by surprise when the Saints executed an onside kick. This was the first onside kick attempted before the fourth quarter in Super Bowl history, a play the Saints referred to as \\\"Ambush.\\\" Thomas Morstead kicked the ball to his left, and after traveling almost 15 yards, the ball bounced off the facemask of the Colts' Hank Baskett, who failed to make a clean recovery. Several players dove for the loose ball, creating a pile that took over a minute for the officiating crew to separate. When the dust finally cleared, linebacker Jonathan Casillas of New Orleans was officially credited with the recovery on the 42-yard line, but Casillas and other Saints players insisted that it was actually safety Chris Reis who came up with the football. The Saints' offense took over and stormed down the field on an effective 58-yard drive in which they never faced a third down.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nBrees completed five consecutive passes for 58 yards on the drive and capped it off with a 'check-down' pass on the right side to Pierre Thomas, who took it 16 yards to the end zone behind blocks from Jonathan Goodwin, Jahri Evans, Devery Henderson, Kyle Eckel, Carl Nicks and Jeremy Shockey, to give the Saints their first lead of the game at 13–10.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nManning and the Colts answered with their own touchdown drive, moving the ball 76 yards in ten plays. Clark caught 3 passes for 45 yards, while Joseph Addai finished the drive off with a 4-yard touchdown run to put the Colts back on top 17–13 with 6:05 remaining in the quarter. For just the second time in Super Bowl history both teams scored touchdowns on their initial possessions of the second half; the only other time occurred in Super Bowl XIV.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nHartley would bring the Saints to within one point of tying the game at 17–16, with his third field goal, launched from 47 yards away. In doing so he became the first kicker in Super Bowl history to score three field goals of 40 or more yards in one game.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThis was the first one-point lead after the third quarter in Super Bowl history and second closest game after three quarters, behind Super Bowl XXXIX which was tied between the New England Patriots and Philadelphia Eagles.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nFourth quarter\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nIndianapolis responded with a drive to the New Orleans 33-yard line, only to have Stover miss a 51-yard field goal attempt, giving the ball back to the Saints with good field position on their 41-yard line. After that, Brees led the Saints on another touchdown drive featuring seven different players getting the ball. Bush started off the drive with a 12-yard run, and then Devery Henderson caught a pass on the Colts' 36-yard line. Following an 8-yard catch and run by Bush, Brees completed passes to Colston, Robert Meachem and tight end David Thomas, moving the ball to the 5-yard line. After a 3-yard run by Pierre Thomas, Brees threw a 2-yard touchdown pass to tight end Jeremy Shockey. Rather than settle for a six-point lead, and risk a potential Colts game-winning touchdown, the Saints chanced a two-point conversion. Lance Moore received a pass and attempted to stretch the ball out over the goal line as he fell to the ground and rolled over on his head. The ball was kicked away from his hands by defender Jacob Lacey, and the play was ruled an incomplete pass, prompting a coach's challenge from Sean Payton.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nAfter the review, the ruling on the field was overturned when it was determined that Moore maintained possession of the ball long enough and the ball had crossed the plane of the goal line for a successful conversion, giving the Saints a 24–17 advantage.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nOn the ensuing drive, Manning led the Colts into Saints territory; however, Tracy Porter intercepted a pass by Manning at the Saints 26 for the first takeaway of the game and returned it 74 yards for a touchdown; following the successful extra point, the Saints lead grew to 31–17 with 3:12 remaining. Porter's interception return for a touchdown improved teams to 10–0 in Super Bowls when returning an interception for a touchdown.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nNow down by two possessions, the Colts needed a touchdown on their next drive to stay alive, though they still had all three of their timeouts to use. They were able to drive to the New Orleans 3-yard line. When an offensive pass interference penalty on 1st and goal pushed them back 10 yards, the Colts got those 10 yards back on the next play. The next three plays saw a tipped pass that went off of the goal post and incomplete, a loss of two yards on a rushing play, and a pass that went through the hands of wide receiver Reggie Wayne and incomplete, effectively sealing the win for the Saints. Brees knelt the ball with 0:44 left on the clock, ending Super Bowl XLIV and winning the Saints' first league championship in franchise history.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nBox score\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nStatistical overview\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nDrew Brees was named Super Bowl MVP for tying a Super Bowl record by completing 32 of 39 passes, with 288 passing yards and two touchdowns. After the game, Brees said, \\\"Four years ago, who ever thought this would be happening when 85 percent of the city was under water? Most people left not knowing if New Orleans would ever come back, or if the organization would ever come back. We just all looked at one another and said, 'We are going to rebuild together. We are going to lean on each other.' This is the culmination in all that belief.\\\"\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nFinal statistics\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nSource: [http://www.nfl.com/gamecenter/2010020700/2009/POST22/saints@colts#menuhighlights&tab\\nanalyze NFL.com Super Bowl XLIV]\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nStatistical comparison\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nIndividual leaders\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\n1Completions/attempts\\n2Carries\\n3Long gain\\n4Receptions\\n5Tackles\\n6Forced Fumbles\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nSuper Bowl records\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\n*New Orleans recorded the first successful onside kick attempt in a Super Bowl outside of the fourth quarter. *Indianapolis' place kicker Matt Stover became the oldest player to participate, as well as to score, in a Super Bowl at 42 years and 11 days of age. *New Orleans' place kicker Garrett Hartley became the first kicker in Super Bowl history to kick three field goals of 40 or more yards. *New Orleans' victory marked the sixth straight win by the team wearing its white jersey. *New Orleans quarterback Drew Brees had the second highest completion percentage in Super Bowl history (Phil Simms in Super Bowl XXI has the highest.) Brees also tied the mark for most completions in a Super Bowl, with 32. Drew Brees then broke the record when he made a 33rd pass completion in the game on a two-point conversion pass to Lance Moore in the 4th quarter. *This was the first Super Bowl played in Sun Life Stadium not to have a kickoff returned for a touchdown; because the Colts did not have a return TD, they also became the 1st team ever to lose a Super Bowl at Sun Life without achieving that.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\n*New Orleans became the third team to win the Super Bowl after trailing at halftime AND failing to score a first-half touchdown. The New York Giants in Super Bowl XLII and the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl XXVIII are the only other two teams to do so. *The Saints' 25 points in the second half is the fourth highest total in Super Bowl history. The New York Giants scored 30 in Super Bowl XXI while 28 was scored by both the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl XXIV and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Super Bowl XXXVII. *The Saints also became the seventh team to win a Super Bowl after trailing to start the fourth quarter. The others to do so were: the Giants in Super Bowl XLII, the 49ers in Super Bowl XXIII, the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XVII, the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowls X and XIV and the Colts in Super Bowl V. *Brees and Peyton Manning combined for a Super Bowl record 75% completion rate (63 of 84). They also accounted for the most combined pass completions in a Super Bowl, with 63.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\n*The Colts became just the sixth team to score 10 or more points in the first quarter and lose the game, joining the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI, Miami Dolphins in Super Bowl XIX, the Denver Broncos in both Super Bowls XXI and XXII, and the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XXXI\\n*Having been down 10 points in the first quarter, the Saints tied a record for the biggest comeback win in Super Bowl history, set in Super Bowl XXII when the Washington Redskins faced a 10-point first quarter deficit of their own. * The Saints are the 9th team to win the Super Bowl on their first attempt. The others are the Green Bay Packers of Super Bowl I, the New York Jets of Super Bowl III, the Pittsburgh Steelers of Super Bowl IX, the San Francisco 49ers of Super Bowl XVI, the Chicago Bears of Super Bowl XX, the New York Giants of Super Bowl XXI, the Baltimore Ravens of Super Bowl XXXV, and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers of Super Bowl XXXVII.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nStarting lineups\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nSource: [http://www.nfl.com/liveupdate/gamecenter/54814/IND_Gamebook.pdf NFL.com Super Bowl XLIV Gamebook]\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nAftermath\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe Saints finished the next season with an 11-5 record, but failed to defend their league title after they were eliminated by the Seattle Seahawks in the Wild Card playoff round. Super Bowl XLIV later became the subject of the wider New Orleans Saints bounty scandal, also known as \\\"Bountygate\\\", in which the NFL alleged in 2012 that several Saints defenders operated a slush fund that was in operation from the 2009 season and Super Bowl XLIV, through 2011. This alleged slush fund paid out bonuses, or \\\"bounties\\\", for in-game performance in violation of NFL rules, including deliberately injuring or knocking opposing players out of games. The league responded with some of the most severe sanctions in the league's 92-year history, and among the most severe punishments for an on-field incident in North American professional sports history. In 2012, New Orleans failed to make the playoffs for the first time since their Super Bowl win, with the sanctions for Bountygate cited as one of the primary causes. The Saints rebounded in 2013, but were eliminated in the Divisional playoff round by the eventual Super Bowl XLVIII champion Seahawks.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThus, New Orleans have not advanced to the Conference Championship Game since Super Bowl XLIV.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nThe game was the first of three straight playoff losses for the Colts. The team would not win another playoff game until their comeback win at home against the Kansas City Chiefs in the Wildcard Round of the 2013 playoffs. They also would not advance to the Conference Championship Game until the 2014 playoffs. Peyton Manning would later suffer a neck injury that kept him out of the 2011 season. The Colts fell to 2–14 in 2011, causing the team to release Manning, and fire Jim Caldwell and most of its coaching and front office staff. With the first pick in the 2012 NFL Draft, the Colts selected Andrew Luck, quarterback from Stanford. Manning then signed with the Denver Broncos, and later led Denver to a Super Bowl XLVIII loss after the 2013 regular season and two seasons later, a Super Bowl 50 win after the 2015 regular season.\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nOfficials\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\n*Referee – Scott Green (#19)\\n*Umpire – Undrey Wash (#96)\\n*Head Linesman – John McGrath (#5)\\n*Line Judge – Jeff Seeman (#45)\\n*Field Judge – Rob Vernatchi (#75)\\n*Side Judge – Greg Meyer (#78)\\n*Back Judge – Greg Steed (#12)\\n*Alternate Referee – Gene Steratore\\n*Alternate Umpire – Ruben Fowler\\n*Alternate Flank – Jim Mello\\n*Alternate Deep – Jeff Lamberth\\n*Alternate Back Judge – Kirk Dornan\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\nGame time and weather conditions\",\n \"Super Bowl XLIV\\n\\n* Kickoff was at 6:32 p.m. EST (23:32 UTC).\\n* Weather at kickoff was 66 °F, clear.\\n* Game length was 3 hrs. 14 min.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":136093,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_475"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In which Olympic sport is a stone delivered and then possible swept, the object being to get it over the hog line and into the house?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Curling"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["curling sheet","curling rink","curling shoes","button curling","hammer curling","curling stone","roaring game","curling sport","curling","sweeping sport","curling broom","chess on ice","curling rock","history of curling","free guard zone"],"string":"[\n \"curling sheet\",\n \"curling rink\",\n \"curling shoes\",\n \"button curling\",\n \"hammer curling\",\n \"curling stone\",\n \"roaring game\",\n \"curling sport\",\n \"curling\",\n \"sweeping sport\",\n \"curling broom\",\n \"chess on ice\",\n \"curling rock\",\n \"history of curling\",\n \"free guard zone\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Curling\n\nCurling is a sport in which players slide stones on a sheet of ice towards a target area which is segmented into four concentric circles. It is related to bowls, boules and shuffleboard. Two teams, each with four players, take turns sliding heavy, polished granite stones, also called rocks, across the ice curling sheet towards the house, a circular target marked on the ice. Each team has eight stones. The purpose is to accumulate the highest score for a game; points are scored for the stones resting closest to the centre of the house at the conclusion of each end, which is completed when both teams have thrown all of their stones. A game usually consists of eight or ten ends.","Curling\n\nThe curler can induce a curved path by causing the stone to slowly turn as it slides, and the path of the rock may be further influenced by two sweepers with brooms who accompany it as it slides down the sheet, using the brooms to alter the state of the ice in front of the stone. A great deal of strategy and teamwork go into choosing the ideal path and placement of a stone for each situation, and the skills of the curlers determine how close to the desired result the stone will achieve. This gives curling its nickname of \"chess on ice\".","Curling\n\nOrigins and history","Curling\n\nCurling was invented in medieval Scotland, with the first written reference to a contest using stones on ice coming from the records of Paisley Abbey, Renfrewshire, in February 1541. Two paintings, \"Winter Landscape with a Bird Trap\" and \"The Hunters in the Snow\" (both dated 1565) by Pieter Bruegel the Elder depict Flemish peasants curling—Scotland and the Low Countries had strong trading and cultural links during this period, which is also evident in the history of golf.","Curling\n\nEvidence that curling existed in Scotland in the early 16th century includes a curling stone inscribed with the date 1511 uncovered (along with another bearing the date 1551) when an old pond was drained at Dunblane, Scotland. Kilsyth Curling Club claims to be the first club in the world, having been formally constituted in 1716; it is still in existence today. Kilsyth also claims the oldest purpose-built curling pond in the world at Colzium, in the form of a low dam creating a shallow pool some 100 × 250 metres in size.","Curling\n\nThe word curling first appears in print in 1620 in Perth, Scotland, in the preface and the verses of a poem by Henry Adamson. The game was (and still is, in Scotland and Scottish-settled regions like southern New Zealand) also known as \"the roaring game\" because of the sound the stones make while traveling over the pebble (droplets of water applied to the playing surface). The verbal noun curling is formed from the Scots (and English) verb curl, which describes the motion of the stone.","Curling\n\nIn the early history of curling, the playing stones were simply flat-bottomed river stones, which were of inconsistent size, shape and smoothness. Unlike today, the thrower had little control over the 'curl' or velocity and relied more on luck than on precision, skill and strategy.","Curling\n\nIn Darvel, East Ayrshire, the weavers relaxed by playing curling matches using the heavy stone weights from the looms' warp beams, fitted with a detachable handle for the purpose. Many a wife would keep her husband's brass curling stone handle on the mantelpiece, brightly polished until the next time it was needed. Central Canadian curlers often used 'irons' rather than stones until the early 1900s, Canada is the only country known to have done so, while others experimented with wood or ice-filled tins.","Curling\n\nOutdoor curling was very popular in Scotland between the 16th and 19th centuries because the climate provided good ice conditions every winter. Scotland is home to the international governing body for curling, the World Curling Federation, Perth, which originated as a committee of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club, the mother club of curling.","Curling\n\nToday, the game is most firmly established in Canada, having been taken there by Scottish emigrants. The Royal Montreal Curling Club, the oldest established sports club still active in North America, was established in 1807. The first curling club in the United States was established in 1830, and the game was introduced to Switzerland and Sweden before the end of the 19th century, also by Scots. Today, curling is played all over Europe and has spread to Brazil, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, China, and Korea.","Curling\n\nThe first world championship for curling was limited to men and was known as the Scotch Cup, held in Falkirk and Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1959. The first world title was won by the Canadian team from Regina, Saskatchewan, skipped by Ernie Richardson. (The skip is the team member who calls the shots; see below.)","Curling\n\nOlympic curling","Curling\n\nCurling has been an official sport in the Winter Olympic Games since the 1998 Winter Olympics. It currently includes men's and women's tournaments. A mixed doubles Olympic event was considered but rejected for the 2010 Winter Olympic Games. Mixed doubles has now been added to the Olympics in the most upcoming Olympic Games in 2018.","Curling\n\nIn February 2002, the International Olympic Committee retroactively decided that the curling competition from the 1924 Winter Olympics (originally called Semaine des Sports d'Hiver, or International Winter Sports Week) would be considered official Olympic events and no longer be considered demonstration events. Thus, the first Olympic medals in curling, which at the time was played outside, were awarded for the 1924 Winter Games, with the gold medal won by Great Britain and Ireland, two silver medals by Sweden, and the bronze by France. A demonstration tournament was also held during the 1932 Winter Olympic Games between four teams from Canada and four teams from the United States, with Canada winning 12 games to 4.","Curling\n\nSince the 1998 Olympics, Canada has dominated the sport with their men's teams winning gold in 2006, 2010, and 2014, and silver in 1998 and 2002. The women's team won gold in 1998 and 2014, a silver in 2010, and a bronze in 2002 and 2006.","Curling\n\nEquipment","Curling\n\nCurling sheet","Curling\n\nThe playing surface or curling sheet is defined by the World Curling Federation Rules of Curling. It is a rectangular area of ice, carefully prepared to be as flat and level as possible, 146 to in length by in width. The shorter borders of the sheet are called the backboards. Because of the elongated shape, several sheets may be laid out side by side in the same arena, allowing multiple games to be played simultaneously.","Curling\n\nA target, the house, is centred on the intersection of the centre line, drawn lengthwise down the centre of the sheet and the tee line, drawn 16 ft from, and parallel to, the backboard. These lines divide the house into quarters. The house consists of a centre circle (the button) and three concentric rings, of diameters 4, 8 and 12 feet, formed by painting or laying coloured vinyl sheet under the ice and are usually distinguished by colour. A stone must at least touch the outer ring in order to score (see Scoring below), otherwise the rings are merely a visual aid for aiming and judging which stone is closer to the button.\nTwo hog lines, are drawn 37 ft from, and parallel to, the backboard.","Curling\n\nThe hacks are fixed 12 ft behind each button; a hack gives the thrower something to push against when making the throw. On indoor rinks, there are usually two fixed hacks, rubber-lined holes, one on each side of the centre line, with the inside edge no more than 3 in from the centre line and the front edge on the hack line. A single moveable hack may also be used.","Curling\n\nThe ice may be natural but is usually frozen by a refrigeration plant pumping a brine solution through numerous pipes fixed lengthwise at the bottom of a shallow pan of water. Most curling clubs have an ice maker whose main job is to care for the ice. At the major curling championships, ice maintenance is extremely important. Large events, such as the Brier or other national/international championships, are typically held in an arena that presents a challenge to the ice maker, who must constantly monitor and adjust the ice and air temperatures as well as air humidity levels to ensure a consistent playing surface. It is common for each sheet of ice to have multiple sensors embedded in order to monitor surface temperature, as well as probes set up in the seating area (to monitor humidity) and in the compressor room (to monitor brine supply and return temperatures). The surface of the ice is maintained at a temperature of around 23 °F.","Curling\n\nA key part of the preparation of the playing surface is the spraying of water droplets onto the ice, which form pebble on freezing. The pebbled ice surface resembles an orange peel, and the stone moves on top of the pebbled ice. As the stone moves over the pebble, any rotation of the stone causes it to curl to the inside or outside. The amount of curl (commonly referred to as the feet of curl) can change during a game as the pebble wears; the ice maker must monitor this and be prepared to scrape and re-pebble the surface prior to each game.","Curling\n\nCurling stone","Curling\n\nThe curling stone (also sometimes called a rock in North America) is made of granite and is specified by the World Curling Federation, which requires a weight between 38 and a maximum circumference of 36 in and a minimum height of . The only part of the stone in contact with the ice is the running surface, a narrow, flat annulus or ring, wide and about 5 in in diameter; the sides of the stone bulge convex down to the ring and the inside of the ring is hollowed concave to clear the ice. This concave bottom was first proposed by J. S. Russell of Toronto, Canada sometime after 1870, and was subsequently adopted by Scottish stone manufacturer Andrew Kay.","Curling\n\nThe granite for the stones comes from two sources: Ailsa Craig, an island off the Ayrshire coast of Scotland, and the Trefor Granite Quarry in Wales.","Curling\n\nAilsa Craig is the traditional source and produces two types of granite, Blue Hone and Ailsa Craig Common Green. Blue Hone has very low water absorption, which prevents the action of repeatedly freezing water from eroding the stone. Ailsa Craig Common Green is a lesser quality granite than Blue Hone. In the past, most curling stones were made from Blue Hone but the island is now a wildlife reserve and the quarry is restricted by environmental conditions that exclude blasting.\nKays of Scotland has been making curling stones since 1851 and has the exclusive rights to the Ailsa Craig granite, granted by the Marquess of Ailsa, whose family has owned the island since 1560. The last harvest of Ailsa Craig granite by Kays took place in 2013, after a hiatus of 11 years; 2,000 tons were harvested, sufficient to fill anticipated orders through at least 2020. Kays has been the exclusive manufacturer of curling stones for the Olympics since the 2006 Winter Olympics.","Curling\n\nTrefor granite comes from the Yr Eifl or Trefor Granite Quarry in the village of Trefor on the north coast of the Llŷn Peninsula in Gwynedd, Wales and has produced granite since 1850.\nTrefor granite comes in shades of pink, blue and grey. The quarry supplies curling stone granite exclusively to the Canadian, Canada Curling Stone Co., which has been producing stones since 1992 and supplied the stones for the 2002 Winter Olympics.","Curling\n\nA handle is attached by a bolt running vertically through a hole in the centre of the stone. The handle allows the stone to be gripped and rotated upon release; on properly prepared ice the rotation will bend (curl) the path of the stone in the direction in which the front edge of the stone is turning, especially as the stone slows. Handles are coloured to identify each team; two popular colours in major tournaments being red and yellow.\nIn competition, an electronic handle known as the eye on the hog may be fitted to detect hog line violations. This electronically detects whether the thrower's hand is in contact with the handle as it passes the hog line and indicates a violation by lights at the base of the handle. The eye on the hog eliminates human error and the need for hog line officials. It is mandatory in high-level national and international competition, but its cost, around US$650 each, currently puts it beyond the reach of most club curling.","Curling\n\nCurling broom","Curling\n\nThe curling broom, or brush, is used to sweep the ice surface in the path of the stone, (see sweeping), and is also often used as a balancing aid during delivery of the stone.","Curling\n\nPrior to the 1950s, most curling brooms were made of corn strands and were similar to household brooms of the day. In 1958, Fern Marchessault of Montreal inverted the corn straw in the centre of the broom. This style of corn broom was referred to as the Blackjack.","Curling\n\nArtificial brooms made from man-made fabrics, rather than corn, such as the Rink Rat, also became common later during this time period. Prior to the late sixties, Scottish curling brushes were used primarily by some of the Scots, as well as by recreational and elderly curlers as a substitute for corn brooms, since the technique was easier to learn. In the late sixties, competitive curlers from Calgary, such as John Mayer, Bruce Stewart, and, later, the world junior championship teams skipped by Paul Gowsell, proved that the curling brush could be just as (or more) effective without all the blisters common to corn broom use. During that time period, there was much debate in competitive curling circles as to which sweeping device was more effective: brush or broom. Eventually, the brush won out with the majority of curlers making the switch to the less costly and more efficient brush. Today, brushes have replaced traditional corn brooms at every level of curling; it is rare now to see a curler using a corn broom on a regular basis.","Curling\n\nCurling brushes may have fabric, hog hair, or horsehair heads. Modern curling brush handles are usually hollow tubes made of fibreglass or carbon fibre instead of a solid length of wooden dowel. These hollow tube handles are lighter and stronger than wooden handles, allowing faster sweeping and also enabling more downward force to be applied to the broom head with reduced shaft flex. New, \"directional fabric\" brooms, which players are worried will alter the fundamentals of the sport by reducing the level skill required, have been accused of giving players an unfair advantage. The new brooms were temporarily banned by the World Curling Federation and Curling Canada for the 2015-2016 season. The new brooms \"isolate the friction caused by brushing only where the running surface of the rock has contact with ice––on top of the pebble––with little resistance\", which makes sweepers have unprecedented control over the direction the stone goes.","Curling\n\nShoes","Curling\n\nCurling shoes are similar to ordinary athletic shoes except that they have dissimilar soles; the slider shoe (usually known as a \"slider\") is designed for the sliding foot and the \"gripper shoe\" (usually known as a gripper) for the hack foot.","Curling\n\nThe slider is designed to slide and typically has a Teflon sole. It is worn by the thrower during delivery from the hack and by sweepers or the skip to glide down the ice when sweeping or otherwise traveling down the sheet quickly. Stainless steel was once common for slider soles, and \"red brick\" sliders with lateral blocks of PVC on the sole are also available. Most shoes have a full-sole sliding surface, but some shoes have a sliding surface covering only the outline of the shoe and other enhancements with the full-sole slider. Some shoes have small disc sliders covering the front and heel portions or only the front portion of the foot, which allow more flexibility in the sliding foot for curlers playing with tuck deliveries. When a player is not throwing, the player's slider shoe can be temporarily rendered non-slippery by using a slip-on gripper. Ordinary athletic shoes may be converted to sliders by using a step-on or slip-on Teflon slider or by applying electrical or gaffer tape directly to the sole or over a piece of cardboard. This arrangement often suits casual or beginning players.","Curling\n\nThe gripper is worn by the thrower on the hack foot during delivery and is designed to grip the ice. It may have a normal athletic shoe sole or a special layer of rubbery material applied to the sole of a thickness to match the sliding shoe. The toe of the hack foot shoe may also have a rubberised coating on the top surface or a flap that hangs over the toe to reduce wear on the top of the shoe as it drags on the ice behind the thrower.","Curling\n\nOther equipment","Curling\n\nOther types of equipment include:","Curling\n\n* Curling pants, made to be stretchy to accommodate the curling delivery.\n* A stopwatch to time the stones over a fixed distance to calculate their speed. Stopwatches can be attached either to clothing or the broom.\n* Curling gloves and mittens, to keep the hands warm and improve grip on the broom.","Curling\n\nGameplay","Curling\n\nThe purpose of the game is to score points by getting stones closer to the house center, or the \"button\", than the other team's stones. Players from either team alternate in taking shots from the far side of the sheet. An end is complete when all eight rocks from each team have been delivered, a total of sixteen stones. If the teams are tied at the end of the game, play continues for as many ends as may be required to break the tie. The winner is the team with the highest score after all ends have been completed (see Scoring below). A game may be conceded if considered unwinnable.","Curling\n\nInternational competitive games are generally ten ends, so most of the national championships that send a representative to the World Championships or Olympics also play ten ends. However, there is a movement on the World Curling Tour to make the games only eight ends. Most tournaments on that tour are eight ends, as are the vast majority of recreational games.","Curling\n\nIn international competition, each side is given 73 minutes to complete all of its throws. Each team is also allowed two minute-long timeouts per 10-end game. If extra ends are required, each team is allowed 10 minutes of playing time to complete its throws and one added 60-second timeout for each extra end. However, the \"thinking time\" system, in which the delivering team's game timer stops as soon as the shooter's rock crosses the t-line during the delivery, is becoming more popular, especially in Canada. This system allows each team 38 minutes per 10 ends, or 30 minutes per 8 ends, to make strategic and tactical decisions, with 4 minutes and 30 seconds an end for extra ends. The \"thinking time\" system was implemented after it was recognized that teams playing aggressively (using draws and other low-weight shots which take more time for the stones to come to rest) were essentially being penalized in terms of the time they had available compared to teams which primarily use hits which require far less time per shot.","Curling\n\nDelivery","Curling\n\nThe process of sliding a stone down the sheet is known as the delivery.","Curling\n\nThe skip, or the captain of the team, will usually determine the required weight, turn, and line of the stone. These will be influenced by the tactics at this point in the game, which may involve taking-out, blocking or tapping another stone.\n* The weight of the stone is its velocity, which depends on the leg drive of the delivery rather than the arm.\n* The turn, or curl is the rotation of the stone, which gives it a curved trajectory.\n* The line is the direction of the throw ignoring the effect of the turn.","Curling\n\nThe skip may communicate the weight, turn, line, and other tactics by calling or tapping a broom on the ice. In the case of a takeout, guard, or a tap, the skip will indicate the stones involved.","Curling\n\nBefore delivery, the running surface of the stone is wiped clean and the path across the ice swept with the broom if necessary, because any dirt on the bottom of a stone or in its path can alter the trajectory and ruin the shot. Intrusion by a foreign object is called a pick up or pick.","Curling\n\nThe thrower throws from the hack. Another player, usually the skip, is stationed behind the button to determine the tactics, weight, turn, and line, and the other two may sweep in front of the stone to influence the trajectory (see Sweeping, below). The players, with the exception of the skip, take turns throwing and sweeping; when one player (e.g., the lead) throws, the players not throwing (the second and third) sweep. When the skip throws, the third, or vice-skip, takes his role.","Curling\n\nThe thrower's gripper shoe (with the non-slippery sole) is positioned against one of the hacks; for a right-handed curler the right foot is placed against the left hack and vice versa for a left-hander. The thrower, now in the hack, lines the body up with shoulders square to the skip's broom at the far end for line.","Curling\n\nThe stone is placed in front of the foot now in the hack. Rising slightly from the hack, the thrower pulls the stone back (some older curlers may actually raise the stone in this backward movement) then lunges smoothly out from the hack pushing the stone ahead while the slider foot is moved in front of the gripper foot, which trails behind. The thrust from this lunge determines the weight and hence the distance the stone will travel. While not compulsory, most curlers deliver the stone while sliding out from the hack. Balance may be assisted by a broom held in the free hand with the back of the broom down so that it slides.","Curling\n\nThere are two current types of delivery, the common flat-foot deliver as well as the Manitoba tuck delivery where the curler slides on the front ball of his foot.","Curling\n\nThe stone is released as the thrower approaches the hog line, at which point the turn is imparted by a slight clockwise or anti-clockwise twist of the handle from around the two or ten o'clock position to the twelve o'clock on release. A typical rate of turn is about 2½ rotations before coming to a rest.","Curling\n\nThe stone must be released before its front edge crosses the near hog line, and it must clear the far hog line or else be removed from play (hogged); an exception is made if a stone fails to come to rest beyond the far hog line after rebounding from a stone in play just past the hog line. The release rule is rarely enforced in club play unless abuse is suspected. However, in major tournaments it is strictly enforced; the \"eye on the hog\" sensor in the stone will indicate whether the stone has been legally thrown or not. The lights on the stone handle will either light up green, indicating that the stone has been legally thrown, or red, in which case the illegally thrown stone will be immediately pulled from play instead of waiting for the stone to come to rest.","Curling\n\nSweeping","Curling\n\nAfter the stone is delivered, its trajectory is still influenced by the two sweepers under instruction from the skip. Sweeping is done for several reasons: to reduce friction underneath the stone, to decrease the amount of curl, and to clean debris from the stone's path. The stones curl more as they slow down, so sweeping early in travel tends to increase distance as well as straighten the path, and sweeping after sideways motion is established can increase the sideways distance. When sweeping, pressure and speed of the brush head are key in slightly increasing the layer of moisture that builds up under the stone.","Curling\n\nOne of the basic technical aspects of curling is knowing when to sweep. When the ice in front of the stone is swept, a stone will usually travel both farther and straighter. In some situations, one of the two alterations in path is not desirable. For example, a stone may have too much weight, but require sweeping to prevent curling into a guard. The team must decide which is better: getting by the guard but traveling too far, or hitting the guard.","Curling\n\nMuch of the yelling that goes on during a curling game is the skip calling the line of the shot and the sweepers calling the weight. The skip evaluates the path of the stone and calls to the sweepers to sweep as necessary to maintain the intended track. The sweepers themselves are responsible for judging the weight of the stone, ensuring the length of travel is correct and communicating the weight of the stone back to the skip. Some teams use stopwatch timing, from back line to the nearest hog line as a sweeping aid. Many teams use the Number System to communicate in which of 10 playable zones it is estimated the stone will stop.","Curling\n\nUsually, the two sweepers will be on opposite sides of the stone's path, although depending on which side the sweepers' strengths lie this may not always be the case. Speed and pressure are vital to sweeping. In gripping the broom, one hand should be one third of the way from the top (non-brush end) of the handle while the other hand should be one third of the way from the head of the broom. The angle of the broom to the ice should be so that the most force possible can be exerted on the ice. The precise amount of pressure may vary from relatively light brushing (\"just cleaning\" - to ensure debris will not alter the stone's path) to maximum-pressure scrubbing.","Curling\n\nSweeping is allowed anywhere on the ice up to the tee line, as long as it is only for one's own team stones. Once the leading edge of a team stone crosses the tee line only one player may sweep it. Additionally, when a stone crosses the tee line, one player from the other team is allowed to sweep it. This is the only case that a stone may be swept by an opposing team member. In international rules, this player must be the skip; or if the skip is throwing, then the sweeping player must be the third.","Curling\n\nBurning a stone","Curling\n\nOccasionally, players may accidentally touch a stone with their broom or a body part. This is often referred to as burning a stone. Players touching a stone in such a manner are expected to call their own infraction as a matter of good sportsmanship. Touching a stationary stone when no stones are in motion (there is no delivery in progress) is not an infraction (unless the stationary stone is struck in such a manner that its position is altered), and is a common way for the skip to indicate a stone that is to be taken out.","Curling\n\nWhen a stone is touched when stones are in play, the remedies vary between placing the stones as they end up after the touch, replacing the stones as they would have been if no stone were touched, or removal of the touched stone from play. In non-officiated league play, the skip of the non-offending team has the final say on where the stones are placed after the infraction.","Curling\n\nTypes of shots","Curling\n\nMany different types of shots are used to carefully place stones for strategic or tactical reasons; they fall into three fundamental categories as follows:","Curling\n\nGuards are thrown in front of the house in the free guard zone, usually to protect the shot-rock (the stone closest to the button at the time) or to make the opposing team's shot difficult. Guard shots include the centre-guard, on the centreline and the corner-guards to the left or right sides of the centre line. See Free Guard Zone below.","Curling\n\nDraws are thrown only to reach the house. Draw shots include raise and angle-raise, come-around, and freeze shots.","Curling\n\nTakeouts are intended to remove stones from play and include the peel, hit-and-roll and double shots.","Curling\n\nFor a more complete listing, see Glossary of curling terms.","Curling\n\nFree guard zone","Curling\n\nUntil four stones have been played (two from each side), stones in the free guard zone (those stones left in the area between the hog and tee lines, excluding the house) may not be removed by an opponent's stone (although they can be moved as long as they are not taken out of play). These are known as guard rocks. If the guard rocks are removed, they are replaced to where they were before the shot was thrown, and the opponent's stone is removed from play and cannot be replayed. This rule is known as the four-rock rule or the free guard zone rule (for a while in Canada, a \"three-rock rule\" was in place, but that rule has been replaced by the four-rock rule).","Curling\n\nThis rule, a relatively recent addition to curling, was added in response to a strategy of \"peeling\" opponents' guard stones (knocking them out of play at an angle that caused the shooter's stone to also roll out of play, leaving no stones on the ice). A team in the lead would often employ this strategy during the game. By knocking all stones out, the opponents could at best score one point (if they had the hammer). Alternatively, the team with the hammer could peel rock after rock, which would blank the end, keeping the last rock advantage for another end. This strategy had developed (mostly in Canada) as ice-makers had become skilled at creating a predictable ice surface and the adoption of brushes allowed greater control over the rock. While a sound strategy, this made for an unexciting game. Observers at the time noted that if two teams equally skilled in the peel game faced each other on good ice, the outcome of the game would be predictable from who won the coin flip to have last rock (or had earned it in the schedule) at the beginning of the game.","Curling\n\nThe 1990 Brier was considered by many curling fans as boring to watch because of the amount of peeling and the quick adoption of the Free Guard Zone the following year reflected how disliked this aspect of the game had become.","Curling\n\nThe free guard zone was originally called the Modified Moncton Rule and was developed from a suggestion made by Russ Howard for the Moncton 100 cashspiel (with the richest prize ever awarded at the time in a tournament) in Moncton, New Brunswick, in January 1990. \"Howard's Rule\" (later known as the Moncton Rule), used for the tournament and based on a practice drill his team used, had the first four rocks in play unable to be removed no matter where they were at any time during the end. This method of play was altered by restricting the area in which a stone was protected to the free guard zone only for the first four rocks thrown and adopted as a Four-rock Free Guard Zone for international competition shortly after. Canada kept to the traditional rules until a three-rock Free Guard Zone rule was adopted for the 1993-94 season. After several years of having the three-rock rule used for the Canadian championships and the winners then having to adjust to the four-rock rule in the World Championships, the Canadian Curling Association adopted the now-standard Free Guard Zone in the 2002-2003 season.","Curling\n\nOne strategy that has been developed by curlers in response to the Free Guard Zone (Kevin Martin from Alberta is one of the best examples) is the \"tick\" game, where a shot is made attempting to knock (tick) the guard to the side, far enough that it is difficult or impossible to use but still remaining in play while the shot itself goes out of play. The effect is functionally identical to peeling the guard but significantly harder, as a shot that hits the guard too hard (knocking it out of play) results in its being replaced, while not hitting it hard enough can result in its still being tactically useful for the opposition. There's also a greater chance that the shot will miss the guard entirely because of the greater accuracy required to make the shot. Because of the difficulty of making this type of shot, only the best teams will normally attempt it, and it does not dominate the game the way the peel formerly did. Steve Gould from Manitoba popularized ticks played across the face.","Curling\n\nThese are easier to make because they impart less speed on the object stone, therefore increasing the chance that it remains in play even if a bigger chunk of it is hit.","Curling\n\nHammer","Curling\n\nLast-rock or last-stone advantage in an end is called the hammer. Before the game, teams typically decide who gets the hammer in the first end either by chance (such as a coin toss), by a \"draw-to-the-button\" contest, where a representative of each team shoots to see who gets closer to the centre of the rings, or, particularly in tournament settings like the Winter Olympics, by a comparison of each team's win-loss record. In all subsequent ends, the hammer belongs to the team that did not score in the preceding end. In the event that neither team scores, the hammer remains with the same team. Naturally, it is easier to score points with the hammer than without; in tournament play, the team with the hammer generally tries to score two or more points. If only one point is possible, the skip will often try to avoid scoring at all in order to retain the hammer until the next end, when two or more points may lie. This is called a blank end. Scoring without the hammer is commonly referred to as stealing, or a steal, and is much more difficult.","Curling\n\nStrategy","Curling\n\nCurling is a game of strategy, tactics and skill. The strategy depends on the team's skill, the opponent's skill, the conditions of the ice, the score of the game, how many ends remain and whether the team has last-stone advantage (the hammer). A team may play an end aggressively or defensively. Aggressive playing will put a lot of stones in play by throwing mostly draws; this makes for an exciting game and is very risky but the reward can be very great. Defensive playing will throw a lot of hits preventing a lot of stones in play; this tends to be less exciting and less risky. A good drawing team will usually opt to play aggressively, while a good hitting team will opt to play defensively.","Curling\n\nIf a team does not have the hammer in an end, it will opt to try to clog up the four-foot zone in the house to deny the opposing team access to the button. This can be done by throwing \"centre line\" guards in front of the house on the centre line, which can be tapped into the house later or drawn around. If a team has the hammer, they will try to keep this four-foot zone free so that they have access to the button area at all times. A team with the hammer may throw a corner guard as their first stone of an end placed in front of the house but outside the four-foot zone to utilize the free guard zone. Corner guards are key for a team to score two points in an end, because they can either draw around it later or hit and roll behind it, making the opposing team's shot to remove it more difficult.","Curling\n\nIdeally, the strategy in an end for a team with the hammer is to score two points or more. Scoring one point is often a wasted opportunity, as they will then lose last-rock advantage for the next end. If a team cannot score two points, they will often attempt to \"blank an end\" by removing any leftover opposition rocks and rolling out; or, if there are no opposition rocks, just throwing the rock through the house so that no team scores any points, and the team with the hammer can try again the next end to score two or more with it. Generally, a team without the hammer would want to either force the team with the hammer to only one point (so that they can get the hammer back) or \"steal\" the end by scoring one or more points of their own.","Curling\n\nGenerally, the larger the lead a team will have in a game, the more defensively they should play. By hitting all of the opponent's stones, it removes opportunities for their getting multiple points, therefore defending the lead. If the leading team is quite comfortable, leaving their own stones in play can also be dangerous. Guards can be drawn around by the other team, and stones in the house can be tapped back (if they are in front of the tee line) or frozen onto (if they are behind the tee line). A frozen stone is difficult to remove, because it is \"frozen\" (in front of and touching) to the opponents stone. At this point, a team will opt for \"peels\", meaning that the stones they throw will be to not only hit their opposition stones, but to roll out of play as well. Peels are hits that are thrown with the most amount of power.","Curling\n\nConceding a game","Curling\n\nIt is not uncommon at any level for a losing team to terminate the match before all ends are completed if it believes it no longer has a realistic chance of winning. Competitive games end once the losing team has \"run out of rocks\"—that is, once it has fewer stones in play and available for play than the number of points needed to tie the game.","Curling\n\nDispute resolution","Curling\n\nMost decisions about rules are left to the skips, although in official tournaments, decisions may be left to the officials. However, all scoring disputes are handled by the vice skip. No players other than the vice skip from each team should be in the house while score is being determined. In tournament play, the most frequent circumstance in which a decision has to be made by someone other than the vice skip is the failure of the vice skips to agree on which stone is closest to the button. An independent official (supervisor at Canadian and World championships) then measures the distances using a specially designed device that pivots at the centre of the button. When no independent officials are available, the vice skips measure the distances.","Curling\n\nScoring","Curling\n\nThe winner is the team having the highest number of accumulated points at the completion of ten ends. Points are scored at the conclusion of each of these ends as follows: when each team has thrown its eight stones, the team with the stone closest to the button wins that end; the winning team is then awarded one point for each of its own stones lying closer to the button than the opponent's closest stone.","Curling\n\nOnly stones that are in the house are considered in the scoring. A stone is in the house if it lies within the 12 ft zone or any portion of its edge lies over the edge of the ring. Since the bottom of the stone is rounded, a stone just barely in the house will not have any actual contact with the ring, which will pass under the rounded edge of the stone, but it still counts. This type of stone is known as a biter.","Curling\n\nIt may not be obvious to the eye which of two rocks is closer to the button (center) or if a rock is actually biting or not. There are specialized devices to make these determinations, but these cannot be brought out until after an end is completed. Therefore, a team may make strategic decisions during an end based on assumptions of rock position that turn out to be incorrect.","Curling\n\nThe score is marked on a scoreboard, of which there are two types; the baseball type and the club scoreboard.","Curling\n\nThe baseball-style scoreboard was created for televised games for audiences not familiar with the club scoreboard. The ends are marked by columns 1 through 10 (or 11 for the possibility of an extra end to break ties) plus an additional column for the total. Below this are two rows, one for each team, containing the team's score for that end and their total score in the right hand column.","Curling\n\nThe club scoreboard is traditional and used in most curling clubs. Scoring on this board only requires the use of (up to) 11 digit cards, whereas with baseball-type scoring an unknown number of multiples of the digits (especially low digits like 1) may be needed. The numbered centre row represents all possible accumulated scores, and the numbers placed in the team rows represent the end in which that team achieved that cumulative score. If the red team scores three points in the first end (called a three-ender), then a 1 (indicating the first end) is placed beside the number 3 in the red row. If they score two more in the second end, then a 2 will be placed beside the 5 in the red row, indicating that the red team has five points in total (3+2). This scoreboard works because only one team can get points in an end. However, some confusion may arise if neither team scores points in an end, this is called a blank end.","Curling\n\nThe blank end numbers are usually listed in the farthest column on the right in the row of the team that has the hammer (last rock advantage), or on a special spot for blank ends.","Curling\n\nThe following example illustrates the difference between the two types. The example illustrates the men's final at the 2006 Winter Olympics.","Curling\n\nEight points – all the rocks thrown by one team counting – is the highest score possible in an end, and is known as an \"eight-ender\" or \"snowman\". Scoring an eight-ender against a relatively competent team is very difficult; in curling, it is considered the equivalent of pitching a perfect game in baseball. Probably the best-known snowman came at the 2006 Players' Championships. Future (2007) World Champion Kelly Scott scored eight points in one of her games against 1998 World bronze medalist Cathy King.","Curling\n\nCurling culture","Curling\n\nCompetition teams are normally named after the skip, for example, Team Martin after skip Kevin Martin. Amateur league players can (and do) creatively name their teams, but when in competition (a bonspiel) the official team will have a standard name.","Curling\n\nTop curling championships are typically played by all-male or all-female teams. The game is known as mixed curling when a team consists of two men and two women. The Canadian Mixed Curling Championship is the highest-level mixed curling competition, in the absence of world championship or Olympic mixed curling events.","Curling\n\nCurling tournaments may use the Schenkel system for determining the participants in matches.","Curling\n\nCurling is played in many countries, including Canada, the United Kingdom (especially Scotland), the United States, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, Finland and Japan, all of which compete in the world championships.","Curling\n\nCurling is particularly popular in Canada. Improvements in ice making and changes in the rules to increase scoring and promote complex strategy have increased the already high popularity of the sport in Canada, and large television audiences watch annual curling telecasts, especially the Scotties Tournament of Hearts (the national championship for women), the Tim Hortons Brier (the national championship for men), and the women's and men's world championships.","Curling\n\nDespite the Canadian province of Manitoba's small population (ranked 5th of 10 Canadian provinces), Manitoban teams have won the Brier more times than teams from any other province. The Tournament of Hearts and the Brier are contested by provincial and territorial champions, and the world championships by national champions.","Curling\n\nCurling is the provincial sport of Saskatchewan. From there Ernie Richardson and his family team dominated Canadian and international curling during the late 1950s and early 1960s and have been considered to be the best male curlers of all time. Sandra Schmirler led her team to the first ever gold medal in women's curling in the 1998 Winter Olympics. When she died two years later from cancer, over 15,000 people attended her funeral, and it was broadcast on national television.","Curling\n\nAn amateur sport","Curling\n\nWhile Canadian bonspiels (tournaments) offer cash prizes, there are very few full-time professional curlers. However, some curlers make a considerable portion of their income from curling. Still, curling survives as a people's sport, returning to the Winter Olympics in 1998 with men's and women's tournaments after not having been on the official Olympic program since 1924 (that year's curling competition, for men only, was confirmed as official by the IOC in 2006). Because accuracy, strategy, skill, and experience are more valuable in curling than traditional sports virtues of speed, stamina, and strength, most competitive curlers are older than their counterparts in other sports. However, there are many young teams who turn heads, and junior curling is quite popular, with national finals being televised nationwide in Canada.","Curling\n\nGood sportsmanship","Curling\n\nMore so than in many other team sports, good sportsmanship, often referred to as the \"Spirit of Curling,\" is an integral part of curling. This tradition is similar to the games of darts, except in curling the winner traditionally buys a round of drinks and four hot dogs for the losing team.","Curling\n\nThe Spirit of Curling also leads teams to congratulate their opponents for making a good shot, strong sweeping or spectacular form. Perhaps most importantly, the Spirit of Curling dictates that one never cheers mistakes, misses or gaffes by one's opponent (unlike most team sports) and one should not celebrate one's own good shots during the game beyond modest acknowledgement of the shot such as a head nod, fist bump or thumbs-up gesture. Modest congratulation, however, may be exchanged between winning team members after the match. On-the-ice celebration is usually reserved for the winners of a major tournament after winning the final game of the championship. It is completely unacceptable to attempt to throw opposing players off their game by way of negative comment, distraction or heckling.","Curling\n\nA match traditionally begins with players shaking hands with and saying \"good curling\" or \"have a pleasant game\" to each member of the opposing team. It is also traditional in some areas for the winning team to buy the losing team a drink and a hot dog after the game. Even at the highest levels of play, players are expected to \"call their own fouls.\"","Curling\n\nIt is not uncommon for a team to concede a curling match after it believes it no longer has any hope of winning. Concession is an honourable act and does not carry the stigma associated with quitting, and also allows for more socializing. To concede a match, members of the losing team offer congratulatory handshakes to the winning team. Thanks, wishes of future good luck and hugs are usually exchanged between the teams. To continue playing when a team has no realistic chance of winning can be seen as a breach of etiquette.","Curling\n\nSpecial needs in curling","Curling\n\nCurling has been adapted for wheelchair users and people otherwise unable to throw the stone from the hack. These curlers may use a device known as a \"delivery stick\". The cue holds on to the handle of the stone and is then pushed along by the curler. At the end of delivery, the curler pulls back on the cue, which releases it from the stone. The Canadian Curling Association Rules of Curling allows the use of a delivery stick in club play but does not permit it in championships.","Curling\n\nThe delivery stick was specifically invented for elderly curlers in Canada in 1999. In early 2016 an international initiative started to allow use of the delivery sticks by players over 60 years of age in World Curling Federation Senior Championships, as well as in any projected Masters (60+) Championship that develops in the future.","Curling\n\nTerminology","Curling\n\nTerms used to describe the game include:","Curling\n\nThe ice in the game may be fast (keen) or slow. If the ice is keen, a rock will travel farther with a given amount of weight (throwing force) on it. The speed of the ice is measured in seconds. One such measure, known as \"hog-to-hog\" time, is the speed of the stone and is the time in seconds the rock takes from the moment it crosses the near hog line till it crosses the far hog line. If this number is lower, the rock is moving faster, so again low numbers mean more speed. The ice in a match will be somewhat consistent and thus this measure of speed can also be used to measure how far down the ice the rock will travel. Once it is determined that a rock taking (for example) 13 seconds to go from hog line to hog line will stop on the tee line, the curler can know that if the hog-to-hog time is matched by a future stone, that stone will likely stop at approximately the same location.","Curling\n\nAs an example, on keen ice, common times might be 16 seconds for guards, 14 seconds for draws, and 8 seconds for peel weight.","Curling\n\nThe back line to hog line speed is used principally by sweepers to get an initial sense of the weight of a stone. As an example, on keen ice, common times might be 4.0 seconds for guards, 3.8 seconds for draws, 3.2 for normal hit weight, and 2.9 seconds for peel weight. Especially at the club level, this metric can be misleading, due to amateurs sometimes pushing stones on release, causing the stone to travel faster than the back-to-hog speed.","Curling\n\nChampions and major championships","Curling\n\n* Curling at the Winter Olympics\n* World Curling Championships\n* World Junior Curling Championships\n* World Senior Curling Championships\n* World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship\n* European Curling Championships\n* Continental Cup of Curling","Curling\n\n* Tim Hortons Brier\n* Scotties Tournament of Hearts\n* United States Men's Curling Championship\n* United States Women's Curling Championship\n* Canada Cup\n* European Mixed Curling Championships","Curling\n\nNotable curling clubs","Curling\n\n* Bemidji Curling Club – Bemidji, Minnesota, Home of the 2006 United States Men's & Women's Olympic Curling Teams\n* Broomstones Curling Club – Wayland, Massachusetts\n* Chicago Curling Club – Chicago, Illinois\n* Dakota Curling Club – Burnsville, Minnesota – a leading example of the development of new curling clubs on arena ice in the USA\n* Detroit Curling Club – Ferndale, Michigan\n* Garrison Golf and Curling Club, Kingston, Ontario\n* Grand National Curling Club – Organization in the United States covering clubs on the east coast\n* Granite Curling Club – Winnipeg, Manitoba\n* Granite Curling Club – Seattle, Washington, the only dedicated curling facility on the west coast of the United States\n* Ice Melters Curling Club – England\n* Markinch Curling Club – Fife, Scotland\n* Mayflower Curling Club – Halifax, Nova Scotia\n* Milwaukee Curling Club – Mequon, Wisconsin — The oldest curling club in the U.S.","Curling\n\n– Since 1845\n* Ottawa Curling Club – Ottawa, Ontario\n* Potomac Curling Club – Laurel, Maryland – Near Washington, D.C\n* Pittsburgh Curling Club – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania – Established in 2002\n* Plainfield Curling Club – South Plainfield, New Jersey\n* Rideau Curling Club – Ottawa, Ontario\n* Royal Caledonian Curling Club – Scotland, the official Mother Club of curling\n* Royal Montreal Curling Club – Montreal, Quebec, the oldest active athletic club in North America\n* Royal City Curling Club – New Westminster, British Columbia\n* Saint Paul Curling Club – St. Paul, Minnesota – Founded in 1885. Club with largest active membership in the United States (over 1000 members). * Utica Curling Club – Utica, New York\n* Kilsyth Curling Club – the first constituted curling club in the world\n* Wausau Curling Club – Wausau, Wisconsin – Home of the Tietge Bonspiel, the oldest and largest high school curling bonspiel in the U.S.","Curling\n\nIn popular culture","Curling\n\nThe 1965 Beatles feature film Help! contains a scene centred around curling as does the 1969 James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service.","Curling\n\nThe Canadian band The Weakerthans have a song entitled \"Tournament of Hearts\" on their 2007 album Reunion Tour about a depressed man who spends all his time at a local curling rink.","Curling\n\nThe 2002 Canadian film Men with Brooms, starring and directed by Paul Gross, centres on the sport of curling, telling the story of a curling team from a small Canadian town as they work through their respective life issues and struggle to win the championship for the sake of their late coach. The film grossed over $4.2 million, almost all of it in Canada, making it the top-grossing Canadian English-language film subsidized by Telefilm Canada between 1997 and 2002. The film inspired a sequel TV sitcom that aired in 2010 and 2011.","Curling\n\nThe Corner Gas episode \"Hurry Hard\" (2nd season) centered around curling. Real curlers Randy Ferbey and David Nedohin had cameo appearances.","Curling\n\nCurling is featured prominently in \"Boy Meets Curl\", the twelfth episode of the comedy series The Simpsons' twenty-first season. The episode aired on the Fox network in the United States on 14 February 2010. In this episode, Homer and Marge Simpson form a mixed curling team with Agnes and Seymour Skinner, which is chosen to play in the 2010 Winter Olympics.","Curling\n\nIn 2010 electro band LMFAO released the video for their song \"Yes\", which portrays a satirical curling match.","Curling\n\nThe Swedish heavy metal band Hammerfall released a music video to their song \"Hearts on Fire\" featuring the band engaged in a curling competition of sorts with the Swedish women's curling team."],"string":"[\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling is a sport in which players slide stones on a sheet of ice towards a target area which is segmented into four concentric circles. It is related to bowls, boules and shuffleboard. Two teams, each with four players, take turns sliding heavy, polished granite stones, also called rocks, across the ice curling sheet towards the house, a circular target marked on the ice. Each team has eight stones. The purpose is to accumulate the highest score for a game; points are scored for the stones resting closest to the centre of the house at the conclusion of each end, which is completed when both teams have thrown all of their stones. A game usually consists of eight or ten ends.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe curler can induce a curved path by causing the stone to slowly turn as it slides, and the path of the rock may be further influenced by two sweepers with brooms who accompany it as it slides down the sheet, using the brooms to alter the state of the ice in front of the stone. A great deal of strategy and teamwork go into choosing the ideal path and placement of a stone for each situation, and the skills of the curlers determine how close to the desired result the stone will achieve. This gives curling its nickname of \\\"chess on ice\\\".\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nOrigins and history\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling was invented in medieval Scotland, with the first written reference to a contest using stones on ice coming from the records of Paisley Abbey, Renfrewshire, in February 1541. Two paintings, \\\"Winter Landscape with a Bird Trap\\\" and \\\"The Hunters in the Snow\\\" (both dated 1565) by Pieter Bruegel the Elder depict Flemish peasants curling—Scotland and the Low Countries had strong trading and cultural links during this period, which is also evident in the history of golf.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nEvidence that curling existed in Scotland in the early 16th century includes a curling stone inscribed with the date 1511 uncovered (along with another bearing the date 1551) when an old pond was drained at Dunblane, Scotland. Kilsyth Curling Club claims to be the first club in the world, having been formally constituted in 1716; it is still in existence today. Kilsyth also claims the oldest purpose-built curling pond in the world at Colzium, in the form of a low dam creating a shallow pool some 100 × 250 metres in size.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe word curling first appears in print in 1620 in Perth, Scotland, in the preface and the verses of a poem by Henry Adamson. The game was (and still is, in Scotland and Scottish-settled regions like southern New Zealand) also known as \\\"the roaring game\\\" because of the sound the stones make while traveling over the pebble (droplets of water applied to the playing surface). The verbal noun curling is formed from the Scots (and English) verb curl, which describes the motion of the stone.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nIn the early history of curling, the playing stones were simply flat-bottomed river stones, which were of inconsistent size, shape and smoothness. Unlike today, the thrower had little control over the 'curl' or velocity and relied more on luck than on precision, skill and strategy.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nIn Darvel, East Ayrshire, the weavers relaxed by playing curling matches using the heavy stone weights from the looms' warp beams, fitted with a detachable handle for the purpose. Many a wife would keep her husband's brass curling stone handle on the mantelpiece, brightly polished until the next time it was needed. Central Canadian curlers often used 'irons' rather than stones until the early 1900s, Canada is the only country known to have done so, while others experimented with wood or ice-filled tins.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nOutdoor curling was very popular in Scotland between the 16th and 19th centuries because the climate provided good ice conditions every winter. Scotland is home to the international governing body for curling, the World Curling Federation, Perth, which originated as a committee of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club, the mother club of curling.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nToday, the game is most firmly established in Canada, having been taken there by Scottish emigrants. The Royal Montreal Curling Club, the oldest established sports club still active in North America, was established in 1807. The first curling club in the United States was established in 1830, and the game was introduced to Switzerland and Sweden before the end of the 19th century, also by Scots. Today, curling is played all over Europe and has spread to Brazil, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, China, and Korea.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe first world championship for curling was limited to men and was known as the Scotch Cup, held in Falkirk and Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1959. The first world title was won by the Canadian team from Regina, Saskatchewan, skipped by Ernie Richardson. (The skip is the team member who calls the shots; see below.)\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nOlympic curling\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling has been an official sport in the Winter Olympic Games since the 1998 Winter Olympics. It currently includes men's and women's tournaments. A mixed doubles Olympic event was considered but rejected for the 2010 Winter Olympic Games. Mixed doubles has now been added to the Olympics in the most upcoming Olympic Games in 2018.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nIn February 2002, the International Olympic Committee retroactively decided that the curling competition from the 1924 Winter Olympics (originally called Semaine des Sports d'Hiver, or International Winter Sports Week) would be considered official Olympic events and no longer be considered demonstration events. Thus, the first Olympic medals in curling, which at the time was played outside, were awarded for the 1924 Winter Games, with the gold medal won by Great Britain and Ireland, two silver medals by Sweden, and the bronze by France. A demonstration tournament was also held during the 1932 Winter Olympic Games between four teams from Canada and four teams from the United States, with Canada winning 12 games to 4.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nSince the 1998 Olympics, Canada has dominated the sport with their men's teams winning gold in 2006, 2010, and 2014, and silver in 1998 and 2002. The women's team won gold in 1998 and 2014, a silver in 2010, and a bronze in 2002 and 2006.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nEquipment\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling sheet\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe playing surface or curling sheet is defined by the World Curling Federation Rules of Curling. It is a rectangular area of ice, carefully prepared to be as flat and level as possible, 146 to in length by in width. The shorter borders of the sheet are called the backboards. Because of the elongated shape, several sheets may be laid out side by side in the same arena, allowing multiple games to be played simultaneously.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nA target, the house, is centred on the intersection of the centre line, drawn lengthwise down the centre of the sheet and the tee line, drawn 16 ft from, and parallel to, the backboard. These lines divide the house into quarters. The house consists of a centre circle (the button) and three concentric rings, of diameters 4, 8 and 12 feet, formed by painting or laying coloured vinyl sheet under the ice and are usually distinguished by colour. A stone must at least touch the outer ring in order to score (see Scoring below), otherwise the rings are merely a visual aid for aiming and judging which stone is closer to the button.\\nTwo hog lines, are drawn 37 ft from, and parallel to, the backboard.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe hacks are fixed 12 ft behind each button; a hack gives the thrower something to push against when making the throw. On indoor rinks, there are usually two fixed hacks, rubber-lined holes, one on each side of the centre line, with the inside edge no more than 3 in from the centre line and the front edge on the hack line. A single moveable hack may also be used.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe ice may be natural but is usually frozen by a refrigeration plant pumping a brine solution through numerous pipes fixed lengthwise at the bottom of a shallow pan of water. Most curling clubs have an ice maker whose main job is to care for the ice. At the major curling championships, ice maintenance is extremely important. Large events, such as the Brier or other national/international championships, are typically held in an arena that presents a challenge to the ice maker, who must constantly monitor and adjust the ice and air temperatures as well as air humidity levels to ensure a consistent playing surface. It is common for each sheet of ice to have multiple sensors embedded in order to monitor surface temperature, as well as probes set up in the seating area (to monitor humidity) and in the compressor room (to monitor brine supply and return temperatures). The surface of the ice is maintained at a temperature of around 23 °F.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nA key part of the preparation of the playing surface is the spraying of water droplets onto the ice, which form pebble on freezing. The pebbled ice surface resembles an orange peel, and the stone moves on top of the pebbled ice. As the stone moves over the pebble, any rotation of the stone causes it to curl to the inside or outside. The amount of curl (commonly referred to as the feet of curl) can change during a game as the pebble wears; the ice maker must monitor this and be prepared to scrape and re-pebble the surface prior to each game.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling stone\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe curling stone (also sometimes called a rock in North America) is made of granite and is specified by the World Curling Federation, which requires a weight between 38 and a maximum circumference of 36 in and a minimum height of . The only part of the stone in contact with the ice is the running surface, a narrow, flat annulus or ring, wide and about 5 in in diameter; the sides of the stone bulge convex down to the ring and the inside of the ring is hollowed concave to clear the ice. This concave bottom was first proposed by J. S. Russell of Toronto, Canada sometime after 1870, and was subsequently adopted by Scottish stone manufacturer Andrew Kay.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe granite for the stones comes from two sources: Ailsa Craig, an island off the Ayrshire coast of Scotland, and the Trefor Granite Quarry in Wales.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nAilsa Craig is the traditional source and produces two types of granite, Blue Hone and Ailsa Craig Common Green. Blue Hone has very low water absorption, which prevents the action of repeatedly freezing water from eroding the stone. Ailsa Craig Common Green is a lesser quality granite than Blue Hone. In the past, most curling stones were made from Blue Hone but the island is now a wildlife reserve and the quarry is restricted by environmental conditions that exclude blasting.\\nKays of Scotland has been making curling stones since 1851 and has the exclusive rights to the Ailsa Craig granite, granted by the Marquess of Ailsa, whose family has owned the island since 1560. The last harvest of Ailsa Craig granite by Kays took place in 2013, after a hiatus of 11 years; 2,000 tons were harvested, sufficient to fill anticipated orders through at least 2020. Kays has been the exclusive manufacturer of curling stones for the Olympics since the 2006 Winter Olympics.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nTrefor granite comes from the Yr Eifl or Trefor Granite Quarry in the village of Trefor on the north coast of the Llŷn Peninsula in Gwynedd, Wales and has produced granite since 1850.\\nTrefor granite comes in shades of pink, blue and grey. The quarry supplies curling stone granite exclusively to the Canadian, Canada Curling Stone Co., which has been producing stones since 1992 and supplied the stones for the 2002 Winter Olympics.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nA handle is attached by a bolt running vertically through a hole in the centre of the stone. The handle allows the stone to be gripped and rotated upon release; on properly prepared ice the rotation will bend (curl) the path of the stone in the direction in which the front edge of the stone is turning, especially as the stone slows. Handles are coloured to identify each team; two popular colours in major tournaments being red and yellow.\\nIn competition, an electronic handle known as the eye on the hog may be fitted to detect hog line violations. This electronically detects whether the thrower's hand is in contact with the handle as it passes the hog line and indicates a violation by lights at the base of the handle. The eye on the hog eliminates human error and the need for hog line officials. It is mandatory in high-level national and international competition, but its cost, around US$650 each, currently puts it beyond the reach of most club curling.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling broom\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe curling broom, or brush, is used to sweep the ice surface in the path of the stone, (see sweeping), and is also often used as a balancing aid during delivery of the stone.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nPrior to the 1950s, most curling brooms were made of corn strands and were similar to household brooms of the day. In 1958, Fern Marchessault of Montreal inverted the corn straw in the centre of the broom. This style of corn broom was referred to as the Blackjack.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nArtificial brooms made from man-made fabrics, rather than corn, such as the Rink Rat, also became common later during this time period. Prior to the late sixties, Scottish curling brushes were used primarily by some of the Scots, as well as by recreational and elderly curlers as a substitute for corn brooms, since the technique was easier to learn. In the late sixties, competitive curlers from Calgary, such as John Mayer, Bruce Stewart, and, later, the world junior championship teams skipped by Paul Gowsell, proved that the curling brush could be just as (or more) effective without all the blisters common to corn broom use. During that time period, there was much debate in competitive curling circles as to which sweeping device was more effective: brush or broom. Eventually, the brush won out with the majority of curlers making the switch to the less costly and more efficient brush. Today, brushes have replaced traditional corn brooms at every level of curling; it is rare now to see a curler using a corn broom on a regular basis.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling brushes may have fabric, hog hair, or horsehair heads. Modern curling brush handles are usually hollow tubes made of fibreglass or carbon fibre instead of a solid length of wooden dowel. These hollow tube handles are lighter and stronger than wooden handles, allowing faster sweeping and also enabling more downward force to be applied to the broom head with reduced shaft flex. New, \\\"directional fabric\\\" brooms, which players are worried will alter the fundamentals of the sport by reducing the level skill required, have been accused of giving players an unfair advantage. The new brooms were temporarily banned by the World Curling Federation and Curling Canada for the 2015-2016 season. The new brooms \\\"isolate the friction caused by brushing only where the running surface of the rock has contact with ice––on top of the pebble––with little resistance\\\", which makes sweepers have unprecedented control over the direction the stone goes.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nShoes\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling shoes are similar to ordinary athletic shoes except that they have dissimilar soles; the slider shoe (usually known as a \\\"slider\\\") is designed for the sliding foot and the \\\"gripper shoe\\\" (usually known as a gripper) for the hack foot.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe slider is designed to slide and typically has a Teflon sole. It is worn by the thrower during delivery from the hack and by sweepers or the skip to glide down the ice when sweeping or otherwise traveling down the sheet quickly. Stainless steel was once common for slider soles, and \\\"red brick\\\" sliders with lateral blocks of PVC on the sole are also available. Most shoes have a full-sole sliding surface, but some shoes have a sliding surface covering only the outline of the shoe and other enhancements with the full-sole slider. Some shoes have small disc sliders covering the front and heel portions or only the front portion of the foot, which allow more flexibility in the sliding foot for curlers playing with tuck deliveries. When a player is not throwing, the player's slider shoe can be temporarily rendered non-slippery by using a slip-on gripper. Ordinary athletic shoes may be converted to sliders by using a step-on or slip-on Teflon slider or by applying electrical or gaffer tape directly to the sole or over a piece of cardboard. This arrangement often suits casual or beginning players.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe gripper is worn by the thrower on the hack foot during delivery and is designed to grip the ice. It may have a normal athletic shoe sole or a special layer of rubbery material applied to the sole of a thickness to match the sliding shoe. The toe of the hack foot shoe may also have a rubberised coating on the top surface or a flap that hangs over the toe to reduce wear on the top of the shoe as it drags on the ice behind the thrower.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nOther equipment\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nOther types of equipment include:\",\n \"Curling\\n\\n* Curling pants, made to be stretchy to accommodate the curling delivery.\\n* A stopwatch to time the stones over a fixed distance to calculate their speed. Stopwatches can be attached either to clothing or the broom.\\n* Curling gloves and mittens, to keep the hands warm and improve grip on the broom.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nGameplay\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe purpose of the game is to score points by getting stones closer to the house center, or the \\\"button\\\", than the other team's stones. Players from either team alternate in taking shots from the far side of the sheet. An end is complete when all eight rocks from each team have been delivered, a total of sixteen stones. If the teams are tied at the end of the game, play continues for as many ends as may be required to break the tie. The winner is the team with the highest score after all ends have been completed (see Scoring below). A game may be conceded if considered unwinnable.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nInternational competitive games are generally ten ends, so most of the national championships that send a representative to the World Championships or Olympics also play ten ends. However, there is a movement on the World Curling Tour to make the games only eight ends. Most tournaments on that tour are eight ends, as are the vast majority of recreational games.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nIn international competition, each side is given 73 minutes to complete all of its throws. Each team is also allowed two minute-long timeouts per 10-end game. If extra ends are required, each team is allowed 10 minutes of playing time to complete its throws and one added 60-second timeout for each extra end. However, the \\\"thinking time\\\" system, in which the delivering team's game timer stops as soon as the shooter's rock crosses the t-line during the delivery, is becoming more popular, especially in Canada. This system allows each team 38 minutes per 10 ends, or 30 minutes per 8 ends, to make strategic and tactical decisions, with 4 minutes and 30 seconds an end for extra ends. The \\\"thinking time\\\" system was implemented after it was recognized that teams playing aggressively (using draws and other low-weight shots which take more time for the stones to come to rest) were essentially being penalized in terms of the time they had available compared to teams which primarily use hits which require far less time per shot.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nDelivery\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe process of sliding a stone down the sheet is known as the delivery.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe skip, or the captain of the team, will usually determine the required weight, turn, and line of the stone. These will be influenced by the tactics at this point in the game, which may involve taking-out, blocking or tapping another stone.\\n* The weight of the stone is its velocity, which depends on the leg drive of the delivery rather than the arm.\\n* The turn, or curl is the rotation of the stone, which gives it a curved trajectory.\\n* The line is the direction of the throw ignoring the effect of the turn.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe skip may communicate the weight, turn, line, and other tactics by calling or tapping a broom on the ice. In the case of a takeout, guard, or a tap, the skip will indicate the stones involved.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nBefore delivery, the running surface of the stone is wiped clean and the path across the ice swept with the broom if necessary, because any dirt on the bottom of a stone or in its path can alter the trajectory and ruin the shot. Intrusion by a foreign object is called a pick up or pick.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe thrower throws from the hack. Another player, usually the skip, is stationed behind the button to determine the tactics, weight, turn, and line, and the other two may sweep in front of the stone to influence the trajectory (see Sweeping, below). The players, with the exception of the skip, take turns throwing and sweeping; when one player (e.g., the lead) throws, the players not throwing (the second and third) sweep. When the skip throws, the third, or vice-skip, takes his role.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe thrower's gripper shoe (with the non-slippery sole) is positioned against one of the hacks; for a right-handed curler the right foot is placed against the left hack and vice versa for a left-hander. The thrower, now in the hack, lines the body up with shoulders square to the skip's broom at the far end for line.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe stone is placed in front of the foot now in the hack. Rising slightly from the hack, the thrower pulls the stone back (some older curlers may actually raise the stone in this backward movement) then lunges smoothly out from the hack pushing the stone ahead while the slider foot is moved in front of the gripper foot, which trails behind. The thrust from this lunge determines the weight and hence the distance the stone will travel. While not compulsory, most curlers deliver the stone while sliding out from the hack. Balance may be assisted by a broom held in the free hand with the back of the broom down so that it slides.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThere are two current types of delivery, the common flat-foot deliver as well as the Manitoba tuck delivery where the curler slides on the front ball of his foot.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe stone is released as the thrower approaches the hog line, at which point the turn is imparted by a slight clockwise or anti-clockwise twist of the handle from around the two or ten o'clock position to the twelve o'clock on release. A typical rate of turn is about 2½ rotations before coming to a rest.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe stone must be released before its front edge crosses the near hog line, and it must clear the far hog line or else be removed from play (hogged); an exception is made if a stone fails to come to rest beyond the far hog line after rebounding from a stone in play just past the hog line. The release rule is rarely enforced in club play unless abuse is suspected. However, in major tournaments it is strictly enforced; the \\\"eye on the hog\\\" sensor in the stone will indicate whether the stone has been legally thrown or not. The lights on the stone handle will either light up green, indicating that the stone has been legally thrown, or red, in which case the illegally thrown stone will be immediately pulled from play instead of waiting for the stone to come to rest.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nSweeping\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nAfter the stone is delivered, its trajectory is still influenced by the two sweepers under instruction from the skip. Sweeping is done for several reasons: to reduce friction underneath the stone, to decrease the amount of curl, and to clean debris from the stone's path. The stones curl more as they slow down, so sweeping early in travel tends to increase distance as well as straighten the path, and sweeping after sideways motion is established can increase the sideways distance. When sweeping, pressure and speed of the brush head are key in slightly increasing the layer of moisture that builds up under the stone.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nOne of the basic technical aspects of curling is knowing when to sweep. When the ice in front of the stone is swept, a stone will usually travel both farther and straighter. In some situations, one of the two alterations in path is not desirable. For example, a stone may have too much weight, but require sweeping to prevent curling into a guard. The team must decide which is better: getting by the guard but traveling too far, or hitting the guard.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nMuch of the yelling that goes on during a curling game is the skip calling the line of the shot and the sweepers calling the weight. The skip evaluates the path of the stone and calls to the sweepers to sweep as necessary to maintain the intended track. The sweepers themselves are responsible for judging the weight of the stone, ensuring the length of travel is correct and communicating the weight of the stone back to the skip. Some teams use stopwatch timing, from back line to the nearest hog line as a sweeping aid. Many teams use the Number System to communicate in which of 10 playable zones it is estimated the stone will stop.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nUsually, the two sweepers will be on opposite sides of the stone's path, although depending on which side the sweepers' strengths lie this may not always be the case. Speed and pressure are vital to sweeping. In gripping the broom, one hand should be one third of the way from the top (non-brush end) of the handle while the other hand should be one third of the way from the head of the broom. The angle of the broom to the ice should be so that the most force possible can be exerted on the ice. The precise amount of pressure may vary from relatively light brushing (\\\"just cleaning\\\" - to ensure debris will not alter the stone's path) to maximum-pressure scrubbing.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nSweeping is allowed anywhere on the ice up to the tee line, as long as it is only for one's own team stones. Once the leading edge of a team stone crosses the tee line only one player may sweep it. Additionally, when a stone crosses the tee line, one player from the other team is allowed to sweep it. This is the only case that a stone may be swept by an opposing team member. In international rules, this player must be the skip; or if the skip is throwing, then the sweeping player must be the third.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nBurning a stone\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nOccasionally, players may accidentally touch a stone with their broom or a body part. This is often referred to as burning a stone. Players touching a stone in such a manner are expected to call their own infraction as a matter of good sportsmanship. Touching a stationary stone when no stones are in motion (there is no delivery in progress) is not an infraction (unless the stationary stone is struck in such a manner that its position is altered), and is a common way for the skip to indicate a stone that is to be taken out.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nWhen a stone is touched when stones are in play, the remedies vary between placing the stones as they end up after the touch, replacing the stones as they would have been if no stone were touched, or removal of the touched stone from play. In non-officiated league play, the skip of the non-offending team has the final say on where the stones are placed after the infraction.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nTypes of shots\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nMany different types of shots are used to carefully place stones for strategic or tactical reasons; they fall into three fundamental categories as follows:\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nGuards are thrown in front of the house in the free guard zone, usually to protect the shot-rock (the stone closest to the button at the time) or to make the opposing team's shot difficult. Guard shots include the centre-guard, on the centreline and the corner-guards to the left or right sides of the centre line. See Free Guard Zone below.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nDraws are thrown only to reach the house. Draw shots include raise and angle-raise, come-around, and freeze shots.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nTakeouts are intended to remove stones from play and include the peel, hit-and-roll and double shots.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nFor a more complete listing, see Glossary of curling terms.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nFree guard zone\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nUntil four stones have been played (two from each side), stones in the free guard zone (those stones left in the area between the hog and tee lines, excluding the house) may not be removed by an opponent's stone (although they can be moved as long as they are not taken out of play). These are known as guard rocks. If the guard rocks are removed, they are replaced to where they were before the shot was thrown, and the opponent's stone is removed from play and cannot be replayed. This rule is known as the four-rock rule or the free guard zone rule (for a while in Canada, a \\\"three-rock rule\\\" was in place, but that rule has been replaced by the four-rock rule).\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThis rule, a relatively recent addition to curling, was added in response to a strategy of \\\"peeling\\\" opponents' guard stones (knocking them out of play at an angle that caused the shooter's stone to also roll out of play, leaving no stones on the ice). A team in the lead would often employ this strategy during the game. By knocking all stones out, the opponents could at best score one point (if they had the hammer). Alternatively, the team with the hammer could peel rock after rock, which would blank the end, keeping the last rock advantage for another end. This strategy had developed (mostly in Canada) as ice-makers had become skilled at creating a predictable ice surface and the adoption of brushes allowed greater control over the rock. While a sound strategy, this made for an unexciting game. Observers at the time noted that if two teams equally skilled in the peel game faced each other on good ice, the outcome of the game would be predictable from who won the coin flip to have last rock (or had earned it in the schedule) at the beginning of the game.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe 1990 Brier was considered by many curling fans as boring to watch because of the amount of peeling and the quick adoption of the Free Guard Zone the following year reflected how disliked this aspect of the game had become.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe free guard zone was originally called the Modified Moncton Rule and was developed from a suggestion made by Russ Howard for the Moncton 100 cashspiel (with the richest prize ever awarded at the time in a tournament) in Moncton, New Brunswick, in January 1990. \\\"Howard's Rule\\\" (later known as the Moncton Rule), used for the tournament and based on a practice drill his team used, had the first four rocks in play unable to be removed no matter where they were at any time during the end. This method of play was altered by restricting the area in which a stone was protected to the free guard zone only for the first four rocks thrown and adopted as a Four-rock Free Guard Zone for international competition shortly after. Canada kept to the traditional rules until a three-rock Free Guard Zone rule was adopted for the 1993-94 season. After several years of having the three-rock rule used for the Canadian championships and the winners then having to adjust to the four-rock rule in the World Championships, the Canadian Curling Association adopted the now-standard Free Guard Zone in the 2002-2003 season.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nOne strategy that has been developed by curlers in response to the Free Guard Zone (Kevin Martin from Alberta is one of the best examples) is the \\\"tick\\\" game, where a shot is made attempting to knock (tick) the guard to the side, far enough that it is difficult or impossible to use but still remaining in play while the shot itself goes out of play. The effect is functionally identical to peeling the guard but significantly harder, as a shot that hits the guard too hard (knocking it out of play) results in its being replaced, while not hitting it hard enough can result in its still being tactically useful for the opposition. There's also a greater chance that the shot will miss the guard entirely because of the greater accuracy required to make the shot. Because of the difficulty of making this type of shot, only the best teams will normally attempt it, and it does not dominate the game the way the peel formerly did. Steve Gould from Manitoba popularized ticks played across the face.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThese are easier to make because they impart less speed on the object stone, therefore increasing the chance that it remains in play even if a bigger chunk of it is hit.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nHammer\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nLast-rock or last-stone advantage in an end is called the hammer. Before the game, teams typically decide who gets the hammer in the first end either by chance (such as a coin toss), by a \\\"draw-to-the-button\\\" contest, where a representative of each team shoots to see who gets closer to the centre of the rings, or, particularly in tournament settings like the Winter Olympics, by a comparison of each team's win-loss record. In all subsequent ends, the hammer belongs to the team that did not score in the preceding end. In the event that neither team scores, the hammer remains with the same team. Naturally, it is easier to score points with the hammer than without; in tournament play, the team with the hammer generally tries to score two or more points. If only one point is possible, the skip will often try to avoid scoring at all in order to retain the hammer until the next end, when two or more points may lie. This is called a blank end. Scoring without the hammer is commonly referred to as stealing, or a steal, and is much more difficult.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nStrategy\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling is a game of strategy, tactics and skill. The strategy depends on the team's skill, the opponent's skill, the conditions of the ice, the score of the game, how many ends remain and whether the team has last-stone advantage (the hammer). A team may play an end aggressively or defensively. Aggressive playing will put a lot of stones in play by throwing mostly draws; this makes for an exciting game and is very risky but the reward can be very great. Defensive playing will throw a lot of hits preventing a lot of stones in play; this tends to be less exciting and less risky. A good drawing team will usually opt to play aggressively, while a good hitting team will opt to play defensively.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nIf a team does not have the hammer in an end, it will opt to try to clog up the four-foot zone in the house to deny the opposing team access to the button. This can be done by throwing \\\"centre line\\\" guards in front of the house on the centre line, which can be tapped into the house later or drawn around. If a team has the hammer, they will try to keep this four-foot zone free so that they have access to the button area at all times. A team with the hammer may throw a corner guard as their first stone of an end placed in front of the house but outside the four-foot zone to utilize the free guard zone. Corner guards are key for a team to score two points in an end, because they can either draw around it later or hit and roll behind it, making the opposing team's shot to remove it more difficult.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nIdeally, the strategy in an end for a team with the hammer is to score two points or more. Scoring one point is often a wasted opportunity, as they will then lose last-rock advantage for the next end. If a team cannot score two points, they will often attempt to \\\"blank an end\\\" by removing any leftover opposition rocks and rolling out; or, if there are no opposition rocks, just throwing the rock through the house so that no team scores any points, and the team with the hammer can try again the next end to score two or more with it. Generally, a team without the hammer would want to either force the team with the hammer to only one point (so that they can get the hammer back) or \\\"steal\\\" the end by scoring one or more points of their own.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nGenerally, the larger the lead a team will have in a game, the more defensively they should play. By hitting all of the opponent's stones, it removes opportunities for their getting multiple points, therefore defending the lead. If the leading team is quite comfortable, leaving their own stones in play can also be dangerous. Guards can be drawn around by the other team, and stones in the house can be tapped back (if they are in front of the tee line) or frozen onto (if they are behind the tee line). A frozen stone is difficult to remove, because it is \\\"frozen\\\" (in front of and touching) to the opponents stone. At this point, a team will opt for \\\"peels\\\", meaning that the stones they throw will be to not only hit their opposition stones, but to roll out of play as well. Peels are hits that are thrown with the most amount of power.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nConceding a game\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nIt is not uncommon at any level for a losing team to terminate the match before all ends are completed if it believes it no longer has a realistic chance of winning. Competitive games end once the losing team has \\\"run out of rocks\\\"—that is, once it has fewer stones in play and available for play than the number of points needed to tie the game.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nDispute resolution\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nMost decisions about rules are left to the skips, although in official tournaments, decisions may be left to the officials. However, all scoring disputes are handled by the vice skip. No players other than the vice skip from each team should be in the house while score is being determined. In tournament play, the most frequent circumstance in which a decision has to be made by someone other than the vice skip is the failure of the vice skips to agree on which stone is closest to the button. An independent official (supervisor at Canadian and World championships) then measures the distances using a specially designed device that pivots at the centre of the button. When no independent officials are available, the vice skips measure the distances.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nScoring\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe winner is the team having the highest number of accumulated points at the completion of ten ends. Points are scored at the conclusion of each of these ends as follows: when each team has thrown its eight stones, the team with the stone closest to the button wins that end; the winning team is then awarded one point for each of its own stones lying closer to the button than the opponent's closest stone.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nOnly stones that are in the house are considered in the scoring. A stone is in the house if it lies within the 12 ft zone or any portion of its edge lies over the edge of the ring. Since the bottom of the stone is rounded, a stone just barely in the house will not have any actual contact with the ring, which will pass under the rounded edge of the stone, but it still counts. This type of stone is known as a biter.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nIt may not be obvious to the eye which of two rocks is closer to the button (center) or if a rock is actually biting or not. There are specialized devices to make these determinations, but these cannot be brought out until after an end is completed. Therefore, a team may make strategic decisions during an end based on assumptions of rock position that turn out to be incorrect.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe score is marked on a scoreboard, of which there are two types; the baseball type and the club scoreboard.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe baseball-style scoreboard was created for televised games for audiences not familiar with the club scoreboard. The ends are marked by columns 1 through 10 (or 11 for the possibility of an extra end to break ties) plus an additional column for the total. Below this are two rows, one for each team, containing the team's score for that end and their total score in the right hand column.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe club scoreboard is traditional and used in most curling clubs. Scoring on this board only requires the use of (up to) 11 digit cards, whereas with baseball-type scoring an unknown number of multiples of the digits (especially low digits like 1) may be needed. The numbered centre row represents all possible accumulated scores, and the numbers placed in the team rows represent the end in which that team achieved that cumulative score. If the red team scores three points in the first end (called a three-ender), then a 1 (indicating the first end) is placed beside the number 3 in the red row. If they score two more in the second end, then a 2 will be placed beside the 5 in the red row, indicating that the red team has five points in total (3+2). This scoreboard works because only one team can get points in an end. However, some confusion may arise if neither team scores points in an end, this is called a blank end.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe blank end numbers are usually listed in the farthest column on the right in the row of the team that has the hammer (last rock advantage), or on a special spot for blank ends.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe following example illustrates the difference between the two types. The example illustrates the men's final at the 2006 Winter Olympics.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nEight points – all the rocks thrown by one team counting – is the highest score possible in an end, and is known as an \\\"eight-ender\\\" or \\\"snowman\\\". Scoring an eight-ender against a relatively competent team is very difficult; in curling, it is considered the equivalent of pitching a perfect game in baseball. Probably the best-known snowman came at the 2006 Players' Championships. Future (2007) World Champion Kelly Scott scored eight points in one of her games against 1998 World bronze medalist Cathy King.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling culture\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCompetition teams are normally named after the skip, for example, Team Martin after skip Kevin Martin. Amateur league players can (and do) creatively name their teams, but when in competition (a bonspiel) the official team will have a standard name.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nTop curling championships are typically played by all-male or all-female teams. The game is known as mixed curling when a team consists of two men and two women. The Canadian Mixed Curling Championship is the highest-level mixed curling competition, in the absence of world championship or Olympic mixed curling events.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling tournaments may use the Schenkel system for determining the participants in matches.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling is played in many countries, including Canada, the United Kingdom (especially Scotland), the United States, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, Finland and Japan, all of which compete in the world championships.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling is particularly popular in Canada. Improvements in ice making and changes in the rules to increase scoring and promote complex strategy have increased the already high popularity of the sport in Canada, and large television audiences watch annual curling telecasts, especially the Scotties Tournament of Hearts (the national championship for women), the Tim Hortons Brier (the national championship for men), and the women's and men's world championships.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nDespite the Canadian province of Manitoba's small population (ranked 5th of 10 Canadian provinces), Manitoban teams have won the Brier more times than teams from any other province. The Tournament of Hearts and the Brier are contested by provincial and territorial champions, and the world championships by national champions.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling is the provincial sport of Saskatchewan. From there Ernie Richardson and his family team dominated Canadian and international curling during the late 1950s and early 1960s and have been considered to be the best male curlers of all time. Sandra Schmirler led her team to the first ever gold medal in women's curling in the 1998 Winter Olympics. When she died two years later from cancer, over 15,000 people attended her funeral, and it was broadcast on national television.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nAn amateur sport\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nWhile Canadian bonspiels (tournaments) offer cash prizes, there are very few full-time professional curlers. However, some curlers make a considerable portion of their income from curling. Still, curling survives as a people's sport, returning to the Winter Olympics in 1998 with men's and women's tournaments after not having been on the official Olympic program since 1924 (that year's curling competition, for men only, was confirmed as official by the IOC in 2006). Because accuracy, strategy, skill, and experience are more valuable in curling than traditional sports virtues of speed, stamina, and strength, most competitive curlers are older than their counterparts in other sports. However, there are many young teams who turn heads, and junior curling is quite popular, with national finals being televised nationwide in Canada.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nGood sportsmanship\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nMore so than in many other team sports, good sportsmanship, often referred to as the \\\"Spirit of Curling,\\\" is an integral part of curling. This tradition is similar to the games of darts, except in curling the winner traditionally buys a round of drinks and four hot dogs for the losing team.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe Spirit of Curling also leads teams to congratulate their opponents for making a good shot, strong sweeping or spectacular form. Perhaps most importantly, the Spirit of Curling dictates that one never cheers mistakes, misses or gaffes by one's opponent (unlike most team sports) and one should not celebrate one's own good shots during the game beyond modest acknowledgement of the shot such as a head nod, fist bump or thumbs-up gesture. Modest congratulation, however, may be exchanged between winning team members after the match. On-the-ice celebration is usually reserved for the winners of a major tournament after winning the final game of the championship. It is completely unacceptable to attempt to throw opposing players off their game by way of negative comment, distraction or heckling.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nA match traditionally begins with players shaking hands with and saying \\\"good curling\\\" or \\\"have a pleasant game\\\" to each member of the opposing team. It is also traditional in some areas for the winning team to buy the losing team a drink and a hot dog after the game. Even at the highest levels of play, players are expected to \\\"call their own fouls.\\\"\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nIt is not uncommon for a team to concede a curling match after it believes it no longer has any hope of winning. Concession is an honourable act and does not carry the stigma associated with quitting, and also allows for more socializing. To concede a match, members of the losing team offer congratulatory handshakes to the winning team. Thanks, wishes of future good luck and hugs are usually exchanged between the teams. To continue playing when a team has no realistic chance of winning can be seen as a breach of etiquette.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nSpecial needs in curling\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling has been adapted for wheelchair users and people otherwise unable to throw the stone from the hack. These curlers may use a device known as a \\\"delivery stick\\\". The cue holds on to the handle of the stone and is then pushed along by the curler. At the end of delivery, the curler pulls back on the cue, which releases it from the stone. The Canadian Curling Association Rules of Curling allows the use of a delivery stick in club play but does not permit it in championships.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe delivery stick was specifically invented for elderly curlers in Canada in 1999. In early 2016 an international initiative started to allow use of the delivery sticks by players over 60 years of age in World Curling Federation Senior Championships, as well as in any projected Masters (60+) Championship that develops in the future.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nTerminology\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nTerms used to describe the game include:\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe ice in the game may be fast (keen) or slow. If the ice is keen, a rock will travel farther with a given amount of weight (throwing force) on it. The speed of the ice is measured in seconds. One such measure, known as \\\"hog-to-hog\\\" time, is the speed of the stone and is the time in seconds the rock takes from the moment it crosses the near hog line till it crosses the far hog line. If this number is lower, the rock is moving faster, so again low numbers mean more speed. The ice in a match will be somewhat consistent and thus this measure of speed can also be used to measure how far down the ice the rock will travel. Once it is determined that a rock taking (for example) 13 seconds to go from hog line to hog line will stop on the tee line, the curler can know that if the hog-to-hog time is matched by a future stone, that stone will likely stop at approximately the same location.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nAs an example, on keen ice, common times might be 16 seconds for guards, 14 seconds for draws, and 8 seconds for peel weight.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe back line to hog line speed is used principally by sweepers to get an initial sense of the weight of a stone. As an example, on keen ice, common times might be 4.0 seconds for guards, 3.8 seconds for draws, 3.2 for normal hit weight, and 2.9 seconds for peel weight. Especially at the club level, this metric can be misleading, due to amateurs sometimes pushing stones on release, causing the stone to travel faster than the back-to-hog speed.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nChampions and major championships\",\n \"Curling\\n\\n* Curling at the Winter Olympics\\n* World Curling Championships\\n* World Junior Curling Championships\\n* World Senior Curling Championships\\n* World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship\\n* European Curling Championships\\n* Continental Cup of Curling\",\n \"Curling\\n\\n* Tim Hortons Brier\\n* Scotties Tournament of Hearts\\n* United States Men's Curling Championship\\n* United States Women's Curling Championship\\n* Canada Cup\\n* European Mixed Curling Championships\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nNotable curling clubs\",\n \"Curling\\n\\n* Bemidji Curling Club – Bemidji, Minnesota, Home of the 2006 United States Men's & Women's Olympic Curling Teams\\n* Broomstones Curling Club – Wayland, Massachusetts\\n* Chicago Curling Club – Chicago, Illinois\\n* Dakota Curling Club – Burnsville, Minnesota – a leading example of the development of new curling clubs on arena ice in the USA\\n* Detroit Curling Club – Ferndale, Michigan\\n* Garrison Golf and Curling Club, Kingston, Ontario\\n* Grand National Curling Club – Organization in the United States covering clubs on the east coast\\n* Granite Curling Club – Winnipeg, Manitoba\\n* Granite Curling Club – Seattle, Washington, the only dedicated curling facility on the west coast of the United States\\n* Ice Melters Curling Club – England\\n* Markinch Curling Club – Fife, Scotland\\n* Mayflower Curling Club – Halifax, Nova Scotia\\n* Milwaukee Curling Club – Mequon, Wisconsin — The oldest curling club in the U.S.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\n– Since 1845\\n* Ottawa Curling Club – Ottawa, Ontario\\n* Potomac Curling Club – Laurel, Maryland – Near Washington, D.C\\n* Pittsburgh Curling Club – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania – Established in 2002\\n* Plainfield Curling Club – South Plainfield, New Jersey\\n* Rideau Curling Club – Ottawa, Ontario\\n* Royal Caledonian Curling Club – Scotland, the official Mother Club of curling\\n* Royal Montreal Curling Club – Montreal, Quebec, the oldest active athletic club in North America\\n* Royal City Curling Club – New Westminster, British Columbia\\n* Saint Paul Curling Club – St. Paul, Minnesota – Founded in 1885. Club with largest active membership in the United States (over 1000 members). * Utica Curling Club – Utica, New York\\n* Kilsyth Curling Club – the first constituted curling club in the world\\n* Wausau Curling Club – Wausau, Wisconsin – Home of the Tietge Bonspiel, the oldest and largest high school curling bonspiel in the U.S.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nIn popular culture\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe 1965 Beatles feature film Help! contains a scene centred around curling as does the 1969 James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe Canadian band The Weakerthans have a song entitled \\\"Tournament of Hearts\\\" on their 2007 album Reunion Tour about a depressed man who spends all his time at a local curling rink.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe 2002 Canadian film Men with Brooms, starring and directed by Paul Gross, centres on the sport of curling, telling the story of a curling team from a small Canadian town as they work through their respective life issues and struggle to win the championship for the sake of their late coach. The film grossed over $4.2 million, almost all of it in Canada, making it the top-grossing Canadian English-language film subsidized by Telefilm Canada between 1997 and 2002. The film inspired a sequel TV sitcom that aired in 2010 and 2011.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe Corner Gas episode \\\"Hurry Hard\\\" (2nd season) centered around curling. Real curlers Randy Ferbey and David Nedohin had cameo appearances.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nCurling is featured prominently in \\\"Boy Meets Curl\\\", the twelfth episode of the comedy series The Simpsons' twenty-first season. The episode aired on the Fox network in the United States on 14 February 2010. In this episode, Homer and Marge Simpson form a mixed curling team with Agnes and Seymour Skinner, which is chosen to play in the 2010 Winter Olympics.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nIn 2010 electro band LMFAO released the video for their song \\\"Yes\\\", which portrays a satirical curling match.\",\n \"Curling\\n\\nThe Swedish heavy metal band Hammerfall released a music video to their song \\\"Hearts on Fire\\\" featuring the band engaged in a curling competition of sorts with the Swedish women's curling team.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":136094,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_476"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"On Feb 16, 1923, archeologist Howard Carter uncovered the tomb of whom?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Tutankhamun"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["tutanhamon","tutenkhamen","tutenkamen","living image of aten","king tut s death","tuthankamen","tutankamon","nebkheperure tutankhamun","tutankamun","tut anj amon","king tut","tutankhanum","tutankamen","tutankhamen","pharaoh tutankhamun","tutankhamum","kingtut","boy king","tuthankamun","tutankhamen s death mask","tutankhaton","tutankhaumen","tutankhaten","nebkheperure","tutankhamun","come on tutan","living image of amun","tut ankh amun","nebkheprure","king tutankhamun","tutenkhamun","tutankhamon","king tutankhamen"],"string":"[\n \"tutanhamon\",\n \"tutenkhamen\",\n \"tutenkamen\",\n \"living image of aten\",\n \"king tut s death\",\n \"tuthankamen\",\n \"tutankamon\",\n \"nebkheperure tutankhamun\",\n \"tutankamun\",\n \"tut anj amon\",\n \"king tut\",\n \"tutankhanum\",\n \"tutankamen\",\n \"tutankhamen\",\n \"pharaoh tutankhamun\",\n \"tutankhamum\",\n \"kingtut\",\n \"boy king\",\n \"tuthankamun\",\n \"tutankhamen s death mask\",\n \"tutankhaton\",\n \"tutankhaumen\",\n \"tutankhaten\",\n \"nebkheperure\",\n \"tutankhamun\",\n \"come on tutan\",\n \"living image of amun\",\n \"tut ankh amun\",\n \"nebkheprure\",\n \"king tutankhamun\",\n \"tutenkhamun\",\n \"tutankhamon\",\n \"king tutankhamen\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Archaeology\n\nArchaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, while in Europe archaeology is often viewed as either a discipline in its own right or a sub-field of other disciplines.","Archaeology\n\nArchaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of paleontology, the study of fossil remains. Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world. Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time.","Archaeology\n\nThe discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. It draws upon anthropology, history, art history, classics, ethnology, geography, geology, linguistics, semiology, physics, information sciences, chemistry, statistics, paleoecology, paleontology, paleozoology, paleoethnobotany, and paleobotany.","Archaeology\n\nArchaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced across the world. Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including maritime archaeology, feminist archaeology and archaeoastronomy, and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains.","Archaeology\n\nHistory","Archaeology\n\nAntiquarians","Archaeology\n\nThe science of archaeology (from Greek , archaiologia from , arkhaios, \"ancient\" and , -logia, \"-logy\") grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with particular attention to ancient artefacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on the empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th-century antiquary, Sir Richard Colt Hoare, \"We speak from facts not theory\". Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.","Archaeology\n\nIn Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilisation and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Flavio Biondo, an Italian Renaissance humanist historian, created a systematic guide to the ruins and topography of ancient Rome in the early 15th century, for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered.","Archaeology\n\nFirst excavations","Archaeology\n\nOne of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other field monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes.","Archaeology\n\nExcavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, both of which had been covered by ash during the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of ancient frescos, had a big impact throughout Europe.","Archaeology\n\nHowever, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked.","Archaeology\n\nDevelopment of archaeological method","Archaeology\n\nThe father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington (1754–1810). He undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, and the terms he used to categorise and describe them are still used by archaeologists today.","Archaeology\n\nOne of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and palaeontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton and Charles Lyell. The application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites. In the third and fourth decades of the 19th century, archaeologists like Jacques Boucher de Perthes and Christian Jürgensen Thomsen began to put the artifacts they had found in chronological order.","Archaeology\n\nA major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was the army officer and ethnologist, Augustus Pitt Rivers, who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. His approach was highly methodical by the standards of the time, and he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He arranged his artefacts by type or \"typologically, and within types by date or \"chronologically\". This style of arrangement, designed to highlight the evolutionary trends in human artefacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that all artefacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued.","Archaeology\n\nWilliam Flinders Petrie is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artefacts, both in Egypt and later in Palestine, laid down many of the ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that \"I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details.\" Petrie developed the system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings, which revolutionized the chronological basis of Egyptology. Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the Great Pyramid in Egypt during the 1880s. He was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including Howard Carter who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th-century BC pharaoh Tutankhamun.","Archaeology\n\nThe first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of Hissarlik, on the site of ancient Troy, carried out by Heinrich Schliemann, Frank Calvert, Wilhelm Dörpfeld and Carl Blegen in the 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the Hellenistic period. Meanwhile, the work of Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos in Crete revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced Minoan civilization.","Archaeology\n\nThe next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir Mortimer Wheeler, whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in the 1920s and 1930s brought the science on swiftly. Wheeler developed the grid system of excavation, which was further improved by his student Kathleen Kenyon.","Archaeology\n\nArchaeology became a professional activity in the first half of the 20th century, and it became possible to study archaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th century nearly all professional archaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates. Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued in this period, when maritime archaeology and urban archaeology became more prevalent and rescue archaeology was developed as a result of increasing commercial development.Renfrew and Bahn (2004 [1991]:33-35)","Archaeology\n\nPurpose","Archaeology\n\nThe purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies and the development of the human race. Over 99% of the development of humanity has occurred within prehistoric cultures, who did not make use of writing, thereby not leaving written records of themselves that can be studied today. Without such written sources, the only way to learn about prehistoric societies is to use archaeology. Because archaeology is the study of past human activity, it stretches back to about 2.5 million years ago when we find the first stone tools - The Oldowan Industry. Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, such as the evolution of humanity during the Paleolithic period, when the hominins developed from the australopithecines in Africa and eventually into modern Homo sapiens. Archaeology also sheds light on many of humanity's technological advances, for instance the ability to use fire, the development of stone tools, the discovery of metallurgy, the beginnings of religion and the creation of agriculture. Without archaeology, we would know little or nothing about the use of material culture by humanity that pre-dates writing.","Archaeology\n\nHowever, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate cultures that can be studied using archaeology but historic, literate cultures as well, through the sub-discipline of historical archaeology. For many literate cultures, such as Ancient Greece and Mesopotamia, their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy even of aristocrats has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own biases, such as sampling bias and differential preservation.","Archaeology\n\nOften, archaeology provides the only means to learn of the existence and behaviors of people of the past. Across the millennia many thousands of cultures and societies and billions of people have come and gone of which there is little or no written record or existing records are misrepresentative or incomplete. Writing as it is known today did not exist in human civilization until the 4th millennium BC, in a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilizations. In contrast, Homo sapiens has existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of Homo for millions of years (see Human evolution). These civilizations are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they are open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Even within a literate civilization many events and important human practices are not officially recorded. Any knowledge of the early years of human civilization – the development of agriculture, cult practices of folk religion, the rise of the first cities – must come from archaeology.","Archaeology\n\nEven where written records do exist, they are often incomplete and invariably biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy even of aristocrats has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually only a fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record is closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own inaccuracies, such as sampling bias and differential preservation.","Archaeology\n\nIn addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political or cultural significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or simply strong aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies.","Archaeology\n\nThis view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as Raiders of the Lost Ark, The Mummy, and King Solomon's Mines. When such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of modern archaeology.","Archaeology\n\nTheory","Archaeology\n\nThere is no one singular approach to archaeological theory that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late 19th century, the first approach to archaeological theory to be practiced was that of cultural-history archaeology, which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the fact that they did, therefore emphasizing historical particularism. In the early 20th century, many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of Native Americans, Siberians, Mesoamericans etc.) followed the direct historical approach, compared the continuity between the past and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups. In the 1960s, an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery arose that rebelled against the established cultural-history archaeology. They proposed a \"New Archaeology\", which would be more \"scientific\" and \"anthropological\", with hypothesis testing and the scientific method very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology.","Archaeology\n\nIn the 1980s, a new postmodern movement arose led by the British archaeologists Michael Shanks, Christopher Tilley, Daniel Miller, and Ian Hodder, which has become known as post-processual archaeology. It questioned processualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasized the importance of a more self-critical theoretical reflexivity. However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigor, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate. Meanwhile, another theory, known as historical processualism has emerged seeking to incorporate a focus on process and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and history.","Archaeology\n\nArchaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including neo-evolutionary thought, phenomenology, postmodernism, agency theory, cognitive science, structural functionalism, gender-based and feminist archaeology, and systems theory.","Archaeology\n\nMethods","Archaeology\n\nAn archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin, however, a clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon. This done, a site is surveyed to find out as much as possible about it and the surrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. And, third, the data collected from the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve the original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected.","Archaeology\n\nRemote sensing","Archaeology\n\nBefore actually starting to dig in a location, remote sensing can be used to look where sites are located within a large area or provide more information about sites or regions. There are two types of remote sensing instruments—passive and active. Passive instruments detect natural energy that is reflected or emitted from the observed scene. Passive instruments sense only radiation emitted by the object being viewed or reflected by the object from a source other than the instrument. Active instruments emit energy and record what is reflected. Satellite imagery is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are two active remote sensing instruments:","Archaeology\n\nLidar (Light Detection and Ranging)\nA lidar uses a laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) to transmit a light pulse and a receiver with sensitive detectors to measure the backscattered or reflected light. Distance to the object is determined by recording the time between the transmitted and backscattered pulses and using the speed of light to calculate the distance traveled. Lidars can determine atmospheric profiles of aerosols, clouds, and other constituents of the atmosphere.","Archaeology\n\nLaser Altimeter \nA laser altimeter uses a lidar (see above) to measure the height of the instrument platform above the surface. By independently knowing the height of the platform with respect to the mean Earth's surface, the topography of the underlying surface can be determined.","Archaeology\n\nField survey","Archaeology\n\nThe archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins) with a field survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and middens, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods.","Archaeology\n\nSurvey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. Gordon Willey pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the Viru Valley of coastal Peru, and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.","Archaeology\n\nSurvey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ sampling methods.) As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into maps, which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution.","Archaeology\n\nThe simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as augers, corers, and shovel test pits. If no materials are found, the area surveyed is deemed sterile.","Archaeology\n\nAerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to airplanes, balloons, UAVs, or even Kites. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. Plants growing above a buried man made structure, such as a stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as middens) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening grain, which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs ultraviolet, infrared, ground-penetrating radar wavelengths, LiDAR and thermography.","Archaeology\n\nGeophysical survey can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground. Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts, kilns, some types of stone structures, and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity.","Archaeology\n\nAlthough some archaeologists consider the use of metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on English Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th-century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the Portable Antiquities Scheme.","Archaeology\n\nRegional survey in underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, side-scan sonar, or sub-bottom sonar.","Archaeology\n\nExcavation","Archaeology\n\nArchaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context.","Archaeology\n\nModern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their provenance or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see Primary Laws of Archaeology). Likewise, their association, or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which artifacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures.","Archaeology\n\nExcavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries ethical concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the percentage of a site excavated depends greatly on the country and \"method statement\" issued. Sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey.Sometimes large mechanical equipment, such as backhoes (JCBs), is used in excavation, especially to remove the topsoil (overburden), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent.","Archaeology\n\nThe next task is to form a site plan and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural subsoil are normally excavated in portions to produce a visible archaeological section for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of two parts: the cut and the fill. The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets the natural soil. It is the feature's boundary. The fill is what the feature is filled with, and will often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.","Archaeology\n\nAnalysis","Archaeology\n\nOnce artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is usually the most time-consuming part of an archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for final excavation reports for major sites to take years to be published.","Archaeology\n\nAt a basic level of analysis, artifacts found are cleaned, cataloged and compared to published collections. This comparison process often involves classifying them typologically and identifying other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through archaeological science, meaning that artifacts can be dated and their compositions examined. Bones, plants, and pollen collected from a site can all be analyzed using the methods of zooarchaeology, paleoethnobotany, and palynology, while any texts can usually be deciphered.","Archaeology\n\nThese techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known, and therefore they contribute greatly to the understanding of a site.","Archaeology\n\nComputational and virtual archaeology","Archaeology\n\nComputer graphics are now used to build virtual 3D models of sites, such as the throne room of an Assyrian palace or ancient Rome. Photogrammetry is also used as an analytical tool, and digital topographical models have been combined with astronomical calculations to verify whether or not certain structures (such as pillars) were aligned with astronomical events such as the sun's position at a solstice. Agent-based modeling and simulation can be used to better understand past social dynamics and outcomes.","Archaeology\n\nDrones","Archaeology\n\nArchaeologists around the world use drones to speed up survey work and protect sites from squatters, builders and miners. In Peru, small drones helped researchers produce three-dimensional models of Peruvian sites instead of the usual flat maps – and in days and weeks instead of months and years.","Archaeology\n\nDrones costing as little as £650 have proven useful. In 2013, drones have flown over at least six Peruvian archaeological sites, including the colonial Andean town Machu Llacta 4000 m above sea level. The drones continue to have altitude problems in the Andes, leading to plans to make a drone blimp, employing open source software.","Archaeology\n\nJeffrey Quilter, an archaeologist with Harvard University said, \"You can go up three metres and photograph a room, 300 metres and photograph a site, or you can go up 3,000 metres and photograph the entire valley.\"","Archaeology\n\nIn September 2014 drones weighing about 5 kg were used for 3D mapping of the above-ground ruins of the Greek city of Aphrodisias. The data is being analysed by the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Vienna.","Archaeology\n\nAcademic sub-disciplines","Archaeology\n\nAs with most academic disciplines, there are a very large number of archaeological sub-disciplines characterised by a specific method or type of material (e.g., lithic analysis, music, archaeobotany), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. Near Eastern archaeology, Islamic archaeology, Medieval archaeology), other thematic concern (e.g. maritime archaeology, landscape archaeology, battlefield archaeology), or a specific archaeological culture or civilization (e.g. Egyptology, Indology, Sinology).","Archaeology\n\nHistorical archaeology","Archaeology\n\nHistorical archaeology is the study of cultures with some form of writing.","Archaeology\n\nIn England, archaeologists have uncovered layouts of 14th century medieval villages, abandoned after crises such as the Black Death. In downtown New York City, archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the African Burial Ground.","Archaeology\n\nEthnoarchaeology","Archaeology\n\nEthnoarchaeology is the ethnographic study of living people, designed to aid in our interpretation of the archaeological record. The approach first gained prominence during the processual movement of the 1960s, and continues to be a vibrant component of post-processual and other current archaeological approaches. Early ethnoarchaeological research focused on hunter-gatherer or foraging societies; today ethnoarchaeological research encompasses a much wider range of human behavior.","Archaeology\n\nExperimental archaeology","Archaeology\n\nExperimental archaeology represents the application of the experimental method to develop more highly controlled observations of processes that create and impact the archaeological record. In the context of the logical positivism of processualism with its goals of improving the scientific rigor of archaeological epistemologies the experimental method gained importance. Experimental techniques remain a crucial component to improving the inferential frameworks for interpreting the archaeological record.","Archaeology\n\nArchaeometry","Archaeology\n\nArchaeometry aims to systematize archaeological measurement. It emphasizes the application of analytical techniques from physics, chemistry, and engineering. It is a field of research that frequently focuses on the definition of the chemical composition of archaeological remains for source analysis. Archaeometry also investigates different spatial characteristics of features, employing methods such as space syntax techniques and geodesy as well as computer-based tools such as geographic information system technology. Rare earth elements patterns may also be used. A relatively nascent subfield is that of archaeological materials, designed to enhance understanding of prehistoric and non-industrial culture through scientific analysis of the structure and properties of materials associated with human activity.","Archaeology\n\nCultural resources management","Archaeology\n\nArchaeology can be a subsidiary activity within Cultural resources management (CRM), also called heritage management in the United Kingdom. CRM archaeologists frequently examine archaeological sites that are threatened by development. Today, CRM accounts for most of the archaeological research done in the United States and much of that in western Europe as well. In the US, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, and most taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped preserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, the NHPA mandates that projects on federal land or involving federal funds or permits consider the effects of the project on each archaeological site.","Archaeology\n\nThe application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990 PPG 16 has required planners to consider archaeology as a material consideration in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organizations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer's expense.","Archaeology\n\nIn England, ultimate responsibility of care for the historic environment rests with the Department for Culture, Media and Sport in association with English Heritage. In Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, the same responsibilities lie with Historic Scotland, Cadw and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency respectively.","Archaeology\n\nAmong the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of cultural sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavations indicate the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely.","Archaeology\n\nCultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard-of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavor. Compounding the time pressure is the vetting process of site reports that are required (in the US) to be submitted by CRM firms to the appropriate State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO). From the SHPO's perspective there is to be no difference between a report submitted by a CRM firm operating under a deadline, and a multi-year academic project. The end result is that for a Cultural Resource Management archaeologist to be successful, they must be able to produce academic quality documents at a corporate world pace.","Archaeology\n\nThe annual ratio of open academic archaeology positions (inclusive of post-doc, temporary, and non- tenure track appointments) to the annual number of archaeology MA/MSc and PhD students is disproportionate. Cultural Resource Management, once considered an intellectual backwater for individuals with \"strong backs and weak minds,\" has attracted these graduates, and CRM offices are thus increasingly staffed by advance degreed individuals with a track record of producing scholarly articles but who also have extensive CRM field experience.","Archaeology\n\nPopular views of archaeology","Archaeology\n\nEarly archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities. Early archaeology was mostly done by upper class, scholarly men. This generalization laid the foundation for the modern popular view of archaeology and archaeologists. This generalization has been with western culture for a long time. Another popular thought that dates back to this era is that archaeology is monetarily lucrative. A large majority of the general public is under the impression that excavations are undertaken for money and not historical data. It is easy for the general public to hold this notion for that is what is presented to them through general media, and has been for many decades.","Archaeology\n\nThe majority of the public view archaeology as being something only available to a narrow demographic. The job of archaeologist is depicted as a \"romantic adventurist occupation\". To generalize, the public views archaeology as a fantasized hobby more than a job in the scientific community. The audience may not take away scientific methods from popular cinema but they do form a notion of \"who archaeologists are, why they do what they do, and how relationships to the past are constituted\". The modern depiction of archaeology is sensationalized so much that it has incorrectly formed the public's perception of what archaeology is. The public is often under the impression that all archaeology takes place in a distant and foreign land, only to collect monetarily or spiritually priceless artifacts.","Archaeology\n\nMuch thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as Copán and the Valley of the Kings, but the bulk of activities and finds of modern archaeology are not so sensational. Archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in carrying out modern surveys, excavations, and data processing. Some archaeologists refer to such off-the-mark portrayals as \"pseudoarchaeology\".\nArchaeologists are also very much reliant on public support; the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed.","Archaeology\n\nCurrent issues and controversy","Archaeology\n\nPublic archaeology","Archaeology\n\nMotivated by a desire to halt looting, curb pseudoarchaeology, and to help preserve archaeological sites through education and fostering public appreciation for the importance of archaeological heritage, archaeologists are mounting public-outreach campaigns. They seek to stop looting by combatting people who illegally take artifacts from protected sites, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting. Common methods of public outreach include press releases, and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation by professional archaeologists. Public appreciation of the significance of archaeology and archaeological sites often leads to improved protection from encroaching development or other threats.","Archaeology\n\nOne audience for archaeologists' work is the public. They increasingly realize that their work can benefit non-academic and non-archaeological audiences, and that they have a responsibility to educate and inform the public about archaeology. Local heritage awareness is aimed at increasing civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects, and better public presentations of archaeological sites and knowledge. The U.S.Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service (USFS) operates a volunteer archaeology and historic preservation program called the Passport in Time (PIT). Volunteers work with professional USFS archaeologists and historians on national forests throughout the U.S. Volunteers are involved in all aspects of professional archaeology under expert supervision.","Archaeology\n\nTelevision programs, web videos and social media can also bring an understanding of underwater archaeology to a broad audience. The Mardi Gras Shipwreck Project integrated a one-hour HD documentary, short videos for public viewing and video updates during the expedition as part of the educational outreach. Webcasting is also another tool for educational outreach. For one week in 2000 and 2001, live underwater video of the Queen Anne's Revenge Shipwreck Project was webcast to the Internet as a part of the QAR DiveLive educational program that reached thousands of children around the world. Created and co-produced by Nautilus Productions and Marine Grafics, this project enabled students to talk to scientists and learn about methods and technologies utilized by the underwater archaeology team.","Archaeology\n\nIn the UK, popular archaeology programs such as Time Team and Meet the Ancestors have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provisions for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did, and many local archaeological organizations operate within the Community archaeology framework to expand public involvement in smaller-scale, more local projects. Archaeological excavation, however, is best undertaken by well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately. Often this requires observing the necessary health and safety and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern building site with tight deadlines. Certain charities and local government bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial training excavations and archaeological holiday tours.","Archaeology\n\nArchaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies, which is one reason why Community archaeology projects are starting to become more common. Often archaeologists are assisted by the public in the locating of archaeological sites, which professional archaeologists have neither the funding, nor the time to do.","Archaeology\n\nThe Archaeological Legacy Institute (ALI), self-described as \"an independent, nonprofit, tax-exempt (501[c][3])\", is a research and education corporation registered in Oregon in 1999. The ALI founded an online [http://archaeologychannel.org/ Archaeology Channel] to support the organization's mission \"to develop ways to make archaeology more effective both in gathering important information about past human lifeways and in delivering that information to the public and the profession.\"","Archaeology\n\nPseudoarchaeology","Archaeology\n\nPseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that falsely claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted and scientific archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of processual archaeology, or the specific critiques of it contained in post-processualism.","Archaeology\n\nAn example of this type is the writing of Erich von Däniken. His 1968 book, Chariots of the Gods?, together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations. This theory, known as palaeocontact theory, or Ancient astronaut theory, is not exclusively Däniken's, nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.","Archaeology\n\nLooting","Archaeology\n\nLooting of archaeological sites is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs were looted during antiquity. Archaeology stimulates interest in ancient objects, and people in search of artifacts or treasure cause damage to archaeological sites. The commercial and academic demand for artifacts unfortunately contributes directly to the illicit antiquities trade. Smuggling of antiquities abroad to private collectors has caused great cultural and economic damage in many countries whose governments lack the resources and or the will to deter it. Looters damage and destroy archaeological sites, denying future generations information about their ethnic and cultural heritage. Indigenous peoples especially lose access to and control over their 'cultural resources', ultimately denying them the opportunity to know their past.","Archaeology\n\nIn 1937 W. F. Hodge the Director of the Southwest Museum released a statement that the museum would no longer purchase or accept collections from looted contexts. The first conviction of the transport of artifacts illegally removed from private property under the [http://www.nps.gov/history/local-law/FHPL_ArchRsrcsProt.pdf Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA; Public Law 96-95; 93 Statute 721;] ) was in 1992 in the State of Indiana.","Archaeology\n\nArchaeologists trying to protect artifacts may be placed in danger by looters or locals trying to protect the artifacts from archaeologists who are viewed as looters by the locals.","Archaeology\n\nDescendant peoples","Archaeology\n\nIn the United States, examples such as the case of Kennewick Man have illustrated the tensions between Native Americans and archaeologists, which can be summarized as a conflict between a need to remain respectful toward sacred burial sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present.","Archaeology\n\nAs a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of indigenous peoples likely to be descended from those under study.","Archaeology\n\nArchaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.","Archaeology\n\nWhile this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.","Archaeology\n\nRepatriation","Archaeology\n\nSee Repatriation and reburial of human remains\nA new trend in the heated controversy between First Nations groups and scientists is the repatriation of native artifacts to the original descendants. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when community members and elders from a number of the 10 Algonquian nations in the Ottawa area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation near Maniwaki, Quebec, to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years. It was not determined, however, if the remains were directly related to the Algonquin people who now inhabit the region. The remains may be of Iroquoian ancestry, since Iroquoian people inhabited the area before the Algonquin. Moreover, the oldest of these remains might have no relation at all to the Algonquin or Iroquois, and belong to an earlier culture who previously inhabited the area.","Archaeology\n\nThe remains and artifacts, including jewelry, tools and weapons, were originally excavated from various sites in the Ottawa Valley, including Morrison and the Allumette Islands. They had been part of the Canadian Museum of Civilization's research collection for decades, some since the late 19th century. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional redcedar and birchbark boxes lined with redcedar chips, muskrat and beaver pelts.","Archaeology\n\nAn inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 80 boxes of various sizes are buried. Because of this reburial, no further scientific study is possible. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement.","Archaeology\n\nKennewick Man is another repatriation candidate that has been the source of heated debate.","Howard Carter\n\nHoward Carter (9 May 1874 - 2 March 1939) was an English archaeologist and Egyptologist who became world famous after discovering the intact tomb of the 18th Dynasty Pharaoh, Tutankhamun (colloquially known as \"King Tut\" and \"the boy king\") in November 1922.","Howard Carter\n\nEarly life","Howard Carter\n\nHoward Carter was born in Kensington on 9 May 1874, the son of Samuel Carter, an artist, and Martha Joyce Carter (née Sands). His father trained and developed Howard's artistic talents.","Howard Carter\n\nHoward Carter spent much of his childhood with relatives in the Norfolk market town of Swaffham, the birthplace of both his parents. Nearby was the mansion of the Amherst family, Didlington Hall, containing a magnificent collection of Egyptian antiques, which sparked Carter's interest in that subject. In 1891, the Egypt Exploration Fund (EEF) sent Carter to assist an Amherst family friend, Percy Newberry, in the excavation and recording of Middle Kingdom tombs at Beni Hasan.","Howard Carter\n\nAlthough only 17, Carter was innovative in improving the methods of copying tomb decoration. In 1892, he worked under the tutelage of Flinders Petrie for one season at Amarna, the capital founded by the pharaoh Akhenaten. From 1894 to 1899, he worked with Édouard Naville at Deir el-Bahari, where he recorded the wall reliefs in the temple of Hatshepsut.","Howard Carter\n\nIn 1899, Carter was appointed to the position of Chief Inspector of the Egyptian Antiquities Service (EAS). He supervised a number of excavations at Thebes (now known as Luxor). In 1904, he was transferred to the Inspectorate of Lower Egypt. Carter was praised for his improvements in the protection of, and accessibility to, existing excavation sites, and his development of a grid-block system for searching for tombs. The Antiquities Service also provided funding for Carter to head his own excavation projects and during this period Carter discovered the Tombs of Thutmose I and Thutmose III, although both tombs had been robbed of treasures long before.","Howard Carter\n\nCarter resigned from the Antiquities Service in 1905 after a formal inquiry into what became known as the Saqqara Affair, a noisy confrontation between Egyptian site guards and a group of French tourists. Carter sided with the Egyptian personnel.","Howard Carter\n\nTutankhamun's tomb","Howard Carter\n\nIn 1907, after three hard years for Carter, Lord Carnarvon employed him to supervise Carnarvon's Egyptian excavations in the Valley of the Kings. The intention of Gaston Maspero, who introduced the two, was to ensure that Howard Carter imposed modern archaeological methods and systems of recording.","Howard Carter\n\nCarnarvon financed Carter's work in the Valley of the Kings to 1914, but until 1917 excavations and study were interrupted by the First World War. Following the end of the First World War, Carter aggressively resumed his work.","Howard Carter\n\nAfter several years of finding little, Lord Carnarvon became dissatisfied with the lack of results, and in 1922 informed Carter that he had one more season of funding to search the Valley of the Kings and find the tomb.","Howard Carter\n\nOn 4 November 1922, Howard Carter's excavation group found steps that Carter hoped led to Tutankhamun's tomb (subsequently designated KV62) (the tomb that would be considered the best preserved and most intact pharaonic tomb ever found in the Valley of the Kings).","Howard Carter\n\nHe wired Lord Carnarvon to come, and on 26 November 1922, with Carnarvon, Carnarvon's daughter and others in attendance, Carter made the \"tiny breach in the top left hand corner\" of the doorway (with a chisel his grandmother had given him for his 17th birthday.) He was able to peer in by the light of a candle and see that many of the gold and ebony treasures were still in place. He did not yet know whether it was \"a tomb or merely a cache\", but he did see a promising sealed doorway between two sentinel statues. When Carnarvon asked \"Can you see anything?\", Carter replied with the famous words:","Howard Carter\n\nThe next several months were spent cataloging the contents of the antechamber under the \"often stressful\" supervision of Pierre Lacau, director general of the Department of Antiquities of Egypt. On 16 February 1923, Carter opened the sealed doorway, and found that it did indeed lead to a burial chamber, and he got his first glimpse of the sarcophagus of Tutankhamun. All of these discoveries were eagerly covered by the world's press, but most of their representatives were kept in their hotels; only H. V. Morton was allowed on the scene, and his vivid descriptions helped to cement Carter's reputation with the British public.","Howard Carter\n\nCarter's own notes and photographic evidence indicate that he, Lord Carnarvon and Lady Evelyn Herbert entered the burial chamber shortly after the tomb's discovery and before the official opening.","Howard Carter\n\nLater work and death","Howard Carter\n\nThe clearance of the tomb with its thousands of objects continued until 1932. Following his sensational discovery, Carter retired from archaeology and became a part-time agent for collectors and museums, including the Cleveland Museum of Art and the Detroit Institute of Arts. He visited the United States in 1924 and gave a series of illustrated lectures in New York City and other cities in the United States that were attended by very large and enthusiastic audiences, sparking Egyptomania in America.","Howard Carter\n\nHe died of Hodgkin's disease in Kensington, London, on 2 March 1939 at the age of 64. That the archaeologist died of natural causes and so long after the opening of the tomb, despite his being the leader of the expedition, is most commonly put forward by skeptics to refute the idea of a \"curse of the pharaohs\" plaguing whatever parties that might have \"violated\" Tutankhamun's tomb.","Howard Carter\n\nCarter is now buried in Putney Vale Cemetery in London. His epitaph reads: \"May your spirit live, may you spend millions of years, you who love Thebes, sitting with your face to the north wind, your eyes beholding happiness\", a quotation taken from the Wishing Cup of Tutankhamun, and \"O night, spread thy wings over me as the imperishable stars\".","Howard Carter\n\nIn popular culture","Howard Carter\n\nInternet","Howard Carter\n\n*On 9 May 2012 Google commemorated Carter's 138th birthday with a Google doodle.","Howard Carter\n\nArt","Howard Carter\n\n*A paraphrased extract from Carter's diary of 26 November 1922 is used as the plaintext for Part 3 of the encrypted Kryptos sculpture at the CIA Headquarters in Langley, Virginia.","Howard Carter\n\nComics","Howard Carter\n\n*He is referenced in Hergé's volume 13 of The Adventures of Tintin: The Seven Crystal Balls (1944).","Howard Carter\n\nFilm and television","Howard Carter\n\nCarter has been portrayed in multiple film and television productions: \n* In the Columbia Pictures Television film The Curse of King Tut's Tomb (1980), he is portrayed by Robin Ellis\n* In the Lucasfilm TV films Young Indiana Jones and the Curse of the Jackal (1992) and Young Indiana Jones and the Treasure of the Peacock's Eye (1995), he is portrayed by Pip Torrens\n* In the IMAX documentary Mysteries of Egypt (1998), he is portrayed by Timothy Davies\n* In the made-for-TV film The Tutankhamun Conspiracy (2001), he is portrayed by Giles Watling\n* In the BBC docudrama Egypt (2005), he is portrayed by Stuart Graham","Howard Carter\n\nLiterature","Howard Carter\n\n*He is referenced in Sally Beauman's The Visitors, a novel re-creation of the hunt for Tutankhamun’s tomb in Egypt’s Valley of the Kings. \n*In Laura Lee Guhrke's historical romance novel Wedding of the Season (2011), Carter's telegram to the fictional British Egyptologist, the Duke of Sunderland, reports discovering \"steps to a new tomb\" and creates a climactic conflict. \n*He is a key character in Christian Jacq's book The Tutankhamun Affair. \n*James Patterson and Martin Dugard's book The Murder of King Tut focuses on Carter's search for King Tut's tomb. \n*He appears as a character throughout most of the Amelia Peabody series of books by Elizabeth Peters (a pseudonym of Egyptologist Dr Barbara Mertz)\n*He is a character in much of Arthur Phillips' book The Egyptologist. He is the main character in the French book sous le sable de l`egypte\n*He appears as a main character in Muhammad Al-Mansi Qindeel's novel A Cloudy Day on the West Side. \n*In Rick Riordan's The Kane Chronicles novel, The Red Pyramid (2010), Carter Kane says his father, Julius Kane, had named him after Howard Carter.","Howard Carter\n\nMusic","Howard Carter\n\n*In Search of the Pharaohs is a 30-minute cantata for narrator, junior choir and piano by composer Robert Steadman and commissioned by the City of London Freemen's School, which uses extracts from Carter's diaries as its text.\n*The Finnish metal band Nightwish mentions Carter in the song \"Tutankhamun\" on its début album Angels Fall First: \"For Carter has come / To free my beloved\".\n*Josh Ritter's song \"The Curse\", on the album So Runs the World Away (2010), tells the story of a 1920s archaeologist who discovers the tomb of a mummy."],"string":"[\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, while in Europe archaeology is often viewed as either a discipline in its own right or a sub-field of other disciplines.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of paleontology, the study of fossil remains. Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world. Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. It draws upon anthropology, history, art history, classics, ethnology, geography, geology, linguistics, semiology, physics, information sciences, chemistry, statistics, paleoecology, paleontology, paleozoology, paleoethnobotany, and paleobotany.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced across the world. Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including maritime archaeology, feminist archaeology and archaeoastronomy, and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nAntiquarians\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe science of archaeology (from Greek , archaiologia from , arkhaios, \\\"ancient\\\" and , -logia, \\\"-logy\\\") grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with particular attention to ancient artefacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on the empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th-century antiquary, Sir Richard Colt Hoare, \\\"We speak from facts not theory\\\". Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nIn Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilisation and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Flavio Biondo, an Italian Renaissance humanist historian, created a systematic guide to the ruins and topography of ancient Rome in the early 15th century, for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nFirst excavations\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nOne of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other field monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nExcavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, both of which had been covered by ash during the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of ancient frescos, had a big impact throughout Europe.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nHowever, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nDevelopment of archaeological method\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington (1754–1810). He undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, and the terms he used to categorise and describe them are still used by archaeologists today.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nOne of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and palaeontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton and Charles Lyell. The application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites. In the third and fourth decades of the 19th century, archaeologists like Jacques Boucher de Perthes and Christian Jürgensen Thomsen began to put the artifacts they had found in chronological order.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nA major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was the army officer and ethnologist, Augustus Pitt Rivers, who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. His approach was highly methodical by the standards of the time, and he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He arranged his artefacts by type or \\\"typologically, and within types by date or \\\"chronologically\\\". This style of arrangement, designed to highlight the evolutionary trends in human artefacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that all artefacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nWilliam Flinders Petrie is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artefacts, both in Egypt and later in Palestine, laid down many of the ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that \\\"I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details.\\\" Petrie developed the system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings, which revolutionized the chronological basis of Egyptology. Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the Great Pyramid in Egypt during the 1880s. He was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including Howard Carter who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th-century BC pharaoh Tutankhamun.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of Hissarlik, on the site of ancient Troy, carried out by Heinrich Schliemann, Frank Calvert, Wilhelm Dörpfeld and Carl Blegen in the 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the Hellenistic period. Meanwhile, the work of Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos in Crete revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced Minoan civilization.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir Mortimer Wheeler, whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in the 1920s and 1930s brought the science on swiftly. Wheeler developed the grid system of excavation, which was further improved by his student Kathleen Kenyon.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeology became a professional activity in the first half of the 20th century, and it became possible to study archaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th century nearly all professional archaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates. Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued in this period, when maritime archaeology and urban archaeology became more prevalent and rescue archaeology was developed as a result of increasing commercial development.Renfrew and Bahn (2004 [1991]:33-35)\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nPurpose\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies and the development of the human race. Over 99% of the development of humanity has occurred within prehistoric cultures, who did not make use of writing, thereby not leaving written records of themselves that can be studied today. Without such written sources, the only way to learn about prehistoric societies is to use archaeology. Because archaeology is the study of past human activity, it stretches back to about 2.5 million years ago when we find the first stone tools - The Oldowan Industry. Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, such as the evolution of humanity during the Paleolithic period, when the hominins developed from the australopithecines in Africa and eventually into modern Homo sapiens. Archaeology also sheds light on many of humanity's technological advances, for instance the ability to use fire, the development of stone tools, the discovery of metallurgy, the beginnings of religion and the creation of agriculture. Without archaeology, we would know little or nothing about the use of material culture by humanity that pre-dates writing.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nHowever, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate cultures that can be studied using archaeology but historic, literate cultures as well, through the sub-discipline of historical archaeology. For many literate cultures, such as Ancient Greece and Mesopotamia, their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy even of aristocrats has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own biases, such as sampling bias and differential preservation.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nOften, archaeology provides the only means to learn of the existence and behaviors of people of the past. Across the millennia many thousands of cultures and societies and billions of people have come and gone of which there is little or no written record or existing records are misrepresentative or incomplete. Writing as it is known today did not exist in human civilization until the 4th millennium BC, in a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilizations. In contrast, Homo sapiens has existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of Homo for millions of years (see Human evolution). These civilizations are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they are open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Even within a literate civilization many events and important human practices are not officially recorded. Any knowledge of the early years of human civilization – the development of agriculture, cult practices of folk religion, the rise of the first cities – must come from archaeology.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nEven where written records do exist, they are often incomplete and invariably biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy even of aristocrats has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually only a fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record is closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own inaccuracies, such as sampling bias and differential preservation.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nIn addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political or cultural significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or simply strong aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThis view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as Raiders of the Lost Ark, The Mummy, and King Solomon's Mines. When such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of modern archaeology.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nTheory\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThere is no one singular approach to archaeological theory that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late 19th century, the first approach to archaeological theory to be practiced was that of cultural-history archaeology, which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the fact that they did, therefore emphasizing historical particularism. In the early 20th century, many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of Native Americans, Siberians, Mesoamericans etc.) followed the direct historical approach, compared the continuity between the past and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups. In the 1960s, an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery arose that rebelled against the established cultural-history archaeology. They proposed a \\\"New Archaeology\\\", which would be more \\\"scientific\\\" and \\\"anthropological\\\", with hypothesis testing and the scientific method very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nIn the 1980s, a new postmodern movement arose led by the British archaeologists Michael Shanks, Christopher Tilley, Daniel Miller, and Ian Hodder, which has become known as post-processual archaeology. It questioned processualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasized the importance of a more self-critical theoretical reflexivity. However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigor, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate. Meanwhile, another theory, known as historical processualism has emerged seeking to incorporate a focus on process and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and history.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including neo-evolutionary thought, phenomenology, postmodernism, agency theory, cognitive science, structural functionalism, gender-based and feminist archaeology, and systems theory.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nMethods\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nAn archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin, however, a clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon. This done, a site is surveyed to find out as much as possible about it and the surrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. And, third, the data collected from the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve the original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nRemote sensing\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nBefore actually starting to dig in a location, remote sensing can be used to look where sites are located within a large area or provide more information about sites or regions. There are two types of remote sensing instruments—passive and active. Passive instruments detect natural energy that is reflected or emitted from the observed scene. Passive instruments sense only radiation emitted by the object being viewed or reflected by the object from a source other than the instrument. Active instruments emit energy and record what is reflected. Satellite imagery is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are two active remote sensing instruments:\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nLidar (Light Detection and Ranging)\\nA lidar uses a laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) to transmit a light pulse and a receiver with sensitive detectors to measure the backscattered or reflected light. Distance to the object is determined by recording the time between the transmitted and backscattered pulses and using the speed of light to calculate the distance traveled. Lidars can determine atmospheric profiles of aerosols, clouds, and other constituents of the atmosphere.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nLaser Altimeter \\nA laser altimeter uses a lidar (see above) to measure the height of the instrument platform above the surface. By independently knowing the height of the platform with respect to the mean Earth's surface, the topography of the underlying surface can be determined.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nField survey\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins) with a field survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and middens, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nSurvey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. Gordon Willey pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the Viru Valley of coastal Peru, and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nSurvey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ sampling methods.) As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into maps, which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as augers, corers, and shovel test pits. If no materials are found, the area surveyed is deemed sterile.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nAerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to airplanes, balloons, UAVs, or even Kites. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. Plants growing above a buried man made structure, such as a stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as middens) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening grain, which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs ultraviolet, infrared, ground-penetrating radar wavelengths, LiDAR and thermography.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nGeophysical survey can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground. Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts, kilns, some types of stone structures, and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nAlthough some archaeologists consider the use of metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on English Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th-century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the Portable Antiquities Scheme.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nRegional survey in underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, side-scan sonar, or sub-bottom sonar.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nExcavation\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nModern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their provenance or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see Primary Laws of Archaeology). Likewise, their association, or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which artifacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nExcavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries ethical concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the percentage of a site excavated depends greatly on the country and \\\"method statement\\\" issued. Sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey.Sometimes large mechanical equipment, such as backhoes (JCBs), is used in excavation, especially to remove the topsoil (overburden), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe next task is to form a site plan and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural subsoil are normally excavated in portions to produce a visible archaeological section for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of two parts: the cut and the fill. The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets the natural soil. It is the feature's boundary. The fill is what the feature is filled with, and will often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nAnalysis\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nOnce artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is usually the most time-consuming part of an archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for final excavation reports for major sites to take years to be published.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nAt a basic level of analysis, artifacts found are cleaned, cataloged and compared to published collections. This comparison process often involves classifying them typologically and identifying other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through archaeological science, meaning that artifacts can be dated and their compositions examined. Bones, plants, and pollen collected from a site can all be analyzed using the methods of zooarchaeology, paleoethnobotany, and palynology, while any texts can usually be deciphered.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThese techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known, and therefore they contribute greatly to the understanding of a site.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nComputational and virtual archaeology\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nComputer graphics are now used to build virtual 3D models of sites, such as the throne room of an Assyrian palace or ancient Rome. Photogrammetry is also used as an analytical tool, and digital topographical models have been combined with astronomical calculations to verify whether or not certain structures (such as pillars) were aligned with astronomical events such as the sun's position at a solstice. Agent-based modeling and simulation can be used to better understand past social dynamics and outcomes.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nDrones\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeologists around the world use drones to speed up survey work and protect sites from squatters, builders and miners. In Peru, small drones helped researchers produce three-dimensional models of Peruvian sites instead of the usual flat maps – and in days and weeks instead of months and years.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nDrones costing as little as £650 have proven useful. In 2013, drones have flown over at least six Peruvian archaeological sites, including the colonial Andean town Machu Llacta 4000 m above sea level. The drones continue to have altitude problems in the Andes, leading to plans to make a drone blimp, employing open source software.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nJeffrey Quilter, an archaeologist with Harvard University said, \\\"You can go up three metres and photograph a room, 300 metres and photograph a site, or you can go up 3,000 metres and photograph the entire valley.\\\"\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nIn September 2014 drones weighing about 5 kg were used for 3D mapping of the above-ground ruins of the Greek city of Aphrodisias. The data is being analysed by the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Vienna.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nAcademic sub-disciplines\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nAs with most academic disciplines, there are a very large number of archaeological sub-disciplines characterised by a specific method or type of material (e.g., lithic analysis, music, archaeobotany), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. Near Eastern archaeology, Islamic archaeology, Medieval archaeology), other thematic concern (e.g. maritime archaeology, landscape archaeology, battlefield archaeology), or a specific archaeological culture or civilization (e.g. Egyptology, Indology, Sinology).\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nHistorical archaeology\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nHistorical archaeology is the study of cultures with some form of writing.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nIn England, archaeologists have uncovered layouts of 14th century medieval villages, abandoned after crises such as the Black Death. In downtown New York City, archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the African Burial Ground.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nEthnoarchaeology\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nEthnoarchaeology is the ethnographic study of living people, designed to aid in our interpretation of the archaeological record. The approach first gained prominence during the processual movement of the 1960s, and continues to be a vibrant component of post-processual and other current archaeological approaches. Early ethnoarchaeological research focused on hunter-gatherer or foraging societies; today ethnoarchaeological research encompasses a much wider range of human behavior.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nExperimental archaeology\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nExperimental archaeology represents the application of the experimental method to develop more highly controlled observations of processes that create and impact the archaeological record. In the context of the logical positivism of processualism with its goals of improving the scientific rigor of archaeological epistemologies the experimental method gained importance. Experimental techniques remain a crucial component to improving the inferential frameworks for interpreting the archaeological record.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeometry\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeometry aims to systematize archaeological measurement. It emphasizes the application of analytical techniques from physics, chemistry, and engineering. It is a field of research that frequently focuses on the definition of the chemical composition of archaeological remains for source analysis. Archaeometry also investigates different spatial characteristics of features, employing methods such as space syntax techniques and geodesy as well as computer-based tools such as geographic information system technology. Rare earth elements patterns may also be used. A relatively nascent subfield is that of archaeological materials, designed to enhance understanding of prehistoric and non-industrial culture through scientific analysis of the structure and properties of materials associated with human activity.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nCultural resources management\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeology can be a subsidiary activity within Cultural resources management (CRM), also called heritage management in the United Kingdom. CRM archaeologists frequently examine archaeological sites that are threatened by development. Today, CRM accounts for most of the archaeological research done in the United States and much of that in western Europe as well. In the US, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, and most taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped preserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, the NHPA mandates that projects on federal land or involving federal funds or permits consider the effects of the project on each archaeological site.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990 PPG 16 has required planners to consider archaeology as a material consideration in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organizations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer's expense.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nIn England, ultimate responsibility of care for the historic environment rests with the Department for Culture, Media and Sport in association with English Heritage. In Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, the same responsibilities lie with Historic Scotland, Cadw and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency respectively.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nAmong the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of cultural sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavations indicate the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nCultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard-of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavor. Compounding the time pressure is the vetting process of site reports that are required (in the US) to be submitted by CRM firms to the appropriate State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO). From the SHPO's perspective there is to be no difference between a report submitted by a CRM firm operating under a deadline, and a multi-year academic project. The end result is that for a Cultural Resource Management archaeologist to be successful, they must be able to produce academic quality documents at a corporate world pace.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe annual ratio of open academic archaeology positions (inclusive of post-doc, temporary, and non- tenure track appointments) to the annual number of archaeology MA/MSc and PhD students is disproportionate. Cultural Resource Management, once considered an intellectual backwater for individuals with \\\"strong backs and weak minds,\\\" has attracted these graduates, and CRM offices are thus increasingly staffed by advance degreed individuals with a track record of producing scholarly articles but who also have extensive CRM field experience.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nPopular views of archaeology\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nEarly archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities. Early archaeology was mostly done by upper class, scholarly men. This generalization laid the foundation for the modern popular view of archaeology and archaeologists. This generalization has been with western culture for a long time. Another popular thought that dates back to this era is that archaeology is monetarily lucrative. A large majority of the general public is under the impression that excavations are undertaken for money and not historical data. It is easy for the general public to hold this notion for that is what is presented to them through general media, and has been for many decades.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe majority of the public view archaeology as being something only available to a narrow demographic. The job of archaeologist is depicted as a \\\"romantic adventurist occupation\\\". To generalize, the public views archaeology as a fantasized hobby more than a job in the scientific community. The audience may not take away scientific methods from popular cinema but they do form a notion of \\\"who archaeologists are, why they do what they do, and how relationships to the past are constituted\\\". The modern depiction of archaeology is sensationalized so much that it has incorrectly formed the public's perception of what archaeology is. The public is often under the impression that all archaeology takes place in a distant and foreign land, only to collect monetarily or spiritually priceless artifacts.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nMuch thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as Copán and the Valley of the Kings, but the bulk of activities and finds of modern archaeology are not so sensational. Archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in carrying out modern surveys, excavations, and data processing. Some archaeologists refer to such off-the-mark portrayals as \\\"pseudoarchaeology\\\".\\nArchaeologists are also very much reliant on public support; the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nCurrent issues and controversy\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nPublic archaeology\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nMotivated by a desire to halt looting, curb pseudoarchaeology, and to help preserve archaeological sites through education and fostering public appreciation for the importance of archaeological heritage, archaeologists are mounting public-outreach campaigns. They seek to stop looting by combatting people who illegally take artifacts from protected sites, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting. Common methods of public outreach include press releases, and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation by professional archaeologists. Public appreciation of the significance of archaeology and archaeological sites often leads to improved protection from encroaching development or other threats.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nOne audience for archaeologists' work is the public. They increasingly realize that their work can benefit non-academic and non-archaeological audiences, and that they have a responsibility to educate and inform the public about archaeology. Local heritage awareness is aimed at increasing civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects, and better public presentations of archaeological sites and knowledge. The U.S.Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service (USFS) operates a volunteer archaeology and historic preservation program called the Passport in Time (PIT). Volunteers work with professional USFS archaeologists and historians on national forests throughout the U.S. Volunteers are involved in all aspects of professional archaeology under expert supervision.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nTelevision programs, web videos and social media can also bring an understanding of underwater archaeology to a broad audience. The Mardi Gras Shipwreck Project integrated a one-hour HD documentary, short videos for public viewing and video updates during the expedition as part of the educational outreach. Webcasting is also another tool for educational outreach. For one week in 2000 and 2001, live underwater video of the Queen Anne's Revenge Shipwreck Project was webcast to the Internet as a part of the QAR DiveLive educational program that reached thousands of children around the world. Created and co-produced by Nautilus Productions and Marine Grafics, this project enabled students to talk to scientists and learn about methods and technologies utilized by the underwater archaeology team.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nIn the UK, popular archaeology programs such as Time Team and Meet the Ancestors have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provisions for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did, and many local archaeological organizations operate within the Community archaeology framework to expand public involvement in smaller-scale, more local projects. Archaeological excavation, however, is best undertaken by well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately. Often this requires observing the necessary health and safety and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern building site with tight deadlines. Certain charities and local government bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial training excavations and archaeological holiday tours.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies, which is one reason why Community archaeology projects are starting to become more common. Often archaeologists are assisted by the public in the locating of archaeological sites, which professional archaeologists have neither the funding, nor the time to do.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe Archaeological Legacy Institute (ALI), self-described as \\\"an independent, nonprofit, tax-exempt (501[c][3])\\\", is a research and education corporation registered in Oregon in 1999. The ALI founded an online [http://archaeologychannel.org/ Archaeology Channel] to support the organization's mission \\\"to develop ways to make archaeology more effective both in gathering important information about past human lifeways and in delivering that information to the public and the profession.\\\"\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nPseudoarchaeology\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nPseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that falsely claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted and scientific archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of processual archaeology, or the specific critiques of it contained in post-processualism.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nAn example of this type is the writing of Erich von Däniken. His 1968 book, Chariots of the Gods?, together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations. This theory, known as palaeocontact theory, or Ancient astronaut theory, is not exclusively Däniken's, nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nLooting\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nLooting of archaeological sites is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs were looted during antiquity. Archaeology stimulates interest in ancient objects, and people in search of artifacts or treasure cause damage to archaeological sites. The commercial and academic demand for artifacts unfortunately contributes directly to the illicit antiquities trade. Smuggling of antiquities abroad to private collectors has caused great cultural and economic damage in many countries whose governments lack the resources and or the will to deter it. Looters damage and destroy archaeological sites, denying future generations information about their ethnic and cultural heritage. Indigenous peoples especially lose access to and control over their 'cultural resources', ultimately denying them the opportunity to know their past.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nIn 1937 W. F. Hodge the Director of the Southwest Museum released a statement that the museum would no longer purchase or accept collections from looted contexts. The first conviction of the transport of artifacts illegally removed from private property under the [http://www.nps.gov/history/local-law/FHPL_ArchRsrcsProt.pdf Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA; Public Law 96-95; 93 Statute 721;] ) was in 1992 in the State of Indiana.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeologists trying to protect artifacts may be placed in danger by looters or locals trying to protect the artifacts from archaeologists who are viewed as looters by the locals.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nDescendant peoples\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nIn the United States, examples such as the case of Kennewick Man have illustrated the tensions between Native Americans and archaeologists, which can be summarized as a conflict between a need to remain respectful toward sacred burial sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nAs a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of indigenous peoples likely to be descended from those under study.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nArchaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nWhile this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nRepatriation\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nSee Repatriation and reburial of human remains\\nA new trend in the heated controversy between First Nations groups and scientists is the repatriation of native artifacts to the original descendants. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when community members and elders from a number of the 10 Algonquian nations in the Ottawa area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation near Maniwaki, Quebec, to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years. It was not determined, however, if the remains were directly related to the Algonquin people who now inhabit the region. The remains may be of Iroquoian ancestry, since Iroquoian people inhabited the area before the Algonquin. Moreover, the oldest of these remains might have no relation at all to the Algonquin or Iroquois, and belong to an earlier culture who previously inhabited the area.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nThe remains and artifacts, including jewelry, tools and weapons, were originally excavated from various sites in the Ottawa Valley, including Morrison and the Allumette Islands. They had been part of the Canadian Museum of Civilization's research collection for decades, some since the late 19th century. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional redcedar and birchbark boxes lined with redcedar chips, muskrat and beaver pelts.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nAn inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 80 boxes of various sizes are buried. Because of this reburial, no further scientific study is possible. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement.\",\n \"Archaeology\\n\\nKennewick Man is another repatriation candidate that has been the source of heated debate.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nHoward Carter (9 May 1874 - 2 March 1939) was an English archaeologist and Egyptologist who became world famous after discovering the intact tomb of the 18th Dynasty Pharaoh, Tutankhamun (colloquially known as \\\"King Tut\\\" and \\\"the boy king\\\") in November 1922.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nHoward Carter was born in Kensington on 9 May 1874, the son of Samuel Carter, an artist, and Martha Joyce Carter (née Sands). His father trained and developed Howard's artistic talents.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nHoward Carter spent much of his childhood with relatives in the Norfolk market town of Swaffham, the birthplace of both his parents. Nearby was the mansion of the Amherst family, Didlington Hall, containing a magnificent collection of Egyptian antiques, which sparked Carter's interest in that subject. In 1891, the Egypt Exploration Fund (EEF) sent Carter to assist an Amherst family friend, Percy Newberry, in the excavation and recording of Middle Kingdom tombs at Beni Hasan.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nAlthough only 17, Carter was innovative in improving the methods of copying tomb decoration. In 1892, he worked under the tutelage of Flinders Petrie for one season at Amarna, the capital founded by the pharaoh Akhenaten. From 1894 to 1899, he worked with Édouard Naville at Deir el-Bahari, where he recorded the wall reliefs in the temple of Hatshepsut.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nIn 1899, Carter was appointed to the position of Chief Inspector of the Egyptian Antiquities Service (EAS). He supervised a number of excavations at Thebes (now known as Luxor). In 1904, he was transferred to the Inspectorate of Lower Egypt. Carter was praised for his improvements in the protection of, and accessibility to, existing excavation sites, and his development of a grid-block system for searching for tombs. The Antiquities Service also provided funding for Carter to head his own excavation projects and during this period Carter discovered the Tombs of Thutmose I and Thutmose III, although both tombs had been robbed of treasures long before.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nCarter resigned from the Antiquities Service in 1905 after a formal inquiry into what became known as the Saqqara Affair, a noisy confrontation between Egyptian site guards and a group of French tourists. Carter sided with the Egyptian personnel.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nTutankhamun's tomb\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nIn 1907, after three hard years for Carter, Lord Carnarvon employed him to supervise Carnarvon's Egyptian excavations in the Valley of the Kings. The intention of Gaston Maspero, who introduced the two, was to ensure that Howard Carter imposed modern archaeological methods and systems of recording.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nCarnarvon financed Carter's work in the Valley of the Kings to 1914, but until 1917 excavations and study were interrupted by the First World War. Following the end of the First World War, Carter aggressively resumed his work.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nAfter several years of finding little, Lord Carnarvon became dissatisfied with the lack of results, and in 1922 informed Carter that he had one more season of funding to search the Valley of the Kings and find the tomb.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nOn 4 November 1922, Howard Carter's excavation group found steps that Carter hoped led to Tutankhamun's tomb (subsequently designated KV62) (the tomb that would be considered the best preserved and most intact pharaonic tomb ever found in the Valley of the Kings).\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nHe wired Lord Carnarvon to come, and on 26 November 1922, with Carnarvon, Carnarvon's daughter and others in attendance, Carter made the \\\"tiny breach in the top left hand corner\\\" of the doorway (with a chisel his grandmother had given him for his 17th birthday.) He was able to peer in by the light of a candle and see that many of the gold and ebony treasures were still in place. He did not yet know whether it was \\\"a tomb or merely a cache\\\", but he did see a promising sealed doorway between two sentinel statues. When Carnarvon asked \\\"Can you see anything?\\\", Carter replied with the famous words:\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nThe next several months were spent cataloging the contents of the antechamber under the \\\"often stressful\\\" supervision of Pierre Lacau, director general of the Department of Antiquities of Egypt. On 16 February 1923, Carter opened the sealed doorway, and found that it did indeed lead to a burial chamber, and he got his first glimpse of the sarcophagus of Tutankhamun. All of these discoveries were eagerly covered by the world's press, but most of their representatives were kept in their hotels; only H. V. Morton was allowed on the scene, and his vivid descriptions helped to cement Carter's reputation with the British public.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nCarter's own notes and photographic evidence indicate that he, Lord Carnarvon and Lady Evelyn Herbert entered the burial chamber shortly after the tomb's discovery and before the official opening.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nLater work and death\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nThe clearance of the tomb with its thousands of objects continued until 1932. Following his sensational discovery, Carter retired from archaeology and became a part-time agent for collectors and museums, including the Cleveland Museum of Art and the Detroit Institute of Arts. He visited the United States in 1924 and gave a series of illustrated lectures in New York City and other cities in the United States that were attended by very large and enthusiastic audiences, sparking Egyptomania in America.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nHe died of Hodgkin's disease in Kensington, London, on 2 March 1939 at the age of 64. That the archaeologist died of natural causes and so long after the opening of the tomb, despite his being the leader of the expedition, is most commonly put forward by skeptics to refute the idea of a \\\"curse of the pharaohs\\\" plaguing whatever parties that might have \\\"violated\\\" Tutankhamun's tomb.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nCarter is now buried in Putney Vale Cemetery in London. His epitaph reads: \\\"May your spirit live, may you spend millions of years, you who love Thebes, sitting with your face to the north wind, your eyes beholding happiness\\\", a quotation taken from the Wishing Cup of Tutankhamun, and \\\"O night, spread thy wings over me as the imperishable stars\\\".\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nIn popular culture\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nInternet\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\n*On 9 May 2012 Google commemorated Carter's 138th birthday with a Google doodle.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nArt\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\n*A paraphrased extract from Carter's diary of 26 November 1922 is used as the plaintext for Part 3 of the encrypted Kryptos sculpture at the CIA Headquarters in Langley, Virginia.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nComics\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\n*He is referenced in Hergé's volume 13 of The Adventures of Tintin: The Seven Crystal Balls (1944).\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nFilm and television\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nCarter has been portrayed in multiple film and television productions: \\n* In the Columbia Pictures Television film The Curse of King Tut's Tomb (1980), he is portrayed by Robin Ellis\\n* In the Lucasfilm TV films Young Indiana Jones and the Curse of the Jackal (1992) and Young Indiana Jones and the Treasure of the Peacock's Eye (1995), he is portrayed by Pip Torrens\\n* In the IMAX documentary Mysteries of Egypt (1998), he is portrayed by Timothy Davies\\n* In the made-for-TV film The Tutankhamun Conspiracy (2001), he is portrayed by Giles Watling\\n* In the BBC docudrama Egypt (2005), he is portrayed by Stuart Graham\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nLiterature\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\n*He is referenced in Sally Beauman's The Visitors, a novel re-creation of the hunt for Tutankhamun’s tomb in Egypt’s Valley of the Kings. \\n*In Laura Lee Guhrke's historical romance novel Wedding of the Season (2011), Carter's telegram to the fictional British Egyptologist, the Duke of Sunderland, reports discovering \\\"steps to a new tomb\\\" and creates a climactic conflict. \\n*He is a key character in Christian Jacq's book The Tutankhamun Affair. \\n*James Patterson and Martin Dugard's book The Murder of King Tut focuses on Carter's search for King Tut's tomb. \\n*He appears as a character throughout most of the Amelia Peabody series of books by Elizabeth Peters (a pseudonym of Egyptologist Dr Barbara Mertz)\\n*He is a character in much of Arthur Phillips' book The Egyptologist. He is the main character in the French book sous le sable de l`egypte\\n*He appears as a main character in Muhammad Al-Mansi Qindeel's novel A Cloudy Day on the West Side. \\n*In Rick Riordan's The Kane Chronicles novel, The Red Pyramid (2010), Carter Kane says his father, Julius Kane, had named him after Howard Carter.\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Howard Carter\\n\\n*In Search of the Pharaohs is a 30-minute cantata for narrator, junior choir and piano by composer Robert Steadman and commissioned by the City of London Freemen's School, which uses extracts from Carter's diaries as its text.\\n*The Finnish metal band Nightwish mentions Carter in the song \\\"Tutankhamun\\\" on its début album Angels Fall First: \\\"For Carter has come / To free my beloved\\\".\\n*Josh Ritter's song \\\"The Curse\\\", on the album So Runs the World Away (2010), tells the story of a 1920s archaeologist who discovers the tomb of a mummy.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":136095,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_478"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"A favorite of Jean Luc Picard, what black tea blend is flavored with an oil extracted from the rind of a bergamot orange?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Earl Grey"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["viscount howick","earl gray","baron grey of howick","earl grey"],"string":"[\n \"viscount howick\",\n \"earl gray\",\n \"baron grey of howick\",\n \"earl grey\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Jean-Luc Picard\n\nCaptain Jean-Luc Picard is a fictional character in the Star Trek: The Next Generation (a.k.a. TNG) franchise. He appears in the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation and the feature films Star Trek: Generations (1994), Star Trek: First Contact (1996), Star Trek: Insurrection (1998), and Star Trek: Nemesis (2002). He also made a guest appearance in the pilot episode of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, which began its seven-year run during the sixth season of TNG. He is portrayed by actor Patrick Stewart.","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nCasting and design","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nAfter the success of the contemporary Star Trek feature films, a new Star Trek television series featuring a new cast was announced on October 10, 1986. Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry named Picard for one or both of the twin brothers Auguste Piccard and Jean Felix Piccard, 20th-century Swiss scientists.","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nPatrick Stewart, who has a background of theatre at the Royal Shakespeare Company, was initially considered for the role of Data. Roddenberry did not want to cast Stewart as Picard, since he had envisioned an actor who was \"masculine, virile, and had a lot of hair\". Roddenberry's first choice was Stephen Macht, and it took \"weeks of discussion\" with Robert H. Justman, Rick Berman, and the casting director to convince him that \"Stewart was the one they had been looking for to sit in the captain's chair\"; Roddenberry agreed after auditioning every other candidate for the role. Stewart himself was uncertain why the producers would cast \"a middle-aged bald English Shakespearean actor\" as captain of the Enterprise. He had his toupee delivered from London to meet with Paramount executives, but Roddenberry ordered Stewart to remove the \"awful looking\" hairpiece. Stewart's stentorian voice impressed the executives, who immediately approved the casting. Roddenberry sent Stewart C. S. Forester's Horatio Hornblower novels, saying the Picard character was based on Hornblower, but Stewart was already familiar with the character, having read the books as a teenager.","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nAs the series progressed, Stewart exercised more control over the character's development. By the time production began on the first Next Generation film, \"it was impossible to tell where Jean[-]Luc started and Patrick Stewart ended\", and by the fourth film, Stewart stated:","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nStewart stated, however, that he is not nearly as serious or brooding as his alter ego.","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nStewart also stated, \"One of the delights of having done this series and played this role is that people are so attracted to the whole idea of Star Trek... several years after the series has ended... I enjoy hearing how much people enjoyed the work we did... It's always gratifying to me that this bald, middle-aged Englishman seems to connect with them.\" Stewart has also commented that his role has helped open up Shakespeare to science fiction fans. He has noted the \"regular presence of Trekkies in the audience\" whenever he plays theater, and added: \"I meet these people afterwards, I get letters from them and see them at the stage door... And they say, 'I've never seen Shakespeare before, I didn't think I'd understand it, but it was wonderful and I can't wait to come back.'\"","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nCharacter biography","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nTelevision series and films","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nJean-Luc Picard was born to Maurice and Yvette Picard in La Barre, France, on July 13, 2305, and dreamed of joining Starfleet. He and the rest of his family speak English, with English accents—the French language having become obscure by the 24th century, as mentioned in the Next Generation episode \"Code of Honor\". Suspiciously (from the point of view of the viewer), Picard also has a number of British habits, including the regular consumption of Earl Grey tea, a fondness for Shakespeare, which he performs - authentically enough given the origins of The Bard - in a West Midlands accent, and a knowledge of such British songs with Royal Navy associations as \"A British Tar\" (Gilbert and Sullivan) and \"Heart of Oak\". The young Picard failed his first Starfleet Academy entrance exam, and, upon admission, met with numerous ethical/scholastic difficulties during his cadet career, but (coached by groundskeeper Boothby) went on to flourish, developing a lifelong passion for archaeology, and he became the first freshman to win the Academy marathon. Shortly after graduation, Picard was stabbed in the heart by a Nausicaan, leaving the organ irreparable and requiring replacement with a parthenogenetic implant; this would prove near-fatal later.","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nPicard eventually served as first officer aboard the USS Stargazer, which he later commanded. During that time, he invented a warp-speed starship tactic (employing a faster-than-light optical illusion) that would become known as the Picard Maneuver.","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nDepicted as deeply moral, highly logical, and intelligent, Picard is a master of diplomacy and debate who resolves seemingly intractable issues between multiple, sometimes implacable parties with a Solomon-like wisdom. Though such resolutions are usually peaceful, Picard is also shown using his remarkable tactical cunning in situations when it is required. Picard has a fondness for detective stories, Shakespearean drama, and archeology. He is frequently shown drinking Earl Grey tea and issuing the order, \"Make it so\", or, \"Engage\".","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nStar Trek: The Next Generation depicts Picard's command of the USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-D). The pilot episode shows the ship's mission to investigate a problem at Farpoint Station, which becomes sidetracked when Q makes Picard \"representative\" in a trial charging humanity with being a \"dangerously savage child-race\". Picard persuades Q to test humanity, and Q chooses as the test's first stage the crew's performance at Farpoint. The trial \"ends\" seven years later (when Q reminds Picard that it never does), in the series finale, when humanity is absolved by Picard's demonstration that the species has the capacity to explore the \"possibilities of existence\".","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nThe third season finale, \"The Best of Both Worlds, Part I\", depicts Picard being assimilated by the Borg to serve as a bridge between humanity and the Borg (renamed Locutus of Borg); Picard's assimilation and recovery are a critical point in the character's development, and provided backstory for the film Star Trek: First Contact and the development of Benjamin Sisko, the protagonist of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Stewart asked Roddenberry to keep Picard a Borg for a few more episodes beyond the third season finale, as he thought that would be more interesting than simply restoring Picard in Part II. It is later revealed in First Contact that parts of Borg machinery were removed from inside Picard, but that he retains traumatic memories and lingering neurological aftereffects of assimilation (which become a pivotal plot twist in Star Trek: First Contact).","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nThe fourth-season episode \"Family\" reveals that Picard has a brother, Robert, who took charge of the family vineyards in La Barre after Picard joined Starfleet. Robert and his wife have a young son, René, who is Picard's nephew. In the film Star Trek Generations, Picard is devastated to learn that Robert and René have both died in a fire, and worse, the loss will make him the last of the Picard family (unless he can produce an heir).","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nPicard joins forces with legendary Enterprise captain James T. Kirk in Star Trek Generations to fight the film's villain Dr. Tolian Soran. Commanding the new USS Enterprise-E (after the Enterprise-D is destroyed in Generations), Picard again confronts the Borg in First Contact. Later, he fights a species's forced relocation in Star Trek: Insurrection, and encounters Shinzon, a Romulan-made clone of himself, in Star Trek Nemesis.","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nSpin-off works","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nIn recent novels by Pocket Books, Picard has married Beverly Crusher, and they have a son named René Jacques Robert François Picard. Jean-Luc also corresponds regularly with Marie, his sister-in-law, who still maintains the family vineyards. As of 2385 in the novel miniseries Star Trek: The Fall, Picard remains as commanding officer of the Enterprise-E.","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nIn the comic miniseries Star Trek: Countdown, a prequel to the 2009 Star Trek movie, Picard is depicted as having retired from Starfleet and becoming Federation Ambassador to Vulcan. In 2387, he works with Data, the new commanding officer of the Enterprise-E, Ambassador Spock, and the Romulan miner Nero to save the Romulan Star Empire from a cataclysmic supernova. He is present aboard the Enterprise as it confronts Nero, who has gone mad and begun killing non-Romulans after they fail to save Romulus. The Enterprise arrives too late to aid Ambassador Spock against Nero, believing both Spock and Nero to have been consumed by the artificial black hole that Spock created.","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nReception","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nThe character has near-universal critical acclaim among fans of The Next Generation, and he is usually considered one of the top two captains in the entire Star Trek franchise – there are often lengthy and serious debates over whether Picard or James T. Kirk is the \"best\" Starfleet captain. A 1991 TV Guide cover story was titled \"It's Kirk vs. Picard: Experts and fans debate who's best.\" In a more lighthearted take on the debate, the cover of a 1994 Mad magazine Star Trek special features both Kirk and Picard wrestling childishly to fit into the Enterprise's captain's chair, while Scotty and Worf watch their respective commanders with looks of astonishment. Picard is deemed the ultimate delegator of authority, knowing \"how to gather and use data better than any other Star Trek captain.\" His leadership style \"is best suited to a large, process-centric, either geographically identical or diverse team\". Kirk and Picard are considered to be attentive to the needs of their respective crews.","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nWhen Stewart and William Shatner were asked in 1991 how their characters would have dealt with Saddam Hussein, Shatner stated that Kirk would \"have told him to drop dead\" while Stewart joked that Picard \"would still be talking.\"","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nIn 2015, Stewart addressed a long-asked conundrum among Star Trek fans, \"If Kirk and Picard fought each other, who would win?\" in Smithsonian Magazine, by saying Picard would prefer to negotiate in the hope of avoiding a fight altogether.","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nUGO Networks listed Picard as one of their best heroes in entertainment, saying, \"He doesn't have Kirk's sense of panache, but he did have a tendency to take everything really, really seriously for years\".","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nOther actors","Jean-Luc Picard\n\nThe character of Jean-Luc Picard has also been portrayed by:\n* David Birkin [in \"Rascals\" (November 15, 1992)] -- a young version\n* Tom Hardy [in Star Trek: Nemesis (2002)] -- a younger clone type\n* Marcus Nash [in \"Tapestry\" (February 15, 1993)] -- a young version","Tea\n\nTea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world. There are many different types of tea; some teas, like Darjeeling and Chinese greens, have a cooling, slightly bitter, and astringent flavour, while others have vastly different profiles that include sweet, nutty, floral or grassy notes.","Tea\n\nTea originated in southwestern China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was popularized as a recreational drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty, and tea drinking spread to other East Asian countries. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to the West during the 16th century. During the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among Britons, who started large-scale production and commercialization of the plant in India to bypass a Chinese monopoly at that time.","Tea\n\nThe phrase herbal tea usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs made without the tea plant, such as steeps of rosehip, chamomile, or rooibos. These are also known as tisanes or herbal infusions to distinguish them from \"tea\" as it is commonly construed.","Tea\n\nEtymology","Tea\n\nThe Chinese character for tea is 茶, originally written with an extra stroke as 荼 (pronounced tú, used as a word for a bitter herb), and acquired its current form during the Tang Dynasty. The word is pronounced differently in the different varieties of Chinese, such as chá in Mandarin, zo and dzo in Wu Chinese, and ta and te in Min Chinese. One suggestion is that the different pronunciations may have arisen from the different words for tea in ancient China, for example tú (荼) may have given rise to tê; historical phonologists however argued that the cha, te and dzo all arose from the same root with a reconstructed pronunciation dra, which changed due to sound shift through the centuries. There were other ancient words for tea, though ming (茗) is the only other one still in common use. It has been proposed that the Chinese words for tea, tu, cha and ming, may have been borrowed from the Austro-Asiatic languages of people who inhabited southwest China; cha for example may have been derived from an archaic Austro-Asiatic root *la, meaning \"leaf\".","Tea\n\nMost Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of cha, but Hokkien varieties along the Southern coast of China and in Southeast Asia pronounce it like teh. These two pronunciations have made their separate ways into other languages around the world. The Hokkien tê of southern Fujian province reached the West from the port of Xiamen (Amoy), once a major point of contact with Western European traders such as the Dutch, who spread it to Western Europe. This pronunciation gives rise to English \"tea\" and other similar words in other languages such as Spanish \"té\", French \"thé\", German \"Tee\", and Dutch \"thee\", and is the most common form worldwide. Cha is from the Cantonese chàh of Guangzhou (Canton) and the ports of Hong Kong and Macau, also major points of contact, especially with the Portuguese, who spread it to India in the 16th century. Due to the Portuguese occupation of Macau, the Portuguese adopted the Cantonese pronunciation \"chá\", instead of the more typical Western pronunciations deriving from tê. The Korean and Japanese pronunciations of cha, however, came not from Cantonese, rather they were borrowed into Korean and Japanese during earlier periods of Chinese history.","Tea\n\nA third form, the increasingly widespread chai, came from Persian چای chay. Both the châ and chây forms are found in Persian dictionaries. They are derived from the Northern Chinese pronunciation of chá, which passed overland to Central Asia and Persia, where it picked up the Persian grammatical suffix -yi before passing on to Russian as чай (chay), Arabic as شاي (pronounced shay due to the lack of a \"ch\" sound in Arabic), Urdu as چائے chay, Hindi as चाय chāy, Turkish as çay, etc. The few exceptions of words for tea that do not fall into the three broad groups of te, cha and chai are mostly from the minor languages from the botanical homeland of the tea plant from which the Chinese words for tea might have been borrowed originally. English has all three forms: cha or char (both pronounced), attested from the 16th century; tea, from the 17th; and chai, from the 20th. However, the form chai refers specifically to a black tea mixed with honey, spices and milk in contemporary English.","Tea\n\nOrigin and history","Tea\n\nTea plants are native to East Asia, and probably originated around the meeting points of the lands of north Burma and southwest China. Statistical cluster analysis, chromosome number, easy hybridization, and various types of intermediate hybrids and spontaneous polyploids indicate that likely a single place of origin exists for Camellia sinensis, an area including the northern part of Burma, and Yunnan and Sichuan provinces of China. Tea drinking may have begun in the Yunnan region during the Shang Dynasty in China, when it was used for medicinal purposes. It is also believed that in Sichuan, \"people began to boil tea leaves for consumption into a concentrated liquid without the addition of other leaves or herbs, thereby using tea as a bitter yet stimulating drink, rather than as a medicinal concoction.\"","Tea\n\nChinese legends attribute the invention of tea to Shennong in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China (Sichuan/Yunnan area). The earliest written records of tea come from China. The word tú 荼 appears in the Shijing and other ancient texts to signify a kind of \"bitter vegetable\" (苦菜), and it is possible that it referred to a number of different plants such as sowthistle, chicory, or smartweed, as well as tea. In the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king. The state of Ba and its neighbour Shu were later conquered by the Qin, and according to the 17th century scholar Gu Yanwu who wrote in Ri Zhi Lu (日知錄): \"It was after the Qin had taken Shu that they learned how to drink tea.\" Another possible early reference to tea is found in a letter written by the Qin Dynasty general Liu Kun who requested that some \"real tea\" to be sent to him.","Tea\n\nThe earliest known physical evidence of tea was discovered in 2016 in the mausoleum of Emperor Jing of Han in Xi'an, indicating that tea from the genus Camellia was drunk by Han Dynasty emperors as early as 2nd century BC. The Han dynasty work \"The Contract for a Youth\", written by Wang Bao in 59 BC, contains the first known reference to boiling tea. Among the tasks listed to be undertaken by the youth, the contract states that \"he shall boil tea and fill the utensils\" and \"he shall buy tea at Wuyang\". The first record of tea cultivation is also dated to this period (the reign of Emperor Xuan of Han), during which tea was cultivated on Meng Mountain (蒙山) near Chengdu. Another early credible record of tea drinking dates to the third century AD, in a medical text by Hua Tuo, who stated, \"to drink bitter t'u constantly makes one think better.\" However, before the mid-8th century Tang dynasty, tea-drinking was primarily a southern Chinese practice. It became widely popular during the Tang Dynasty, when it was spread to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.","Tea\n\nIn India, tea has been drunk for medicinal purposes for a long but uncertain period, but apart from the Himalayan region it seems not to have been used as a beverage until the British introduced tea-drinking there much later.","Tea\n\nThrough the centuries, a variety of techniques for processing tea, and a number of different forms of tea, were developed. During the Tang dynasty, tea was steamed, then pounded and shaped into cake form, while in the Song dynasty, loose-leaf tea was developed and became popular. During the Yuan and Ming dynasties, unoxidized tea leaves were first pan-fried, then rolled and dried, a process that stops the oxidation process which turns the leaves dark and allows tea to remain green. In the 15th century, oolong tea, in which the leaves were allowed to partially oxidize before pan-frying, was developed. Western tastes, however, favoured the fully oxidized black tea, and the leaves were allowed to oxidize further. Yellow tea was an accidental discovery in the production of green tea during the Ming dynasty, when apparently sloppy practices allowed the leaves to turn yellow, but yielded a different flavour as a result.","Tea\n\nTea was first introduced to Portuguese priests and merchants in China during the 16th century, at which time it was termed chá. The earliest European reference to tea, written as Chiai, came from Delle navigationi e viaggi written by a Venetian, Giambattista Ramusio, in 1545. The first recorded shipment of tea by a European nation was in 1607 when the Dutch East India Company moved a cargo of tea from Macao to Java, then two years later, the Dutch bought the first assignment of tea which was from Hirado in Japan to be shipped to Europe. Tea became a fashionable drink in The Hague in the Netherlands, and the Dutch introduced the drink to Germany, France and across the Atlantic to New Amsterdam (New York).","Tea\n\nThe first record of tea in English came from a letter written by Richard Wickham, who ran an East India Company office in Japan, writing to a merchant in Macao requesting \"the best sort of chaw\" in 1615. Peter Mundy, a traveller and merchant who came across tea in Fujian in 1637, wrote, \"chaa — only water with a kind of herb boyled in it \". Tea was sold in a coffee house in London in 1657, Samuel Pepys tasted tea in 1660, and Catherine of Braganza took the tea-drinking habit to the British court when she married Charles II in 1662. Tea, however, was not widely consumed in Britain until the 18th century, and remained expensive until the latter part of that period. British drinkers preferred to add sugar and milk to black tea, and black tea overtook green tea in popularity in the 1720s. Tea smuggling during the 18th century led to the general public being able to afford and consume tea. The British government removed the tax on tea, thereby eliminating the smuggling trade by 1785.","Tea\n\nIn Britain and Ireland, tea was initially consumed as a luxury item on special occasions, such as religious festivals, wakes, and domestic work gatherings. The price of tea in Europe fell steadily during the 19th century, especially after Indian tea began to arrive in large quantities; by the late 19th century tea had become an everyday beverage for all levels of society. The popularity of tea also informed a number of historical events – the Tea Act of 1773 provoked the Boston Tea Party that escalated into the American Revolution, and the need to address the issue of British trade deficit caused by the demand for Chinese tea led to a trade in opium that resulted in the Opium Wars.","Tea\n\nTea was introduced into India by the British in an attempt to break the Chinese monopoly on tea. In 1841, Arthur Campbell brought seeds of Chinese tea from the Kumaun region and experimented with planting tea in Darjeeling. The Alubari tea garden was opened in 1856 and Darjeeling tea began to be produced. In 1848, Robert Fortune was sent by the East India Company on a mission to China to bring the tea plant back to Great Britain. He began his journey in high secrecy as his mission occurred in the lull between the Anglo-Chinese First Opium War (18391842) and Second Opium War (18561860). The Chinese tea plants he brought back were introduced to the Himalayas, though most did not survive. The British had discovered that a different variety of tea was endemic to Assam and the northeast region of India and that it was used by the local Singpho people, and these were then grown instead of the Chinese tea plant. Using the Chinese planting and cultivation techniques, the British launched a tea industry by offering land in Assam to any European who agreed to cultivate it for export.","Tea\n\nTea was originally consumed only by anglicized Indians; however, it became widely popular in India in the 1950s because of a successful advertising campaign by the India Tea Board.","Tea\n\nCultivation and harvesting","Tea\n\nCamellia sinensis is an evergreen plant that grows mainly in tropical and subtropical climates. Some varieties can also tolerate marine climates and are cultivated as far north as Cornwall in the United Kingdom, Perthshire in Scotland, Washington state in the United States, and Vancouver Island in Canada. In the Southern Hemisphere, tea is grown as far south as Hobart on the Australian island of Tasmania and Waikato in New Zealand.","Tea\n\nTea plants are propagated from seed and cuttings; about 4 to 12 years are needed for a plant to bear seed and about three years before a new plant is ready for harvesting. In addition to a zone 8 climate or warmer, tea plants require at least 127 cm (50 in) of rainfall a year and prefer acidic soils. Many high-quality tea plants are cultivated at elevations of up to 1500 m above sea level. Though at these heights the plants grow more slowly, they acquire a better flavour.","Tea\n\nTwo principal varieties are used: Camellia sinensis var. sinensis, which is used for most Chinese, Formosan and Japanese teas, and C.s. var. assamica, used in Pu-erh and most Indian teas (but not Darjeeling). Within these botanical varieties, many strains and modern clonal varieties are known. Leaf size is the chief criterion for the classification of tea plants, with three primary classifications being, Assam type, characterised by the largest leaves; China type, characterised by the smallest leaves; and Cambodian type, characterised by leaves of intermediate size.","Tea\n\nA tea plant will grow into a tree of up to 16 m if left undisturbed, but cultivated plants are generally pruned to waist height for ease of plucking. Also, the short plants bear more new shoots which provide new and tender leaves and increase the quality of the tea.","Tea\n\nOnly the top 1–2 inches of the mature plant are picked. These buds and leaves are called 'flushes'. A plant will grow a new flush every seven to 15 days during the growing season. Leaves that are slow in development tend to produce better-flavoured teas. Pests of tea include mosquito bugs of the genus Helopeltis (which are true bugs that must not be confused with the dipteran) that can tatter leaves, so they may be sprayed with insecticides.","Tea\n\nChemical composition","Tea\n\nCaffeine constitutes about 3% of tea's dry weight, translating to between 30 mg and 90 mg per 8-oz (250-ml) cup depending on type, brand, and brewing method. A study found that the caffeine content of 1 g of black tea ranged from 22 to 28 mg, while the caffeine content of 1 g of green tea ranged from 11 to 20 mg, reflecting a significant difference.","Tea\n\nTea also contains small amounts of theobromine and theophylline, which are stimulants, and xanthines similar to caffeine.","Tea\n\nBecause of modern environmental pollution, fluoride and aluminium also sometimes occur in tea. Certain types of brick tea made from old leaves and stems have the highest levels.","Tea\n\nBlack and green teas contain no essential nutrients in significant content, with the exception of the dietary mineral, manganese at 0.5 mg per cup or 26% of the Daily Value. Tea leaves contain diverse polyphenols, including flavonoids, epigallocatechin gallate (commonly noted as EGCG) and other catechins.","Tea\n\nIt has been suggested that green and black tea may protect against cancer or other diseases such as obesity or Alzheimer's disease, but the compounds found in green tea have not been conclusively demonstrated to have any effect on human diseases. One human study demonstrated that regular consumption of black tea over four weeks had no beneficial effect in lowering blood cholesterol levels.","Tea\n\nProcessing and classification","Tea\n\nTea is generally divided into categories based on how it is processed. At least six different types are produced:\n* White: Wilted and unoxidized\n* Yellow: Unwilted and unoxidized, but allowed to yellow\n* Green: Unwilted and unoxidized\n* Oolong: Wilted, bruised, and partially oxidized\n* Black: Wilted, sometimes crushed, and fully oxidized (called 'red tea' 紅茶 hóngchá in China)\n* Post-fermented: Green tea that has been allowed to ferment/compost ('black tea' 黑茶 hēichá for the Chinese)","Tea\n\nThe most common are white, green, oolong, and black.","Tea\n\nAfter picking, the leaves of C. sinensis soon begin to wilt and oxidize unless immediately dried. An enzymatic oxidation process triggered by the plant's intracellular enzymes causes the leaves to turn progressively darker as their chlorophyll breaks down and tannins are released. This darkening is stopped at a predetermined stage by heating, which deactivates the enzymes responsible. In the production of black teas, halting by heating is carried out simultaneously with drying. Without careful moisture and temperature control during manufacture and packaging, growth of undesired molds and bacteria may make tea unfit for consumption.","Tea\n\nAlthough single-estate teas are available, almost all tea in bags and most loose tea sold in the West is blended. Such teas may combine others from the same cultivation area or several different ones. The aim is to obtain consistency, better taste, higher price, or some combination of the three.","Tea\n\nTea easily retains odors, which can cause problems in processing, transportation, and storage. This same sensitivity also allows for special processing (such as tea infused with smoke during drying) and a wide range of scented and flavoured variants, such as bergamot (found in Earl Grey), vanilla, and spearmint.","Tea\n\nAdditions","Tea\n\nTea is often consumed with additions to the basic tea leaf and water. These can be grouped into flavourings added to the tea in processing before sale and those added during preparation or drinking. The former are often floral, herbal or spice flavourings and the latter include milk, sugar, lemon, among other things.","Tea\n\nMilk","Tea\n\nThe addition of milk to tea in Europe was first mentioned in 1680 by the epistolist Madame de Sévigné. Many teas are traditionally drunk with milk in cultures where dairy products are consumed. These include Indian masala chai and British tea blends. These teas tend to be very hearty varieties of black tea which can be tasted through the milk, such as Assams, or the East Friesian blend. Milk is thought to neutralise remaining tannins and reduce acidity. The Han Chinese do not usually drink milk with tea but the Manchus do, and the elite of the Qing Dynasty of the Chinese Empire continued to do so. Hong Kong-style milk tea is based on British colonial habits. Tibetans and other Himalayan peoples traditionally drink tea with milk or yak butter and salt. In Eastern European countries (Russia, Poland and Hungary) and in Italy, tea is commonly served with lemon juice. In Poland, tea with milk is called a bawarka (\"Bavarian style\"), and is often drunk by pregnant and nursing women. In Australia, tea with milk is white tea.","Tea\n\nThe order of steps in preparing a cup of tea is a much-debated topic, and can vary widely between cultures or even individuals. Some say it is preferable to add the milk before the tea, as the high temperature of freshly brewed tea can denature the proteins found in fresh milk, similar to the change in taste of UHT milk, resulting in an inferior-tasting beverage. Others insist it is better to add the milk after brewing the tea, as black tea is often brewed as close to boiling as possible. The addition of milk chills the beverage during the crucial brewing phase, if brewing in a cup rather than using a pot, meaning the delicate flavour of a good tea cannot be fully appreciated. By adding the milk afterwards, it is easier to dissolve sugar in the tea and also to ensure the desired amount of milk is added, as the colour of the tea can be observed. Historically, the order of steps was taken as an indication of class: only those wealthy enough to afford good-quality porcelain would be confident of its being able to cope with being exposed to boiling water unadulterated with milk.","Tea\n\nHigher temperature difference means faster heat transfer so the earlier you add milk the slower the drink cools. A 2007 study published in the European Heart Journal found certain beneficial effects of tea may be lost through the addition of milk.","Tea\n\nOthers","Tea\n\nMany flavourings are added to varieties of tea during processing. Among the best known are Chinese jasmine tea, with jasmine oil or flowers, the spices in Indian masala chai, and Earl Grey tea, which contains oil of bergamot. A great range of modern flavours have been added to these traditional ones. In eastern India, people also drink lemon tea or lemon masala tea. Lemon tea simply contains hot tea with lemon juice and sugar. Masala lemon tea contains hot tea with roasted cumin seed powder, lemon juice, black salt and sugar, which gives it a tangy, spicy taste. Adding a piece of ginger when brewing tea is a popular habit of Sri Lankans, who also use other types of spices such as cinnamon to sweeten the aroma.","Tea\n\nOther popular additives to tea by the tea-brewer or drinker include sugar, liquid honey or a solid Honey Drop, agave nectar, fruit jams, and mint. In China, sweetening tea was traditionally regarded as a feminine practice. In colder regions, such as Mongolia, Tibet and Nepal, butter is added to provide necessary calories. Tibetan butter tea contains rock salt and dre, a butter made from yak milk, which is churned vigorously in a cylindrical vessel closely resembling a butter churn. The same may be said for salt tea, which is popular in the Hindu Kush region of northern Pakistan.","Tea\n\nPouring from height","Tea\n\nThe flavour of the tea can also be altered by pouring it from different heights, resulting in varying degrees of aeration. The art of elevated pouring is used principally by people in Northern Africa (e.g. Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Libya and Western Sahara), but also in West Africa (e.g. Guinea, Mali, Senegal) and can positively alter the flavour of the tea, but it is more likely a technique to cool the beverage destined to be consumed immediately. In certain cultures, the tea is given different names depending on the height from which it is poured.","Tea\n\nIn Southeast Asia, particularly in Singapore and Malaysia, the practice of pouring tea from a height has been refined further using black tea to which condensed milk is added, poured from a height from one cup to another several times in alternating fashion and in quick succession, to create a tea with entrapped air bubbles creating a frothy \"head\" in the cup. This beverage, teh tarik, literally, \"pulled tea\" (which has its origin as a hot Indian tea beverage), has a creamier taste than flat milk tea and is extremely popular in the region. Tea pouring in Malaysia has been further developed into an art form.","Tea\n\nPreparation","Tea\n\nBlack tea","Tea\n\nPopular varieties of black tea include Assam, Nepal, Darjeeling, Nilgiri, Turkish, Keemun, and Ceylon teas.","Tea\n\nMany of the active substances in black tea do not develop at temperatures lower than 90 °C (194 °F). As a result, black tea in the West is usually steeped in water near its boiling point, at around 99 °C (210 °F). The most common fault when making black tea is to use water at too low a temperature. Since boiling point drops with increasing altitude, it is difficult to brew black tea properly in mountainous areas. Warming the tea pot before steeping is critical at any elevation.","Tea\n\nWestern black teas are usually brewed for about four minutes and are usually not allowed to steep for less than 30 seconds or more than about five minutes (a process known as brewing or mashing in Britain). In many regions of the world, however, actively boiling water is used and the tea is often stewed. In India, black tea is often boiled for fifteen minutes or longer to make Masala chai, as a strong brew is preferred. Tea should be strained while serving.","Tea\n\nA food safety management group of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has published a standard for preparing a cup of tea (ISO 3103: Tea — Preparation of liquor for use in sensory tests), primarily intended for standardizing preparation for comparison and rating purposes.","Tea\n\nGreen tea","Tea\n\nIn regions of the world that prefer mild beverages, such as the West and Far East, green tea should be steeped in water around 80 to, the higher the quality of the leaves the lower the temperature. Regions such as North Africa or Central Asia prefer a bitter tea, and hotter water is used. In Morocco, green tea is steeped in boiling water for 15 minutes.","Tea\n\nThe container in which green tea is steeped is often warmed beforehand to prevent premature cooling. High-quality green and white teas can have new water added as many as five or more times, depending on variety, at increasingly higher temperatures.","Tea\n\nFlowering tea","Tea\n\nFlowering tea or blooming tea should be brewed at 100 °C in clear glass tea wares for up to three minutes. First pull 1/3 water to make the tea ball wet and after 30 seconds add the boiling water up to 4/5 of the capacity of the tea ware. The boiling water can help the tea ball bloom quickly and with a strong aroma of the tea. The height of glass tea ware should be 8–10 cm, which can help the tea and flowers bloom completely. One tea ball can be brewed 4–5 times.","Tea\n\nOolong tea","Tea\n\nOolong tea should be brewed around 82 to 96 °C (185 to 205 °F), with the brewing vessel warmed before pouring the water. Yixing purple clay teapots are the traditional brewing-vessel for oolong tea which can be brewed multiple times from the same leaves, unlike green tea, seeming to improve with reuse. In the Chinese and Taiwanese Gongfu tea ceremony, the first brew is discarded, as it is considered a rinse of leaves rather than a proper brew.","Tea\n\nPremium or delicate tea","Tea\n\nSome teas, especially green teas and delicate oolong teas, are steeped for shorter periods, sometimes less than 30 seconds. Using a tea strainer separates the leaves from the water at the end of the brewing time if a tea bag is not being used. However, the black Darjeeling tea, a premium Indian tea, needs a longer than average steeping time. Elevation and time of harvest offer varying taste profiles; proper storage and water quality also have a large impact on taste.","Tea\n\nPu-erh tea","Tea\n\nPu-erh teas require boiling water for infusion. Some prefer to quickly rinse pu-erh for several seconds with boiling water to remove tea dust which accumulates from the ageing process, then infuse it at the boiling point (100 °C or 212 °F), and allow it to steep from 30 seconds to five minutes.","Tea\n\nCold brew and sun tea","Tea\n\nWhile most tea is prepared using hot water, it is also possible to brew a beverage from tea using room temperature or cooled water. This requires longer steeping time to extract the key components, and produces a different flavor profile. For best results, it is best to use about 1.5 times the tea leaves that would be used for hot steeping, and to refrigerate for 4–10 hours. The process of making cold brew tea is much simpler than that for cold brew coffee.","Tea\n\nCold brewing has some disadvantages compared to hot steeping. Firstly, if the leaves or source water contain unwanted bacteria, they may flourish, whereas using hot water has the benefit of killing most bacteria. This is less of a concern in modern times and developed regions. Secondly, cold brewing may allow for less caffeine to be extracted, which may or may not be desired.","Tea\n\nSun Tea is made by steeping the tea leaves in a jar of unheated tap water left in the sun. It does not get hot enough to kill bacteria present on the tea leaves or in the water, such as Alcaligenes viscolactis.","Tea\n\nServing","Tea\n\nTo preserve the pretannin tea without requiring it all to be poured into cups, a second teapot may be used. The steeping pot is best unglazed earthenware; Yixing pots are the best known of these, famed for the high-quality clay from which they are made. The serving pot is generally porcelain, which retains the heat better. Larger teapots are a post-19th century invention, as tea before this time was very rare and very expensive. Experienced tea-drinkers often insist the tea should not be stirred around while it is steeping (sometimes called winding or mashing in the UK). This, they say, will do little to strengthen the tea, but is likely to bring the tannins out in the same way that brewing too long will do. For the same reason, one should not squeeze the last drops out of a teabag; if stronger tea is desired, more tea leaves should be used.","Tea\n\nTea culture","Tea\n\nTea may be consumed early in the day to heighten calm alertness; it contains L-theanine, theophylline, and bound caffeine (sometimes called theine). Decaffeinated brands are also sold. While herbal teas are also referred to as tea, most of them do not contain leaves from the tea plant. While tea is the second most consumed beverage on Earth after water, in many cultures it is also consumed at elevated social events, such as the tea party.","Tea\n\nTea ceremonies have arisen in different cultures, such as the Chinese and Japanese traditions, each of which employs certain techniques and ritualised protocol of brewing and serving tea for enjoyment in a refined setting. One form of Chinese tea ceremony is the Gongfu tea ceremony, which typically uses small Yixing clay teapots and oolong tea.","Tea\n\nIn the United Kingdom, tea is consumed daily and often by a majority of people, and indeed is perceived as one of Britain's cultural beverages. It is customary for a host to offer tea to guests soon after their arrival. Tea is consumed both at home and outside the home, often in cafés or tea rooms. Afternoon tea with cakes on fine porcelain is a cultural stereotype. In southwest England, many cafés serve a cream tea, consisting of scones, clotted cream, and jam alongside a pot of tea. In some parts of Britain, 'tea' may also refer to the evening meal.","Tea\n\nIreland has long been one of the biggest per-capita consumers of tea in the world. The national average is four cups per person per day, with many people drinking six cups or more. Tea in Ireland is usually taken with milk or sugar and is slightly spicier and stronger than the traditional English blend. The two main brands of tea sold in Ireland are Lyons and Barry's. Irish breakfast tea is blended for sale in the United States.","Tea\n\nTea is prevalent in most cultures in the Middle East. In Arab culture, tea is a focal point for social gatherings.","Tea\n\nTurkish tea is an important part of that country's cuisine, and is the most commonly consumed hot drink, despite the country's long history of coffee consumption. In 2004 Turkey produced 205,500 tonnes of tea (6.4% of the world's total tea production), which made it one of the largest tea markets in the world, with 120,000 tons being consumed in Turkey, and the rest being exported. In 2010 Turkey had the highest per capita consumption in the world at 2.7 kg. As of 2013, the per-capita consumption of Turkish tea exceeds 10 cups per day and 13.8 kg per year. Tea is grown mostly in Rize Province on the Black Sea coast.","Tea\n\nIn Iranian culture, tea is so widely consumed, it is generally the first thing offered to a household guest.","Tea\n\nRussia has a long, rich tea history dating to 1638 when tea was introduced to Tsar Michael. Social gatherings were considered incomplete without tea, which was traditionally brewed in a samovar, and today 82% of Russians consume tea daily.","Tea\n\nIn Pakistan, tea is called chai (written as چائے). Both black and green teas are popular and are known locally as sabz chai and kahwah, respectively. The popular green tea called kahwah is often served after every meal in the Pashtun belt of Balochistan and in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, which is where the Khyber Pass of the Silk Road is found. In central and southern Punjab and the metropolitan Sindh region of Pakistan, tea with milk and sugar (sometimes with pistachios, cardamom, etc.), commonly referred to as chai, is widely consumed. It is the most common beverage of households in the region. In the northern Pakistani regions of Chitral and Gilgit-Baltistan, a salty, buttered Tibetan-style tea is consumed.","Tea\n\nIn the transnational Kashmir region, which straddles the border between India and Pakistan, Kashmiri chai or noon chai, a pink, creamy tea with pistachios, almonds, cardamom, and sometimes cinnamon, is consumed primarily at special occasions, weddings, and during the winter months when it is sold in many kiosks.","Tea\n\nIndian tea culture is strong – the drink is one of the most popular hot beverages. It is consumed daily in almost all homes, offered to guests, consumed in high amounts in domestic and official surroundings, and is made with the addition of milk with or without spices. It is also served with biscuits dipped in the tea and eaten before consuming the tea. More often than not, it is drunk in \"doses\" of small cups (referred to as \"Cutting\" chai if sold at street tea vendors) rather than one large cup. On 21 April 2012, the Deputy Chairman of Planning Commission (India), Montek Singh Ahluwalia, said tea would be declared as national drink by April 2013. The move is expected to boost the tea industry in the country. Speaking on the occasion, Assam Chief Minister Tarun Gogoi said a special package for the tea industry would be announced in the future to ensure its development. The History of tea in India is especially rich.","Tea\n\nIn Burma (Myanmar), tea is consumed not only as hot drinks, but also as sweet tea and green tea known locally as laphet-yay and laphet-yay-gyan, respectively. Pickled tea leaves, known locally as laphet, are also a national delicacy. Pickled tea is usually eaten with roasted sesame seeds, crispy fried beans, roasted peanuts and fried garlic chips.","Tea\n\nIn Mali, gunpowder tea is served in series of three, starting with the highest oxidisation or strongest, unsweetened tea, locally referred to as \"strong like death\", followed by a second serving, where the same tea leaves are boiled again with some sugar added (\"pleasant as life\"), and a third one, where the same tea leaves are boiled for the third time with yet more sugar added (\"sweet as love\"). Green tea is the central ingredient of a distinctly Malian custom, the \"Grin\", an informal social gathering that cuts across social and economic lines, starting in front of family compound gates in the afternoons and extending late into the night, and is widely popular in Bamako and other large urban areas.","Tea\n\nIn the United States, 80% of tea is consumed as iced tea. Sweet tea is native to the southeastern US, and is iconic in its cuisine.","Tea\n\nEconomics","Tea\n\nTea is the most popular manufactured drink consumed in the world, equaling all others – including coffee, chocolate, soft drinks, and alcohol – combined. Most tea consumed outside East Asia is produced on large plantations in the hilly regions of India and Sri Lanka, and is destined to be sold to large businesses. Opposite this large-scale industrial production are many small \"gardens,\" sometimes minuscule plantations, that produce highly sought-after teas prized by gourmets. These teas are both rare and expensive, and can be compared to some of the most expensive wines in this respect.","Tea\n\nIndia is the world's largest tea-drinking nation, although the per capita consumption of tea remains a modest 750 grams per person every year. Turkey, with 2.5 kg of tea consumed per person per year, is the world's greatest per capita consumer.","Tea\n\nProduction","Tea\n\nIn 2003, world tea production was 3.21 million tonnes annually.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations—Production [http://faostat.fao.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID\n567&lang=en FAOSTAT]. Retrieved 30 April 2010. In 2010, world tea production reached over 4.52 million tonnes after having increased by 5.7% between 2009 and 2010. Production rose by 3.1% between 2010. In 2013, world tea production reached over 5.34 million tonnes after having increased by 6.17% between 2012 and 2013 . The largest producers of tea are the People's Republic of China, India, Kenya, Sri Lanka, and Turkey.","Tea\n\nThe following table shows the amount of tea production (in tonnes) by leading countries in recent years. Data are generated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations as of February 2014.","Tea\n\nLabor and consumer safety problems","Tea\n\nMultiple recent reports have found that most Chinese and Indian teas contain residues of banned toxic pesticides.","Tea\n\nTea production in Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda has been reported to make use of child labor according to the U.S. Department of Labor's List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor (a report on the worst forms of child labor).","Tea\n\nCertification","Tea\n\nWorkers who pick and pack tea on plantations in developing countries can face harsh working conditions and may earn below the living wage.","Tea\n\nA number of bodies independently certify the production of tea. Tea from certified estates can be sold with a certification label on the pack. The most important certification schemes are Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade, UTZ Certified, and Organic, which also certify other crops such as coffee, cocoa and fruit. Rainforest Alliance certified tea is sold by Unilever brands Lipton and PG Tips in Western Europe, Australia and the US. Fairtrade certified tea is sold by a large number of suppliers around the world. UTZ Certified announced a partnership in 2008 with Sara Lee brand Pickwick tea.","Tea\n\nProduction of organic tea has risen since its introduction in 1990 at Rembeng, Kondoli Tea Estate, Assam. tons of organic tea were sold in 1999. About 75% of organic tea production is sold in France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.","Tea\n\nTrade","Tea\n\nAccording to the FAO in 2007, the largest importer of tea, by weight, was the Russian Federation, followed by the United Kingdom, Pakistan, and the United States.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations—Trade [http://faostat.fao.org/site/342/default.aspx FAOSTAT]\nKenya, China, India and Sri Lanka were the largest exporters of tea in 2007 (with exports of: 374229, 292199, 193459 and 190203 tonnes respectively). The largest exporter of black tea is Kenya, with the largest producer, (and consumer) being India.","Tea\n\nPackaging","Tea\n\nTea bags","Tea\n\nIn 1907, American tea merchant Thomas Sullivan began distributing samples of his tea in small bags of Chinese silk with a drawstring. Consumers noticed they could simply leave the tea in the bag and reuse it with fresh tea. However, the potential of this distribution/packaging method would not be fully realised until later on. During World War II, tea was rationed in the United Kingdom. In 1953 (after rationing in the UK ended), Tetley launched the tea bag to the UK and it was an immediate success.","Tea\n\nThe \"pyramid tea bag\" (or sachet) introduced by Lipton and PG Tips/Scottish Blend in 1996, attempts to address one of the connoisseurs' arguments against paper tea bags by way of its three-dimensional tetrahedron shape, which allows more room for tea leaves to expand while steeping. However, some types of pyramid tea bags have been criticised as being environmentally unfriendly, since their synthetic material is not as biodegradable as loose tea leaves and paper tea bags.","Tea\n\nLoose tea","Tea\n\nThe tea leaves are packaged loosely in a canister, paper bag, or other container such as a tea chest. Some whole teas, such as rolled gunpowder tea leaves, which resist crumbling, are sometimes vacuum packed for freshness in aluminised packaging for storage and retail. The loose tea must be individually measured for use, allowing for flexibility and flavor control at the expense of convenience. Strainers, tea balls, tea presses, filtered teapots, and infusion bags prevent loose leaves from floating in the tea and over-brewing. A traditional method uses a three-piece lidded teacup called a gaiwan, the lid of which is tilted to decant the tea into a different cup for consumption.","Tea\n\nCompressed tea","Tea\n\nCompressed tea (such as Pu-erh) is produced for convenience in transport, storage, and ageing. It can usually be stored longer without spoilage than loose leaf tea.","Tea\n\nCompressed tea is prepared by loosening leaves from the cake using a small knife, and steeping the extracted pieces in water. During the Tang dynasty, as described by Lu Yu, compressed tea was ground into a powder, combined with hot water, and ladled into bowls, resulting in a \"frothy\" mixture. In the Song dynasty, the tea powder would instead be whisked with hot water in the bowl. Although no longer practiced in China today, the whisking method of preparing powdered tea was transmitted to Japan by Zen Buddhist monks, and is still used to prepare matcha in the Japanese tea ceremony.","Tea\n\nCompressed tea was the most popular form of tea in China during the Tang dynasty. By the beginning of the Ming dynasty, it had been displaced by loose leaf tea. It remains popular, however, in the Himalayan countries and Mongolian steppes. In Mongolia, tea bricks were ubiquitous enough to be used as a form of currency. Among Himalayan peoples, compressed tea is consumed by combining it with yak butter and salt to produce butter tea.","Tea\n\nInstant tea","Tea\n\n\"Instant tea\", similar to freeze-dried instant coffee and an alternative to brewed tea, can be consumed either hot or cold. Instant tea was developed in the 1930s, with Nestlé introducing the first commercial product in 1946, while Redi-Tea debuted instant iced tea in 1953.","Tea\n\nDelicacy of flavour is sacrificed for convenience. Additives such as chai, vanilla, honey or fruit, are popular, as is powdered milk.","Tea\n\nDuring the Second World War British and Canadian soldiers were issued an instant tea known as 'Compo' in their Composite Ration Packs. These blocks of instant tea, powdered milk, and sugar were not always well received. As Royal Canadian Artillery Gunner, George C Blackburn observed:","Tea\n\nBottled and canned tea","Tea\n\nCanned tea is sold prepared and ready to drink. It was introduced in 1981 in Japan.","Tea\n\nThe first bottled tea introduced by Indonesian tea company PT. Sinar Sosro in 1969 with brand name Teh Botol Sosro (or Sosro bottled tea).","Tea\n\nIn 1983, Swiss-based Bischofszell Food Ltd., was the first company to bottle ice tea on an industrial scale.","Tea\n\nStorage","Tea\n\nStorage conditions and type determine the shelf life of tea. Black tea's is greater than green's. Some, such as flower teas, may last only a month or so. Others, such as pu-erh, improve with age.","Tea\n\nTo remain fresh and prevent mold, tea needs to be stored away from heat, light, air, and moisture. Tea must be kept at room temperature in an air-tight container. Black tea in a bag within a sealed opaque canister may keep for two years. Green tea deteriorates more rapidly, usually in less than a year. Tightly rolled gunpowder tea leaves keep longer than the more open-leafed Chun Mee tea.","Tea\n\nStorage life for all teas can be extended by using desiccant or oxygen-absorbing packets, vacuum sealing, or refrigeration in air-tight containers (except green tea, where discrete use of refrigeration or freezing is recommended and temperature variation kept to a minimum).","Tea\n\nGallery","Tea\n\nFile:Da Hong Pao Oolong tea leaf close.jpg|Da Hong Pao tea, an oolong tea\nFile:Bai Hao Yin Zhen tea leaf (Fuding).jpg|Fuding Bai Hao Yinzhen tea, a white tea\nFile:Xiaguan Te Ji Tuo Cha 2004.jpg|Green pu-erh tuo cha, a type of compressed raw pu-erh\nFile:Huoshan Huangya tea leaves close.jpg|Huoshan Huangya tea, a yellow tea\nFile:Qi Lan Oolong tea leaf.jpg|Loose dried tea leaves\nFile:Oolong tea leaf.jpg|Taiwanese High Mountain oolong\nFile:Yam bai cha.jpg|A spicy Thai salad made with young, fresh tea leaves\nFile:Elderberries.jpeg|Dried Elderberries ready to be steeped into tea","Bergamot orange\n\nCitrus bergamia, the bergamot orange (pronounced), is a fragrant fruit the size of an orange, with a yellow color similar to a lemon.","Bergamot orange\n\nGenetic research into the ancestral origins of extant citrus cultivars found bergamot orange to be a probable hybrid of Citrus limetta and Citrus aurantium. Extracts have been used to scent food, perfumes, and cosmetics.Davidson, Alan. The Oxford Companion to Food (2006). Second Edition. Ed. Tom Jaine. p. 75. ISBN 0192806815.: \"The bergamot orange is not edible and is grown only for its fragrant oil, although its peel is sometimes candied.\" Use on the skin can increase photosensitivity, resulting in greater damage from sun exposure; excessive consumption can be toxic.","Bergamot orange\n\nEtymology","Bergamot orange\n\nThe word bergamot is etymologically derived from bergamotto in Italian.","Bergamot orange\n\nIt is related to French bergamote, from Italian bergamotto, of Turkish origin: beg-armudi or beg armut (\"prince's pear\" or \"prince of pears).","Bergamot orange\n\nDescription","Bergamot orange\n\nCitrus bergamia is a small tree that blossoms during the winter. The juice tastes less sour than lemon, but more bitter than grapefruit.","Bergamot orange\n\nChemistry","Bergamot orange\n\nThe active ingredients in bergamot juice are neoeriocitrin, naringin, neohesperidin, ponceritin, melitidin, and brutieridin. Melitidin and brutieridin, only recently discovered, exist only in citrus bergamot, and exhibit statin-like properties. Synephrine is not present in citrus bergamot.","Bergamot orange\n\nTaxonomy","Bergamot orange\n\nThe bergamot orange is unrelated to the herbs known as bergamot or wild bergamot, Monarda didyma and Monarda fistulosa, which are in the mint family, and are named for their similar aroma.","Bergamot orange\n\nCitrus bergamia has also been classified as Citrus aurantium subsp. bergamia (i.e. a subspecies of bitter orange).","Bergamot orange\n\nCitrus bergamia is sometimes confused with (but is not the same as)\n* Citrus medica (citron, the yellow fruit of which is also known as etrog)\n* Citrus limetta, the \"sweet lemon\" or \"sweet lime\"","Bergamot orange\n\nProduction","Bergamot orange\n\nProduction mostly is limited to the Ionian Sea coastal areas of the province of Reggio di Calabria in Italy, to such an extent that it is a symbol of the entire city. Most of the bergamot comes from a short stretch of land there where the temperature is favourable. It is also cultivated in Côte d'Ivoire.","Bergamot orange\n\nCitrus bergamot is commercially grown in southern Calabria (province of Reggio), southern Italy. It is also grown in southern France and in Côte d'Ivoire for the essential oil and in Antalya in southern Turkey for its marmalade. The fruit is not generally grown for juice consumption. However, in Mauritius where it is grown on small-scale basis, it is largely used for juice consumption by the locals.","Bergamot orange\n\nOne hundred bergamot oranges yield about three ounces (85 g) of bergamot oil.","Bergamot orange\n\nAdulteration with cheaper products such as oil of rosewood and bergamot mint has been a problem for consumers. To protect the reputation of their produce, the Italian government introduced tight controls, including testing and certificates of purity. The Stazione Sperimentale per le Industrie delle Essenze e dei Derivati dagli Agrumi (Experimental Station for Essential Oil and Citrus By-Products) located in Reggio di Calabria, was the quality control body for the essential oil Bergamotto di Reggio Calabria DOP. During World War II, Italy was unable to export to countries such as the Allied powers. Rival products from Brazil and Mexico came on to the market as a substitute, but these were produced from other citrus fruits such as sweet lime.Board, Niir (2011). \"Oil of Bergamot.\" The Complete Technology Book of Essential Oils (Aromatic Chemicals). p. 75. ISBN 978-81-7833-066-2.","Bergamot orange\n\nUses","Bergamot orange\n\nFood and drink","Bergamot orange\n\nThe fruit of the bergamot orange is edible.(see Bergamot Marmalade)","Bergamot orange\n\nAn essence extracted from the aromatic skin of this sour fruit is used to flavour Earl Grey and Lady Grey teas, and confectionery (including Turkish delight ). It is often used to make marmalade, particularly in Italy. In Sweden and Norway, bergamot is a very common flavourant in snus, a smokeless tobacco product. Likewise in dry nasal snuff, it is also a common aroma in traditional blends. Carpentierbe, a company based in San Giorgio Morgeto, near Reggio Calabria, makes a digestiv liqueur derived from bergamot marketed under the name Liquore al Bergamotto.","Bergamot orange\n\nFragrance","Bergamot orange\n\nBergamot peel is used in perfumery for its ability to combine with an array of scents to form a bouquet of aromas which complement each other. About one-third of all men's and about half of women’s perfumes contain bergamot essential oil. Bergamot is a major component of the original Eau de Cologne composed by Farina at the beginning of 18th century in Germany. The first record of bergamot oil as fragrance ingredient is 1714, to be found in the Farina Archive in Cologne.","Bergamot orange\n\nBergamot essential oil is popular in aromatherapy.","Bergamot orange\n\nToxicology","Bergamot orange\n\nIn several patch test studies, application of some sources of bergamot oil directly to the skin of guinea pigs was shown to have a concentration-dependent phototoxic effect of increasing redness after exposure to ultraviolet light (due to the chemical bergapten, and possibly also citropten, bergamottin, geranial, and neral). This is a property shared by many other citrus fruits. Bergapten has also been implicated as a potassium channel blocker; in one case study, a patient who consumed four liters of Earl Grey tea per day (which contains bergamot essential oil as a flavouring) suffered muscle cramps.","Bergamot orange\n\nBergamot contains extremely large amounts of polyphenols, as compared to other citrus species. Two of these, brutieridin and melitidin, directly inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis in a similar way to statins and they are not found in any other citrus derivatives.","Bergamot orange\n\nBergamot is also a source of bergamottin which, along with the chemically related compound 6',7'-dihydroxybergamottin, is believed to be responsible for the grapefruit juice effect in which the consumption of the juice affects the metabolism of a variety of pharmaceutical drugs.","Bergamot orange\n\nSkin care","Bergamot orange\n\nBergamot is used in many skin care creams.","Bergamot orange\n\nIn the past, psoralen extracted from bergamot oil has been used in tanning accelerators and sunscreens. These substances were known to be photocarcinogenic since 1959, but they were only banned from sunscreens in 1995. These photocarcinogenic substances were banned years after they had caused many cases of malignant melanoma and deaths.","Bergamot orange\n\nPsoralen is now used only in the treatment of certain skin disorders, as part of PUVA therapy.","Bergamot orange\n\nMedicinal properties","Bergamot orange\n\nThe juice of the fruit has been used in Calabrian indigenous medicine to treat malaria.","Bergamot orange\n\nEvidence is insufficient to indicate bergamot oil is of medical benefit for a variety of claimed uses. Use on the skin can be unsafe, particularly for children and pregnant women. Potential side effects of drinking large amounts of bergamot oil can include convulsions and death in children."],"string":"[\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nCaptain Jean-Luc Picard is a fictional character in the Star Trek: The Next Generation (a.k.a. TNG) franchise. He appears in the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation and the feature films Star Trek: Generations (1994), Star Trek: First Contact (1996), Star Trek: Insurrection (1998), and Star Trek: Nemesis (2002). He also made a guest appearance in the pilot episode of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, which began its seven-year run during the sixth season of TNG. He is portrayed by actor Patrick Stewart.\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nCasting and design\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nAfter the success of the contemporary Star Trek feature films, a new Star Trek television series featuring a new cast was announced on October 10, 1986. Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry named Picard for one or both of the twin brothers Auguste Piccard and Jean Felix Piccard, 20th-century Swiss scientists.\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nPatrick Stewart, who has a background of theatre at the Royal Shakespeare Company, was initially considered for the role of Data. Roddenberry did not want to cast Stewart as Picard, since he had envisioned an actor who was \\\"masculine, virile, and had a lot of hair\\\". Roddenberry's first choice was Stephen Macht, and it took \\\"weeks of discussion\\\" with Robert H. Justman, Rick Berman, and the casting director to convince him that \\\"Stewart was the one they had been looking for to sit in the captain's chair\\\"; Roddenberry agreed after auditioning every other candidate for the role. Stewart himself was uncertain why the producers would cast \\\"a middle-aged bald English Shakespearean actor\\\" as captain of the Enterprise. He had his toupee delivered from London to meet with Paramount executives, but Roddenberry ordered Stewart to remove the \\\"awful looking\\\" hairpiece. Stewart's stentorian voice impressed the executives, who immediately approved the casting. Roddenberry sent Stewart C. S. Forester's Horatio Hornblower novels, saying the Picard character was based on Hornblower, but Stewart was already familiar with the character, having read the books as a teenager.\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nAs the series progressed, Stewart exercised more control over the character's development. By the time production began on the first Next Generation film, \\\"it was impossible to tell where Jean[-]Luc started and Patrick Stewart ended\\\", and by the fourth film, Stewart stated:\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nStewart stated, however, that he is not nearly as serious or brooding as his alter ego.\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nStewart also stated, \\\"One of the delights of having done this series and played this role is that people are so attracted to the whole idea of Star Trek... several years after the series has ended... I enjoy hearing how much people enjoyed the work we did... It's always gratifying to me that this bald, middle-aged Englishman seems to connect with them.\\\" Stewart has also commented that his role has helped open up Shakespeare to science fiction fans. He has noted the \\\"regular presence of Trekkies in the audience\\\" whenever he plays theater, and added: \\\"I meet these people afterwards, I get letters from them and see them at the stage door... And they say, 'I've never seen Shakespeare before, I didn't think I'd understand it, but it was wonderful and I can't wait to come back.'\\\"\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nCharacter biography\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nTelevision series and films\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nJean-Luc Picard was born to Maurice and Yvette Picard in La Barre, France, on July 13, 2305, and dreamed of joining Starfleet. He and the rest of his family speak English, with English accents—the French language having become obscure by the 24th century, as mentioned in the Next Generation episode \\\"Code of Honor\\\". Suspiciously (from the point of view of the viewer), Picard also has a number of British habits, including the regular consumption of Earl Grey tea, a fondness for Shakespeare, which he performs - authentically enough given the origins of The Bard - in a West Midlands accent, and a knowledge of such British songs with Royal Navy associations as \\\"A British Tar\\\" (Gilbert and Sullivan) and \\\"Heart of Oak\\\". The young Picard failed his first Starfleet Academy entrance exam, and, upon admission, met with numerous ethical/scholastic difficulties during his cadet career, but (coached by groundskeeper Boothby) went on to flourish, developing a lifelong passion for archaeology, and he became the first freshman to win the Academy marathon. Shortly after graduation, Picard was stabbed in the heart by a Nausicaan, leaving the organ irreparable and requiring replacement with a parthenogenetic implant; this would prove near-fatal later.\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nPicard eventually served as first officer aboard the USS Stargazer, which he later commanded. During that time, he invented a warp-speed starship tactic (employing a faster-than-light optical illusion) that would become known as the Picard Maneuver.\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nDepicted as deeply moral, highly logical, and intelligent, Picard is a master of diplomacy and debate who resolves seemingly intractable issues between multiple, sometimes implacable parties with a Solomon-like wisdom. Though such resolutions are usually peaceful, Picard is also shown using his remarkable tactical cunning in situations when it is required. Picard has a fondness for detective stories, Shakespearean drama, and archeology. He is frequently shown drinking Earl Grey tea and issuing the order, \\\"Make it so\\\", or, \\\"Engage\\\".\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nStar Trek: The Next Generation depicts Picard's command of the USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-D). The pilot episode shows the ship's mission to investigate a problem at Farpoint Station, which becomes sidetracked when Q makes Picard \\\"representative\\\" in a trial charging humanity with being a \\\"dangerously savage child-race\\\". Picard persuades Q to test humanity, and Q chooses as the test's first stage the crew's performance at Farpoint. The trial \\\"ends\\\" seven years later (when Q reminds Picard that it never does), in the series finale, when humanity is absolved by Picard's demonstration that the species has the capacity to explore the \\\"possibilities of existence\\\".\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nThe third season finale, \\\"The Best of Both Worlds, Part I\\\", depicts Picard being assimilated by the Borg to serve as a bridge between humanity and the Borg (renamed Locutus of Borg); Picard's assimilation and recovery are a critical point in the character's development, and provided backstory for the film Star Trek: First Contact and the development of Benjamin Sisko, the protagonist of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Stewart asked Roddenberry to keep Picard a Borg for a few more episodes beyond the third season finale, as he thought that would be more interesting than simply restoring Picard in Part II. It is later revealed in First Contact that parts of Borg machinery were removed from inside Picard, but that he retains traumatic memories and lingering neurological aftereffects of assimilation (which become a pivotal plot twist in Star Trek: First Contact).\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nThe fourth-season episode \\\"Family\\\" reveals that Picard has a brother, Robert, who took charge of the family vineyards in La Barre after Picard joined Starfleet. Robert and his wife have a young son, René, who is Picard's nephew. In the film Star Trek Generations, Picard is devastated to learn that Robert and René have both died in a fire, and worse, the loss will make him the last of the Picard family (unless he can produce an heir).\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nPicard joins forces with legendary Enterprise captain James T. Kirk in Star Trek Generations to fight the film's villain Dr. Tolian Soran. Commanding the new USS Enterprise-E (after the Enterprise-D is destroyed in Generations), Picard again confronts the Borg in First Contact. Later, he fights a species's forced relocation in Star Trek: Insurrection, and encounters Shinzon, a Romulan-made clone of himself, in Star Trek Nemesis.\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nSpin-off works\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nIn recent novels by Pocket Books, Picard has married Beverly Crusher, and they have a son named René Jacques Robert François Picard. Jean-Luc also corresponds regularly with Marie, his sister-in-law, who still maintains the family vineyards. As of 2385 in the novel miniseries Star Trek: The Fall, Picard remains as commanding officer of the Enterprise-E.\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nIn the comic miniseries Star Trek: Countdown, a prequel to the 2009 Star Trek movie, Picard is depicted as having retired from Starfleet and becoming Federation Ambassador to Vulcan. In 2387, he works with Data, the new commanding officer of the Enterprise-E, Ambassador Spock, and the Romulan miner Nero to save the Romulan Star Empire from a cataclysmic supernova. He is present aboard the Enterprise as it confronts Nero, who has gone mad and begun killing non-Romulans after they fail to save Romulus. The Enterprise arrives too late to aid Ambassador Spock against Nero, believing both Spock and Nero to have been consumed by the artificial black hole that Spock created.\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nReception\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nThe character has near-universal critical acclaim among fans of The Next Generation, and he is usually considered one of the top two captains in the entire Star Trek franchise – there are often lengthy and serious debates over whether Picard or James T. Kirk is the \\\"best\\\" Starfleet captain. A 1991 TV Guide cover story was titled \\\"It's Kirk vs. Picard: Experts and fans debate who's best.\\\" In a more lighthearted take on the debate, the cover of a 1994 Mad magazine Star Trek special features both Kirk and Picard wrestling childishly to fit into the Enterprise's captain's chair, while Scotty and Worf watch their respective commanders with looks of astonishment. Picard is deemed the ultimate delegator of authority, knowing \\\"how to gather and use data better than any other Star Trek captain.\\\" His leadership style \\\"is best suited to a large, process-centric, either geographically identical or diverse team\\\". Kirk and Picard are considered to be attentive to the needs of their respective crews.\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nWhen Stewart and William Shatner were asked in 1991 how their characters would have dealt with Saddam Hussein, Shatner stated that Kirk would \\\"have told him to drop dead\\\" while Stewart joked that Picard \\\"would still be talking.\\\"\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nIn 2015, Stewart addressed a long-asked conundrum among Star Trek fans, \\\"If Kirk and Picard fought each other, who would win?\\\" in Smithsonian Magazine, by saying Picard would prefer to negotiate in the hope of avoiding a fight altogether.\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nUGO Networks listed Picard as one of their best heroes in entertainment, saying, \\\"He doesn't have Kirk's sense of panache, but he did have a tendency to take everything really, really seriously for years\\\".\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nOther actors\",\n \"Jean-Luc Picard\\n\\nThe character of Jean-Luc Picard has also been portrayed by:\\n* David Birkin [in \\\"Rascals\\\" (November 15, 1992)] -- a young version\\n* Tom Hardy [in Star Trek: Nemesis (2002)] -- a younger clone type\\n* Marcus Nash [in \\\"Tapestry\\\" (February 15, 1993)] -- a young version\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to Asia. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world. There are many different types of tea; some teas, like Darjeeling and Chinese greens, have a cooling, slightly bitter, and astringent flavour, while others have vastly different profiles that include sweet, nutty, floral or grassy notes.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea originated in southwestern China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was popularized as a recreational drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty, and tea drinking spread to other East Asian countries. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to the West during the 16th century. During the 17th century, drinking tea became fashionable among Britons, who started large-scale production and commercialization of the plant in India to bypass a Chinese monopoly at that time.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe phrase herbal tea usually refers to infusions of fruit or herbs made without the tea plant, such as steeps of rosehip, chamomile, or rooibos. These are also known as tisanes or herbal infusions to distinguish them from \\\"tea\\\" as it is commonly construed.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe Chinese character for tea is 茶, originally written with an extra stroke as 荼 (pronounced tú, used as a word for a bitter herb), and acquired its current form during the Tang Dynasty. The word is pronounced differently in the different varieties of Chinese, such as chá in Mandarin, zo and dzo in Wu Chinese, and ta and te in Min Chinese. One suggestion is that the different pronunciations may have arisen from the different words for tea in ancient China, for example tú (荼) may have given rise to tê; historical phonologists however argued that the cha, te and dzo all arose from the same root with a reconstructed pronunciation dra, which changed due to sound shift through the centuries. There were other ancient words for tea, though ming (茗) is the only other one still in common use. It has been proposed that the Chinese words for tea, tu, cha and ming, may have been borrowed from the Austro-Asiatic languages of people who inhabited southwest China; cha for example may have been derived from an archaic Austro-Asiatic root *la, meaning \\\"leaf\\\".\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nMost Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of cha, but Hokkien varieties along the Southern coast of China and in Southeast Asia pronounce it like teh. These two pronunciations have made their separate ways into other languages around the world. The Hokkien tê of southern Fujian province reached the West from the port of Xiamen (Amoy), once a major point of contact with Western European traders such as the Dutch, who spread it to Western Europe. This pronunciation gives rise to English \\\"tea\\\" and other similar words in other languages such as Spanish \\\"té\\\", French \\\"thé\\\", German \\\"Tee\\\", and Dutch \\\"thee\\\", and is the most common form worldwide. Cha is from the Cantonese chàh of Guangzhou (Canton) and the ports of Hong Kong and Macau, also major points of contact, especially with the Portuguese, who spread it to India in the 16th century. Due to the Portuguese occupation of Macau, the Portuguese adopted the Cantonese pronunciation \\\"chá\\\", instead of the more typical Western pronunciations deriving from tê. The Korean and Japanese pronunciations of cha, however, came not from Cantonese, rather they were borrowed into Korean and Japanese during earlier periods of Chinese history.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nA third form, the increasingly widespread chai, came from Persian چای chay. Both the châ and chây forms are found in Persian dictionaries. They are derived from the Northern Chinese pronunciation of chá, which passed overland to Central Asia and Persia, where it picked up the Persian grammatical suffix -yi before passing on to Russian as чай (chay), Arabic as شاي (pronounced shay due to the lack of a \\\"ch\\\" sound in Arabic), Urdu as چائے chay, Hindi as चाय chāy, Turkish as çay, etc. The few exceptions of words for tea that do not fall into the three broad groups of te, cha and chai are mostly from the minor languages from the botanical homeland of the tea plant from which the Chinese words for tea might have been borrowed originally. English has all three forms: cha or char (both pronounced), attested from the 16th century; tea, from the 17th; and chai, from the 20th. However, the form chai refers specifically to a black tea mixed with honey, spices and milk in contemporary English.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nOrigin and history\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea plants are native to East Asia, and probably originated around the meeting points of the lands of north Burma and southwest China. Statistical cluster analysis, chromosome number, easy hybridization, and various types of intermediate hybrids and spontaneous polyploids indicate that likely a single place of origin exists for Camellia sinensis, an area including the northern part of Burma, and Yunnan and Sichuan provinces of China. Tea drinking may have begun in the Yunnan region during the Shang Dynasty in China, when it was used for medicinal purposes. It is also believed that in Sichuan, \\\"people began to boil tea leaves for consumption into a concentrated liquid without the addition of other leaves or herbs, thereby using tea as a bitter yet stimulating drink, rather than as a medicinal concoction.\\\"\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nChinese legends attribute the invention of tea to Shennong in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China (Sichuan/Yunnan area). The earliest written records of tea come from China. The word tú 荼 appears in the Shijing and other ancient texts to signify a kind of \\\"bitter vegetable\\\" (苦菜), and it is possible that it referred to a number of different plants such as sowthistle, chicory, or smartweed, as well as tea. In the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king. The state of Ba and its neighbour Shu were later conquered by the Qin, and according to the 17th century scholar Gu Yanwu who wrote in Ri Zhi Lu (日知錄): \\\"It was after the Qin had taken Shu that they learned how to drink tea.\\\" Another possible early reference to tea is found in a letter written by the Qin Dynasty general Liu Kun who requested that some \\\"real tea\\\" to be sent to him.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe earliest known physical evidence of tea was discovered in 2016 in the mausoleum of Emperor Jing of Han in Xi'an, indicating that tea from the genus Camellia was drunk by Han Dynasty emperors as early as 2nd century BC. The Han dynasty work \\\"The Contract for a Youth\\\", written by Wang Bao in 59 BC, contains the first known reference to boiling tea. Among the tasks listed to be undertaken by the youth, the contract states that \\\"he shall boil tea and fill the utensils\\\" and \\\"he shall buy tea at Wuyang\\\". The first record of tea cultivation is also dated to this period (the reign of Emperor Xuan of Han), during which tea was cultivated on Meng Mountain (蒙山) near Chengdu. Another early credible record of tea drinking dates to the third century AD, in a medical text by Hua Tuo, who stated, \\\"to drink bitter t'u constantly makes one think better.\\\" However, before the mid-8th century Tang dynasty, tea-drinking was primarily a southern Chinese practice. It became widely popular during the Tang Dynasty, when it was spread to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn India, tea has been drunk for medicinal purposes for a long but uncertain period, but apart from the Himalayan region it seems not to have been used as a beverage until the British introduced tea-drinking there much later.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThrough the centuries, a variety of techniques for processing tea, and a number of different forms of tea, were developed. During the Tang dynasty, tea was steamed, then pounded and shaped into cake form, while in the Song dynasty, loose-leaf tea was developed and became popular. During the Yuan and Ming dynasties, unoxidized tea leaves were first pan-fried, then rolled and dried, a process that stops the oxidation process which turns the leaves dark and allows tea to remain green. In the 15th century, oolong tea, in which the leaves were allowed to partially oxidize before pan-frying, was developed. Western tastes, however, favoured the fully oxidized black tea, and the leaves were allowed to oxidize further. Yellow tea was an accidental discovery in the production of green tea during the Ming dynasty, when apparently sloppy practices allowed the leaves to turn yellow, but yielded a different flavour as a result.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea was first introduced to Portuguese priests and merchants in China during the 16th century, at which time it was termed chá. The earliest European reference to tea, written as Chiai, came from Delle navigationi e viaggi written by a Venetian, Giambattista Ramusio, in 1545. The first recorded shipment of tea by a European nation was in 1607 when the Dutch East India Company moved a cargo of tea from Macao to Java, then two years later, the Dutch bought the first assignment of tea which was from Hirado in Japan to be shipped to Europe. Tea became a fashionable drink in The Hague in the Netherlands, and the Dutch introduced the drink to Germany, France and across the Atlantic to New Amsterdam (New York).\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe first record of tea in English came from a letter written by Richard Wickham, who ran an East India Company office in Japan, writing to a merchant in Macao requesting \\\"the best sort of chaw\\\" in 1615. Peter Mundy, a traveller and merchant who came across tea in Fujian in 1637, wrote, \\\"chaa — only water with a kind of herb boyled in it \\\". Tea was sold in a coffee house in London in 1657, Samuel Pepys tasted tea in 1660, and Catherine of Braganza took the tea-drinking habit to the British court when she married Charles II in 1662. Tea, however, was not widely consumed in Britain until the 18th century, and remained expensive until the latter part of that period. British drinkers preferred to add sugar and milk to black tea, and black tea overtook green tea in popularity in the 1720s. Tea smuggling during the 18th century led to the general public being able to afford and consume tea. The British government removed the tax on tea, thereby eliminating the smuggling trade by 1785.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn Britain and Ireland, tea was initially consumed as a luxury item on special occasions, such as religious festivals, wakes, and domestic work gatherings. The price of tea in Europe fell steadily during the 19th century, especially after Indian tea began to arrive in large quantities; by the late 19th century tea had become an everyday beverage for all levels of society. The popularity of tea also informed a number of historical events – the Tea Act of 1773 provoked the Boston Tea Party that escalated into the American Revolution, and the need to address the issue of British trade deficit caused by the demand for Chinese tea led to a trade in opium that resulted in the Opium Wars.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea was introduced into India by the British in an attempt to break the Chinese monopoly on tea. In 1841, Arthur Campbell brought seeds of Chinese tea from the Kumaun region and experimented with planting tea in Darjeeling. The Alubari tea garden was opened in 1856 and Darjeeling tea began to be produced. In 1848, Robert Fortune was sent by the East India Company on a mission to China to bring the tea plant back to Great Britain. He began his journey in high secrecy as his mission occurred in the lull between the Anglo-Chinese First Opium War (18391842) and Second Opium War (18561860). The Chinese tea plants he brought back were introduced to the Himalayas, though most did not survive. The British had discovered that a different variety of tea was endemic to Assam and the northeast region of India and that it was used by the local Singpho people, and these were then grown instead of the Chinese tea plant. Using the Chinese planting and cultivation techniques, the British launched a tea industry by offering land in Assam to any European who agreed to cultivate it for export.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea was originally consumed only by anglicized Indians; however, it became widely popular in India in the 1950s because of a successful advertising campaign by the India Tea Board.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nCultivation and harvesting\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nCamellia sinensis is an evergreen plant that grows mainly in tropical and subtropical climates. Some varieties can also tolerate marine climates and are cultivated as far north as Cornwall in the United Kingdom, Perthshire in Scotland, Washington state in the United States, and Vancouver Island in Canada. In the Southern Hemisphere, tea is grown as far south as Hobart on the Australian island of Tasmania and Waikato in New Zealand.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea plants are propagated from seed and cuttings; about 4 to 12 years are needed for a plant to bear seed and about three years before a new plant is ready for harvesting. In addition to a zone 8 climate or warmer, tea plants require at least 127 cm (50 in) of rainfall a year and prefer acidic soils. Many high-quality tea plants are cultivated at elevations of up to 1500 m above sea level. Though at these heights the plants grow more slowly, they acquire a better flavour.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTwo principal varieties are used: Camellia sinensis var. sinensis, which is used for most Chinese, Formosan and Japanese teas, and C.s. var. assamica, used in Pu-erh and most Indian teas (but not Darjeeling). Within these botanical varieties, many strains and modern clonal varieties are known. Leaf size is the chief criterion for the classification of tea plants, with three primary classifications being, Assam type, characterised by the largest leaves; China type, characterised by the smallest leaves; and Cambodian type, characterised by leaves of intermediate size.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nA tea plant will grow into a tree of up to 16 m if left undisturbed, but cultivated plants are generally pruned to waist height for ease of plucking. Also, the short plants bear more new shoots which provide new and tender leaves and increase the quality of the tea.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nOnly the top 1–2 inches of the mature plant are picked. These buds and leaves are called 'flushes'. A plant will grow a new flush every seven to 15 days during the growing season. Leaves that are slow in development tend to produce better-flavoured teas. Pests of tea include mosquito bugs of the genus Helopeltis (which are true bugs that must not be confused with the dipteran) that can tatter leaves, so they may be sprayed with insecticides.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nChemical composition\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nCaffeine constitutes about 3% of tea's dry weight, translating to between 30 mg and 90 mg per 8-oz (250-ml) cup depending on type, brand, and brewing method. A study found that the caffeine content of 1 g of black tea ranged from 22 to 28 mg, while the caffeine content of 1 g of green tea ranged from 11 to 20 mg, reflecting a significant difference.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea also contains small amounts of theobromine and theophylline, which are stimulants, and xanthines similar to caffeine.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nBecause of modern environmental pollution, fluoride and aluminium also sometimes occur in tea. Certain types of brick tea made from old leaves and stems have the highest levels.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nBlack and green teas contain no essential nutrients in significant content, with the exception of the dietary mineral, manganese at 0.5 mg per cup or 26% of the Daily Value. Tea leaves contain diverse polyphenols, including flavonoids, epigallocatechin gallate (commonly noted as EGCG) and other catechins.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIt has been suggested that green and black tea may protect against cancer or other diseases such as obesity or Alzheimer's disease, but the compounds found in green tea have not been conclusively demonstrated to have any effect on human diseases. One human study demonstrated that regular consumption of black tea over four weeks had no beneficial effect in lowering blood cholesterol levels.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nProcessing and classification\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea is generally divided into categories based on how it is processed. At least six different types are produced:\\n* White: Wilted and unoxidized\\n* Yellow: Unwilted and unoxidized, but allowed to yellow\\n* Green: Unwilted and unoxidized\\n* Oolong: Wilted, bruised, and partially oxidized\\n* Black: Wilted, sometimes crushed, and fully oxidized (called 'red tea' 紅茶 hóngchá in China)\\n* Post-fermented: Green tea that has been allowed to ferment/compost ('black tea' 黑茶 hēichá for the Chinese)\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe most common are white, green, oolong, and black.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nAfter picking, the leaves of C. sinensis soon begin to wilt and oxidize unless immediately dried. An enzymatic oxidation process triggered by the plant's intracellular enzymes causes the leaves to turn progressively darker as their chlorophyll breaks down and tannins are released. This darkening is stopped at a predetermined stage by heating, which deactivates the enzymes responsible. In the production of black teas, halting by heating is carried out simultaneously with drying. Without careful moisture and temperature control during manufacture and packaging, growth of undesired molds and bacteria may make tea unfit for consumption.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nAlthough single-estate teas are available, almost all tea in bags and most loose tea sold in the West is blended. Such teas may combine others from the same cultivation area or several different ones. The aim is to obtain consistency, better taste, higher price, or some combination of the three.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea easily retains odors, which can cause problems in processing, transportation, and storage. This same sensitivity also allows for special processing (such as tea infused with smoke during drying) and a wide range of scented and flavoured variants, such as bergamot (found in Earl Grey), vanilla, and spearmint.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nAdditions\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea is often consumed with additions to the basic tea leaf and water. These can be grouped into flavourings added to the tea in processing before sale and those added during preparation or drinking. The former are often floral, herbal or spice flavourings and the latter include milk, sugar, lemon, among other things.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nMilk\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe addition of milk to tea in Europe was first mentioned in 1680 by the epistolist Madame de Sévigné. Many teas are traditionally drunk with milk in cultures where dairy products are consumed. These include Indian masala chai and British tea blends. These teas tend to be very hearty varieties of black tea which can be tasted through the milk, such as Assams, or the East Friesian blend. Milk is thought to neutralise remaining tannins and reduce acidity. The Han Chinese do not usually drink milk with tea but the Manchus do, and the elite of the Qing Dynasty of the Chinese Empire continued to do so. Hong Kong-style milk tea is based on British colonial habits. Tibetans and other Himalayan peoples traditionally drink tea with milk or yak butter and salt. In Eastern European countries (Russia, Poland and Hungary) and in Italy, tea is commonly served with lemon juice. In Poland, tea with milk is called a bawarka (\\\"Bavarian style\\\"), and is often drunk by pregnant and nursing women. In Australia, tea with milk is white tea.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe order of steps in preparing a cup of tea is a much-debated topic, and can vary widely between cultures or even individuals. Some say it is preferable to add the milk before the tea, as the high temperature of freshly brewed tea can denature the proteins found in fresh milk, similar to the change in taste of UHT milk, resulting in an inferior-tasting beverage. Others insist it is better to add the milk after brewing the tea, as black tea is often brewed as close to boiling as possible. The addition of milk chills the beverage during the crucial brewing phase, if brewing in a cup rather than using a pot, meaning the delicate flavour of a good tea cannot be fully appreciated. By adding the milk afterwards, it is easier to dissolve sugar in the tea and also to ensure the desired amount of milk is added, as the colour of the tea can be observed. Historically, the order of steps was taken as an indication of class: only those wealthy enough to afford good-quality porcelain would be confident of its being able to cope with being exposed to boiling water unadulterated with milk.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nHigher temperature difference means faster heat transfer so the earlier you add milk the slower the drink cools. A 2007 study published in the European Heart Journal found certain beneficial effects of tea may be lost through the addition of milk.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nOthers\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nMany flavourings are added to varieties of tea during processing. Among the best known are Chinese jasmine tea, with jasmine oil or flowers, the spices in Indian masala chai, and Earl Grey tea, which contains oil of bergamot. A great range of modern flavours have been added to these traditional ones. In eastern India, people also drink lemon tea or lemon masala tea. Lemon tea simply contains hot tea with lemon juice and sugar. Masala lemon tea contains hot tea with roasted cumin seed powder, lemon juice, black salt and sugar, which gives it a tangy, spicy taste. Adding a piece of ginger when brewing tea is a popular habit of Sri Lankans, who also use other types of spices such as cinnamon to sweeten the aroma.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nOther popular additives to tea by the tea-brewer or drinker include sugar, liquid honey or a solid Honey Drop, agave nectar, fruit jams, and mint. In China, sweetening tea was traditionally regarded as a feminine practice. In colder regions, such as Mongolia, Tibet and Nepal, butter is added to provide necessary calories. Tibetan butter tea contains rock salt and dre, a butter made from yak milk, which is churned vigorously in a cylindrical vessel closely resembling a butter churn. The same may be said for salt tea, which is popular in the Hindu Kush region of northern Pakistan.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nPouring from height\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe flavour of the tea can also be altered by pouring it from different heights, resulting in varying degrees of aeration. The art of elevated pouring is used principally by people in Northern Africa (e.g. Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Libya and Western Sahara), but also in West Africa (e.g. Guinea, Mali, Senegal) and can positively alter the flavour of the tea, but it is more likely a technique to cool the beverage destined to be consumed immediately. In certain cultures, the tea is given different names depending on the height from which it is poured.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn Southeast Asia, particularly in Singapore and Malaysia, the practice of pouring tea from a height has been refined further using black tea to which condensed milk is added, poured from a height from one cup to another several times in alternating fashion and in quick succession, to create a tea with entrapped air bubbles creating a frothy \\\"head\\\" in the cup. This beverage, teh tarik, literally, \\\"pulled tea\\\" (which has its origin as a hot Indian tea beverage), has a creamier taste than flat milk tea and is extremely popular in the region. Tea pouring in Malaysia has been further developed into an art form.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nPreparation\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nBlack tea\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nPopular varieties of black tea include Assam, Nepal, Darjeeling, Nilgiri, Turkish, Keemun, and Ceylon teas.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nMany of the active substances in black tea do not develop at temperatures lower than 90 °C (194 °F). As a result, black tea in the West is usually steeped in water near its boiling point, at around 99 °C (210 °F). The most common fault when making black tea is to use water at too low a temperature. Since boiling point drops with increasing altitude, it is difficult to brew black tea properly in mountainous areas. Warming the tea pot before steeping is critical at any elevation.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nWestern black teas are usually brewed for about four minutes and are usually not allowed to steep for less than 30 seconds or more than about five minutes (a process known as brewing or mashing in Britain). In many regions of the world, however, actively boiling water is used and the tea is often stewed. In India, black tea is often boiled for fifteen minutes or longer to make Masala chai, as a strong brew is preferred. Tea should be strained while serving.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nA food safety management group of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has published a standard for preparing a cup of tea (ISO 3103: Tea — Preparation of liquor for use in sensory tests), primarily intended for standardizing preparation for comparison and rating purposes.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nGreen tea\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn regions of the world that prefer mild beverages, such as the West and Far East, green tea should be steeped in water around 80 to, the higher the quality of the leaves the lower the temperature. Regions such as North Africa or Central Asia prefer a bitter tea, and hotter water is used. In Morocco, green tea is steeped in boiling water for 15 minutes.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe container in which green tea is steeped is often warmed beforehand to prevent premature cooling. High-quality green and white teas can have new water added as many as five or more times, depending on variety, at increasingly higher temperatures.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nFlowering tea\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nFlowering tea or blooming tea should be brewed at 100 °C in clear glass tea wares for up to three minutes. First pull 1/3 water to make the tea ball wet and after 30 seconds add the boiling water up to 4/5 of the capacity of the tea ware. The boiling water can help the tea ball bloom quickly and with a strong aroma of the tea. The height of glass tea ware should be 8–10 cm, which can help the tea and flowers bloom completely. One tea ball can be brewed 4–5 times.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nOolong tea\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nOolong tea should be brewed around 82 to 96 °C (185 to 205 °F), with the brewing vessel warmed before pouring the water. Yixing purple clay teapots are the traditional brewing-vessel for oolong tea which can be brewed multiple times from the same leaves, unlike green tea, seeming to improve with reuse. In the Chinese and Taiwanese Gongfu tea ceremony, the first brew is discarded, as it is considered a rinse of leaves rather than a proper brew.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nPremium or delicate tea\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nSome teas, especially green teas and delicate oolong teas, are steeped for shorter periods, sometimes less than 30 seconds. Using a tea strainer separates the leaves from the water at the end of the brewing time if a tea bag is not being used. However, the black Darjeeling tea, a premium Indian tea, needs a longer than average steeping time. Elevation and time of harvest offer varying taste profiles; proper storage and water quality also have a large impact on taste.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nPu-erh tea\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nPu-erh teas require boiling water for infusion. Some prefer to quickly rinse pu-erh for several seconds with boiling water to remove tea dust which accumulates from the ageing process, then infuse it at the boiling point (100 °C or 212 °F), and allow it to steep from 30 seconds to five minutes.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nCold brew and sun tea\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nWhile most tea is prepared using hot water, it is also possible to brew a beverage from tea using room temperature or cooled water. This requires longer steeping time to extract the key components, and produces a different flavor profile. For best results, it is best to use about 1.5 times the tea leaves that would be used for hot steeping, and to refrigerate for 4–10 hours. The process of making cold brew tea is much simpler than that for cold brew coffee.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nCold brewing has some disadvantages compared to hot steeping. Firstly, if the leaves or source water contain unwanted bacteria, they may flourish, whereas using hot water has the benefit of killing most bacteria. This is less of a concern in modern times and developed regions. Secondly, cold brewing may allow for less caffeine to be extracted, which may or may not be desired.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nSun Tea is made by steeping the tea leaves in a jar of unheated tap water left in the sun. It does not get hot enough to kill bacteria present on the tea leaves or in the water, such as Alcaligenes viscolactis.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nServing\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTo preserve the pretannin tea without requiring it all to be poured into cups, a second teapot may be used. The steeping pot is best unglazed earthenware; Yixing pots are the best known of these, famed for the high-quality clay from which they are made. The serving pot is generally porcelain, which retains the heat better. Larger teapots are a post-19th century invention, as tea before this time was very rare and very expensive. Experienced tea-drinkers often insist the tea should not be stirred around while it is steeping (sometimes called winding or mashing in the UK). This, they say, will do little to strengthen the tea, but is likely to bring the tannins out in the same way that brewing too long will do. For the same reason, one should not squeeze the last drops out of a teabag; if stronger tea is desired, more tea leaves should be used.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea culture\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea may be consumed early in the day to heighten calm alertness; it contains L-theanine, theophylline, and bound caffeine (sometimes called theine). Decaffeinated brands are also sold. While herbal teas are also referred to as tea, most of them do not contain leaves from the tea plant. While tea is the second most consumed beverage on Earth after water, in many cultures it is also consumed at elevated social events, such as the tea party.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea ceremonies have arisen in different cultures, such as the Chinese and Japanese traditions, each of which employs certain techniques and ritualised protocol of brewing and serving tea for enjoyment in a refined setting. One form of Chinese tea ceremony is the Gongfu tea ceremony, which typically uses small Yixing clay teapots and oolong tea.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn the United Kingdom, tea is consumed daily and often by a majority of people, and indeed is perceived as one of Britain's cultural beverages. It is customary for a host to offer tea to guests soon after their arrival. Tea is consumed both at home and outside the home, often in cafés or tea rooms. Afternoon tea with cakes on fine porcelain is a cultural stereotype. In southwest England, many cafés serve a cream tea, consisting of scones, clotted cream, and jam alongside a pot of tea. In some parts of Britain, 'tea' may also refer to the evening meal.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIreland has long been one of the biggest per-capita consumers of tea in the world. The national average is four cups per person per day, with many people drinking six cups or more. Tea in Ireland is usually taken with milk or sugar and is slightly spicier and stronger than the traditional English blend. The two main brands of tea sold in Ireland are Lyons and Barry's. Irish breakfast tea is blended for sale in the United States.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea is prevalent in most cultures in the Middle East. In Arab culture, tea is a focal point for social gatherings.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTurkish tea is an important part of that country's cuisine, and is the most commonly consumed hot drink, despite the country's long history of coffee consumption. In 2004 Turkey produced 205,500 tonnes of tea (6.4% of the world's total tea production), which made it one of the largest tea markets in the world, with 120,000 tons being consumed in Turkey, and the rest being exported. In 2010 Turkey had the highest per capita consumption in the world at 2.7 kg. As of 2013, the per-capita consumption of Turkish tea exceeds 10 cups per day and 13.8 kg per year. Tea is grown mostly in Rize Province on the Black Sea coast.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn Iranian culture, tea is so widely consumed, it is generally the first thing offered to a household guest.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nRussia has a long, rich tea history dating to 1638 when tea was introduced to Tsar Michael. Social gatherings were considered incomplete without tea, which was traditionally brewed in a samovar, and today 82% of Russians consume tea daily.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn Pakistan, tea is called chai (written as چائے). Both black and green teas are popular and are known locally as sabz chai and kahwah, respectively. The popular green tea called kahwah is often served after every meal in the Pashtun belt of Balochistan and in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, which is where the Khyber Pass of the Silk Road is found. In central and southern Punjab and the metropolitan Sindh region of Pakistan, tea with milk and sugar (sometimes with pistachios, cardamom, etc.), commonly referred to as chai, is widely consumed. It is the most common beverage of households in the region. In the northern Pakistani regions of Chitral and Gilgit-Baltistan, a salty, buttered Tibetan-style tea is consumed.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn the transnational Kashmir region, which straddles the border between India and Pakistan, Kashmiri chai or noon chai, a pink, creamy tea with pistachios, almonds, cardamom, and sometimes cinnamon, is consumed primarily at special occasions, weddings, and during the winter months when it is sold in many kiosks.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIndian tea culture is strong – the drink is one of the most popular hot beverages. It is consumed daily in almost all homes, offered to guests, consumed in high amounts in domestic and official surroundings, and is made with the addition of milk with or without spices. It is also served with biscuits dipped in the tea and eaten before consuming the tea. More often than not, it is drunk in \\\"doses\\\" of small cups (referred to as \\\"Cutting\\\" chai if sold at street tea vendors) rather than one large cup. On 21 April 2012, the Deputy Chairman of Planning Commission (India), Montek Singh Ahluwalia, said tea would be declared as national drink by April 2013. The move is expected to boost the tea industry in the country. Speaking on the occasion, Assam Chief Minister Tarun Gogoi said a special package for the tea industry would be announced in the future to ensure its development. The History of tea in India is especially rich.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn Burma (Myanmar), tea is consumed not only as hot drinks, but also as sweet tea and green tea known locally as laphet-yay and laphet-yay-gyan, respectively. Pickled tea leaves, known locally as laphet, are also a national delicacy. Pickled tea is usually eaten with roasted sesame seeds, crispy fried beans, roasted peanuts and fried garlic chips.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn Mali, gunpowder tea is served in series of three, starting with the highest oxidisation or strongest, unsweetened tea, locally referred to as \\\"strong like death\\\", followed by a second serving, where the same tea leaves are boiled again with some sugar added (\\\"pleasant as life\\\"), and a third one, where the same tea leaves are boiled for the third time with yet more sugar added (\\\"sweet as love\\\"). Green tea is the central ingredient of a distinctly Malian custom, the \\\"Grin\\\", an informal social gathering that cuts across social and economic lines, starting in front of family compound gates in the afternoons and extending late into the night, and is widely popular in Bamako and other large urban areas.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn the United States, 80% of tea is consumed as iced tea. Sweet tea is native to the southeastern US, and is iconic in its cuisine.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nEconomics\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea is the most popular manufactured drink consumed in the world, equaling all others – including coffee, chocolate, soft drinks, and alcohol – combined. Most tea consumed outside East Asia is produced on large plantations in the hilly regions of India and Sri Lanka, and is destined to be sold to large businesses. Opposite this large-scale industrial production are many small \\\"gardens,\\\" sometimes minuscule plantations, that produce highly sought-after teas prized by gourmets. These teas are both rare and expensive, and can be compared to some of the most expensive wines in this respect.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIndia is the world's largest tea-drinking nation, although the per capita consumption of tea remains a modest 750 grams per person every year. Turkey, with 2.5 kg of tea consumed per person per year, is the world's greatest per capita consumer.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nProduction\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn 2003, world tea production was 3.21 million tonnes annually.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations—Production [http://faostat.fao.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID\\n567&lang=en FAOSTAT]. Retrieved 30 April 2010. In 2010, world tea production reached over 4.52 million tonnes after having increased by 5.7% between 2009 and 2010. Production rose by 3.1% between 2010. In 2013, world tea production reached over 5.34 million tonnes after having increased by 6.17% between 2012 and 2013 . The largest producers of tea are the People's Republic of China, India, Kenya, Sri Lanka, and Turkey.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe following table shows the amount of tea production (in tonnes) by leading countries in recent years. Data are generated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations as of February 2014.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nLabor and consumer safety problems\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nMultiple recent reports have found that most Chinese and Indian teas contain residues of banned toxic pesticides.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea production in Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda has been reported to make use of child labor according to the U.S. Department of Labor's List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor (a report on the worst forms of child labor).\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nCertification\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nWorkers who pick and pack tea on plantations in developing countries can face harsh working conditions and may earn below the living wage.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nA number of bodies independently certify the production of tea. Tea from certified estates can be sold with a certification label on the pack. The most important certification schemes are Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade, UTZ Certified, and Organic, which also certify other crops such as coffee, cocoa and fruit. Rainforest Alliance certified tea is sold by Unilever brands Lipton and PG Tips in Western Europe, Australia and the US. Fairtrade certified tea is sold by a large number of suppliers around the world. UTZ Certified announced a partnership in 2008 with Sara Lee brand Pickwick tea.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nProduction of organic tea has risen since its introduction in 1990 at Rembeng, Kondoli Tea Estate, Assam. tons of organic tea were sold in 1999. About 75% of organic tea production is sold in France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTrade\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nAccording to the FAO in 2007, the largest importer of tea, by weight, was the Russian Federation, followed by the United Kingdom, Pakistan, and the United States.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations—Trade [http://faostat.fao.org/site/342/default.aspx FAOSTAT]\\nKenya, China, India and Sri Lanka were the largest exporters of tea in 2007 (with exports of: 374229, 292199, 193459 and 190203 tonnes respectively). The largest exporter of black tea is Kenya, with the largest producer, (and consumer) being India.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nPackaging\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTea bags\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn 1907, American tea merchant Thomas Sullivan began distributing samples of his tea in small bags of Chinese silk with a drawstring. Consumers noticed they could simply leave the tea in the bag and reuse it with fresh tea. However, the potential of this distribution/packaging method would not be fully realised until later on. During World War II, tea was rationed in the United Kingdom. In 1953 (after rationing in the UK ended), Tetley launched the tea bag to the UK and it was an immediate success.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe \\\"pyramid tea bag\\\" (or sachet) introduced by Lipton and PG Tips/Scottish Blend in 1996, attempts to address one of the connoisseurs' arguments against paper tea bags by way of its three-dimensional tetrahedron shape, which allows more room for tea leaves to expand while steeping. However, some types of pyramid tea bags have been criticised as being environmentally unfriendly, since their synthetic material is not as biodegradable as loose tea leaves and paper tea bags.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nLoose tea\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe tea leaves are packaged loosely in a canister, paper bag, or other container such as a tea chest. Some whole teas, such as rolled gunpowder tea leaves, which resist crumbling, are sometimes vacuum packed for freshness in aluminised packaging for storage and retail. The loose tea must be individually measured for use, allowing for flexibility and flavor control at the expense of convenience. Strainers, tea balls, tea presses, filtered teapots, and infusion bags prevent loose leaves from floating in the tea and over-brewing. A traditional method uses a three-piece lidded teacup called a gaiwan, the lid of which is tilted to decant the tea into a different cup for consumption.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nCompressed tea\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nCompressed tea (such as Pu-erh) is produced for convenience in transport, storage, and ageing. It can usually be stored longer without spoilage than loose leaf tea.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nCompressed tea is prepared by loosening leaves from the cake using a small knife, and steeping the extracted pieces in water. During the Tang dynasty, as described by Lu Yu, compressed tea was ground into a powder, combined with hot water, and ladled into bowls, resulting in a \\\"frothy\\\" mixture. In the Song dynasty, the tea powder would instead be whisked with hot water in the bowl. Although no longer practiced in China today, the whisking method of preparing powdered tea was transmitted to Japan by Zen Buddhist monks, and is still used to prepare matcha in the Japanese tea ceremony.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nCompressed tea was the most popular form of tea in China during the Tang dynasty. By the beginning of the Ming dynasty, it had been displaced by loose leaf tea. It remains popular, however, in the Himalayan countries and Mongolian steppes. In Mongolia, tea bricks were ubiquitous enough to be used as a form of currency. Among Himalayan peoples, compressed tea is consumed by combining it with yak butter and salt to produce butter tea.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nInstant tea\",\n \"Tea\\n\\n\\\"Instant tea\\\", similar to freeze-dried instant coffee and an alternative to brewed tea, can be consumed either hot or cold. Instant tea was developed in the 1930s, with Nestlé introducing the first commercial product in 1946, while Redi-Tea debuted instant iced tea in 1953.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nDelicacy of flavour is sacrificed for convenience. Additives such as chai, vanilla, honey or fruit, are popular, as is powdered milk.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nDuring the Second World War British and Canadian soldiers were issued an instant tea known as 'Compo' in their Composite Ration Packs. These blocks of instant tea, powdered milk, and sugar were not always well received. As Royal Canadian Artillery Gunner, George C Blackburn observed:\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nBottled and canned tea\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nCanned tea is sold prepared and ready to drink. It was introduced in 1981 in Japan.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nThe first bottled tea introduced by Indonesian tea company PT. Sinar Sosro in 1969 with brand name Teh Botol Sosro (or Sosro bottled tea).\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nIn 1983, Swiss-based Bischofszell Food Ltd., was the first company to bottle ice tea on an industrial scale.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nStorage\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nStorage conditions and type determine the shelf life of tea. Black tea's is greater than green's. Some, such as flower teas, may last only a month or so. Others, such as pu-erh, improve with age.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nTo remain fresh and prevent mold, tea needs to be stored away from heat, light, air, and moisture. Tea must be kept at room temperature in an air-tight container. Black tea in a bag within a sealed opaque canister may keep for two years. Green tea deteriorates more rapidly, usually in less than a year. Tightly rolled gunpowder tea leaves keep longer than the more open-leafed Chun Mee tea.\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nStorage life for all teas can be extended by using desiccant or oxygen-absorbing packets, vacuum sealing, or refrigeration in air-tight containers (except green tea, where discrete use of refrigeration or freezing is recommended and temperature variation kept to a minimum).\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nGallery\",\n \"Tea\\n\\nFile:Da Hong Pao Oolong tea leaf close.jpg|Da Hong Pao tea, an oolong tea\\nFile:Bai Hao Yin Zhen tea leaf (Fuding).jpg|Fuding Bai Hao Yinzhen tea, a white tea\\nFile:Xiaguan Te Ji Tuo Cha 2004.jpg|Green pu-erh tuo cha, a type of compressed raw pu-erh\\nFile:Huoshan Huangya tea leaves close.jpg|Huoshan Huangya tea, a yellow tea\\nFile:Qi Lan Oolong tea leaf.jpg|Loose dried tea leaves\\nFile:Oolong tea leaf.jpg|Taiwanese High Mountain oolong\\nFile:Yam bai cha.jpg|A spicy Thai salad made with young, fresh tea leaves\\nFile:Elderberries.jpeg|Dried Elderberries ready to be steeped into tea\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nCitrus bergamia, the bergamot orange (pronounced), is a fragrant fruit the size of an orange, with a yellow color similar to a lemon.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nGenetic research into the ancestral origins of extant citrus cultivars found bergamot orange to be a probable hybrid of Citrus limetta and Citrus aurantium. Extracts have been used to scent food, perfumes, and cosmetics.Davidson, Alan. The Oxford Companion to Food (2006). Second Edition. Ed. Tom Jaine. p. 75. ISBN 0192806815.: \\\"The bergamot orange is not edible and is grown only for its fragrant oil, although its peel is sometimes candied.\\\" Use on the skin can increase photosensitivity, resulting in greater damage from sun exposure; excessive consumption can be toxic.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nThe word bergamot is etymologically derived from bergamotto in Italian.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nIt is related to French bergamote, from Italian bergamotto, of Turkish origin: beg-armudi or beg armut (\\\"prince's pear\\\" or \\\"prince of pears).\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nDescription\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nCitrus bergamia is a small tree that blossoms during the winter. The juice tastes less sour than lemon, but more bitter than grapefruit.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nChemistry\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nThe active ingredients in bergamot juice are neoeriocitrin, naringin, neohesperidin, ponceritin, melitidin, and brutieridin. Melitidin and brutieridin, only recently discovered, exist only in citrus bergamot, and exhibit statin-like properties. Synephrine is not present in citrus bergamot.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nTaxonomy\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nThe bergamot orange is unrelated to the herbs known as bergamot or wild bergamot, Monarda didyma and Monarda fistulosa, which are in the mint family, and are named for their similar aroma.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nCitrus bergamia has also been classified as Citrus aurantium subsp. bergamia (i.e. a subspecies of bitter orange).\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nCitrus bergamia is sometimes confused with (but is not the same as)\\n* Citrus medica (citron, the yellow fruit of which is also known as etrog)\\n* Citrus limetta, the \\\"sweet lemon\\\" or \\\"sweet lime\\\"\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nProduction\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nProduction mostly is limited to the Ionian Sea coastal areas of the province of Reggio di Calabria in Italy, to such an extent that it is a symbol of the entire city. Most of the bergamot comes from a short stretch of land there where the temperature is favourable. It is also cultivated in Côte d'Ivoire.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nCitrus bergamot is commercially grown in southern Calabria (province of Reggio), southern Italy. It is also grown in southern France and in Côte d'Ivoire for the essential oil and in Antalya in southern Turkey for its marmalade. The fruit is not generally grown for juice consumption. However, in Mauritius where it is grown on small-scale basis, it is largely used for juice consumption by the locals.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nOne hundred bergamot oranges yield about three ounces (85 g) of bergamot oil.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nAdulteration with cheaper products such as oil of rosewood and bergamot mint has been a problem for consumers. To protect the reputation of their produce, the Italian government introduced tight controls, including testing and certificates of purity. The Stazione Sperimentale per le Industrie delle Essenze e dei Derivati dagli Agrumi (Experimental Station for Essential Oil and Citrus By-Products) located in Reggio di Calabria, was the quality control body for the essential oil Bergamotto di Reggio Calabria DOP. During World War II, Italy was unable to export to countries such as the Allied powers. Rival products from Brazil and Mexico came on to the market as a substitute, but these were produced from other citrus fruits such as sweet lime.Board, Niir (2011). \\\"Oil of Bergamot.\\\" The Complete Technology Book of Essential Oils (Aromatic Chemicals). p. 75. ISBN 978-81-7833-066-2.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nUses\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nFood and drink\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nThe fruit of the bergamot orange is edible.(see Bergamot Marmalade)\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nAn essence extracted from the aromatic skin of this sour fruit is used to flavour Earl Grey and Lady Grey teas, and confectionery (including Turkish delight ). It is often used to make marmalade, particularly in Italy. In Sweden and Norway, bergamot is a very common flavourant in snus, a smokeless tobacco product. Likewise in dry nasal snuff, it is also a common aroma in traditional blends. Carpentierbe, a company based in San Giorgio Morgeto, near Reggio Calabria, makes a digestiv liqueur derived from bergamot marketed under the name Liquore al Bergamotto.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nFragrance\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nBergamot peel is used in perfumery for its ability to combine with an array of scents to form a bouquet of aromas which complement each other. About one-third of all men's and about half of women’s perfumes contain bergamot essential oil. Bergamot is a major component of the original Eau de Cologne composed by Farina at the beginning of 18th century in Germany. The first record of bergamot oil as fragrance ingredient is 1714, to be found in the Farina Archive in Cologne.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nBergamot essential oil is popular in aromatherapy.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nToxicology\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nIn several patch test studies, application of some sources of bergamot oil directly to the skin of guinea pigs was shown to have a concentration-dependent phototoxic effect of increasing redness after exposure to ultraviolet light (due to the chemical bergapten, and possibly also citropten, bergamottin, geranial, and neral). This is a property shared by many other citrus fruits. Bergapten has also been implicated as a potassium channel blocker; in one case study, a patient who consumed four liters of Earl Grey tea per day (which contains bergamot essential oil as a flavouring) suffered muscle cramps.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nBergamot contains extremely large amounts of polyphenols, as compared to other citrus species. Two of these, brutieridin and melitidin, directly inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis in a similar way to statins and they are not found in any other citrus derivatives.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nBergamot is also a source of bergamottin which, along with the chemically related compound 6',7'-dihydroxybergamottin, is believed to be responsible for the grapefruit juice effect in which the consumption of the juice affects the metabolism of a variety of pharmaceutical drugs.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nSkin care\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nBergamot is used in many skin care creams.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nIn the past, psoralen extracted from bergamot oil has been used in tanning accelerators and sunscreens. These substances were known to be photocarcinogenic since 1959, but they were only banned from sunscreens in 1995. These photocarcinogenic substances were banned years after they had caused many cases of malignant melanoma and deaths.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nPsoralen is now used only in the treatment of certain skin disorders, as part of PUVA therapy.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nMedicinal properties\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nThe juice of the fruit has been used in Calabrian indigenous medicine to treat malaria.\",\n \"Bergamot orange\\n\\nEvidence is insufficient to indicate bergamot oil is of medical benefit for a variety of claimed uses. Use on the skin can be unsafe, particularly for children and pregnant women. Potential side effects of drinking large amounts of bergamot oil can include convulsions and death in children.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":136096,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_479"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which U.S. president placed a trade embargo on Cuba, making the nation's popular cigars illegal to import, immediately after he personally stocked up on 1200 H. Upmann Petits?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"John F. Kennedy"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["early years of john f kennedy","camelot era","j f k administration","j f k","john fitzgerald kennady","kennedyesque","john f kenedy","john f kennedy","jfk administration","john f kennedie","president kennedy","john f 22jack 22 kennedy","u s president j f kennedy","kennedyism","jack kennedy","jfk president","jf kennedy","eponyms of john f kennedy","jfk","president john f kennedy","john fitzgerald kennedy","j f kennedy","kennedy john f","john fitzgerald 22jack 22 kennedy","jhon f kennedy","kennedy era","john kennedy","my god i m hit","john f k","kennedy administration","35th president of united states","president john kennedy","john f kennedy and civil rights","senator john f kennedy"],"string":"[\n \"early years of john f kennedy\",\n \"camelot era\",\n \"j f k administration\",\n \"j f k\",\n \"john fitzgerald kennady\",\n \"kennedyesque\",\n \"john f kenedy\",\n \"john f kennedy\",\n \"jfk administration\",\n \"john f kennedie\",\n \"president kennedy\",\n \"john f 22jack 22 kennedy\",\n \"u s president j f kennedy\",\n \"kennedyism\",\n \"jack kennedy\",\n \"jfk president\",\n \"jf kennedy\",\n \"eponyms of john f kennedy\",\n \"jfk\",\n \"president john f kennedy\",\n \"john fitzgerald kennedy\",\n \"j f kennedy\",\n \"kennedy john f\",\n \"john fitzgerald 22jack 22 kennedy\",\n \"jhon f kennedy\",\n \"kennedy era\",\n \"john kennedy\",\n \"my god i m hit\",\n \"john f k\",\n \"kennedy administration\",\n \"35th president of united states\",\n \"president john kennedy\",\n \"john f kennedy and civil rights\",\n \"senator john f kennedy\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["President of the United States\n\nThe President of the United States of America (POTUS) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.","President of the United States\n\nThe President of the United States is considered one of the world's most powerful people, leading the world's only contemporary superpower. The role includes being the commander-in-chief of the world's most expensive military with the largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by real and nominal GDP. The office of the president holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad.","President of the United States\n\nArticle II of the U.S. Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The power includes execution of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances. The president is largely responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is enrolled. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States. Since the founding of the United States, the power of the president and the federal government has grown substantially.","President of the United States\n\nThe president is indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a four-year term, and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers, the other being the Vice President of the United States. The Twenty-second Amendment, adopted in 1951, prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a third full term. It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as president, or acting president, for more than two years of another person's term as president. In all, 43 individuals have served 44 presidencies (counting Cleveland's two non-consecutive terms separately) spanning 56 full four-year terms. On January 20, 2009, Barack Obama became the 44th and current president. On November 6, 2012, he was re-elected and is currently serving the 57th term. The next presidential election is scheduled to take place on November 8, 2016; on January 20, 2017, the newly elected president will take office.","President of the United States\n\nOrigin","President of the United States\n\nIn 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, recognized the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British. Desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. As a central authority, Congress under the Articles was without any legislative power; it could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, nor any taxes or local commercial regulations enforceable upon citizens. This institutional design reflected the conception of how Americans believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion: a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress, while severally lodging the rest within their own respective state governments.","President of the United States\n\nOnly after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1, 1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them.","President of the United States\n\nIn 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak, their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another, witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates, and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest. Civil and political unrest loomed.","President of the United States\n\nFollowing the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 in Annapolis, Maryland, with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When the convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, the Annapolis delegates called for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring in Philadelphia. Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington's attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia.","President of the United States\n\nWhen the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance (Rhode Island did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature. New York offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter. It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S. Constitution emerged.","President of the United States\n\nPowers and duties","President of the United States\n\nArticle I legislative role","President of the United States\n\nThe first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto. The Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options:\n# Sign the legislation; the bill then becomes law.\n# Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections; the bill does not become law, unless each house of Congress votes to override the veto by a two-thirds vote.\n# Take no action. In this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation. After 10 days, not counting Sundays, two possible outcomes emerge:\n#* If Congress is still convened, the bill becomes law.\n#* If Congress has adjourned, thus preventing the return of the legislation, the bill does not become law. This latter outcome is known as the pocket veto.","President of the United States\n\nIn 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act. The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York, , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional.","President of the United States\n\nArticle II executive powers","President of the United States\n\nWar and foreign affairs powers","President of the United States\n\nPerhaps the most important of all presidential powers is the command of the United States Armed Forces as its commander-in-chief. While the power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, the president has ultimate responsibility for direction and disposition of the military. The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces (belonging to the Department of Defense) is normally exercised through the Secretary of Defense, with assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, to the Combatant Commands, as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP). The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explains this in Federalist No. 69: Congress, pursuant to the War Powers Resolution, must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual. Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation.","President of the United States\n\nWhile historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in 1903, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1990.","President of the United States\n\nAlong with the armed forces, the president also directs U.S. foreign policy. Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments, and negotiates treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds vote of the Senate.","President of the United States\n\nAlthough not constitutionally provided, presidents also sometimes employ \"executive agreements\" in foreign relations. These agreements frequently regard administrative policy choices germane to executive power; for example, the extent to which either country presents an armed presence in a given area, how each country will enforce copyright treaties, or how each country will process foreign mail. However, the 20th century witnessed a vast expansion of the use of executive agreements, and critics have challenged the extent of that use as supplanting the treaty process and removing constitutionally prescribed checks and balances over the executive in foreign relations. Supporters counter that the agreements offer a pragmatic solution when the need for swift, secret, and/or concerted action arises.","President of the United States\n\nAdministrative powers","President of the United States\n\nThe president is the head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to \"take care that the laws be faithfully executed.\" The executive branch has over four million employees, including members of the military.","President of the United States\n\nPresidents make numerous executive branch appointments: an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before taking office and 8,000 more while serving. Ambassadors, members of the Cabinet, and other federal officers, are all appointed by a president with the \"advice and consent\" of a majority of the Senate. When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days, the president may make recess appointments. Recess appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate.","President of the United States\n\nThe power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove purely executive officials at will. However, Congress can curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute.","President of the United States\n\nThe president additionally possesses the ability to direct much of the executive branch through executive orders that are grounded in federal law or constitutionally granted executive power. Executive orders are reviewable by federal courts and can be superseded by federal legislation.","President of the United States\n\nTo manage the growing federal bureaucracy, Presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States. Within the Executive Office, the President's innermost layer of aides (and their assistants) are located in the White House Office.","President of the United States\n\nJuridical powers","President of the United States\n\nThe president also has the power to nominate federal judges, including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these nominations do require Senate confirmation. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts, presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of Senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves, as is often done just before the end of a presidential term, not without controversy.","President of the United States\n\nHistorically, two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege, which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, or any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon, , that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When President Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones, , that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined.","President of the United States\n\nAdditionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees, but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.","President of the United States\n\nThe state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security. Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States , when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy. However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds , where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege. Before the September 11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency. Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc. Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions.","President of the United States\n\nLegislative facilitator","President of the United States\n\nThe Constitution's Ineligibility Clause prevents the President (and all other executive officers) from simultaneously being a member of Congress. Therefore, the president cannot directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress. However, the president can take an indirect role in shaping legislation, especially if the president's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress. For example, the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally mandated, periodic reports to Congress. These reports may be either written or oral, but today are given as the State of the Union address, which often outlines the president's legislative proposals for the coming year. Additionally, the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made.","President of the United States\n\nIn the 20th century critics began charging that too many legislative and budgetary powers have slid into the hands of presidents that should belong to Congress. As the head of the executive branch, presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a \"virtual army of 'czars' – each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House.\" Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it. This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional. Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an \"increasingly swollen executive branch\" and \"the eclipse of Congress.\"","President of the United States\n\nAccording to Article II, Section 3, Clause 2 of the Constitution, the president may convene either or both houses of Congress. If both houses cannot agree on a date of adjournment, the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn.","President of the United States\n\nCeremonial roles","President of the United States\n\nAs head of state, the president can fulfill traditions established by previous presidents. William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., on the Washington Senators' Opening Day. Every president since Taft, except for Jimmy Carter, threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the All-Star Game, or the World Series, usually with much fanfare.","President of the United States\n\nThe President of the United States has served as the honorary president of the Boy Scouts of America since the founding of the organization.","President of the United States\n\nOther presidential traditions are associated with American holidays. Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children. Beginning in 1947 during the Harry S. Truman administration, every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual national thanksgiving turkey presentation held at the White House. Since 1989, when the custom of \"pardoning\" the turkey was formalized by George H. W. Bush, the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life.","President of the United States\n\nPresidential traditions also involve the president's role as head of government. Many outgoing presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the presidential transition. Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president.","President of the United States\n\nDuring a state visit by a foreign head of state, the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn, a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961. This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening.","President of the United States\n\nThe modern presidency holds the president as one of the nation's premier celebrities. Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves. One critic described the presidency as \"propagandized leadership\" which has a \"mesmerizing power surrounding the office.\" Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo-ops of smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras. One critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as carefully framed \"in rich detail\" which \"drew on the power of myth\" regarding the incident of PT 109 and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions. As a result, some political commentators have opined that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents: voters expect a president to \"drive the economy, vanquish enemies, lead the free world, comfort tornado victims, heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees.\"","President of the United States\n\nCritics of presidency's evolution","President of the United States\n\nMost of the nation's Founding Fathers expected the Congress, which was the first branch of government described in the Constitution, to be the dominant branch of government; they did not expect a strong executive. However, presidential power has shifted over time, which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful, unchecked, unbalanced, and \"monarchist\" in nature. Critic Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards \"undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies.\" She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for expanding \"the many existing uncheckable executive powers – such as executive orders, decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing statements – that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid, interference or consent from Congress.\" Activist Bill Wilson opined that the expanded presidency was \"the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule.\"","President of the United States\n\nSelection process","President of the United States\n\nEligibility","President of the United States\n\nArticle II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the following qualifications for holding the presidency:\n* be a natural-born citizen of the United States;Foreign-born American citizens who met the age and residency requirements at the time the Constitution was adopted were also eligible for the presidency. However, this allowance has since become obsolete.\n* be at least thirty-five years old;\n* be a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years.","President of the United States\n\nThe Twelfth Amendment precludes anyone ineligible to being the president from becoming the vice president.","President of the United States\n\nA person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:\n* Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no person can be elected president more than twice. The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president, the former can only be elected president once. Scholars disagree over whether a person precluded by the Twenty-second Amendment to being elected president is also precluded to being vice president. \n* Under Article I, Section 3, Clause 7, upon conviction in impeachment cases, the Senate has the option of disqualifying convicted individuals from holding federal office, including that of president. \n* Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, can become president. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.","President of the United States\n\nCampaigns and nomination","President of the United States\n\nThe modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections, which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions, where the most successful candidate is made the party's nominee for president. Typically, the party's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice is rubber-stamped by the convention. The most common previous profession by U.S. presidents is lawyer.","President of the United States\n\nNominees participate in nationally televised debates, and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees, third party candidates may be invited, such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views, convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives.","President of the United States\n\nElection and oath","President of the United States\n\nThe president is elected indirectly. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.","President of the United States\n\nThe winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president—acting in that role's capacity as President of the Senate—and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.","President of the United States\n\nPursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and the vice president. Before executing the powers of the office, a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath:","President of the United States\n\nAlthough not required, presidents have traditionally palmed a Bible while swearing the oath and have added, \"So help me God!\" to the end of the oath. Further, although the oath may be administered by any person authorized by law to administer oaths, presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States.","President of the United States\n\nTenure and term limits","President of the United States\n\nThe term of office for president and vice president is four years. George Washington, the first president, set an unofficial precedent of serving only two terms, which subsequent presidents followed until 1940. Before Franklin D. Roosevelt, attempts at a third term were encouraged by supporters of Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt; neither of these attempts succeeded. In 1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt declined to seek a third term, but allowed his political party to \"draft\" him as its presidential candidate and was subsequently elected to a third term. In 1941, the United States entered World War II, leading voters to elect Roosevelt to a fourth term in 1944. But Roosevelt died only 82 days after taking office for the fourth term on 12 April 1945.","President of the United States\n\nAfter the war, and in response to Roosevelt being elected to third and fourth terms, the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice, or once if that person served more than half of another president's term. Harry S. Truman, president when this amendment was adopted, was exempted from its limitations and briefly sought a third (a second full) term before withdrawing from the 1952 election.","President of the United States\n\nSince the amendment's adoption, four presidents have served two full terms: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Barack Obama has been elected to a second term, and will complete his term on 20 January 2017, if he does not die or resign before that date. Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush sought a second term, but were defeated. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term, but resigned before completing it. Lyndon B. Johnson was the only president under the amendment to be eligible to serve more than two terms in total, having served for only fourteen months following John F. Kennedy's assassination. However, Johnson withdrew from the 1968 Democratic Primary, surprising many Americans. Gerald Ford sought a full term, after serving out the last two years and five months of Nixon's second term, but was not elected.","President of the United States\n\nVacancy or disability","President of the United States\n\nVacancies in the office of President may arise under several possible circumstances: death, resignation and removal from office.","President of the United States\n\nArticle II, Section 4 of the Constitution allows the House of Representatives to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for \"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\" Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 gives the Senate the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. The House has thus far impeached two presidents: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Neither was subsequently convicted by the Senate; however, Johnson was acquitted by just one vote.","President of the United States\n\nUnder Section 3 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes acting president, by transmitting a statement to the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for the transfer. The president resumes the discharge of the presidential powers and duties upon transmitting, to those two officials, a written declaration stating that resumption. This transfer of power may occur for any reason the president considers appropriate; in 2002 and again in 2007, President George W. Bush briefly transferred presidential authority to Vice President Dick Cheney. In both cases, this was done to accommodate a medical procedure which required Bush to be sedated; both times, Bush returned to duty later the same day.","President of the United States\n\nUnder Section 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the vice president, in conjunction with a majority of the Cabinet, may transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate that the president is unable to discharge the presidential powers and duties. If this occurs, then the vice president will assume the presidential powers and duties as acting president; however, the president can declare that no such inability exists and resume the discharge of the presidential powers and duties. If the vice president and Cabinet contest this claim, it is up to Congress, which must meet within two days if not already in session, to decide the merit of the claim.","President of the United States\n\nThe United States Constitution mentions the resignation of the president, but does not regulate its form or the conditions for its validity. Pursuant to federal law, the only valid evidence of the president's resignation is a written instrument to that effect, signed by the president and delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. This has only occurred once, when Richard Nixon delivered a letter to Henry Kissinger to that effect.","President of the United States\n\nSection 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment states that the vice president becomes president upon the removal from office, death or resignation of the preceding president. The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 provides that if the offices of President and Vice President are each either vacant or are held by a disabled person, the next officer in the presidential line of succession, the Speaker of the House, becomes acting president. The line then extends to the President pro tempore of the Senate, followed by every member of the Cabinet. These persons must fulfill all eligibility requirements of the office of President to be eligible to become acting president; ineligible individuals are skipped. There has never been a special election for the office of President.","President of the United States\n\nCompensation","President of the United States\n\nSince 2001, the president has earned a $400,000 annual salary, along with a $50,000 annual expense account, a $100,000 nontaxable travel account, and $19,000 for entertainment. The most recent raise in salary was approved by Congress and President Bill Clinton in 1999 and went into effect in 2001.","President of the United States\n\nThe White House in Washington, D.C., serves as the official place of residence for the president. As well as access to the White House staff, facilities available to the president include medical care, recreation, housekeeping, and security services. The government pays for state dinners and other official functions, but the president pays for personal, family and guest dry cleaning and food; the high food bill often amazes new residents. Naval Support Facility Thurmont, popularly known as Camp David, is a mountain-based military camp in Frederick County, Maryland, used as a country retreat and for high alert protection of the president and guests. Blair House, located next to the Eisenhower Executive Office Building at the White House Complex and Lafayette Park, is a complex of four connected townhouses exceeding 70000 sqft of floor space which serves as the president's official guest house and as a secondary residence for the president if needed.","President of the United States\n\nFor ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armored limousine built on a heavily modified Cadillac-based chassis.[http://www.secretservice.gov/press/GPA02-09_Limo.pdf New Presidential Limousine enters Secret Service Fleet] U.S. Secret Service Press Release (January 14, 2009) Retrieved on January 20, 2009. One of two identical Boeing VC-25 aircraft, which are extensively modified versions of Boeing 747-200B airliners, serve as long distance travel for the president and are referred to as Air Force One while the president is on board (although any U.S. Air Force aircraft the President is aboard is designated as \"Air Force One\" for the duration of the flight). In-country trips are typically handled with just one of the two planes while overseas trips are handled with both, one primary and one backup. Any civilian aircraft the President is aboard is designated Executive One for the flight. The president also has access to a fleet of thirty-five U.S. Marine Corps helicopters of varying models, designated Marine One when the president is aboard any particular one in the fleet.","President of the United States\n\nFlights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the President is actually aboard to any would-be threats.","President of the United States\n\nThe U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the sitting president and the first family. As part of their protection, presidents, first ladies, their children and other immediate family members, and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret Service codenames. The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted; today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity, and tradition.","President of the United States\n\nFile:White House lawn (1).tif|The White House","President of the United States\n\nFile:Camp David 1959.jpg|Camp David\nFile:Blair House daylight.jpg|Blair House\nFile:GPA02-09 US SecretService press release 2009 Limousine Page 3 Image.jpg|State car\nFile:Air Force One over Mt. Rushmore.jpg|Air Force One\nFile:Marine One (1970).jpg|Marine One","President of the United States\n\nPost-presidency","President of the United States\n\nBeginning in 1959, all living former presidents were granted a pension, an office, and a staff. The pension has increased numerous times with Congressional approval. Retired presidents now receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration's cabinet secretaries, which was $199,700 each year in 2012. Former presidents who served in Congress may also collect congressional pensions. The Former Presidents Act, as amended, also provides former presidents with travel funds and franking privileges. Prior to 1997, all former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by the Secret Service until the president's death. In 1997, Congress passed legislation limiting secret service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office. On January 10, 2013, President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime secret service protection for him, George W. Bush, and all subsequent presidents. A spouse who remarries is no longer eligible for secret service protection.","President of the United States\n\nSome presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples include William Howard Taft's tenure as Chief Justice of the United States and Herbert Hoover's work on government reorganization after World War II. Grover Cleveland, whose bid for reelection failed in 1888, was elected president again four years later in 1892. Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House: John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of Representatives, serving there for seventeen years, and Andrew Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875. John Tyler served in the provisional Congress of the Confederate States during the Civil War and was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives, but died before that body first met.","President of the United States\n\nPresidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events. Richard Nixon made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman. Jimmy Carter has become a global human rights campaigner, international arbiter, and election monitor, as well as a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. Bill Clinton has also worked as an informal ambassador, most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two American journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee, from North Korea. Clinton has also been active politically since his presidential term ended, working with his wife Hillary on her 2008 and 2016 presidential bids and President Obama on his reelection campaign.","President of the United States\n\nFile:Carter 2k14.tif|Jimmy Carter39th (1977–81)\nFile:President George H. W.tif|George H. W. Bush41st (1989–93)\nFile:Clinton 2k15.tif|Bill Clinton42nd (1993–2001)\nFile:Bush 2k14.tif|George W. Bush43rd (2001–09)","President of the United States\n\nPresidential libraries","President of the United States\n\nSince Herbert Hoover, each president has created a repository known as a presidential library for preserving and making available his papers, records and other documents and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private, non-federal sources. There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations and Universities of Higher Education, such as the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the State of Illinois, the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by Texas A&M University and the Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the University of Texas at Austin.","President of the United States\n\nAs many presidents live for many years after leaving office, several of them have personally overseen the building and opening of their own presidential libraries, some even making arrangements for their own burial at the site. Several presidential libraries therefore contain the graves of the president they document, such as the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California and the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. The graves are viewable by the general public visiting these libraries.","President of the United States\n\nTimeline of Presidents","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe United States embargo against Cuba (in Cuba called el bloqueo, \"the blockade\") is a commercial, economic, and financial embargo imposed by the United States on Cuba. An embargo was first imposed by the United States on Cuba on October 19, 1960 (almost two years after the Batista regime was deposed by the Cuban Revolution) when the U.S. placed an embargo on exports to Cuba except for food and medicine after Cuba nationalized American-owned Cuban oil refineries without compensation. Cuba nationalized the refineries following Eisenhower's decision to cancel 700,000 tons of sugar imports from Cuba to the U.S. and refused to export oil to the island, leaving it reliant on Soviet crude oil. All American oil companies refused to refine Soviet oil, leading the Cuban government to nationalize the refineries. The refinery owners were never compensated for the Cuban nationalization of their property. Today the refineries are owned & operated by the state-run company, Unión CubaPetróleo. On February 7, 1962 the embargo was extended to include almost all imports.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nCurrently, the Cuban embargo is enforced mainly through six statutes: the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917, the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, the Cuban Assets Control Regulations of 1963, the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992, the Helms–Burton Act of 1996, and the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act of 2000. The stated purpose of the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 is to maintain sanctions on Cuba so long as the Cuban government refuses to move toward \"democratization and greater respect for human rights\". The Helms–Burton Act further restricted United States citizens from doing business in or with Cuba, and mandated restrictions on giving public or private assistance to any successor government in Havana unless and until certain claims against the Cuban government were met. In 1999, President Bill Clinton expanded the trade embargo by also disallowing foreign subsidiaries of U.S. companies to trade with Cuba. In 2000, Clinton authorized the sale of \"humanitarian\" U.S. products to Cuba.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nDespite the Spanish term bloqueo (blockade), there has been no physical, naval blockade of the country by the United States after the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. The United States does not block Cuba's trade with third parties: other countries are not under the jurisdiction of U.S. domestic laws, such as the Cuban Democracy Act (although, in theory, foreign countries that trade with Cuba could be penalised by the U.S., which has been condemned as an \"extraterritorial\" measure that contravenes \"the sovereign equality of States, non-intervention in their internal affairs and freedom of trade and navigation as paramount to the conduct of international affairs.\" ). Cuba can, and does, conduct international trade with many third-party countries; Cuba has been a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 1995.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nBeyond criticisms of Human rights in Cuba, the United States holds $6 billion worth of financial claims against the Cuban government. The pro-embargo position is that the U.S. embargo is, in part, an appropriate response to these unaddressed claims. The Latin America Working Group argues that pro-embargo Cuban-American exiles, whose votes are crucial in Florida, have swayed many politicians to also adopt similar views. The Cuban-American views have been opposed by some business leaders who argue that trading freely would be good for Cuba and the United States.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nAt present, the embargo, which limits American businesses from conducting business with Cuban interests, is still in effect and is the most enduring trade embargo in modern history. Despite the existence of the embargo, the United States is the fifth largest exporter to Cuba (6.6% of Cuba's imports are from the US). Cuba must, however, pay cash for all imports, as credit is not allowed.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe UN General Assembly has, since 1992, passed a resolution every year condemning the ongoing impact of the embargo and declaring it to be in violation of the Charter of the United Nations and international law. In 2014, out of the 193-nation assembly, 188 countries voted for the nonbinding resolution, the United States and Israel voted against and the Pacific island nations Palau, Marshall Islands and Micronesia abstained. Human rights groups including Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights have also been critical of the embargo. Critics of the embargo say that the embargo laws are too harsh, citing the fact that violations can result in 10 years in prison.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nHistory","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nEisenhower era","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe United States imposed an arms embargo on Cuba on March 14, 1958 during the armed conflict between rebels led by Fidel Castro and the Fulgencio Batista regime. The arms embargo had more of an impact on Batista than the rebels. After the Castro socialist government came to power on January 1, 1959, Castro made overtures to the United States, but was rebuffed by the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration, which by March began making plans to help overthrow him.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nIn May 1960, the Cuban government began to openly purchase regular armaments from the Soviet Union, citing the US arms embargo. In July 1960, the United States reduced the Cuban import quota of brown sugar to 700,000 tons, under the Sugar Act of 1948; and the Soviet Union responded by agreeing to purchase the sugar instead.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nIn October 1960, a key incident occurred in which a private American oil refinery in Cuba refused to refine a shipment of Soviet crude oil, and the Cuban government responded by nationalizing all three Cuban refineries, which were all American-owned. This prompted the Eisenhower administration to launch the first trade embargo—a prohibition against selling all products to Cuba except food and medicine. The Cuban regime responded with nationalization of all American businesses and most American privately owned properties on the island. No compensation was given for the seizures, and a number of diplomats were expelled from Cuba.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe second wave of nationalizations prompted the Eisenhower administration, in one of its last actions, to sever all diplomatic relations with Cuba, in January 1961. The U.S. partial trade embargo with Cuba was continued, under the Trading with the Enemy Act 1917.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nKennedy era","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe Bay of Pigs invasion and Cuba's declaration of Marxism","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nAfter the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961, which had been largely planned under the Eisenhower administration, but which Kennedy had been informed of and approved during the months preceding his presidency and in his first few months as president, the Cuban government declared that it now considered itself Marxist and socialist, and aligned with the Soviet Union. On September 4, 1961, partly in response, Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act, a Cold War Act (among many other measures) which prohibited aid to Cuba and authorized the President to impose a complete trade embargo against Cuba.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nOn January 21, 1962, Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States (OAS) by a vote of 14 in favor, one (Cuba) against with six abstentions. (See Cuban relations with the Organization of American States for details of the proceedings.) Mexico and Ecuador, two abstaining members, argued that the expulsion was not authorized in the OAS Charter. (Multilateral sanctions were imposed by the OAS on July 26, 1964, which were later rescinded on July 29, 1975. Cuban relations with the Organization of American States have since improved, and as of June 3, 2009, membership suspension was lifted.)","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nPresident John F. Kennedy extended measures by Executive order, first widening the scope of the trade restrictions on February 8, 1962 (announced on February 3 and again on March 23, 1962). These measures expanded the embargo to include all imports of products containing Cuban goods, even if the final products had been made or assembled outside Cuba.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nOn August 3, 1962 the Foreign Assistance Act was amended to prohibit aid to any country that provides assistance to Cuba.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nOn September 7, 1962 President Kennedy formally expanded the Cuban embargo to include all Cuban trade, except for non-subsidized sale of food and medicines.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe Cuban Missile Crisis","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nFollowing the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962), Kennedy imposed travel restrictions on February 8, 1963, and the Cuban Assets Control Regulations were issued on July 8, 1963, again under the Trading with the Enemy Act in response to Cubans hosting Soviet nuclear weapons. Under these restrictions, Cuban assets in the U.S. were frozen and the existing restrictions were consolidated.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nTemporary lapse of restrictions, and reinstatement","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe restrictions on U.S. citizens traveling to Cuba lapsed on March 19, 1977; the regulation was renewable every six months, but President Jimmy Carter did not renew it and the regulation on spending U.S. dollars in Cuba was lifted shortly afterwards. President Ronald Reagan reinstated the trade embargo on April 19, 1982. This has been modified subsequently with the present regulation, effective June 30, 2004, being the Cuban Assets Control Regulations, 31 C.F.R. part 515.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe current regulation does not prohibit travel by U.S. citizens to Cuba per se, but it makes it illegal for U.S. citizens to have transactions (spend money or receive gifts) in Cuba under most circumstances without a US government Office of Foreign Assets Control issued license. Since even paying unavoidable airfare ticket taxes into a Cuban airport would violate this transaction law, it is effectively impossible for ordinary tourists to visit Cuba without breaking the monetary transaction rule.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nHelms–Burton Act","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe embargo was reinforced in October 1992 by the Cuban Democracy Act (the \"Torricelli Law\") and in 1996 by the Cuban Liberty and Democracy Solidarity Act (known as the Helms–Burton Act) which penalizes foreign companies that do business in Cuba by preventing them from doing business in the U.S. Justification provided for these restrictions was that these companies were trafficking in stolen U.S. properties, and should, thus, be excluded from the United States.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe European Union resented the Helms Burton Act because it felt that the U.S. was dictating how other nations ought to conduct their trade and challenged it on that basis. The EU eventually dropped its challenge in favor of negotiating a solution.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nAfter Cuba shot down two unarmed Brothers to the Rescue planes in 1996, killing three Americans and a U.S. resident, a bi-partisan coalition in the United States Congress approved the Helms-Burton Act. The Title III of this law also states that any non-U.S. company that \"knowingly trafficks in property in Cuba confiscated without compensation from a U.S. person\" can be subjected to litigation and that company's leadership can be barred from entry into the United States. Sanctions may also be applied to non-U.S. companies trading with Cuba. This restriction also applies to maritime shipping, as ships docking at Cuban ports are not allowed to dock at U.S. ports for six months. It's important to note that this title includes waiver authority, so that the President might suspend its application. This waiver must be renewed every six months and traditionally it has been.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nIn response to pressure from some American farmers and agribusiness, the embargo was relaxed by the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act, which was passed by the Congress in October 2000 and signed by President Bill Clinton. The relaxation allowed the sale of agricultural goods and medicine to Cuba for humanitarian reasons. Although Cuba initially declined to engage in such trade (having even refused U.S. food aid in the past, seeing it as a half-measure serving U.S. interests), the Cuban government began to allow the purchase of food from the U.S. as a result of Hurricane Michelle in November 2001. These purchases have grown since then, even though all sales are made in cash. In 2007, the U.S. was the largest food supplier of Cuba, which nevertheless is largely self-sufficient, and its fifth largest trading partner.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nIn some tourist spots across the island, American brands such as Coca-Cola can be purchased. Ford tankers refuel planes in airports and some computers use Microsoft software. The origin of the financing behind such goods is not always clear. The goods often come from third parties based in countries outside the U.S., even if the product being dealt originally has U.S. shareholders or investors. This can be seen, for example, with Nestle products (which have a 10% US ownership) that can be bought in Cuba with Cuban convertible pesos (CUCs). These CUC pesos are hard currency that are traded in foreign exchange against the US dollar, Euro and other currencies.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nDetails of embargo","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nImpacts of the embargo","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nIn November 1991, the Cuban ambassador, Ricardo Alarcon, in a speech to the UN General Assembly, cited 27 recent cases of trade contracts interrupted by US pressure. The British journal Cuba Business claimed that British Petroleum was seemingly dissuaded by US authorities from investing in offshore oil exploration in Cuba despite being initially keenly interested. The Petroleum economist claimed, in September 1992, that the US State Department vigorously discouraged firms like Royal Dutch Shell and Clyde Petroleum from investing in Cuba. This pressure did not work in all cases. According to the Mexican Newspaper El Financiero, the US ambassador to Mexico, John Negroponte travelled to meet two Mexican business men who had signed a textile deal with Cuba on October 17, 1992. Despite the representation, the deal went ahead and was eventually worth $500 million in foreign capital. All of this happened before the signing of the Cuban Democracy Act.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nRestrictions on tourism by U.S. citizens and residents","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nAccording to the U.S. Department of State:","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nSpurred by a burgeoning interest in the assumed untapped product demand in Cuba, a growing number of free-marketers in Congress, backed by Western and Great Plains lawmakers who represent agribusiness, have tried each year since 2000 to water down or lift regulations preventing Americans from traveling to Cuba. Four times over that time period the United States House of Representatives has adopted language lifting the travel ban, and in 2003 the U.S. Senate followed suit for the first time. Each time President George W. Bush threatened to veto the bill. Faced with a veto threat, each year Congress dropped its attempt to lift the travel ban before sending legislation to the president. Some United States nationals circumvent the ban by traveling to Cuba from a different country (such as Mexico, The Bahamas, Canada or Costa Rica), as Cuban immigration authorities do not routinely stamp passports, but instead stamp a Cuban visa page which is provided, and not permanently affixed to the passport. In doing so, however, U.S. citizens still risk prosecution and fines by the U.S. government if discovered. Until July 20, 2015 there was no U.S.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nEmbassy or consulate in Cuba and United States representation was limited to a United States Interests Section.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe United States Treasury Department's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) considers any visit of more than one day to be prima facie proof of violation. OFAC also holds that U.S. citizens may not receive goods or services for free from any Cuban national, eliminating any attempts to circumvent the regulation based on that premise. On July 25, 2011, OFAC declared that the \"people to people\" relaxation of restrictions on travel conceded by the Obama administration should not be mistakenly interpreted as promoting tourism.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nOn October 10, 2006, the United States announced the creation of a task force made up of officials from several U.S. agencies that will pursue more aggressively violators of the U.S. trade embargo against Cuba, with severe penalties. The regulations are still in force and are administered by the U.S. Treasury Department, Office of Foreign Assets Control. Criminal penalties for violating the embargo range up to ten years in prison, $1 million in corporate fines, and $250,000 in individual fines; civil penalties up to $55,000 per violation.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nEasing the embargo","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nCuban-Americans","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nOn April 13, 2009, President Barack Obama eased the travel ban, allowing Cuban-Americans to travel freely to Cuba; and on January 14, 2011, he further eased the ban, by allowing students and religious missionaries to travel to Cuba if they meet certain restrictions.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nGeneral changes","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nOn July 16, 2012, the Ana Cecilia became the first officially sanctioned direct ship to sail from Miami to Cuba. It carried food, medicine and personal hygiene goods sent by Cuban-Americans to family members.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nIn 2014, the Obama administration announced its intention to re-establish relations with Cuba. In January 2015, the Administration lightened restrictions on U.S. citizen travel to Cuba. While restrictions on travel for missionary work and education have been loosened, visits for tourism remain banned. President Obama and President Raúl Castro of Cuba met on April 11, 2015, which was the first meeting between distinct leaders of the two countries in over fifty years. In May 2015, several American companies reported they had been granted licenses to establish ferry travel between Florida and Cuba, with a U.S Department of Treasury spokeswoman confirming they had begun issuing licenses. So far the general ban on travel to Cuba remains in effect for Americans, so the ferry service will not be accessible to Americans who have not received special approval for travel to Cuba.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nOn September 21, 2015, the Commerce and Treasury Departments took additional coordinated actions in support of the President’s Cuba policy. These actions included a rule published by the Commerce Department’s Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) that amended the terms of existing license exceptions that are available for Cuba, increased the number of license exception provisions that are available for Cuba, created a new Cuba licensing policy to help ensure the safety of civil aviation and the safe operation of commercial passenger aircraft, and made the deemed export and deemed reexport license requirements for Cuba consistent with other sanctioned destinations.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nInvestment in Cuba by Americans","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe U.S. Government allowed two American men from Alabama to build a factory that will assemble as many as 1,000 small tractors a year for sale to private farmers in Cuba. The $5 million to $10 million plant would be the first significant U.S. business investment on Cuban soil since 1959. They expect to start making deliveries in 2017.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nSocio-economic effects of the embargo","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe U.S. Chamber of Commerce estimates that the embargo costs the U.S. economy $1.2 billion per year in lost sales and exports, while the Cuban government estimates that the embargo costs the island itself $685 million annually. The United States has spent over $500 million broadcasting Radio Marti and TV Marti, even though the transmission signals of the latter are effectively blocked by the Cuban government. The self-proclaimed non-partisan Cuba Policy Foundation estimates that the embargo costs the U.S. economy $3.6 billion per year in economic output.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe 1998 U.S. State Department report Zenith and Eclipse: A Comparative Look at Socio-Economic Conditions in Pre-Castro and Present Day Cuba argued that the U.S. embargo has added, at most, relatively small increases in transportation costs. It claims that the main problem is not the embargo but the lack of foreign currency due to the unwillingness of Cuba to liberalize its economy and diversify its export base during the years of abundant Soviet aid. Cuba also amassed substantial debts owed to its Japanese, European, and Latin American trading partners during the years of abundant Soviet aid.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nAccording to critics, one of the major problems with the embargo is that the United States is the only major country that has such an embargo against Cuba in place. Cuba still receives tourists and trade from other countries making the embargo appear both illegitimate and pointless.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nCriticism of embargo laws and rules","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe UN General Assembly has, from 1992, passed a resolution each year criticizing the ongoing impact of the embargo.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe embargo has been criticized for its effects on food, clean water, medicine, and other economic needs of the Cuban population. Criticism has come from both Fidel Castro and Raúl Castro, citizens and groups from within Cuba, and international organizations and leaders. Some academic critics, outside Cuba, have also linked the embargo to shortages of medical supplies and soap which have resulted in a series of medical crises and heightened levels of infectious diseases. It has also been linked to epidemics of specific diseases, including neurological disorders and blindness caused by poor nutrition. Travel restrictions embedded in the embargo have also been shown to limit the amount of medical information that flows into Cuba from the United States. An article written in 1997 suggests malnutrition and disease resulting from increased food and medicine prices have affected men and the elderly, in particular, due to Cuba's rationing system which gives preferential treatment to women and children.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nOn May 1, 2009, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, while speaking about his meeting U.S. President Barack Obama at a summit days earlier, stated \"if President Obama does not dismantle this savage blockade of the Cuban people, then it is all a lie, it will all be a great farce and the U.S. empire will be alive and well, threatening us.\" In June 2009, Moisés Naím wrote in Newsweek: \"The embargo is the perfect example used by anti-Americans everywhere to expose the hypocrisy of a superpower that punishes a small island while cozying to dictators elsewhere.\"","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe Helms-Burton Act has been the target of criticism from Canadian and European governments in particular, who object to what they say is the extraterritorial pretensions of a piece of legislation aimed at punishing non-U.S. corporations and non-U.S. investors who have economic interests in Cuba. In the Canadian House of Commons, Helms-Burton was mocked by the introduction of the Godfrey-Milliken Bill, which called for the return of property of United Empire Loyalists seized by the American government as a result of the American Revolution (the bill never became law). The European Council has stated that it:","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nSome critics say that the embargo actually helps the regime more than it hurts it, by providing it with a bogeyman for all of Cuba's misfortunes. Hillary Clinton publicly shared the view that the embargo helps the Castros, noting that \"It is my personal belief that the Castros do not want to see an end to the embargo and do no want to see normalization with the United States.\" Clinton said in the same interview that \"we're open to changing with them.\"","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nGeorge P. Shultz, who served as Secretary of State under Reagan, has called the continued embargo \"insane\". Daniel Griswold, director of the Cato Institute's Center for Trade Policy Studies, criticized the current policy in June 2009:","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nSome American business leaders openly call for an end to the embargo. They argue, as long as the embargo continues, non-U.S. foreign businesses in Cuba that violate the embargo, do not have to compete with U.S. businesses, and thus, will have a head start when and if the embargo is lifted.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nJosé Azel, a Senior Research Associate at the Institute for Cuban and Cuban-American Studies, University of Miami and the author of the recently published book, Mañana in Cuba (Tomorrow in Cuba) took a different view:","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nSome religious leaders oppose the embargo for a variety of reasons, including humanitarian and economic hardships the embargo imposes on Cubans. Pope John Paul II called for the end to the embargo during his 1979 pastoral visit to Mexico. Patriarch Bartholomew I called the embargo a \"historic mistake\" while visiting the island on January 25, 2004. A joint letter in 1998 from the Disciples of Christ and the United Church of Christ to the U.S. Senate called for the easing of economic restrictions against Cuba. While also opposing the embargo, the General Secretary of the National Council of Churches stated, \"We did not understand the depth of the suffering of Christians under communism. And we failed to really cry out under the communist oppression.\" Rev. Jesse Jackson, Rev. Al Sharpton, and Minister Louis Farrakhan have also publicly opposed the embargo.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nOn May 15, 2002 former President Jimmy Carter spoke in Havana, calling for an end to the embargo, saying \"Our two nations have been trapped in a destructive state of belligerence for 42 years, and it is time for us to change our relationship.\" The US bishops called for an end to the embargo on Cuba, after Pope Benedict XVI's 2012 visit to the island.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nThe United Nations General Assembly has condemned the embargo as a violation of international law every year since 1992. Israel is the only country that routinely joins the U.S. in voting against the resolution as has Palau every year from 2004 to 2008. On October 26, 2010, for the 19th time, the General Assembly condemned the embargo, 187 to 2 with 3 abstentions. Israel sided with the U.S., while Marshall Islands, Palau and Micronesia abstained.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nCuban Foreign Minister Felipe Pérez Roque called the embargo \"an act of genocide\", quoting a classified State Department memo dated April 6, 1960. Cuba has also denounced as \"theft\" the use of frozen Cuban assets to pay for lawsuits filed in the US against the Republic of Cuba.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nFilm director Michael Moore challenged the embargo by bringing 9/11 rescue workers in need of health care to Cuba to obtain subsidized health care.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nIn June 2011, former Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern blamed \"embittered Cuban exiles in Miami\" for keeping the embargo alive. Before visiting Cuba, he said:","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nBarack Obama discussed easing the embargo during his 2008 campaign for president of the U.S., though he promised to maintain it. In December 2014, he called the embargo a failure asked the U.S. Congress to enact legislation to allow him to lift its restrictions.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\n2010 Bill to end the travel ban","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nOn February 23, 2010, U.S. Congressman Rep. Collin Peterson of Minnesota introduced a bill that would bar the president from prohibiting travel to Cuba or preventing transactions required for such trips.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nOn June 10, 2010 seventy-four of Cuba's dissidents signed a letter to the United States Congress in support of a bill that would lift the U.S. travel ban for Americans wishing to visit Cuba. The signers included Yoani Sánchez, Guillermo Farinas, Elizardo Sánchez, and Damas de Blanco founder Miriam Levi. The letter supported a bill introduced by Democrat Minnesota Representative Collin Peterson, that would bar the president from prohibiting travel to Cuba and from blocking transactions required to make the trip. The bill also prohibited the president from stopping direct transfers between U.S. and Cuban banks.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nReestablishment of diplomatic relations","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nIn concert with a prisoner exchange with Cuba, Presidents Barack Obama and Raúl Castro announced moves on December 17, 2014 to reestablish diplomatic relations and to loosen travel and economic policies. Cuba released Alan Gross, an American prisoner, on humanitarian grounds and exchanged an unnamed American spy for the three remaining members of the Cuban Five. Obama also announced a review of Cuba's status as a terrorist state and an intention to ask Congress to remove the embargo entirely. Cuba agreed to release 53 political prisoners and to allow Red Cross and UN human-rights investigators access. On May 29, 2015, according to the U.S. State Department, \"Cuba's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism was rescinded\".","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nUnder the announced changes by the President, there will be an increased ability to transact with Cuban nationals and businesses, including Cuban financial institutions. Additionally, permitted U.S. banks will now be able to open accredited accounts in Cuban banks.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nPolling data and public opinion","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nA 2008 USA Today/Gallup Poll indicated that Americans believe that diplomatic relations \"should\" be re-established with Cuba. (61% in favor, 31% opposed.)","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nIn January 2012, an Angus Reid Public Opinion poll showed 57% of Americans called for ending the travel ban that prevents most Americans from visiting Cuba, with 27% disagreeing and 16% were not sure.","United States embargo against Cuba\n\nPolls also show declining support for sanctions among Cuban Americans. A June 2014 poll showed 52% of Cuban Americans in Miami-Dade County, Florida, oppose the embargo and 48% support it.","Cigar\n\nA cigar is a tightly-rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco leaf, rolled in a series of types and sizes, that is ignited so that its smoke may be drawn into the mouth.","Cigar\n\nCigar tobacco is grown in significant quantities in Brazil, Cameroon, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Indonesia, Mexico, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Panama, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Canary Islands (Spain), Italy and the Eastern United States. The origins of cigar smoking are still unknown. In Guatemala, a ceramic pot dating back to the tenth century features a Mayan smoking tobacco leaves tied together with a string. Sikar, the term for smoking used by the Maya, may have inspired the name cigar.","Cigar\n\nEtymology","Cigar\n\nThe word cigar originated from the Spanish cigarro, which in turn probably derives from the Mayan sicar (\"to smoke rolled tobacco leaves\" – from si'c, \"tobacco\"). There is also a possible derivation, or at least an influence, from the Spanish cigarra (\"cicada\"), due to their similar shape. The English word came into general use in 1730.","Cigar\n\nHistory","Cigar\n\nExplorer Christopher Columbus is generally credited with the introduction of tobacco to Europe. Three of Columbus's crewmen during his 1492 journey, Rodrigo de Jerez, Hector Fuentes and Luis de Torres, are said to have encountered tobacco for the first time on the island of Hispaniola, in what is present day Haiti and the Dominican Republic, when natives presented them with dry leaves that spread a peculiar fragrance. Tobacco was widely diffused among all of the islands of the Caribbean and therefore they again encountered it in Cuba where Columbus and his men had settled. His sailors reported that the Taínos on the island of Cuba smoked a primitive form of cigar, with twisted, dried tobacco leaves rolled in other leaves such as palm or plantain.","Cigar\n\nIn due course, Spanish and other European sailors adopted the hobby of smoking rolls of leaves, as did the Conquistadors, and smoking primitive cigars spread to Spain and Portugal and eventually France, most probably through Jean Nicot, the French ambassador to Portugal, who gave his name to nicotine. Later, the hobby spread to Italy and, after Sir Walter Raleigh's voyages to the Americas, to Britain. Smoking became familiar throughout Europe—in pipes in Britain—by the mid-16th century and, half a century later, tobacco started to be grown commercially in America. Tobacco was originally thought to have medicinal qualities, but there were some who considered it evil. It was denounced by Philip II of Spain and James I of England.","Cigar\n\nAround 1592, the Spanish galleon San Clemente brought 50 kg of tobacco seed to the Philippines over the Acapulco-Manila trade route. The seed was then distributed among the Roman Catholic missionaries, where the clerics found excellent climates and soils for growing high-quality tobacco on Philippine soil.","Cigar\n\nIn the 19th century, cigar smoking was common, while cigarettes were still comparatively rare. In the early 20th century, Rudyard Kipling wrote his famous smoking poem, \"The Betrothed.\" The cigar business was an important industry, and factories employed many people before mechanized manufacturing of cigars became practical.","Cigar\n\nIn 1869, Spanish cigar manufacturer Vicente Martinez Ybor moved his Principe de Gales (Prince of Wales) operations from the important cigar manufacturing center of Havana, Cuba to Key West, Florida to escape the turmoil of the Ten Years' War. Other manufacturers followed, and Key West became another important cigar manufacturing center. In 1885, Ybor moved again, buying land near the then-small city of Tampa, Florida and building the largest cigar factory in the world at the time in the new company town of Ybor City. Friendly rival and Flor de Sánchez y Haya owner Ignacio Haya built his own factory nearby in the same year, and many other cigar manufacturers soon followed, especially after an 1886 fire that gutted much of Key West. Thousands of Cuban and Spanish tabaqueros came to the area from Key West, Cuba and New York to produce hundreds of millions of cigars annually. Local output peaked in 1929, when workers in Ybor City and West Tampa rolled over 500,000,000 \"clear Havana\" cigars, earning the town the nickname \"Cigar Capital of the World\".","Cigar\n\nIn New York, cigars were made by rollers working in their own homes. It was reported that as of 1883, cigars were being manufactured in 127 apartment houses in New York, employing 1,962 families and 7,924 individuals. A state statute banning the practice, passed late that year at the urging of trade unions on the basis that the practice suppressed wages, was ruled unconstitutional less than four months later. The industry, which had relocated to Brooklyn and other places on Long Island while the law was in effect, then returned to New York.","Cigar\n\nAs of 1905, there were 80,000 cigar-making operations in the United States, most of them small, family-operated shops where cigars were rolled and sold immediately. While most cigars are now made by machine, some, as a matter of prestige and quality, are still rolled by hand. This is especially true in Central America and Cuba, as well as in small chinchales found in virtually every sizable city in the United States. Boxes of hand-rolled cigars bear the phrase totalmente a mano (totally by hand) or hecho a mano (made by hand). These premium hand-rolled cigars are significantly different from the machine-made cigars sold in packs at drugstores or gas stations. Since the 1990s and onwards, this has led to severe contention between producers and aficionados of premium handmade cigars and cigarette manufacturing companies that create machine made cigars.","Cigar\n\nManufacture","Cigar\n\nTobacco leaves are harvested and aged using a process that combines use of heat and shade to reduce sugar and water content without causing the bigger leaves to rot. This first part of the process, called curing, takes between 25 and 45 days and varies substantially based upon climatic conditions as well as the construction of sheds or barns used to store harvested tobacco. The curing process is manipulated based upon the type of tobacco, and the desired color of the leaf. The second part of the process, called fermentation, is carried out under conditions designed to help the leaf dry slowly. Temperature and humidity are controlled to ensure that the leaf continues to ferment, without rotting or disintegrating. This is where the flavor, burning, and aroma characteristics are primarily brought out in the leaf.","Cigar\n\nOnce the leaves have aged properly, they are sorted for use as filler or wrapper based upon their appearance and overall quality. During this process, the leaves are continually moistened and handled carefully to ensure each leaf is best used according to its individual qualities. The leaf will continue to be baled, inspected, un-baled, re-inspected, and baled again repeatedly as it continues the aging cycle. When the leaf has matured according to the manufacturer's specifications, it will be used in the production of a cigar.","Cigar\n\nQuality cigars are still handmade. An experienced cigar-roller can produce hundreds of very good, nearly identical, cigars per day. The rollers keep the tobacco moist — especially the wrapper — and use specially designed crescent-shaped knives, called chavetas, to form the filler and wrapper leaves quickly and accurately. Once rolled, the cigars are stored in wooden forms as they dry, in which their uncapped ends are cut to a uniform size. From this stage, the cigar is a complete product that can be \"laid down\" and aged for decades if kept as close to 21 °C (70 °F), and 70% relative humidity, as the environment will allow. Once cigars have been purchased, proper storage is usually accomplished by keeping the cigars in a specialized wooden box, or humidor, where conditions can be carefully controlled for long periods of time. Even if a cigar becomes dry, it can be successfully re-humidified so long as it has not been handled carelessly and done so gradually. The loss of original tobacco oils, however, will greatly affect the taste.","Cigar\n\nSome cigars, especially premium brands, use different varieties of tobacco for the filler and the wrapper. Long filler cigars are a far higher quality of cigar, using long leaves throughout. These cigars also use a third variety of tobacco leaf, called a \"binder\", between the filler and the outer wrapper. This permits the makers to use more delicate and attractive leaves as a wrapper. These high-quality cigars almost always blend varieties of tobacco. Even Cuban long-filler cigars will combine tobaccos from different parts of the island to incorporate several different flavors.","Cigar\n\nIn low-grade and machine-made cigars, chopped tobacco leaves are used for the filler, and long leaves or a type of \"paper\" made from tobacco pulp is used for the wrapper which binds the cigar together. This alters the burning characteristics of the cigar, causing handmade cigars to be sought-after.","Cigar\n\nHistorically, a lector or reader was always employed to entertain cigar factory workers. This practice became obsolete once audiobooks for portable music players became available, but it is still practiced in some Cuban factories. The name for the Montecristo cigar brand may have arisen from this practice.","Cigar\n\nDominant manufacturers","Cigar\n\nTwo firms dominate the cigar industry. Altadis produces cigars in the United States, the Dominican Republic, and Honduras, and has a 50% stake in Corporación Habanos in Cuba. It also makes cigarettes. Scandinavian Tobacco Group, produces cigars in the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua, Indonesia, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark and the United States; it also makes pipe tobacco and fine cut tobacco. The Group includes General Cigar Co.","Cigar\n\n]","Cigar\n\nFamilies in the cigar industry","Cigar\n\nNearly all modern premium cigar makers are members of long-established cigar families, or purport to be. The art and skill of hand-making premium cigars has been passed from generation to generation; families are often shown in many cigar advertisements and packaging. \nIn 1992, Cigar Aficionado magazine created the \"Cigar Hall of Fame\" and recognized the following six individuals:","Cigar\n\n* Edgar M. Cullman, Chairman, General Cigar Company, New York, United States\n* Zino Davidoff, Founder, Davidoff et Cie., Geneva, Switzerland\n* Carlos Fuente, Sr., Chairman, Tabacalera A. Fuente y Cia., Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic\n* Frank Llaneza, Chairman, Villazon & Co., Tampa, Florida, United States\n* Stanford J. Newman, Chairman, J.C. Newman Cigar Company, Tampa, Florida, United States\n* Ángel Oliva, Sr. (founder); Oliva Tobacco Co., Tampa, Florida, United States","Cigar\n\nOther families in the cigar industry (2015)","Cigar\n\n* Manuel Quesada (MATASA Current CEO) Fonseca, Casa Magna, Quesada cigars, Dominican Republic\n* Don José \"Pepín\" Garcia, Chairman, El Rey de Los Habanos, Miami, Florida, United States\n* Aray Family – Daniel Aray Jr, Grandson of Founder (1952) Jose Aray, ACC Cigars, Guayaquil Ecuador, San Francisco, CA, Miami Florida, Macau SAR, Shanghai China.\n* EPC – Ernesto Perez-Carillo, Founder EPC Cigar Company (2009), Miami, Florida, United States\n* Nestor Miranda – Founder, Miami Cigar Company (1989) Miami, FL, United States","Cigar\n\nMarketing and distribution","Cigar\n\nPure tobacco, hand rolled cigars are marketed via advertisements, product placement in movies and other media, sporting events, cigar-friendly magazines such as Cigar Aficionado, and cigar dinners. Since handmade cigars are a premium product with a hefty price, advertisements often include depictions of affluence, sensual imagery, and explicit or implied celebrity endorsement.","Cigar\n\nCigar Aficionado, launched in 1992, presents cigars as symbols of a successful lifestyle, and is a major conduit of advertisements that do not conform to the tobacco industry's voluntary advertisement restrictions since 1965, such as a restriction not to associate smoking with glamour. The magazine also presents pro-smoking arguments at length, and argues that cigars are safer than cigarettes, since they do not have the thousands of chemical additives that cigarette manufactures add to the cutting floor scraps of tobacco used as cigarette filler. The publication also presents arguments that risks are a part of daily life and that (contrary to the evidence discussed in Health effects) cigar smoking has health benefits, that moderation eliminates most or all health risk, and that cigar smokers live to old age, that health research is flawed, and that several health-research results support claims of safety. Like its competitor Smoke, Cigar Aficionado differs from marketing vehicles used for other tobacco products in that it makes cigars the focus of the entire magazine, creating a symbiosis between product and lifestyle.","Cigar\n\nIn the U.S., cigars are exempt from many of the marketing regulations that govern cigarettes. For example, the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act of 1970 exempted cigars from its advertising ban, and cigar ads, unlike cigarette ads, need not mention health risks. As of 2007, cigars were taxed far less than cigarettes, so much so that in many U.S. states, a pack of little cigars cost less than half as much as a pack of cigarettes. It is illegal for minors to purchase cigars and other tobacco products in the U.S., but laws are unevenly enforced: a 2000 study found that three-quarters of Internet cigar marketing sites allowed minors to purchase cigars.","Cigar\n\nInexpensive, non-pure cigars are sold in convenience stores, gas stations, grocery stores, and pharmacies, mostly as self-serve items. Premium cigars are sold in tobacconists, cigar bars, and other specialized establishments. Some cigar stores are part of chains, which have varied in size: in the U.S., United Cigar Stores was one of only three outstanding examples of national chains in the early 1920s, the others being A&P and Woolworth's. Non-traditional outlets for cigars include hotel shops, restaurants, vending machines and the Internet.","Cigar\n\nComposition","Cigar\n\nCigars are composed of three types of tobacco leaves, whose variations determine smoking and flavor characteristics:","Cigar\n\nWrapper","Cigar\n\nA cigar's outermost layer, or wrapper (Spanish: ), is the most expensive component of a cigar.Anwer Bati, The Cigar Companion: The Connoisseur's Guide. Third Edition. Philadelphia, PA: Running Press, 1997; pg. 27. The wrapper determines much of the cigar's character and flavor, and as such its color is often used to describe the cigar as a whole. Wrappers are frequently grown underneath huge canopies made of gauze so as to diffuse direct sunlight and are fermented separately from other rougher cigar components, with a view to the production of a thinly-veined, smooth, supple leaf.","Cigar\n\nWrapper tobacco produced without the gauze canopies under which \"shade grown\" leaf is grown, generally more coarse in texture and stronger in flavor, is commonly known as \"sun grown.\" A number of different countries are used for the production of wrapper tobacco, including Cuba, Ecuador, Indonesia, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Brazil, Mexico, Cameroon, and the United States.","Cigar\n\nWhile dozens of minor wrapper shades have been touted by manufacturers, the seven most common classifications are as follows, ranging from lightest to darkest:","Cigar\n\nSome manufacturers use an alternate designation:","Cigar\n\nIn general, dark wrappers add a touch of sweetness, while light ones add a hint of dryness to the taste.","Cigar\n\nBinder","Cigar\n\nBeneath the wrapper is a small bunch of \"filler\" leaves bound together inside of a leaf called a \"binder\" (Spanish: ). Binder leaf is typically sun grown leaf from the top part of a tobacco plant and is selected for its elasticity and durability in the rolling process. Unlike wrapper leaf, which must be uniform in appearance and smooth in texture, binder leaf may show evidence of physical blemishes or lack uniform coloration. Binder leaf is generally considerably thicker and more hardy than the wrapper leaf surrounding it.","Cigar\n\nFiller","Cigar\n\nThe bulk of a cigar is \"filler\" — a bound bunch of tobacco leaves. These leaves are folded by hand to allow air passageways down the length of the cigar, through which smoke is drawn after the cigar is lit. A cigar rolled with insufficient air passage is referred to by a smoker as \"too tight\"; one with excessive airflow creating an excessively fast, hot burn is regarded as \"too loose.\" Considerable skill and dexterity on the part of the cigar roller is needed to avoid these opposing pitfalls — a primary factor in the superiority of hand-rolled cigars over their machine-made counterparts.","Cigar\n\nBy blending various varieties of filler tobacco, cigar makers create distinctive strength and flavor profiles for their various branded products. In general, fatter cigars hold more filler leaves, allowing a greater potential for the creation of complex flavors. In addition to the variety of tobacco employed, the country of origin can be one important determinant of taste, with different growing environments producing distinctive flavors.","Cigar\n\nThe fermentation and aging process adds to this variety, as does the particular part of the tobacco plant harvested, with bottom leaves (Spanish: ) having a mild flavor and burning easily, middle leaves (Spanish: ) having a somewhat stronger flavor, with potent and spicy ligero leaves taken from the sun-drenched top of the plant. When used, ligero is always folded into the middle of the filler bunch due to its slow-burning characteristics.","Cigar\n\nIf full leaves are used as filler, a cigar is said to be composed of \"long filler.\" Cigars made from smaller bits of leaf, including many machine-made cigars, are said to be made of \"short filler.\"","Cigar\n\nIf a cigar is completely constructed (filler, binder, and wrapper) of tobacco produced in only one country, it is referred to in the cigar industry as a \"puro,\" from the Spanish word for \"pure.\"","Cigar\n\nSize and shape","Cigar\n\nCigars are commonly categorized by their size and shape, which together are known as the vitola.","Cigar\n\nThe size of a cigar is measured by two dimensions: its ring gauge (its diameter in sixty-fourths of an inch) and its length (in inches). In Cuba, next to Havana, there is a display of the world's longest rolled cigars.","Cigar\n\nParejo","Cigar\n\nThe most common shape is the parejo, sometimes referred to as simply \"coronas\", which have traditionally been the benchmark against which all other cigar formats are measured. They have a cylindrical body, straight sides, one end open, and a round tobacco-leaf \"cap\" on the other end which must be sliced off, have a V-shaped notch made in it with a special cutter, or punched through before smoking.","Cigar\n\nParejos are designated by the following terms:","Cigar\n\nThese dimensions are, at best, idealized. Actual dimensions can vary considerably.","Cigar\n\nFigurado","Cigar\n\nIrregularly shaped cigars are known as figurados and are sometimes considered of higher quality because they are more difficult to make.","Cigar\n\nHistorically, especially during the 19th century, figurados were the most popular shapes, but by the 1930s they had fallen out of fashion and all but disappeared.\nThey have, however, recently received a small resurgence in popularity, and there are currently many brands (manufacturers) that produce figurados alongside the simpler parejos. The Cuban cigar brand Cuaba only has figurados in their range.","Cigar\n\nFigurados include the following:","Cigar\n\nArturo Fuente, a large cigar manufacturer based in the Dominican Republic, has also manufactured figurados in exotic shapes ranging from chilli peppers to baseball bats and American footballs. They are highly collectible and extremely expensive, when available to the public. In practice, the terms Torpedo and Pyramid are often used interchangeably, even among very knowledgeable cigar smokers. Min Ron Nee, the Hong Kong-based cigar expert whose work An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Post-Revolution Havana Cigars is considered to be the definitive work on cigars and cigar terms, defines Torpedo as \"cigar slang\". Nee thinks the majority is right (because slang is defined by majority usage) and torpedoes are pyramids by another name.","Cigar\n\nCigarillo","Cigar\n\nA cigarillo is a machine-made cigar that is shorter and narrower than a traditional cigar but larger than little cigars, filtered cigars, and cigarettes, thus similar in size and composition to small panatela sized cigars, cheroots and traditional blunts. Cigarillos are usually not filtered, although some have plastic or wood tips, and are not meant to be inhaled. They are sold in varying quantities, from singles, two-packs, three-packs, and five-packs. Cigarillos are very inexpensive, in the United States usually sold for less than a dollar. Sometimes they are informally called small cigars, mini cigars or club cigars. Some famous cigar brands, such as Cohiba or Davidoff, also make cigarillos – Cohiba Mini and Davidoff Club Cigarillos, for example; in addition to purely cigarillo brands, such as Café Crème, Dannemann Moods, Mehari's, Al Capone or Swisher Sweets. Cigarillos have a secondary use; they are often used for the making of marijuana cigars.","Cigar\n\nLittle cigars","Cigar\n\nLittle cigars (sometimes called small cigars or miniatures in the UK) differ greatly from regular cigars. They weigh less than cigars and cigarillos, but, more importantly, they resemble cigarettes in size, shape, packaging, and filters. Sales of little cigars quadrupled in the U.S. from 1971 to 1973 in response to the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act, which banned the broadcast of cigarette advertisements and required stronger health warnings on cigarette packs. Cigars were exempt from the ban, and perhaps more importantly, were taxed at a far lower rate. Little cigars are sometimes called \"cigarettes in disguise\", and unsuccessful attempts have been made to reclassify them as cigarettes. In the United States, sales of little cigars reached an all-time high in 2006, fueled in great part by favorable taxation. In some states, however, little cigars have successfully been taxed at the rate of cigarettes, such as Illinois, as well as multiple other states. This has caused yet another loophole, in which manufacturers classify their products as \"filtered cigars\" instead to avoid the higher tax rate. Yet, many continue to argue that there is in fact a distinction between little cigars and filtered cigars.","Cigar\n\nLittle cigars offer a similar draw and overall feel to cigarettes, but with aged and fermented tobaccos, while filtered cigars are said to be more closely related to traditional cigars, and are not meant to be inhaled.","Cigar\n\nSmoking","Cigar\n\nTo smoke a cigar, a smoker cuts the closed end or 'cap', lights the other end, then puts the unlit end into the mouth and draws smoke into the mouth. Some smokers inhale the smoke into the lungs, particularly with little cigars, but this is uncommon otherwise. A smoker may swirl the smoke around in the mouth before exhaling it, and may exhale part of the smoke through the nose in order to smell the cigar better as well as to taste it.","Cigar\n\nCutting","Cigar\n\nAlthough some cigars are cut on both ends, or twirled at both ends, the vast majority come with one straight cut end and one end in a \"cap\". Most quality handmade cigars, regardless of shape, will have a cap which is one or more small pieces of a wrapper pasted onto one end of the cigar with either a natural tobacco paste or with a mixture of flour and water. The cap end of a cigar must be cut off for the cigar to be smoked properly. It is the rounded end without the tobacco exposed, and this is the end one should always cut. If the cap is cut jaggedly or without care, the end of the cigar will not burn evenly and smokeable tobacco will be lost. Some cigar manufacturers purposely place different types of tobacco from one end to the other to give the cigar smokers a variety of tastes, body and strength from start to finish.","Cigar\n\nThere are three basic types of cigar cutters:","Cigar\n\n*Guillotine (straight cut)\n*Punch cut\n*V-cut (a.k.a. notch cut, cat's eye, wedge cut, English cut)","Cigar\n\nLighting","Cigar\n\nThe \"head\" of the cigar is usually the end closest to the cigar band. The opposite end of the cigar is called the \"foot\". The band identifies the type of the cigar and may be removed or left on. The smoker cuts the cap from the head of the cigar and ignites the foot of the cigar. The smoker draws smoke from the head of the cigar with the mouth and lips, usually not inhaling into the lungs.","Cigar\n\nWhen lighting, the cigar should be rotated to achieve an even burn and the air should be slowly drawn with gentle puffs. A flame that may impart its own flavor to the cigar should not be used. The tip of the cigar should minimally touch the flame, the heat of the flame from a butane or torch lighter can burn the tobacco leaves. A match or cedar spill flame is a milder flame to be used.","Cigar\n\nCigars can be lit with the use of butane-filled lighters. Butane is colorless, odorless and burns clean with very little, if any, flavor; but are quite hot as a flame source. It is not recommended to use (lighter) fluid-filled lighters and paper matches since they can influence the taste.","Cigar\n\nA second option is wooden matches, but the smoker must ensure the chemical head of the match has burned away and only the burning wooden section is used to light the cigar. Depending on the manufacturer, the chemical head portion of the matchstick may contain one or more of the following: gelatin, paraffin wax, potassium chlorate, barium chlorate, glue, polyvinyl chlorides, phosphorus trisulfide, and clay. The strike plate to ignite the match may contain one more of the following: glass particles, red phosphorus and glue.","Cigar\n\nA third and most traditional way to light a cigar is to use a cedar spill. A spill is a splinter or a slender piece of wood or twisted paper, for lighting candles, lamps, campfires or fireplaces, etc. A cedar spill for lighting a cigar is a torn narrow strip of Spanish cedar (ideally) and lit using whatever flame source is handy.","Cigar\n\nCigars packaged in boxes or metal tubes may contain a thin wrapping of cedar that may be used to light a cigar, minimizing the problem of lighters or matches affecting the taste. Cedar spills, matches and lighters are all commercially available.","Cigar\n\nFlavor","Cigar\n\nEach brand and type of cigar tastes different. While the wrapper does not entirely determine the flavor of the cigar, darker wrappers tend to produce a sweetness, while lighter wrappers usually have a \"drier\" taste. Whether a cigar is mild, medium, or full bodied does not correlate with quality. Some words used to describe cigar flavor and texture include; spicy, peppery (red or black), sweet, harsh, burnt, green, earthy, woody, cocoa, chestnut, roasted, aged, nutty, creamy, cedar, oak, chewy, fruity, and leathery.","Cigar\n\nCigar smoke, which is not typically inhaled, tastes of tobacco with nuances of other tastes. Many different things affect the scent of cigar smoke: tobacco type, quality of the cigar, added flavors, age and humidity, production method (handmade vs. machine-made) and more. A fine cigar can taste completely different from inhaled cigarette smoke. When smoke is inhaled, as is usual with cigarettes, the tobacco flavor is less noticeable than the sensation from the smoke. Some cigar enthusiasts use a vocabulary similar to that of wine-tasters to describe the overtones and undertones observed while smoking a cigar. Journals are available for recording personal ratings, description of flavors observed, sizes, brands, etc. Cigar tasting is in such respects similar to wine-tasting.","Cigar\n\nSmoke","Cigar\n\nSmoke is produced by incomplete combustion of tobacco during which at least three kinds of chemical reactions occur: pyrolysis breaks down organic molecules into simpler ones, pyrosynthesis recombines these newly formed fragments into chemicals not originally present, and distillation moves compounds such as nicotine from the tobacco into the smoke. For every gram of tobacco smoked, a cigar emits about 120–140 mg of carbon dioxide, 40–60 mg of carbon monoxide, 3–4 mg of isoprene, 1 mg each of hydrogen cyanide and acetaldehyde, and smaller quantities of a large spectrum of volatile N-nitrosamines and volatile organic compounds, with the detailed composition unknown.","Cigar\n\nThe most odorous chemicals in cigar smoke, and arguably the most responsible for the odor, are pyridines. Along with pyrazines, they are also the most odorous chemicals in cigar smoker's breath. These substances are noticeable even at extremely low concentrations of a few parts per billion. During smoking, it is not known whether these chemicals are generated by splitting the chemical bonds of nicotine, or by Maillard reaction between amino acids and sugars in the tobacco.","Cigar\n\nCigar smoke is more alkaline than cigarette smoke, and therefore dissolves and is absorbed more readily by the mucous membrane of the mouth, making it easier for the smoker to absorb nicotine without having to inhale.","Cigar\n\nHumidors","Cigar\n\nThe level of humidity in which cigars are kept has a significant effect on their taste. It is believed that a cigar's flavor best evolves when stored at a relative humidity of approximately 65–70% and a temperature of 18 C. An ideal rate of humidity allows an even burning of the cigar. Conversely, dry cigars become fragile and burn faster while damp cigars burn unevenly and take on a heavy acidic flavor. Humidors together with their humidifiers are then used to serve this purpose. Humidor's interior lining is typically constructed with three types of wood: Spanish cedar, American (or Canadian) red cedar, and Honduran mahogany. Other materials used for making or lining a humidor are Acrylic, Tin ( mainly seen in older early humidors) and Copper, used widely in the 1920s-1950s.","Cigar\n\nMost humidors come with a plastic or metal case with a sponge that works as the humidifier, although most recent versions come on polymer acryl. The latter must be filled only with distilled water, and the former may use a solution of propylene glycol and distilled water. Humidifiers may become contaminated with bacteria and should be replaced every two years to avoid such contamination. There are new methods and devices for humidification that keep the relative humidity at a constant according to the % indicated on the package. These devices come in the former of small, medium, and large packets, and beads in a container which when water is added absorb the moisture.","Cigar\n\nHumidors also come with analog or digital hygrometers. There are three systems of analog hygrometers: analog hygrometers with a metal spring, analog natural hair hygrometers, and analog synthetic hair hygrometers.","Cigar\n\nA new humidor requires seasoning and once seasoned needs to have its humidity maintained in some fashion. The inside of a humidor should be lined in dried Spanish cedar wood. The thicker the lining the better as it will provide the best environment for the cigars. When you receive your new humidor, the internal wood will not contain much moisture. The inside needs to be seasoned which consists of allowing it to absorb moisture so that it can maintain the desired humidity level. There are many methods to season a humidor but the most common is to fill up a shot glass with distilled water, place it into the humidor, close it up and let it sit for two weeks. Check on it every couple of days and see if the water level in the shot glass slowly go down as the wood absorbed the moisture. Any method you use that consists of using water, you should use distilled water so that you are using something with the least amount of impurities. There are also seasoning packs that you can use from companies like Boveda if you choose to go that route instead of using water.","Cigar\n\nAccessories","Cigar\n\nThere are a wide variety of cigar accessories on the market. Their prices may vary depending on the materials used and the quality of the finishing.","Cigar\n\nCigar travel cases","Cigar\n\nTravel cases are intended to protect cigars from the environmental elements and to avoid the possibility of cigars being crushed. Most travel cases come in expandable or sturdy leather. They should be thick enough to protect cigars, and the inside should not have a strong leather smell that could affect the cigar's taste. Some of these cases come with either cardboard or metal tubes that add protection and prevent the cigar from becoming permeated with the leather.\nSilver and brass cigar travel cases are also available as well as wood cigar cases. The latter can range from affordable cases to handcrafted ones, while the latter tend to be quite expensive.","Cigar\n\nCigar tubes","Cigar\n\nCigar tubes are used to carry small numbers of cigars, typically one or five. The latter tube would be called 5-finger tube and the former 1-finger tube. They are usually made from stainless steel. Cigar tubes are normally used when one is out for a few hours, but if it is necessary to spend longer periods of time out, there are tubes that come with a built in humidifier and hygrometer.","Cigar\n\nCigar holders","Cigar\n\nCigar holders are also known as cigar stands and are used to keep the cigars out of ashtrays. Also, cigar holders may refer to a tube in which the cigar is held while smoked. These are mostly used by women, and rarely by men.","Cigar\n\nHealth effects","Cigar\n\nLike other forms of tobacco use, cigar smoking poses a significant health risk depending on dosage: risks are greater for those who inhale more when they smoke, smoke more cigars, or smoke them longer. The risk of dying from any cause is statistically greater for cigar smokers than for people who have never smoked, with the risk higher for smokers less than 65 years old, and with risk for moderate and deep inhalers reaching levels similar to cigarette smokers. According to one study published in 1999 in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute, current cigar users have shown a statistically significant, elevated mortality risk for cancers of the mouth, lungs, and larynx and a moderately elevated risk for cancer of the esophagus, though this study assumed deep inhalation and multiple cigars per day, which is not typical of the traditional cigar smoker.Jean A. Shapiro, Eric J. Jacobs and Michael J. Thun, [http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/92/4/333.full \"Cigar Smoking in Men and Risk of Death From Tobacco-Related Cancers,\"] Journal of the National Cancer Institute, vol. 92, no. 4 (2000), pp. 333–337. No comparable statistical link was found for pancreatic or bladder cancer mortality in this study.","Cigar\n\nDanger of mortality increases proportionally to consumption, with smokers of one to two cigars per day showing a 2% increase in rate of mortality through all causes compared to non-smokers. The precise statistical health risks to those cigar smokers who smoke less than daily is not established.","Cigar\n\nThe depth of inhalation of cigar smoke into the lungs appears to be an important determinant of lung cancer risk:","Cigar\n\n\"When cigar smokers don't inhale or smoke few cigars per day, the risks are only slightly above those of never smokers. Risks of lung cancer increase with increasing inhalation and with increasing number of cigars smoked per day, but the effect of inhalation is more powerful than that for number of cigars per day. When 5 or more cigars are smoked per day and there is moderate inhalation, the lung cancer risks of cigar smoking approximate those of a one pack per day cigarette smoker. As the tobacco smoke exposure of the lung in cigar smokers increases to approximate the frequency of smoking and depth of inhalation found in cigarette smokers, the difference in lung cancer risks produced by these two behaviors disappears.\"","Cigar\n\nCigar smoking can lead to nicotine addiction and cigarette usage. For those who inhale and smoke several cigars a day, types of health risk can be similar to those associated with cigarette smoking: nicotine addiction, periodontal disease, tooth loss, and many types of cancer, including cancers of the mouth, throat, and esophagus. Cigar smoking can also increase the risk of lung and heart diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.","Cigar\n\nSo-called \"little cigars\" are commonly inhaled and likely pose the same health risks as cigarettes, while premium cigars are not commonly inhaled or habitually used.","Cigar\n\nPopularity","Cigar\n\nThe prevalence of cigar smoking varies depending on location, historical period, and population surveyed, and prevalence estimates vary somewhat depending on the survey method. The U.S. is the top consuming country by far, followed by Germany and the UK; the U.S. and western Europe account for about 75% of cigar sales worldwide. The 2005 U.S. National Health Interview Survey estimated that 2.2% of adults smoke cigars, about the same as smokeless tobacco but far less than the 21% of adults who smoke cigarettes; it also estimated that 4.3% of men but only 0.3% of women smoke cigars. A 2007 California study found that gay men and bisexual women smoke significantly fewer cigars than the general population of men and women, respectively. Substantial and steady increases in cigar smoking were observed during the 1990s and early 2000s in the U.S. among both adults and adolescents. Data suggest that cigar usage among young adult males increased threefold during the 1990s, a 1999–2000 survey of 31,107 young adult U.S. military recruits found that 12.3% smoked cigars, and a 2003–2004 survey of 4,486 high school students in a Midwestern county found that 18% smoked cigars.","Cigar\n\nRecent CDC Youth Risk surveys show a decline in tobacco use, and does not distinguish between premium and little cigar usage. It is assumed that premium cigar use among adolescents is negligible.","Cigar\n\nCuban cigars","Cigar\n\nCuban cigars are rolled from tobacco leaves found throughout the country of Cuba. The filler, binder, and wrapper may come from different portions of the island. All cigar production in Cuba is controlled by the Cuban government, and each brand may be rolled in several different factories in Cuba.","Cigar\n\nTorcedores are highly respected in Cuban society and culture, and they travel worldwide displaying their art of hand rolling cigars.","Cigar\n\nHabanos SA and Cubatabaco between them do all the work relating to Cuban cigars, including manufacture, quality control, promotion and distribution, and export. Cuba produces both handmade and machine-made cigars. All boxes and labels are marked Hecho en Cuba (Spanish for made in Cuba). Machine-bunched cigars finished by hand add Hecho a mano, while fully handmade cigars say Totalmente a mano in script text, though not all Cuban cigars will include this statement. Because of the perceived status of Cuban cigars, counterfeits are somewhat commonplace.","Cigar\n\nDespite American trade sanctions against Cuban products, cigars remain one of the country's leading exports. The country exported 77 million cigars in 1991, 67 million in 1992, and 57 million in 1993, the decline attributed to a loss of much of the wrapper crop in a hurricane.","Cigar\n\nUnited States embargo against Cuba","Cigar\n\nOn 7 February 1962, United States President John F. Kennedy imposed a trade embargo on Cuba to sanction Fidel Castro's communist government. According to Pierre Salinger, then Kennedy's press secretary, the president ordered him on the evening of 6 February to obtain 1,200 H. Upmann brand Petit Upmann Cuban cigars; upon Salinger's arrival with the cigars the following morning, Kennedy signed the executive order which put the embargo into effect. Richard Goodwin, a White House assistant to Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, revealed in a 2000 New York Times article that in early 1962, JFK told him, \"We tried to exempt cigars, but the cigar manufacturers in Tampa objected.\"","Cigar\n\nThe embargo prohibited US residents from legally purchasing Cuban cigars and American cigar manufacturers from importing Cuban tobacco. As a result, Cuba was deprived of its major customer for tobacco, and American cigar manufacturers either had to find an alternative source of tobacco or go out of business.","Cigar\n\nUpon the expropriation of private property in Cuba, many former Cuban cigar manufacturers moved to other countries (primarily the Dominican Republic) to continue production. The Dominican Republic's production of tobacco grew significantly as a result. After reallocation, most Cuban manufacturers continued to use their known company name, seed, and harvesting technique while Cubatabaco, Cuba's state tobacco monopoly after the Revolution, independently continued production of cigars using the former private company names. As a result, cigar name brands like Romeo y Julieta, La Gloria Cubana, Montecristo, and H. Upmann among others, exist in both Cuba and the Dominican Republic. Honduras and Nicaragua are also mass manufacturers of cigars. Some Cuban refugees make cigars in the U.S. and advertise them as \"Cuban\" cigars, using the argument that the cigars are made by Cubans.","Cigar\n\nIt remains illegal for US residents to purchase or import Cuban cigars, regardless of where they are in the world, although they are readily available across the northern border in Canada and the southern border in Mexico. While Cuban cigars are smuggled into the USA and sold at high prices, counterfeiting is rife; it has been said that 95% of Cuban cigars sold in the US are counterfeit. Although Cuban cigars cannot legally be imported into the US, the advent of the Internet has made it much easier for people in the United States to purchase cigars online from other countries, especially when shipped without bands. Cuban cigars are openly advertised in some European tourist regions, catering to the American market, even though it is illegal to advertise tobacco in most European regions.","Cigar\n\nThe loosening of the embargo in January 2015 included a provision that allowed the importation into the U.S. of $100's worth of alcohol or tobacco per traveller, allowing legal importation for the first time since the ban.","Cigar\n\nToscano-style cigars are also manufactured in the United States by The Avanti Cigar Co. of Scranton, Pennsylvania. Their brands include Bon Gusto, De Nobili, Parodi, Petri, Toscanelli, the anisette-flavored Avanti, and the \"Avanti Estilo Café Mocha\", which is infused with coffee and chocolate flavors.","Cigar\n\nIn popular culture","Cigar\n\nIn the 1980s and 1990s, major U.S. print media portrayed cigars favorably; they generally framed cigar use as a lucrative business or a trendy habit, rather than as a health risk. Rich people are often caricatured as wearing top hats and tails and smoking cigars. Cigars are often smoked to celebrate special occasions: the birth of a child, a graduation, a big sale. The expression \"close but no cigar\" comes from the practice of giving cigars as prizes in games involving good aim at fairgrounds.","Cigar\n\nCigar Smoker of the Year Award","Cigar\n\nIn 2013 the UK magazine The Spectator inaugurated an international Cigar Smoker of the Year Award.","Cigar\n\nThe first winner, in 2013, was Simon le Bon. In 2014, Arnold Schwarzenegger became the second winner and Jonathan Ross won in 2015."],"string":"[\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe President of the United States of America (POTUS) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe President of the United States is considered one of the world's most powerful people, leading the world's only contemporary superpower. The role includes being the commander-in-chief of the world's most expensive military with the largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by real and nominal GDP. The office of the president holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nArticle II of the U.S. Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The power includes execution of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances. The president is largely responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is enrolled. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States. Since the founding of the United States, the power of the president and the federal government has grown substantially.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe president is indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a four-year term, and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers, the other being the Vice President of the United States. The Twenty-second Amendment, adopted in 1951, prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a third full term. It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as president, or acting president, for more than two years of another person's term as president. In all, 43 individuals have served 44 presidencies (counting Cleveland's two non-consecutive terms separately) spanning 56 full four-year terms. On January 20, 2009, Barack Obama became the 44th and current president. On November 6, 2012, he was re-elected and is currently serving the 57th term. The next presidential election is scheduled to take place on November 8, 2016; on January 20, 2017, the newly elected president will take office.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nOrigin\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nIn 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, recognized the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British. Desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. As a central authority, Congress under the Articles was without any legislative power; it could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, nor any taxes or local commercial regulations enforceable upon citizens. This institutional design reflected the conception of how Americans believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion: a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress, while severally lodging the rest within their own respective state governments.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nOnly after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1, 1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nIn 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak, their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another, witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates, and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest. Civil and political unrest loomed.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nFollowing the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 in Annapolis, Maryland, with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When the convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, the Annapolis delegates called for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring in Philadelphia. Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington's attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nWhen the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance (Rhode Island did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature. New York offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter. It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S. Constitution emerged.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPowers and duties\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nArticle I legislative role\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto. The Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options:\\n# Sign the legislation; the bill then becomes law.\\n# Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections; the bill does not become law, unless each house of Congress votes to override the veto by a two-thirds vote.\\n# Take no action. In this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation. After 10 days, not counting Sundays, two possible outcomes emerge:\\n#* If Congress is still convened, the bill becomes law.\\n#* If Congress has adjourned, thus preventing the return of the legislation, the bill does not become law. This latter outcome is known as the pocket veto.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nIn 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act. The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York, , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nArticle II executive powers\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nWar and foreign affairs powers\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPerhaps the most important of all presidential powers is the command of the United States Armed Forces as its commander-in-chief. While the power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, the president has ultimate responsibility for direction and disposition of the military. The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces (belonging to the Department of Defense) is normally exercised through the Secretary of Defense, with assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, to the Combatant Commands, as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP). The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explains this in Federalist No. 69: Congress, pursuant to the War Powers Resolution, must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual. Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nWhile historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in 1903, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1990.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAlong with the armed forces, the president also directs U.S. foreign policy. Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments, and negotiates treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds vote of the Senate.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAlthough not constitutionally provided, presidents also sometimes employ \\\"executive agreements\\\" in foreign relations. These agreements frequently regard administrative policy choices germane to executive power; for example, the extent to which either country presents an armed presence in a given area, how each country will enforce copyright treaties, or how each country will process foreign mail. However, the 20th century witnessed a vast expansion of the use of executive agreements, and critics have challenged the extent of that use as supplanting the treaty process and removing constitutionally prescribed checks and balances over the executive in foreign relations. Supporters counter that the agreements offer a pragmatic solution when the need for swift, secret, and/or concerted action arises.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAdministrative powers\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe president is the head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to \\\"take care that the laws be faithfully executed.\\\" The executive branch has over four million employees, including members of the military.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPresidents make numerous executive branch appointments: an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before taking office and 8,000 more while serving. Ambassadors, members of the Cabinet, and other federal officers, are all appointed by a president with the \\\"advice and consent\\\" of a majority of the Senate. When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days, the president may make recess appointments. Recess appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove purely executive officials at will. However, Congress can curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe president additionally possesses the ability to direct much of the executive branch through executive orders that are grounded in federal law or constitutionally granted executive power. Executive orders are reviewable by federal courts and can be superseded by federal legislation.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nTo manage the growing federal bureaucracy, Presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States. Within the Executive Office, the President's innermost layer of aides (and their assistants) are located in the White House Office.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nJuridical powers\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe president also has the power to nominate federal judges, including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these nominations do require Senate confirmation. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts, presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of Senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves, as is often done just before the end of a presidential term, not without controversy.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nHistorically, two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege, which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, or any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon, , that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When President Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones, , that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAdditionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees, but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security. Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States , when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy. However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds , where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege. Before the September 11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency. Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc. Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nLegislative facilitator\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe Constitution's Ineligibility Clause prevents the President (and all other executive officers) from simultaneously being a member of Congress. Therefore, the president cannot directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress. However, the president can take an indirect role in shaping legislation, especially if the president's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress. For example, the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally mandated, periodic reports to Congress. These reports may be either written or oral, but today are given as the State of the Union address, which often outlines the president's legislative proposals for the coming year. Additionally, the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nIn the 20th century critics began charging that too many legislative and budgetary powers have slid into the hands of presidents that should belong to Congress. As the head of the executive branch, presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a \\\"virtual army of 'czars' – each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House.\\\" Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it. This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional. Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an \\\"increasingly swollen executive branch\\\" and \\\"the eclipse of Congress.\\\"\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAccording to Article II, Section 3, Clause 2 of the Constitution, the president may convene either or both houses of Congress. If both houses cannot agree on a date of adjournment, the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nCeremonial roles\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAs head of state, the president can fulfill traditions established by previous presidents. William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., on the Washington Senators' Opening Day. Every president since Taft, except for Jimmy Carter, threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the All-Star Game, or the World Series, usually with much fanfare.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe President of the United States has served as the honorary president of the Boy Scouts of America since the founding of the organization.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nOther presidential traditions are associated with American holidays. Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children. Beginning in 1947 during the Harry S. Truman administration, every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual national thanksgiving turkey presentation held at the White House. Since 1989, when the custom of \\\"pardoning\\\" the turkey was formalized by George H. W. Bush, the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPresidential traditions also involve the president's role as head of government. Many outgoing presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the presidential transition. Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nDuring a state visit by a foreign head of state, the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn, a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961. This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe modern presidency holds the president as one of the nation's premier celebrities. Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves. One critic described the presidency as \\\"propagandized leadership\\\" which has a \\\"mesmerizing power surrounding the office.\\\" Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo-ops of smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras. One critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as carefully framed \\\"in rich detail\\\" which \\\"drew on the power of myth\\\" regarding the incident of PT 109 and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions. As a result, some political commentators have opined that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents: voters expect a president to \\\"drive the economy, vanquish enemies, lead the free world, comfort tornado victims, heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees.\\\"\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nCritics of presidency's evolution\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nMost of the nation's Founding Fathers expected the Congress, which was the first branch of government described in the Constitution, to be the dominant branch of government; they did not expect a strong executive. However, presidential power has shifted over time, which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful, unchecked, unbalanced, and \\\"monarchist\\\" in nature. Critic Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards \\\"undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies.\\\" She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for expanding \\\"the many existing uncheckable executive powers – such as executive orders, decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing statements – that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid, interference or consent from Congress.\\\" Activist Bill Wilson opined that the expanded presidency was \\\"the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule.\\\"\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nSelection process\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nEligibility\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nArticle II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the following qualifications for holding the presidency:\\n* be a natural-born citizen of the United States;Foreign-born American citizens who met the age and residency requirements at the time the Constitution was adopted were also eligible for the presidency. However, this allowance has since become obsolete.\\n* be at least thirty-five years old;\\n* be a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe Twelfth Amendment precludes anyone ineligible to being the president from becoming the vice president.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nA person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:\\n* Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no person can be elected president more than twice. The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president, the former can only be elected president once. Scholars disagree over whether a person precluded by the Twenty-second Amendment to being elected president is also precluded to being vice president. \\n* Under Article I, Section 3, Clause 7, upon conviction in impeachment cases, the Senate has the option of disqualifying convicted individuals from holding federal office, including that of president. \\n* Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, can become president. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nCampaigns and nomination\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections, which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions, where the most successful candidate is made the party's nominee for president. Typically, the party's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice is rubber-stamped by the convention. The most common previous profession by U.S. presidents is lawyer.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nNominees participate in nationally televised debates, and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees, third party candidates may be invited, such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views, convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nElection and oath\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe president is elected indirectly. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president—acting in that role's capacity as President of the Senate—and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and the vice president. Before executing the powers of the office, a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath:\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAlthough not required, presidents have traditionally palmed a Bible while swearing the oath and have added, \\\"So help me God!\\\" to the end of the oath. Further, although the oath may be administered by any person authorized by law to administer oaths, presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nTenure and term limits\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe term of office for president and vice president is four years. George Washington, the first president, set an unofficial precedent of serving only two terms, which subsequent presidents followed until 1940. Before Franklin D. Roosevelt, attempts at a third term were encouraged by supporters of Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt; neither of these attempts succeeded. In 1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt declined to seek a third term, but allowed his political party to \\\"draft\\\" him as its presidential candidate and was subsequently elected to a third term. In 1941, the United States entered World War II, leading voters to elect Roosevelt to a fourth term in 1944. But Roosevelt died only 82 days after taking office for the fourth term on 12 April 1945.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAfter the war, and in response to Roosevelt being elected to third and fourth terms, the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice, or once if that person served more than half of another president's term. Harry S. Truman, president when this amendment was adopted, was exempted from its limitations and briefly sought a third (a second full) term before withdrawing from the 1952 election.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nSince the amendment's adoption, four presidents have served two full terms: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Barack Obama has been elected to a second term, and will complete his term on 20 January 2017, if he does not die or resign before that date. Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush sought a second term, but were defeated. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term, but resigned before completing it. Lyndon B. Johnson was the only president under the amendment to be eligible to serve more than two terms in total, having served for only fourteen months following John F. Kennedy's assassination. However, Johnson withdrew from the 1968 Democratic Primary, surprising many Americans. Gerald Ford sought a full term, after serving out the last two years and five months of Nixon's second term, but was not elected.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nVacancy or disability\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nVacancies in the office of President may arise under several possible circumstances: death, resignation and removal from office.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nArticle II, Section 4 of the Constitution allows the House of Representatives to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for \\\"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\\\" Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 gives the Senate the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. The House has thus far impeached two presidents: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Neither was subsequently convicted by the Senate; however, Johnson was acquitted by just one vote.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nUnder Section 3 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes acting president, by transmitting a statement to the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for the transfer. The president resumes the discharge of the presidential powers and duties upon transmitting, to those two officials, a written declaration stating that resumption. This transfer of power may occur for any reason the president considers appropriate; in 2002 and again in 2007, President George W. Bush briefly transferred presidential authority to Vice President Dick Cheney. In both cases, this was done to accommodate a medical procedure which required Bush to be sedated; both times, Bush returned to duty later the same day.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nUnder Section 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the vice president, in conjunction with a majority of the Cabinet, may transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate that the president is unable to discharge the presidential powers and duties. If this occurs, then the vice president will assume the presidential powers and duties as acting president; however, the president can declare that no such inability exists and resume the discharge of the presidential powers and duties. If the vice president and Cabinet contest this claim, it is up to Congress, which must meet within two days if not already in session, to decide the merit of the claim.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe United States Constitution mentions the resignation of the president, but does not regulate its form or the conditions for its validity. Pursuant to federal law, the only valid evidence of the president's resignation is a written instrument to that effect, signed by the president and delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. This has only occurred once, when Richard Nixon delivered a letter to Henry Kissinger to that effect.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nSection 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment states that the vice president becomes president upon the removal from office, death or resignation of the preceding president. The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 provides that if the offices of President and Vice President are each either vacant or are held by a disabled person, the next officer in the presidential line of succession, the Speaker of the House, becomes acting president. The line then extends to the President pro tempore of the Senate, followed by every member of the Cabinet. These persons must fulfill all eligibility requirements of the office of President to be eligible to become acting president; ineligible individuals are skipped. There has never been a special election for the office of President.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nCompensation\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nSince 2001, the president has earned a $400,000 annual salary, along with a $50,000 annual expense account, a $100,000 nontaxable travel account, and $19,000 for entertainment. The most recent raise in salary was approved by Congress and President Bill Clinton in 1999 and went into effect in 2001.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe White House in Washington, D.C., serves as the official place of residence for the president. As well as access to the White House staff, facilities available to the president include medical care, recreation, housekeeping, and security services. The government pays for state dinners and other official functions, but the president pays for personal, family and guest dry cleaning and food; the high food bill often amazes new residents. Naval Support Facility Thurmont, popularly known as Camp David, is a mountain-based military camp in Frederick County, Maryland, used as a country retreat and for high alert protection of the president and guests. Blair House, located next to the Eisenhower Executive Office Building at the White House Complex and Lafayette Park, is a complex of four connected townhouses exceeding 70000 sqft of floor space which serves as the president's official guest house and as a secondary residence for the president if needed.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nFor ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armored limousine built on a heavily modified Cadillac-based chassis.[http://www.secretservice.gov/press/GPA02-09_Limo.pdf New Presidential Limousine enters Secret Service Fleet] U.S. Secret Service Press Release (January 14, 2009) Retrieved on January 20, 2009. One of two identical Boeing VC-25 aircraft, which are extensively modified versions of Boeing 747-200B airliners, serve as long distance travel for the president and are referred to as Air Force One while the president is on board (although any U.S. Air Force aircraft the President is aboard is designated as \\\"Air Force One\\\" for the duration of the flight). In-country trips are typically handled with just one of the two planes while overseas trips are handled with both, one primary and one backup. Any civilian aircraft the President is aboard is designated Executive One for the flight. The president also has access to a fleet of thirty-five U.S. Marine Corps helicopters of varying models, designated Marine One when the president is aboard any particular one in the fleet.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nFlights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the President is actually aboard to any would-be threats.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nThe U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the sitting president and the first family. As part of their protection, presidents, first ladies, their children and other immediate family members, and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret Service codenames. The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted; today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity, and tradition.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nFile:White House lawn (1).tif|The White House\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nFile:Camp David 1959.jpg|Camp David\\nFile:Blair House daylight.jpg|Blair House\\nFile:GPA02-09 US SecretService press release 2009 Limousine Page 3 Image.jpg|State car\\nFile:Air Force One over Mt. Rushmore.jpg|Air Force One\\nFile:Marine One (1970).jpg|Marine One\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPost-presidency\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nBeginning in 1959, all living former presidents were granted a pension, an office, and a staff. The pension has increased numerous times with Congressional approval. Retired presidents now receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration's cabinet secretaries, which was $199,700 each year in 2012. Former presidents who served in Congress may also collect congressional pensions. The Former Presidents Act, as amended, also provides former presidents with travel funds and franking privileges. Prior to 1997, all former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by the Secret Service until the president's death. In 1997, Congress passed legislation limiting secret service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office. On January 10, 2013, President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime secret service protection for him, George W. Bush, and all subsequent presidents. A spouse who remarries is no longer eligible for secret service protection.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nSome presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples include William Howard Taft's tenure as Chief Justice of the United States and Herbert Hoover's work on government reorganization after World War II. Grover Cleveland, whose bid for reelection failed in 1888, was elected president again four years later in 1892. Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House: John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of Representatives, serving there for seventeen years, and Andrew Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875. John Tyler served in the provisional Congress of the Confederate States during the Civil War and was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives, but died before that body first met.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPresidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events. Richard Nixon made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman. Jimmy Carter has become a global human rights campaigner, international arbiter, and election monitor, as well as a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. Bill Clinton has also worked as an informal ambassador, most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two American journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee, from North Korea. Clinton has also been active politically since his presidential term ended, working with his wife Hillary on her 2008 and 2016 presidential bids and President Obama on his reelection campaign.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nFile:Carter 2k14.tif|Jimmy Carter39th (1977–81)\\nFile:President George H. W.tif|George H. W. Bush41st (1989–93)\\nFile:Clinton 2k15.tif|Bill Clinton42nd (1993–2001)\\nFile:Bush 2k14.tif|George W. Bush43rd (2001–09)\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nPresidential libraries\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nSince Herbert Hoover, each president has created a repository known as a presidential library for preserving and making available his papers, records and other documents and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private, non-federal sources. There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations and Universities of Higher Education, such as the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the State of Illinois, the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by Texas A&M University and the Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the University of Texas at Austin.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nAs many presidents live for many years after leaving office, several of them have personally overseen the building and opening of their own presidential libraries, some even making arrangements for their own burial at the site. Several presidential libraries therefore contain the graves of the president they document, such as the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California and the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. The graves are viewable by the general public visiting these libraries.\",\n \"President of the United States\\n\\nTimeline of Presidents\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe United States embargo against Cuba (in Cuba called el bloqueo, \\\"the blockade\\\") is a commercial, economic, and financial embargo imposed by the United States on Cuba. An embargo was first imposed by the United States on Cuba on October 19, 1960 (almost two years after the Batista regime was deposed by the Cuban Revolution) when the U.S. placed an embargo on exports to Cuba except for food and medicine after Cuba nationalized American-owned Cuban oil refineries without compensation. Cuba nationalized the refineries following Eisenhower's decision to cancel 700,000 tons of sugar imports from Cuba to the U.S. and refused to export oil to the island, leaving it reliant on Soviet crude oil. All American oil companies refused to refine Soviet oil, leading the Cuban government to nationalize the refineries. The refinery owners were never compensated for the Cuban nationalization of their property. Today the refineries are owned & operated by the state-run company, Unión CubaPetróleo. On February 7, 1962 the embargo was extended to include almost all imports.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nCurrently, the Cuban embargo is enforced mainly through six statutes: the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917, the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, the Cuban Assets Control Regulations of 1963, the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992, the Helms–Burton Act of 1996, and the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act of 2000. The stated purpose of the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 is to maintain sanctions on Cuba so long as the Cuban government refuses to move toward \\\"democratization and greater respect for human rights\\\". The Helms–Burton Act further restricted United States citizens from doing business in or with Cuba, and mandated restrictions on giving public or private assistance to any successor government in Havana unless and until certain claims against the Cuban government were met. In 1999, President Bill Clinton expanded the trade embargo by also disallowing foreign subsidiaries of U.S. companies to trade with Cuba. In 2000, Clinton authorized the sale of \\\"humanitarian\\\" U.S. products to Cuba.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nDespite the Spanish term bloqueo (blockade), there has been no physical, naval blockade of the country by the United States after the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. The United States does not block Cuba's trade with third parties: other countries are not under the jurisdiction of U.S. domestic laws, such as the Cuban Democracy Act (although, in theory, foreign countries that trade with Cuba could be penalised by the U.S., which has been condemned as an \\\"extraterritorial\\\" measure that contravenes \\\"the sovereign equality of States, non-intervention in their internal affairs and freedom of trade and navigation as paramount to the conduct of international affairs.\\\" ). Cuba can, and does, conduct international trade with many third-party countries; Cuba has been a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 1995.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nBeyond criticisms of Human rights in Cuba, the United States holds $6 billion worth of financial claims against the Cuban government. The pro-embargo position is that the U.S. embargo is, in part, an appropriate response to these unaddressed claims. The Latin America Working Group argues that pro-embargo Cuban-American exiles, whose votes are crucial in Florida, have swayed many politicians to also adopt similar views. The Cuban-American views have been opposed by some business leaders who argue that trading freely would be good for Cuba and the United States.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nAt present, the embargo, which limits American businesses from conducting business with Cuban interests, is still in effect and is the most enduring trade embargo in modern history. Despite the existence of the embargo, the United States is the fifth largest exporter to Cuba (6.6% of Cuba's imports are from the US). Cuba must, however, pay cash for all imports, as credit is not allowed.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe UN General Assembly has, since 1992, passed a resolution every year condemning the ongoing impact of the embargo and declaring it to be in violation of the Charter of the United Nations and international law. In 2014, out of the 193-nation assembly, 188 countries voted for the nonbinding resolution, the United States and Israel voted against and the Pacific island nations Palau, Marshall Islands and Micronesia abstained. Human rights groups including Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights have also been critical of the embargo. Critics of the embargo say that the embargo laws are too harsh, citing the fact that violations can result in 10 years in prison.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nEisenhower era\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe United States imposed an arms embargo on Cuba on March 14, 1958 during the armed conflict between rebels led by Fidel Castro and the Fulgencio Batista regime. The arms embargo had more of an impact on Batista than the rebels. After the Castro socialist government came to power on January 1, 1959, Castro made overtures to the United States, but was rebuffed by the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration, which by March began making plans to help overthrow him.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nIn May 1960, the Cuban government began to openly purchase regular armaments from the Soviet Union, citing the US arms embargo. In July 1960, the United States reduced the Cuban import quota of brown sugar to 700,000 tons, under the Sugar Act of 1948; and the Soviet Union responded by agreeing to purchase the sugar instead.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nIn October 1960, a key incident occurred in which a private American oil refinery in Cuba refused to refine a shipment of Soviet crude oil, and the Cuban government responded by nationalizing all three Cuban refineries, which were all American-owned. This prompted the Eisenhower administration to launch the first trade embargo—a prohibition against selling all products to Cuba except food and medicine. The Cuban regime responded with nationalization of all American businesses and most American privately owned properties on the island. No compensation was given for the seizures, and a number of diplomats were expelled from Cuba.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe second wave of nationalizations prompted the Eisenhower administration, in one of its last actions, to sever all diplomatic relations with Cuba, in January 1961. The U.S. partial trade embargo with Cuba was continued, under the Trading with the Enemy Act 1917.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nKennedy era\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe Bay of Pigs invasion and Cuba's declaration of Marxism\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nAfter the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961, which had been largely planned under the Eisenhower administration, but which Kennedy had been informed of and approved during the months preceding his presidency and in his first few months as president, the Cuban government declared that it now considered itself Marxist and socialist, and aligned with the Soviet Union. On September 4, 1961, partly in response, Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act, a Cold War Act (among many other measures) which prohibited aid to Cuba and authorized the President to impose a complete trade embargo against Cuba.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nOn January 21, 1962, Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States (OAS) by a vote of 14 in favor, one (Cuba) against with six abstentions. (See Cuban relations with the Organization of American States for details of the proceedings.) Mexico and Ecuador, two abstaining members, argued that the expulsion was not authorized in the OAS Charter. (Multilateral sanctions were imposed by the OAS on July 26, 1964, which were later rescinded on July 29, 1975. Cuban relations with the Organization of American States have since improved, and as of June 3, 2009, membership suspension was lifted.)\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nPresident John F. Kennedy extended measures by Executive order, first widening the scope of the trade restrictions on February 8, 1962 (announced on February 3 and again on March 23, 1962). These measures expanded the embargo to include all imports of products containing Cuban goods, even if the final products had been made or assembled outside Cuba.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nOn August 3, 1962 the Foreign Assistance Act was amended to prohibit aid to any country that provides assistance to Cuba.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nOn September 7, 1962 President Kennedy formally expanded the Cuban embargo to include all Cuban trade, except for non-subsidized sale of food and medicines.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe Cuban Missile Crisis\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nFollowing the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962), Kennedy imposed travel restrictions on February 8, 1963, and the Cuban Assets Control Regulations were issued on July 8, 1963, again under the Trading with the Enemy Act in response to Cubans hosting Soviet nuclear weapons. Under these restrictions, Cuban assets in the U.S. were frozen and the existing restrictions were consolidated.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nTemporary lapse of restrictions, and reinstatement\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe restrictions on U.S. citizens traveling to Cuba lapsed on March 19, 1977; the regulation was renewable every six months, but President Jimmy Carter did not renew it and the regulation on spending U.S. dollars in Cuba was lifted shortly afterwards. President Ronald Reagan reinstated the trade embargo on April 19, 1982. This has been modified subsequently with the present regulation, effective June 30, 2004, being the Cuban Assets Control Regulations, 31 C.F.R. part 515.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe current regulation does not prohibit travel by U.S. citizens to Cuba per se, but it makes it illegal for U.S. citizens to have transactions (spend money or receive gifts) in Cuba under most circumstances without a US government Office of Foreign Assets Control issued license. Since even paying unavoidable airfare ticket taxes into a Cuban airport would violate this transaction law, it is effectively impossible for ordinary tourists to visit Cuba without breaking the monetary transaction rule.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nHelms–Burton Act\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe embargo was reinforced in October 1992 by the Cuban Democracy Act (the \\\"Torricelli Law\\\") and in 1996 by the Cuban Liberty and Democracy Solidarity Act (known as the Helms–Burton Act) which penalizes foreign companies that do business in Cuba by preventing them from doing business in the U.S. Justification provided for these restrictions was that these companies were trafficking in stolen U.S. properties, and should, thus, be excluded from the United States.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe European Union resented the Helms Burton Act because it felt that the U.S. was dictating how other nations ought to conduct their trade and challenged it on that basis. The EU eventually dropped its challenge in favor of negotiating a solution.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nAfter Cuba shot down two unarmed Brothers to the Rescue planes in 1996, killing three Americans and a U.S. resident, a bi-partisan coalition in the United States Congress approved the Helms-Burton Act. The Title III of this law also states that any non-U.S. company that \\\"knowingly trafficks in property in Cuba confiscated without compensation from a U.S. person\\\" can be subjected to litigation and that company's leadership can be barred from entry into the United States. Sanctions may also be applied to non-U.S. companies trading with Cuba. This restriction also applies to maritime shipping, as ships docking at Cuban ports are not allowed to dock at U.S. ports for six months. It's important to note that this title includes waiver authority, so that the President might suspend its application. This waiver must be renewed every six months and traditionally it has been.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nIn response to pressure from some American farmers and agribusiness, the embargo was relaxed by the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act, which was passed by the Congress in October 2000 and signed by President Bill Clinton. The relaxation allowed the sale of agricultural goods and medicine to Cuba for humanitarian reasons. Although Cuba initially declined to engage in such trade (having even refused U.S. food aid in the past, seeing it as a half-measure serving U.S. interests), the Cuban government began to allow the purchase of food from the U.S. as a result of Hurricane Michelle in November 2001. These purchases have grown since then, even though all sales are made in cash. In 2007, the U.S. was the largest food supplier of Cuba, which nevertheless is largely self-sufficient, and its fifth largest trading partner.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nIn some tourist spots across the island, American brands such as Coca-Cola can be purchased. Ford tankers refuel planes in airports and some computers use Microsoft software. The origin of the financing behind such goods is not always clear. The goods often come from third parties based in countries outside the U.S., even if the product being dealt originally has U.S. shareholders or investors. This can be seen, for example, with Nestle products (which have a 10% US ownership) that can be bought in Cuba with Cuban convertible pesos (CUCs). These CUC pesos are hard currency that are traded in foreign exchange against the US dollar, Euro and other currencies.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nDetails of embargo\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nImpacts of the embargo\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nIn November 1991, the Cuban ambassador, Ricardo Alarcon, in a speech to the UN General Assembly, cited 27 recent cases of trade contracts interrupted by US pressure. The British journal Cuba Business claimed that British Petroleum was seemingly dissuaded by US authorities from investing in offshore oil exploration in Cuba despite being initially keenly interested. The Petroleum economist claimed, in September 1992, that the US State Department vigorously discouraged firms like Royal Dutch Shell and Clyde Petroleum from investing in Cuba. This pressure did not work in all cases. According to the Mexican Newspaper El Financiero, the US ambassador to Mexico, John Negroponte travelled to meet two Mexican business men who had signed a textile deal with Cuba on October 17, 1992. Despite the representation, the deal went ahead and was eventually worth $500 million in foreign capital. All of this happened before the signing of the Cuban Democracy Act.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nRestrictions on tourism by U.S. citizens and residents\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nAccording to the U.S. Department of State:\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nSpurred by a burgeoning interest in the assumed untapped product demand in Cuba, a growing number of free-marketers in Congress, backed by Western and Great Plains lawmakers who represent agribusiness, have tried each year since 2000 to water down or lift regulations preventing Americans from traveling to Cuba. Four times over that time period the United States House of Representatives has adopted language lifting the travel ban, and in 2003 the U.S. Senate followed suit for the first time. Each time President George W. Bush threatened to veto the bill. Faced with a veto threat, each year Congress dropped its attempt to lift the travel ban before sending legislation to the president. Some United States nationals circumvent the ban by traveling to Cuba from a different country (such as Mexico, The Bahamas, Canada or Costa Rica), as Cuban immigration authorities do not routinely stamp passports, but instead stamp a Cuban visa page which is provided, and not permanently affixed to the passport. In doing so, however, U.S. citizens still risk prosecution and fines by the U.S. government if discovered. Until July 20, 2015 there was no U.S.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nEmbassy or consulate in Cuba and United States representation was limited to a United States Interests Section.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe United States Treasury Department's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) considers any visit of more than one day to be prima facie proof of violation. OFAC also holds that U.S. citizens may not receive goods or services for free from any Cuban national, eliminating any attempts to circumvent the regulation based on that premise. On July 25, 2011, OFAC declared that the \\\"people to people\\\" relaxation of restrictions on travel conceded by the Obama administration should not be mistakenly interpreted as promoting tourism.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nOn October 10, 2006, the United States announced the creation of a task force made up of officials from several U.S. agencies that will pursue more aggressively violators of the U.S. trade embargo against Cuba, with severe penalties. The regulations are still in force and are administered by the U.S. Treasury Department, Office of Foreign Assets Control. Criminal penalties for violating the embargo range up to ten years in prison, $1 million in corporate fines, and $250,000 in individual fines; civil penalties up to $55,000 per violation.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nEasing the embargo\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nCuban-Americans\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nOn April 13, 2009, President Barack Obama eased the travel ban, allowing Cuban-Americans to travel freely to Cuba; and on January 14, 2011, he further eased the ban, by allowing students and religious missionaries to travel to Cuba if they meet certain restrictions.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nGeneral changes\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nOn July 16, 2012, the Ana Cecilia became the first officially sanctioned direct ship to sail from Miami to Cuba. It carried food, medicine and personal hygiene goods sent by Cuban-Americans to family members.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nIn 2014, the Obama administration announced its intention to re-establish relations with Cuba. In January 2015, the Administration lightened restrictions on U.S. citizen travel to Cuba. While restrictions on travel for missionary work and education have been loosened, visits for tourism remain banned. President Obama and President Raúl Castro of Cuba met on April 11, 2015, which was the first meeting between distinct leaders of the two countries in over fifty years. In May 2015, several American companies reported they had been granted licenses to establish ferry travel between Florida and Cuba, with a U.S Department of Treasury spokeswoman confirming they had begun issuing licenses. So far the general ban on travel to Cuba remains in effect for Americans, so the ferry service will not be accessible to Americans who have not received special approval for travel to Cuba.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nOn September 21, 2015, the Commerce and Treasury Departments took additional coordinated actions in support of the President’s Cuba policy. These actions included a rule published by the Commerce Department’s Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) that amended the terms of existing license exceptions that are available for Cuba, increased the number of license exception provisions that are available for Cuba, created a new Cuba licensing policy to help ensure the safety of civil aviation and the safe operation of commercial passenger aircraft, and made the deemed export and deemed reexport license requirements for Cuba consistent with other sanctioned destinations.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nInvestment in Cuba by Americans\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe U.S. Government allowed two American men from Alabama to build a factory that will assemble as many as 1,000 small tractors a year for sale to private farmers in Cuba. The $5 million to $10 million plant would be the first significant U.S. business investment on Cuban soil since 1959. They expect to start making deliveries in 2017.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nSocio-economic effects of the embargo\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe U.S. Chamber of Commerce estimates that the embargo costs the U.S. economy $1.2 billion per year in lost sales and exports, while the Cuban government estimates that the embargo costs the island itself $685 million annually. The United States has spent over $500 million broadcasting Radio Marti and TV Marti, even though the transmission signals of the latter are effectively blocked by the Cuban government. The self-proclaimed non-partisan Cuba Policy Foundation estimates that the embargo costs the U.S. economy $3.6 billion per year in economic output.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe 1998 U.S. State Department report Zenith and Eclipse: A Comparative Look at Socio-Economic Conditions in Pre-Castro and Present Day Cuba argued that the U.S. embargo has added, at most, relatively small increases in transportation costs. It claims that the main problem is not the embargo but the lack of foreign currency due to the unwillingness of Cuba to liberalize its economy and diversify its export base during the years of abundant Soviet aid. Cuba also amassed substantial debts owed to its Japanese, European, and Latin American trading partners during the years of abundant Soviet aid.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nAccording to critics, one of the major problems with the embargo is that the United States is the only major country that has such an embargo against Cuba in place. Cuba still receives tourists and trade from other countries making the embargo appear both illegitimate and pointless.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nCriticism of embargo laws and rules\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe UN General Assembly has, from 1992, passed a resolution each year criticizing the ongoing impact of the embargo.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe embargo has been criticized for its effects on food, clean water, medicine, and other economic needs of the Cuban population. Criticism has come from both Fidel Castro and Raúl Castro, citizens and groups from within Cuba, and international organizations and leaders. Some academic critics, outside Cuba, have also linked the embargo to shortages of medical supplies and soap which have resulted in a series of medical crises and heightened levels of infectious diseases. It has also been linked to epidemics of specific diseases, including neurological disorders and blindness caused by poor nutrition. Travel restrictions embedded in the embargo have also been shown to limit the amount of medical information that flows into Cuba from the United States. An article written in 1997 suggests malnutrition and disease resulting from increased food and medicine prices have affected men and the elderly, in particular, due to Cuba's rationing system which gives preferential treatment to women and children.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nOn May 1, 2009, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, while speaking about his meeting U.S. President Barack Obama at a summit days earlier, stated \\\"if President Obama does not dismantle this savage blockade of the Cuban people, then it is all a lie, it will all be a great farce and the U.S. empire will be alive and well, threatening us.\\\" In June 2009, Moisés Naím wrote in Newsweek: \\\"The embargo is the perfect example used by anti-Americans everywhere to expose the hypocrisy of a superpower that punishes a small island while cozying to dictators elsewhere.\\\"\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe Helms-Burton Act has been the target of criticism from Canadian and European governments in particular, who object to what they say is the extraterritorial pretensions of a piece of legislation aimed at punishing non-U.S. corporations and non-U.S. investors who have economic interests in Cuba. In the Canadian House of Commons, Helms-Burton was mocked by the introduction of the Godfrey-Milliken Bill, which called for the return of property of United Empire Loyalists seized by the American government as a result of the American Revolution (the bill never became law). The European Council has stated that it:\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nSome critics say that the embargo actually helps the regime more than it hurts it, by providing it with a bogeyman for all of Cuba's misfortunes. Hillary Clinton publicly shared the view that the embargo helps the Castros, noting that \\\"It is my personal belief that the Castros do not want to see an end to the embargo and do no want to see normalization with the United States.\\\" Clinton said in the same interview that \\\"we're open to changing with them.\\\"\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nGeorge P. Shultz, who served as Secretary of State under Reagan, has called the continued embargo \\\"insane\\\". Daniel Griswold, director of the Cato Institute's Center for Trade Policy Studies, criticized the current policy in June 2009:\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nSome American business leaders openly call for an end to the embargo. They argue, as long as the embargo continues, non-U.S. foreign businesses in Cuba that violate the embargo, do not have to compete with U.S. businesses, and thus, will have a head start when and if the embargo is lifted.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nJosé Azel, a Senior Research Associate at the Institute for Cuban and Cuban-American Studies, University of Miami and the author of the recently published book, Mañana in Cuba (Tomorrow in Cuba) took a different view:\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nSome religious leaders oppose the embargo for a variety of reasons, including humanitarian and economic hardships the embargo imposes on Cubans. Pope John Paul II called for the end to the embargo during his 1979 pastoral visit to Mexico. Patriarch Bartholomew I called the embargo a \\\"historic mistake\\\" while visiting the island on January 25, 2004. A joint letter in 1998 from the Disciples of Christ and the United Church of Christ to the U.S. Senate called for the easing of economic restrictions against Cuba. While also opposing the embargo, the General Secretary of the National Council of Churches stated, \\\"We did not understand the depth of the suffering of Christians under communism. And we failed to really cry out under the communist oppression.\\\" Rev. Jesse Jackson, Rev. Al Sharpton, and Minister Louis Farrakhan have also publicly opposed the embargo.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nOn May 15, 2002 former President Jimmy Carter spoke in Havana, calling for an end to the embargo, saying \\\"Our two nations have been trapped in a destructive state of belligerence for 42 years, and it is time for us to change our relationship.\\\" The US bishops called for an end to the embargo on Cuba, after Pope Benedict XVI's 2012 visit to the island.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nThe United Nations General Assembly has condemned the embargo as a violation of international law every year since 1992. Israel is the only country that routinely joins the U.S. in voting against the resolution as has Palau every year from 2004 to 2008. On October 26, 2010, for the 19th time, the General Assembly condemned the embargo, 187 to 2 with 3 abstentions. Israel sided with the U.S., while Marshall Islands, Palau and Micronesia abstained.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nCuban Foreign Minister Felipe Pérez Roque called the embargo \\\"an act of genocide\\\", quoting a classified State Department memo dated April 6, 1960. Cuba has also denounced as \\\"theft\\\" the use of frozen Cuban assets to pay for lawsuits filed in the US against the Republic of Cuba.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nFilm director Michael Moore challenged the embargo by bringing 9/11 rescue workers in need of health care to Cuba to obtain subsidized health care.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nIn June 2011, former Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern blamed \\\"embittered Cuban exiles in Miami\\\" for keeping the embargo alive. Before visiting Cuba, he said:\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nBarack Obama discussed easing the embargo during his 2008 campaign for president of the U.S., though he promised to maintain it. In December 2014, he called the embargo a failure asked the U.S. Congress to enact legislation to allow him to lift its restrictions.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\n2010 Bill to end the travel ban\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nOn February 23, 2010, U.S. Congressman Rep. Collin Peterson of Minnesota introduced a bill that would bar the president from prohibiting travel to Cuba or preventing transactions required for such trips.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nOn June 10, 2010 seventy-four of Cuba's dissidents signed a letter to the United States Congress in support of a bill that would lift the U.S. travel ban for Americans wishing to visit Cuba. The signers included Yoani Sánchez, Guillermo Farinas, Elizardo Sánchez, and Damas de Blanco founder Miriam Levi. The letter supported a bill introduced by Democrat Minnesota Representative Collin Peterson, that would bar the president from prohibiting travel to Cuba and from blocking transactions required to make the trip. The bill also prohibited the president from stopping direct transfers between U.S. and Cuban banks.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nReestablishment of diplomatic relations\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nIn concert with a prisoner exchange with Cuba, Presidents Barack Obama and Raúl Castro announced moves on December 17, 2014 to reestablish diplomatic relations and to loosen travel and economic policies. Cuba released Alan Gross, an American prisoner, on humanitarian grounds and exchanged an unnamed American spy for the three remaining members of the Cuban Five. Obama also announced a review of Cuba's status as a terrorist state and an intention to ask Congress to remove the embargo entirely. Cuba agreed to release 53 political prisoners and to allow Red Cross and UN human-rights investigators access. On May 29, 2015, according to the U.S. State Department, \\\"Cuba's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism was rescinded\\\".\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nUnder the announced changes by the President, there will be an increased ability to transact with Cuban nationals and businesses, including Cuban financial institutions. Additionally, permitted U.S. banks will now be able to open accredited accounts in Cuban banks.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nPolling data and public opinion\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nA 2008 USA Today/Gallup Poll indicated that Americans believe that diplomatic relations \\\"should\\\" be re-established with Cuba. (61% in favor, 31% opposed.)\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nIn January 2012, an Angus Reid Public Opinion poll showed 57% of Americans called for ending the travel ban that prevents most Americans from visiting Cuba, with 27% disagreeing and 16% were not sure.\",\n \"United States embargo against Cuba\\n\\nPolls also show declining support for sanctions among Cuban Americans. A June 2014 poll showed 52% of Cuban Americans in Miami-Dade County, Florida, oppose the embargo and 48% support it.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nA cigar is a tightly-rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco leaf, rolled in a series of types and sizes, that is ignited so that its smoke may be drawn into the mouth.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigar tobacco is grown in significant quantities in Brazil, Cameroon, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Indonesia, Mexico, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Panama, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Canary Islands (Spain), Italy and the Eastern United States. The origins of cigar smoking are still unknown. In Guatemala, a ceramic pot dating back to the tenth century features a Mayan smoking tobacco leaves tied together with a string. Sikar, the term for smoking used by the Maya, may have inspired the name cigar.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe word cigar originated from the Spanish cigarro, which in turn probably derives from the Mayan sicar (\\\"to smoke rolled tobacco leaves\\\" – from si'c, \\\"tobacco\\\"). There is also a possible derivation, or at least an influence, from the Spanish cigarra (\\\"cicada\\\"), due to their similar shape. The English word came into general use in 1730.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nExplorer Christopher Columbus is generally credited with the introduction of tobacco to Europe. Three of Columbus's crewmen during his 1492 journey, Rodrigo de Jerez, Hector Fuentes and Luis de Torres, are said to have encountered tobacco for the first time on the island of Hispaniola, in what is present day Haiti and the Dominican Republic, when natives presented them with dry leaves that spread a peculiar fragrance. Tobacco was widely diffused among all of the islands of the Caribbean and therefore they again encountered it in Cuba where Columbus and his men had settled. His sailors reported that the Taínos on the island of Cuba smoked a primitive form of cigar, with twisted, dried tobacco leaves rolled in other leaves such as palm or plantain.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIn due course, Spanish and other European sailors adopted the hobby of smoking rolls of leaves, as did the Conquistadors, and smoking primitive cigars spread to Spain and Portugal and eventually France, most probably through Jean Nicot, the French ambassador to Portugal, who gave his name to nicotine. Later, the hobby spread to Italy and, after Sir Walter Raleigh's voyages to the Americas, to Britain. Smoking became familiar throughout Europe—in pipes in Britain—by the mid-16th century and, half a century later, tobacco started to be grown commercially in America. Tobacco was originally thought to have medicinal qualities, but there were some who considered it evil. It was denounced by Philip II of Spain and James I of England.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nAround 1592, the Spanish galleon San Clemente brought 50 kg of tobacco seed to the Philippines over the Acapulco-Manila trade route. The seed was then distributed among the Roman Catholic missionaries, where the clerics found excellent climates and soils for growing high-quality tobacco on Philippine soil.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIn the 19th century, cigar smoking was common, while cigarettes were still comparatively rare. In the early 20th century, Rudyard Kipling wrote his famous smoking poem, \\\"The Betrothed.\\\" The cigar business was an important industry, and factories employed many people before mechanized manufacturing of cigars became practical.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIn 1869, Spanish cigar manufacturer Vicente Martinez Ybor moved his Principe de Gales (Prince of Wales) operations from the important cigar manufacturing center of Havana, Cuba to Key West, Florida to escape the turmoil of the Ten Years' War. Other manufacturers followed, and Key West became another important cigar manufacturing center. In 1885, Ybor moved again, buying land near the then-small city of Tampa, Florida and building the largest cigar factory in the world at the time in the new company town of Ybor City. Friendly rival and Flor de Sánchez y Haya owner Ignacio Haya built his own factory nearby in the same year, and many other cigar manufacturers soon followed, especially after an 1886 fire that gutted much of Key West. Thousands of Cuban and Spanish tabaqueros came to the area from Key West, Cuba and New York to produce hundreds of millions of cigars annually. Local output peaked in 1929, when workers in Ybor City and West Tampa rolled over 500,000,000 \\\"clear Havana\\\" cigars, earning the town the nickname \\\"Cigar Capital of the World\\\".\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIn New York, cigars were made by rollers working in their own homes. It was reported that as of 1883, cigars were being manufactured in 127 apartment houses in New York, employing 1,962 families and 7,924 individuals. A state statute banning the practice, passed late that year at the urging of trade unions on the basis that the practice suppressed wages, was ruled unconstitutional less than four months later. The industry, which had relocated to Brooklyn and other places on Long Island while the law was in effect, then returned to New York.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nAs of 1905, there were 80,000 cigar-making operations in the United States, most of them small, family-operated shops where cigars were rolled and sold immediately. While most cigars are now made by machine, some, as a matter of prestige and quality, are still rolled by hand. This is especially true in Central America and Cuba, as well as in small chinchales found in virtually every sizable city in the United States. Boxes of hand-rolled cigars bear the phrase totalmente a mano (totally by hand) or hecho a mano (made by hand). These premium hand-rolled cigars are significantly different from the machine-made cigars sold in packs at drugstores or gas stations. Since the 1990s and onwards, this has led to severe contention between producers and aficionados of premium handmade cigars and cigarette manufacturing companies that create machine made cigars.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nManufacture\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nTobacco leaves are harvested and aged using a process that combines use of heat and shade to reduce sugar and water content without causing the bigger leaves to rot. This first part of the process, called curing, takes between 25 and 45 days and varies substantially based upon climatic conditions as well as the construction of sheds or barns used to store harvested tobacco. The curing process is manipulated based upon the type of tobacco, and the desired color of the leaf. The second part of the process, called fermentation, is carried out under conditions designed to help the leaf dry slowly. Temperature and humidity are controlled to ensure that the leaf continues to ferment, without rotting or disintegrating. This is where the flavor, burning, and aroma characteristics are primarily brought out in the leaf.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nOnce the leaves have aged properly, they are sorted for use as filler or wrapper based upon their appearance and overall quality. During this process, the leaves are continually moistened and handled carefully to ensure each leaf is best used according to its individual qualities. The leaf will continue to be baled, inspected, un-baled, re-inspected, and baled again repeatedly as it continues the aging cycle. When the leaf has matured according to the manufacturer's specifications, it will be used in the production of a cigar.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nQuality cigars are still handmade. An experienced cigar-roller can produce hundreds of very good, nearly identical, cigars per day. The rollers keep the tobacco moist — especially the wrapper — and use specially designed crescent-shaped knives, called chavetas, to form the filler and wrapper leaves quickly and accurately. Once rolled, the cigars are stored in wooden forms as they dry, in which their uncapped ends are cut to a uniform size. From this stage, the cigar is a complete product that can be \\\"laid down\\\" and aged for decades if kept as close to 21 °C (70 °F), and 70% relative humidity, as the environment will allow. Once cigars have been purchased, proper storage is usually accomplished by keeping the cigars in a specialized wooden box, or humidor, where conditions can be carefully controlled for long periods of time. Even if a cigar becomes dry, it can be successfully re-humidified so long as it has not been handled carelessly and done so gradually. The loss of original tobacco oils, however, will greatly affect the taste.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nSome cigars, especially premium brands, use different varieties of tobacco for the filler and the wrapper. Long filler cigars are a far higher quality of cigar, using long leaves throughout. These cigars also use a third variety of tobacco leaf, called a \\\"binder\\\", between the filler and the outer wrapper. This permits the makers to use more delicate and attractive leaves as a wrapper. These high-quality cigars almost always blend varieties of tobacco. Even Cuban long-filler cigars will combine tobaccos from different parts of the island to incorporate several different flavors.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIn low-grade and machine-made cigars, chopped tobacco leaves are used for the filler, and long leaves or a type of \\\"paper\\\" made from tobacco pulp is used for the wrapper which binds the cigar together. This alters the burning characteristics of the cigar, causing handmade cigars to be sought-after.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nHistorically, a lector or reader was always employed to entertain cigar factory workers. This practice became obsolete once audiobooks for portable music players became available, but it is still practiced in some Cuban factories. The name for the Montecristo cigar brand may have arisen from this practice.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nDominant manufacturers\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nTwo firms dominate the cigar industry. Altadis produces cigars in the United States, the Dominican Republic, and Honduras, and has a 50% stake in Corporación Habanos in Cuba. It also makes cigarettes. Scandinavian Tobacco Group, produces cigars in the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua, Indonesia, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark and the United States; it also makes pipe tobacco and fine cut tobacco. The Group includes General Cigar Co.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\n]\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nFamilies in the cigar industry\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nNearly all modern premium cigar makers are members of long-established cigar families, or purport to be. The art and skill of hand-making premium cigars has been passed from generation to generation; families are often shown in many cigar advertisements and packaging. \\nIn 1992, Cigar Aficionado magazine created the \\\"Cigar Hall of Fame\\\" and recognized the following six individuals:\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\n* Edgar M. Cullman, Chairman, General Cigar Company, New York, United States\\n* Zino Davidoff, Founder, Davidoff et Cie., Geneva, Switzerland\\n* Carlos Fuente, Sr., Chairman, Tabacalera A. Fuente y Cia., Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic\\n* Frank Llaneza, Chairman, Villazon & Co., Tampa, Florida, United States\\n* Stanford J. Newman, Chairman, J.C. Newman Cigar Company, Tampa, Florida, United States\\n* Ángel Oliva, Sr. (founder); Oliva Tobacco Co., Tampa, Florida, United States\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nOther families in the cigar industry (2015)\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\n* Manuel Quesada (MATASA Current CEO) Fonseca, Casa Magna, Quesada cigars, Dominican Republic\\n* Don José \\\"Pepín\\\" Garcia, Chairman, El Rey de Los Habanos, Miami, Florida, United States\\n* Aray Family – Daniel Aray Jr, Grandson of Founder (1952) Jose Aray, ACC Cigars, Guayaquil Ecuador, San Francisco, CA, Miami Florida, Macau SAR, Shanghai China.\\n* EPC – Ernesto Perez-Carillo, Founder EPC Cigar Company (2009), Miami, Florida, United States\\n* Nestor Miranda – Founder, Miami Cigar Company (1989) Miami, FL, United States\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nMarketing and distribution\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nPure tobacco, hand rolled cigars are marketed via advertisements, product placement in movies and other media, sporting events, cigar-friendly magazines such as Cigar Aficionado, and cigar dinners. Since handmade cigars are a premium product with a hefty price, advertisements often include depictions of affluence, sensual imagery, and explicit or implied celebrity endorsement.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigar Aficionado, launched in 1992, presents cigars as symbols of a successful lifestyle, and is a major conduit of advertisements that do not conform to the tobacco industry's voluntary advertisement restrictions since 1965, such as a restriction not to associate smoking with glamour. The magazine also presents pro-smoking arguments at length, and argues that cigars are safer than cigarettes, since they do not have the thousands of chemical additives that cigarette manufactures add to the cutting floor scraps of tobacco used as cigarette filler. The publication also presents arguments that risks are a part of daily life and that (contrary to the evidence discussed in Health effects) cigar smoking has health benefits, that moderation eliminates most or all health risk, and that cigar smokers live to old age, that health research is flawed, and that several health-research results support claims of safety. Like its competitor Smoke, Cigar Aficionado differs from marketing vehicles used for other tobacco products in that it makes cigars the focus of the entire magazine, creating a symbiosis between product and lifestyle.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIn the U.S., cigars are exempt from many of the marketing regulations that govern cigarettes. For example, the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act of 1970 exempted cigars from its advertising ban, and cigar ads, unlike cigarette ads, need not mention health risks. As of 2007, cigars were taxed far less than cigarettes, so much so that in many U.S. states, a pack of little cigars cost less than half as much as a pack of cigarettes. It is illegal for minors to purchase cigars and other tobacco products in the U.S., but laws are unevenly enforced: a 2000 study found that three-quarters of Internet cigar marketing sites allowed minors to purchase cigars.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nInexpensive, non-pure cigars are sold in convenience stores, gas stations, grocery stores, and pharmacies, mostly as self-serve items. Premium cigars are sold in tobacconists, cigar bars, and other specialized establishments. Some cigar stores are part of chains, which have varied in size: in the U.S., United Cigar Stores was one of only three outstanding examples of national chains in the early 1920s, the others being A&P and Woolworth's. Non-traditional outlets for cigars include hotel shops, restaurants, vending machines and the Internet.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nComposition\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigars are composed of three types of tobacco leaves, whose variations determine smoking and flavor characteristics:\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nWrapper\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nA cigar's outermost layer, or wrapper (Spanish: ), is the most expensive component of a cigar.Anwer Bati, The Cigar Companion: The Connoisseur's Guide. Third Edition. Philadelphia, PA: Running Press, 1997; pg. 27. The wrapper determines much of the cigar's character and flavor, and as such its color is often used to describe the cigar as a whole. Wrappers are frequently grown underneath huge canopies made of gauze so as to diffuse direct sunlight and are fermented separately from other rougher cigar components, with a view to the production of a thinly-veined, smooth, supple leaf.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nWrapper tobacco produced without the gauze canopies under which \\\"shade grown\\\" leaf is grown, generally more coarse in texture and stronger in flavor, is commonly known as \\\"sun grown.\\\" A number of different countries are used for the production of wrapper tobacco, including Cuba, Ecuador, Indonesia, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Brazil, Mexico, Cameroon, and the United States.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nWhile dozens of minor wrapper shades have been touted by manufacturers, the seven most common classifications are as follows, ranging from lightest to darkest:\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nSome manufacturers use an alternate designation:\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIn general, dark wrappers add a touch of sweetness, while light ones add a hint of dryness to the taste.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nBinder\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nBeneath the wrapper is a small bunch of \\\"filler\\\" leaves bound together inside of a leaf called a \\\"binder\\\" (Spanish: ). Binder leaf is typically sun grown leaf from the top part of a tobacco plant and is selected for its elasticity and durability in the rolling process. Unlike wrapper leaf, which must be uniform in appearance and smooth in texture, binder leaf may show evidence of physical blemishes or lack uniform coloration. Binder leaf is generally considerably thicker and more hardy than the wrapper leaf surrounding it.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nFiller\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe bulk of a cigar is \\\"filler\\\" — a bound bunch of tobacco leaves. These leaves are folded by hand to allow air passageways down the length of the cigar, through which smoke is drawn after the cigar is lit. A cigar rolled with insufficient air passage is referred to by a smoker as \\\"too tight\\\"; one with excessive airflow creating an excessively fast, hot burn is regarded as \\\"too loose.\\\" Considerable skill and dexterity on the part of the cigar roller is needed to avoid these opposing pitfalls — a primary factor in the superiority of hand-rolled cigars over their machine-made counterparts.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nBy blending various varieties of filler tobacco, cigar makers create distinctive strength and flavor profiles for their various branded products. In general, fatter cigars hold more filler leaves, allowing a greater potential for the creation of complex flavors. In addition to the variety of tobacco employed, the country of origin can be one important determinant of taste, with different growing environments producing distinctive flavors.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe fermentation and aging process adds to this variety, as does the particular part of the tobacco plant harvested, with bottom leaves (Spanish: ) having a mild flavor and burning easily, middle leaves (Spanish: ) having a somewhat stronger flavor, with potent and spicy ligero leaves taken from the sun-drenched top of the plant. When used, ligero is always folded into the middle of the filler bunch due to its slow-burning characteristics.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIf full leaves are used as filler, a cigar is said to be composed of \\\"long filler.\\\" Cigars made from smaller bits of leaf, including many machine-made cigars, are said to be made of \\\"short filler.\\\"\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIf a cigar is completely constructed (filler, binder, and wrapper) of tobacco produced in only one country, it is referred to in the cigar industry as a \\\"puro,\\\" from the Spanish word for \\\"pure.\\\"\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nSize and shape\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigars are commonly categorized by their size and shape, which together are known as the vitola.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe size of a cigar is measured by two dimensions: its ring gauge (its diameter in sixty-fourths of an inch) and its length (in inches). In Cuba, next to Havana, there is a display of the world's longest rolled cigars.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nParejo\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe most common shape is the parejo, sometimes referred to as simply \\\"coronas\\\", which have traditionally been the benchmark against which all other cigar formats are measured. They have a cylindrical body, straight sides, one end open, and a round tobacco-leaf \\\"cap\\\" on the other end which must be sliced off, have a V-shaped notch made in it with a special cutter, or punched through before smoking.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nParejos are designated by the following terms:\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThese dimensions are, at best, idealized. Actual dimensions can vary considerably.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nFigurado\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIrregularly shaped cigars are known as figurados and are sometimes considered of higher quality because they are more difficult to make.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nHistorically, especially during the 19th century, figurados were the most popular shapes, but by the 1930s they had fallen out of fashion and all but disappeared.\\nThey have, however, recently received a small resurgence in popularity, and there are currently many brands (manufacturers) that produce figurados alongside the simpler parejos. The Cuban cigar brand Cuaba only has figurados in their range.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nFigurados include the following:\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nArturo Fuente, a large cigar manufacturer based in the Dominican Republic, has also manufactured figurados in exotic shapes ranging from chilli peppers to baseball bats and American footballs. They are highly collectible and extremely expensive, when available to the public. In practice, the terms Torpedo and Pyramid are often used interchangeably, even among very knowledgeable cigar smokers. Min Ron Nee, the Hong Kong-based cigar expert whose work An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Post-Revolution Havana Cigars is considered to be the definitive work on cigars and cigar terms, defines Torpedo as \\\"cigar slang\\\". Nee thinks the majority is right (because slang is defined by majority usage) and torpedoes are pyramids by another name.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigarillo\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nA cigarillo is a machine-made cigar that is shorter and narrower than a traditional cigar but larger than little cigars, filtered cigars, and cigarettes, thus similar in size and composition to small panatela sized cigars, cheroots and traditional blunts. Cigarillos are usually not filtered, although some have plastic or wood tips, and are not meant to be inhaled. They are sold in varying quantities, from singles, two-packs, three-packs, and five-packs. Cigarillos are very inexpensive, in the United States usually sold for less than a dollar. Sometimes they are informally called small cigars, mini cigars or club cigars. Some famous cigar brands, such as Cohiba or Davidoff, also make cigarillos – Cohiba Mini and Davidoff Club Cigarillos, for example; in addition to purely cigarillo brands, such as Café Crème, Dannemann Moods, Mehari's, Al Capone or Swisher Sweets. Cigarillos have a secondary use; they are often used for the making of marijuana cigars.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nLittle cigars\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nLittle cigars (sometimes called small cigars or miniatures in the UK) differ greatly from regular cigars. They weigh less than cigars and cigarillos, but, more importantly, they resemble cigarettes in size, shape, packaging, and filters. Sales of little cigars quadrupled in the U.S. from 1971 to 1973 in response to the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act, which banned the broadcast of cigarette advertisements and required stronger health warnings on cigarette packs. Cigars were exempt from the ban, and perhaps more importantly, were taxed at a far lower rate. Little cigars are sometimes called \\\"cigarettes in disguise\\\", and unsuccessful attempts have been made to reclassify them as cigarettes. In the United States, sales of little cigars reached an all-time high in 2006, fueled in great part by favorable taxation. In some states, however, little cigars have successfully been taxed at the rate of cigarettes, such as Illinois, as well as multiple other states. This has caused yet another loophole, in which manufacturers classify their products as \\\"filtered cigars\\\" instead to avoid the higher tax rate. Yet, many continue to argue that there is in fact a distinction between little cigars and filtered cigars.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nLittle cigars offer a similar draw and overall feel to cigarettes, but with aged and fermented tobaccos, while filtered cigars are said to be more closely related to traditional cigars, and are not meant to be inhaled.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nSmoking\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nTo smoke a cigar, a smoker cuts the closed end or 'cap', lights the other end, then puts the unlit end into the mouth and draws smoke into the mouth. Some smokers inhale the smoke into the lungs, particularly with little cigars, but this is uncommon otherwise. A smoker may swirl the smoke around in the mouth before exhaling it, and may exhale part of the smoke through the nose in order to smell the cigar better as well as to taste it.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCutting\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nAlthough some cigars are cut on both ends, or twirled at both ends, the vast majority come with one straight cut end and one end in a \\\"cap\\\". Most quality handmade cigars, regardless of shape, will have a cap which is one or more small pieces of a wrapper pasted onto one end of the cigar with either a natural tobacco paste or with a mixture of flour and water. The cap end of a cigar must be cut off for the cigar to be smoked properly. It is the rounded end without the tobacco exposed, and this is the end one should always cut. If the cap is cut jaggedly or without care, the end of the cigar will not burn evenly and smokeable tobacco will be lost. Some cigar manufacturers purposely place different types of tobacco from one end to the other to give the cigar smokers a variety of tastes, body and strength from start to finish.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThere are three basic types of cigar cutters:\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\n*Guillotine (straight cut)\\n*Punch cut\\n*V-cut (a.k.a. notch cut, cat's eye, wedge cut, English cut)\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nLighting\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe \\\"head\\\" of the cigar is usually the end closest to the cigar band. The opposite end of the cigar is called the \\\"foot\\\". The band identifies the type of the cigar and may be removed or left on. The smoker cuts the cap from the head of the cigar and ignites the foot of the cigar. The smoker draws smoke from the head of the cigar with the mouth and lips, usually not inhaling into the lungs.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nWhen lighting, the cigar should be rotated to achieve an even burn and the air should be slowly drawn with gentle puffs. A flame that may impart its own flavor to the cigar should not be used. The tip of the cigar should minimally touch the flame, the heat of the flame from a butane or torch lighter can burn the tobacco leaves. A match or cedar spill flame is a milder flame to be used.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigars can be lit with the use of butane-filled lighters. Butane is colorless, odorless and burns clean with very little, if any, flavor; but are quite hot as a flame source. It is not recommended to use (lighter) fluid-filled lighters and paper matches since they can influence the taste.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nA second option is wooden matches, but the smoker must ensure the chemical head of the match has burned away and only the burning wooden section is used to light the cigar. Depending on the manufacturer, the chemical head portion of the matchstick may contain one or more of the following: gelatin, paraffin wax, potassium chlorate, barium chlorate, glue, polyvinyl chlorides, phosphorus trisulfide, and clay. The strike plate to ignite the match may contain one more of the following: glass particles, red phosphorus and glue.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nA third and most traditional way to light a cigar is to use a cedar spill. A spill is a splinter or a slender piece of wood or twisted paper, for lighting candles, lamps, campfires or fireplaces, etc. A cedar spill for lighting a cigar is a torn narrow strip of Spanish cedar (ideally) and lit using whatever flame source is handy.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigars packaged in boxes or metal tubes may contain a thin wrapping of cedar that may be used to light a cigar, minimizing the problem of lighters or matches affecting the taste. Cedar spills, matches and lighters are all commercially available.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nFlavor\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nEach brand and type of cigar tastes different. While the wrapper does not entirely determine the flavor of the cigar, darker wrappers tend to produce a sweetness, while lighter wrappers usually have a \\\"drier\\\" taste. Whether a cigar is mild, medium, or full bodied does not correlate with quality. Some words used to describe cigar flavor and texture include; spicy, peppery (red or black), sweet, harsh, burnt, green, earthy, woody, cocoa, chestnut, roasted, aged, nutty, creamy, cedar, oak, chewy, fruity, and leathery.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigar smoke, which is not typically inhaled, tastes of tobacco with nuances of other tastes. Many different things affect the scent of cigar smoke: tobacco type, quality of the cigar, added flavors, age and humidity, production method (handmade vs. machine-made) and more. A fine cigar can taste completely different from inhaled cigarette smoke. When smoke is inhaled, as is usual with cigarettes, the tobacco flavor is less noticeable than the sensation from the smoke. Some cigar enthusiasts use a vocabulary similar to that of wine-tasters to describe the overtones and undertones observed while smoking a cigar. Journals are available for recording personal ratings, description of flavors observed, sizes, brands, etc. Cigar tasting is in such respects similar to wine-tasting.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nSmoke\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nSmoke is produced by incomplete combustion of tobacco during which at least three kinds of chemical reactions occur: pyrolysis breaks down organic molecules into simpler ones, pyrosynthesis recombines these newly formed fragments into chemicals not originally present, and distillation moves compounds such as nicotine from the tobacco into the smoke. For every gram of tobacco smoked, a cigar emits about 120–140 mg of carbon dioxide, 40–60 mg of carbon monoxide, 3–4 mg of isoprene, 1 mg each of hydrogen cyanide and acetaldehyde, and smaller quantities of a large spectrum of volatile N-nitrosamines and volatile organic compounds, with the detailed composition unknown.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe most odorous chemicals in cigar smoke, and arguably the most responsible for the odor, are pyridines. Along with pyrazines, they are also the most odorous chemicals in cigar smoker's breath. These substances are noticeable even at extremely low concentrations of a few parts per billion. During smoking, it is not known whether these chemicals are generated by splitting the chemical bonds of nicotine, or by Maillard reaction between amino acids and sugars in the tobacco.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigar smoke is more alkaline than cigarette smoke, and therefore dissolves and is absorbed more readily by the mucous membrane of the mouth, making it easier for the smoker to absorb nicotine without having to inhale.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nHumidors\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe level of humidity in which cigars are kept has a significant effect on their taste. It is believed that a cigar's flavor best evolves when stored at a relative humidity of approximately 65–70% and a temperature of 18 C. An ideal rate of humidity allows an even burning of the cigar. Conversely, dry cigars become fragile and burn faster while damp cigars burn unevenly and take on a heavy acidic flavor. Humidors together with their humidifiers are then used to serve this purpose. Humidor's interior lining is typically constructed with three types of wood: Spanish cedar, American (or Canadian) red cedar, and Honduran mahogany. Other materials used for making or lining a humidor are Acrylic, Tin ( mainly seen in older early humidors) and Copper, used widely in the 1920s-1950s.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nMost humidors come with a plastic or metal case with a sponge that works as the humidifier, although most recent versions come on polymer acryl. The latter must be filled only with distilled water, and the former may use a solution of propylene glycol and distilled water. Humidifiers may become contaminated with bacteria and should be replaced every two years to avoid such contamination. There are new methods and devices for humidification that keep the relative humidity at a constant according to the % indicated on the package. These devices come in the former of small, medium, and large packets, and beads in a container which when water is added absorb the moisture.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nHumidors also come with analog or digital hygrometers. There are three systems of analog hygrometers: analog hygrometers with a metal spring, analog natural hair hygrometers, and analog synthetic hair hygrometers.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nA new humidor requires seasoning and once seasoned needs to have its humidity maintained in some fashion. The inside of a humidor should be lined in dried Spanish cedar wood. The thicker the lining the better as it will provide the best environment for the cigars. When you receive your new humidor, the internal wood will not contain much moisture. The inside needs to be seasoned which consists of allowing it to absorb moisture so that it can maintain the desired humidity level. There are many methods to season a humidor but the most common is to fill up a shot glass with distilled water, place it into the humidor, close it up and let it sit for two weeks. Check on it every couple of days and see if the water level in the shot glass slowly go down as the wood absorbed the moisture. Any method you use that consists of using water, you should use distilled water so that you are using something with the least amount of impurities. There are also seasoning packs that you can use from companies like Boveda if you choose to go that route instead of using water.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nAccessories\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThere are a wide variety of cigar accessories on the market. Their prices may vary depending on the materials used and the quality of the finishing.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigar travel cases\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nTravel cases are intended to protect cigars from the environmental elements and to avoid the possibility of cigars being crushed. Most travel cases come in expandable or sturdy leather. They should be thick enough to protect cigars, and the inside should not have a strong leather smell that could affect the cigar's taste. Some of these cases come with either cardboard or metal tubes that add protection and prevent the cigar from becoming permeated with the leather.\\nSilver and brass cigar travel cases are also available as well as wood cigar cases. The latter can range from affordable cases to handcrafted ones, while the latter tend to be quite expensive.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigar tubes\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigar tubes are used to carry small numbers of cigars, typically one or five. The latter tube would be called 5-finger tube and the former 1-finger tube. They are usually made from stainless steel. Cigar tubes are normally used when one is out for a few hours, but if it is necessary to spend longer periods of time out, there are tubes that come with a built in humidifier and hygrometer.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigar holders\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigar holders are also known as cigar stands and are used to keep the cigars out of ashtrays. Also, cigar holders may refer to a tube in which the cigar is held while smoked. These are mostly used by women, and rarely by men.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nHealth effects\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nLike other forms of tobacco use, cigar smoking poses a significant health risk depending on dosage: risks are greater for those who inhale more when they smoke, smoke more cigars, or smoke them longer. The risk of dying from any cause is statistically greater for cigar smokers than for people who have never smoked, with the risk higher for smokers less than 65 years old, and with risk for moderate and deep inhalers reaching levels similar to cigarette smokers. According to one study published in 1999 in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute, current cigar users have shown a statistically significant, elevated mortality risk for cancers of the mouth, lungs, and larynx and a moderately elevated risk for cancer of the esophagus, though this study assumed deep inhalation and multiple cigars per day, which is not typical of the traditional cigar smoker.Jean A. Shapiro, Eric J. Jacobs and Michael J. Thun, [http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/92/4/333.full \\\"Cigar Smoking in Men and Risk of Death From Tobacco-Related Cancers,\\\"] Journal of the National Cancer Institute, vol. 92, no. 4 (2000), pp. 333–337. No comparable statistical link was found for pancreatic or bladder cancer mortality in this study.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nDanger of mortality increases proportionally to consumption, with smokers of one to two cigars per day showing a 2% increase in rate of mortality through all causes compared to non-smokers. The precise statistical health risks to those cigar smokers who smoke less than daily is not established.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe depth of inhalation of cigar smoke into the lungs appears to be an important determinant of lung cancer risk:\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\n\\\"When cigar smokers don't inhale or smoke few cigars per day, the risks are only slightly above those of never smokers. Risks of lung cancer increase with increasing inhalation and with increasing number of cigars smoked per day, but the effect of inhalation is more powerful than that for number of cigars per day. When 5 or more cigars are smoked per day and there is moderate inhalation, the lung cancer risks of cigar smoking approximate those of a one pack per day cigarette smoker. As the tobacco smoke exposure of the lung in cigar smokers increases to approximate the frequency of smoking and depth of inhalation found in cigarette smokers, the difference in lung cancer risks produced by these two behaviors disappears.\\\"\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigar smoking can lead to nicotine addiction and cigarette usage. For those who inhale and smoke several cigars a day, types of health risk can be similar to those associated with cigarette smoking: nicotine addiction, periodontal disease, tooth loss, and many types of cancer, including cancers of the mouth, throat, and esophagus. Cigar smoking can also increase the risk of lung and heart diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nSo-called \\\"little cigars\\\" are commonly inhaled and likely pose the same health risks as cigarettes, while premium cigars are not commonly inhaled or habitually used.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nPopularity\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe prevalence of cigar smoking varies depending on location, historical period, and population surveyed, and prevalence estimates vary somewhat depending on the survey method. The U.S. is the top consuming country by far, followed by Germany and the UK; the U.S. and western Europe account for about 75% of cigar sales worldwide. The 2005 U.S. National Health Interview Survey estimated that 2.2% of adults smoke cigars, about the same as smokeless tobacco but far less than the 21% of adults who smoke cigarettes; it also estimated that 4.3% of men but only 0.3% of women smoke cigars. A 2007 California study found that gay men and bisexual women smoke significantly fewer cigars than the general population of men and women, respectively. Substantial and steady increases in cigar smoking were observed during the 1990s and early 2000s in the U.S. among both adults and adolescents. Data suggest that cigar usage among young adult males increased threefold during the 1990s, a 1999–2000 survey of 31,107 young adult U.S. military recruits found that 12.3% smoked cigars, and a 2003–2004 survey of 4,486 high school students in a Midwestern county found that 18% smoked cigars.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nRecent CDC Youth Risk surveys show a decline in tobacco use, and does not distinguish between premium and little cigar usage. It is assumed that premium cigar use among adolescents is negligible.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCuban cigars\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCuban cigars are rolled from tobacco leaves found throughout the country of Cuba. The filler, binder, and wrapper may come from different portions of the island. All cigar production in Cuba is controlled by the Cuban government, and each brand may be rolled in several different factories in Cuba.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nTorcedores are highly respected in Cuban society and culture, and they travel worldwide displaying their art of hand rolling cigars.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nHabanos SA and Cubatabaco between them do all the work relating to Cuban cigars, including manufacture, quality control, promotion and distribution, and export. Cuba produces both handmade and machine-made cigars. All boxes and labels are marked Hecho en Cuba (Spanish for made in Cuba). Machine-bunched cigars finished by hand add Hecho a mano, while fully handmade cigars say Totalmente a mano in script text, though not all Cuban cigars will include this statement. Because of the perceived status of Cuban cigars, counterfeits are somewhat commonplace.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nDespite American trade sanctions against Cuban products, cigars remain one of the country's leading exports. The country exported 77 million cigars in 1991, 67 million in 1992, and 57 million in 1993, the decline attributed to a loss of much of the wrapper crop in a hurricane.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nUnited States embargo against Cuba\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nOn 7 February 1962, United States President John F. Kennedy imposed a trade embargo on Cuba to sanction Fidel Castro's communist government. According to Pierre Salinger, then Kennedy's press secretary, the president ordered him on the evening of 6 February to obtain 1,200 H. Upmann brand Petit Upmann Cuban cigars; upon Salinger's arrival with the cigars the following morning, Kennedy signed the executive order which put the embargo into effect. Richard Goodwin, a White House assistant to Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, revealed in a 2000 New York Times article that in early 1962, JFK told him, \\\"We tried to exempt cigars, but the cigar manufacturers in Tampa objected.\\\"\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe embargo prohibited US residents from legally purchasing Cuban cigars and American cigar manufacturers from importing Cuban tobacco. As a result, Cuba was deprived of its major customer for tobacco, and American cigar manufacturers either had to find an alternative source of tobacco or go out of business.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nUpon the expropriation of private property in Cuba, many former Cuban cigar manufacturers moved to other countries (primarily the Dominican Republic) to continue production. The Dominican Republic's production of tobacco grew significantly as a result. After reallocation, most Cuban manufacturers continued to use their known company name, seed, and harvesting technique while Cubatabaco, Cuba's state tobacco monopoly after the Revolution, independently continued production of cigars using the former private company names. As a result, cigar name brands like Romeo y Julieta, La Gloria Cubana, Montecristo, and H. Upmann among others, exist in both Cuba and the Dominican Republic. Honduras and Nicaragua are also mass manufacturers of cigars. Some Cuban refugees make cigars in the U.S. and advertise them as \\\"Cuban\\\" cigars, using the argument that the cigars are made by Cubans.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIt remains illegal for US residents to purchase or import Cuban cigars, regardless of where they are in the world, although they are readily available across the northern border in Canada and the southern border in Mexico. While Cuban cigars are smuggled into the USA and sold at high prices, counterfeiting is rife; it has been said that 95% of Cuban cigars sold in the US are counterfeit. Although Cuban cigars cannot legally be imported into the US, the advent of the Internet has made it much easier for people in the United States to purchase cigars online from other countries, especially when shipped without bands. Cuban cigars are openly advertised in some European tourist regions, catering to the American market, even though it is illegal to advertise tobacco in most European regions.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe loosening of the embargo in January 2015 included a provision that allowed the importation into the U.S. of $100's worth of alcohol or tobacco per traveller, allowing legal importation for the first time since the ban.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nToscano-style cigars are also manufactured in the United States by The Avanti Cigar Co. of Scranton, Pennsylvania. Their brands include Bon Gusto, De Nobili, Parodi, Petri, Toscanelli, the anisette-flavored Avanti, and the \\\"Avanti Estilo Café Mocha\\\", which is infused with coffee and chocolate flavors.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIn popular culture\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIn the 1980s and 1990s, major U.S. print media portrayed cigars favorably; they generally framed cigar use as a lucrative business or a trendy habit, rather than as a health risk. Rich people are often caricatured as wearing top hats and tails and smoking cigars. Cigars are often smoked to celebrate special occasions: the birth of a child, a graduation, a big sale. The expression \\\"close but no cigar\\\" comes from the practice of giving cigars as prizes in games involving good aim at fairgrounds.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nCigar Smoker of the Year Award\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nIn 2013 the UK magazine The Spectator inaugurated an international Cigar Smoker of the Year Award.\",\n \"Cigar\\n\\nThe first winner, in 2013, was Simon le Bon. In 2014, Arnold Schwarzenegger became the second winner and Jonathan Ross won in 2015.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":136097,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_480"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Rhinoplasty is a surgical procedure on what part of the human body?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Nose"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["nose","noses","schnoz","smeller","schnozzle","schnozz"],"string":"[\n \"nose\",\n \"noses\",\n \"schnoz\",\n \"smeller\",\n \"schnozzle\",\n \"schnozz\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Rhinoplasty\n\nRhinoplasty (, , nose + , to shape), commonly known as a nose job, is a plastic surgery procedure for correcting and reconstructing the form, restoring the functions, and aesthetically enhancing the nose by resolving nasal trauma (blunt, penetrating, blast), congenital defect, respiratory impediment, or a failed primary rhinoplasty. Most patients ask to remove a bump, narrow nostril width, change the angle between the nose and the mouth, as well as correct injuries, birth defects, or other problems that affect breathing, such as deviated nasal septum or a sinus condition.","Rhinoplasty\n\nIn the surgeries—closed rhinoplasty and open rhinoplasty—an otolaryngologist (ear, nose, and throat specialist), a maxillofacial surgeon (jaw, face, and neck specialist), or a plastic surgeon creates a functional, aesthetic, and facially proportionate nose by separating the nasal skin and the soft tissues from the osseo-cartilaginous nasal framework, correcting them as required for form and function, suturing the incisions, using [http://www.drsamrizk.com/mps-procedures-surgical-rhinoplasty.html tissue glue] and applying either a package or a stent, or both, to immobilize the corrected nose to ensure the proper healing of the surgical incision.","Rhinoplasty\n\nHistory of surgical rhinoplasty","Rhinoplasty\n\nTreatments for the plastic repair of a broken nose are first mentioned in the Edwin Smith Papyrus, a transcription of an Ancient Egyptian medical text, the oldest known surgical treatise, dated to the Old Kingdom from 3000 to 2500 BC. Rhinoplasty techniques were carried out in ancient India by the ayurvedic physician Sushruta (c. 800 BC), who described reconstruction of the nose in the Sushruta samhita (c. 500 BC), his medico–surgical compendium. The physician Sushruta and his medical students developed and applied plastic surgical techniques for reconstructing noses, genitalia, earlobes, et cetera, that were amputated as religious, criminal, or military punishment. Sushruta also developed the forehead flap rhinoplasty procedure that remains contemporary plastic surgical practice. In the Sushruta samhita compendium, the physician Sushruta describes the (modern) free-graft Indian rhinoplasty as the Nasikasandhana.","Rhinoplasty\n\nDuring the Roman Empire (27 BC – AD 476) the encyclopaedist Aulus Cornelius Celsus (c. 25 BC – AD 50) published the 8-tome De Medicina (On Medicine, c. AD 14), which described plastic surgery techniques and procedures for the correction and the reconstruction of the nose and other body parts.","Rhinoplasty\n\nAt the Byzantine Roman court of the Emperor Julian the Apostate (AD 331–363), the royal physician Oribasius (c. AD 320–400) published the 70-volume Synagogue Medicae (Medical Compilations, AD 4th century), which described facial-defect reconstructions that featured loose sutures that permitted a surgical wound to heal without distorting the facial flesh; how to clean the bone exposed in a wound; debridement, how to remove damaged tissue to forestall infection and so accelerate healing of the wound; and how to use autologous skin flaps to repair damaged cheeks, eyebrows, lips, and nose, to restore the patient’s normal visage.","Rhinoplasty\n\nNonetheless, during the centuries of the European Middle Ages (AD 5th–15th centuries) that followed the Imperial Roman collapse (AD 476), the 5th-century BC Asian plastic surgery knowledge of the Sushruta samhita went unknown to the West until the 10th century AD, with the publication, in Old English, of the Anglo-Saxon physician's manual Bald's Leechbook (c. AD 920) describing the plastic repair of a cleft lip; as a medical compendium, the Leechbook is notable for categorizing ailments and treatments as internal medicine and as external medicine, for providing herbal medical remedies, and for providing supernatural incantations (prayers), when required.","Rhinoplasty\n\nIn the 11th century, at Damascus, the Arab physician Ibn Abi Usaibia (1203–1270) translated the Sushruta samhita from Sanskrit to Arabic. In due course, Sushruta’s medical compendium travelled from Arabia to Persia to Egypt, and, by the 15th century, Western European medicine had encountered it as the medical atlas Cerrahiyet-ul Haniye (Imperial Surgery, 15th century), by Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu (1385–1468); among its surgical techniques featured a breast reduction procedure.","Rhinoplasty\n\nIn Italy, Gasparo Tagliacozzi (1546–1599), professor of surgery and anatomy at the University of Bologna, published Curtorum Chirurgia Per Insitionem (The Surgery of Defects by Implantations, 1597), a technico–procedural manual for the surgical repair and reconstruction of facial wounds in soldiers. The illustrations featured a re-attachment rhinoplasty using a biceps muscle pedicle flap; the graft attached at 3-weeks post-procedure; which, at 2-weeks post-attachment, the surgeon then shaped into a nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\nIn time, the 5th-century BC Indian rhinoplasty technique—featuring a free-flap graft—was rediscovered by Western medicine in the 18th century, during the Third Anglo–Mysore War (1789–1792) of colonial annexation, by the British against Tipu Sultan, when the East India Company surgeons Thomas Cruso and James Findlay witnessed Indian rhinoplasty procedures at the British Residency in Poona. In the English-language Madras Gazette, the surgeons published photographs of the rhinoplasty procedure and its nasal reconstruction outcomes; later, in the October 1794 issue of the Gentleman's Magazine of London, the doctors Cruso and Findlay published an illustrated report describing a forehead pedicle-flap rhinoplasty that was a technical variant of the free-flap graft technique that Sushruta had described some twenty-three centuries earlier.","Rhinoplasty\n\nPre-dating the Indian Sushruta samhita medical compendium is the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BC), an Ancient Egyptian medical papyrus that describes rhinoplasty as the plastic surgical operation for reconstructing a nose destroyed by rhinectomy, such a mutilation was inflicted as a criminal, religious, political, and military punishment in that time and culture. In the event, the Indian rhinoplasty technique continued in 19th-century Western European medicine; in Great Britain, Joseph Constantine Carpue (1764–1846) published the Account of Two Successful Operations for Restoring a Lost Nose (1815), which described two rhinoplasties: the reconstruction of a battle-wounded nose, and the repair of an arsenic-damaged nose. (cf. Carpue’s operation)","Rhinoplasty\n\nIn Germany, rhinoplastic technique was refined by surgeons such as the Berlin University professor of surgery Karl Ferdinand von Gräfe (1787–1840), who published Rhinoplastik (Rebuilding the Nose, 1818) wherein he described fifty-five (55) historical plastic surgery procedures (Indian rhinoplasty, Italian rhinoplasty, etc.), and his technically innovative free-graft nasal reconstruction (with a tissue-flap harvested from the patient’s arm), and surgical approaches to eyelid, cleft lip, and cleft palate corrections. Dr. von Gräfe’s protégé, the medical and surgical polymath Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach (1794–1847), who was among the first surgeons to anaesthetize the patient before performing the nose surgery, published Die Operative Chirurgie (Operative Surgery, 1845), which became a foundational medical and plastic surgical text. (see strabismus, torticollis) Moreover, the Prussian Jacques Joseph (1865–1934) published Nasenplastik und sonstige Gesichtsplastik (Rhinoplasty and other Facial Plastic Surgeries, 1928), which described refined surgical techniques for performing nose-reduction rhinoplasty via internal incisions.","Rhinoplasty\n\nIn the United States, in 1887, the otolaryngologist John Orlando Roe (1848–1915) performed the first modern endonasal rhinoplasty (closed rhinoplasty), about which he reported in the article \"The Deformity Termed 'Pug Nose' and its Correction, by a Simple Operation\" (1887), and about his management of saddle nose deformities.","Rhinoplasty\n\nIn the early 20th century, Freer, in 1902, and Killian, in 1904, respectively pioneered the Submucous Resection septoplasty (SMR) procedure for correcting a deviated septum; they raised mucoperichondrial tissue flaps, and resected the cartilaginous and bony septum (including the vomer bone and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone), maintaining septal support with a 1.0-cm margin at the dorsum and a 1.0-cm margin at the caudad, for which innovations the technique became the foundational, standard septoplastic procedure. In 1921, A. Rethi introduced the open rhinoplasty approach featuring an incision to the columella to facilitate modifying the tip of the nose. In 1929, Peer and Metzenbaum performed the first manipulation of the caudal septum, where it originates and projects from the forehead. In 1947, Maurice H. Cottle (1898–1981) endonasally resolved a septal deviation with a minimalist hemitransfixion incision, which conserved the septum; thus, he advocated for the practical primacy of the closed rhinoplasty approach. In 1957, A. Sercer advocated the “decortication of the nose” (Dekortication des Nase) technique which featured a columellar-incision open rhinoplasty that allowed greater access to the nasal cavity and to the nasal septum.","Rhinoplasty\n\nNonetheless, at mid–20th century, despite such refinement of the open rhinoplasty approach, the endonasal rhinoplasty was the usual approach to nose surgery—until the 1970s, when Padovan presented his technical refinements, advocating the open rhinoplasty approach; he was seconded by Wilfred S. Goodman in the later 1970s, and by Jack P. Gunter in the 1990s. Goodman impelled technical and procedural progress with the article External Approach to Rhinoplasty (1973), which reported his technical refinements and popularized the open rhinoplasty approach. In 1982, Jack Anderson reported his refinements of nose surgery technique in the article Open Rhinoplasty: An Assessment (1982). During the 1970s, the principal application of open rhinoplasty was to the first-time rhinoplasty patient (i.e., a primary rhinoplasty), not as a revision surgery (i.e., a secondary rhinoplasty) to correct a failed nose surgery. In 1987, in the article External Approach for Secondary Rhinoplasty (1987), Jack P. Gunter reported the technical effectiveness of the open rhinoplasty approach for performing a secondary rhinoplasty; his improved techniques advanced the management of a failed nose surgery.","Rhinoplasty\n\nHence does contemporary rhinoplastic praxis derive from the primeval (c. 600 BC) Indian rhinoplasty (nasal reconstruction via an autologous forehead-skin flap) and its technical variants: Carpue's operation, the Italian rhinoplasty (pedicle-flap reconstruction, aka the Tagliocotian rhinoplasty); and the closed-approach endonasal rhinoplasty, featuring exclusively internal incisions that allow the plastic surgeon to palpate (feel) the corrections being effected to the nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\nNon-surgical rhinoplasty","Rhinoplasty\n\nAnatomy of the human nose","Rhinoplasty\n\nEmbryologic development","Rhinoplasty\n\nAt four (4) weeks of gestational development, the neural crest cells (the precursors of the nose) begin their caudad migration (from the posterior) towards the midface. Two symmetrical nasal placodes (the future olfactory epithelium) develop inferiorly, which the nasal pits then divide into the medial and the lateral nasal processes (the future upper lip and nose). The medial processes then form the septum, the philtrum, and the premaxilla of the nose; the lateral processes form the sides of the nose; and the mouth forms from the stomodeum (the anterior ectodermal portion of the alimentary tract), which is inferior to the nasal complex.","Rhinoplasty\n\nA nasobuccal membrane separates the mouth from the nose; respectively, the inferior oral cavity (the mouth) and the superior nasal cavity (the nose). As the olfactory pits deepen, said development forms the choanae, the two openings that connect the nasal cavity and the nasopharynx (upper part of the pharynx that is continuous with the nasal passages). Initially, primitive-form choanae develop, which then further develop into the secondary, permanent choanae.","Rhinoplasty\n\nAt ten (10) weeks of gestation, the cells differentiate into muscle, cartilage, and bone. If this important, early facial embryogenesis fails, it might result in anomalies such as choanal atresia (absent or closed passage), medial nasal clefts (fissures), or lateral nasal clefts, nasal aplasia (faulty or incomplete development), and polyrrhinia (double nose).","Rhinoplasty\n\nThis normal, human embryologic development is exceptionally important—because the newborn infant breathes through his or her nose during the first 6 weeks of life—thus, when a child is afflicted with bilateral choanal atresia, the blockage of the posterior nasal passage, either by abnormal bony tissue or by abnormal soft tissue, emergency remedial action is required to ensure that the child can breathe.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe structures of the nose","Rhinoplasty\n\nFor plastic surgical correction, the structural anatomy of the nose comprehends: A. the nasal soft tissues; B. the aesthetic subunits and segments; C. the blood supply arteries and veins; D. the nasal lymphatic system; E. the facial and nasal nerves; F. the nasal bones; and G. the nasal cartilages.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;A. The nasal soft tissues\n* Nasal skin – Like the underlying bone-and-cartilage (osseo-cartilaginous) support framework of the nose, the external skin is divided into vertical thirds (anatomic sections); from the glabella (the space between the eyebrows), to the bridge, to the tip, for corrective plastic surgery, the nasal skin is anatomically considered, as the:","Rhinoplasty\n\n# Upper third section – the skin of the upper nose is thick, and relatively distensible (flexible and mobile), but then tapers, adhering tightly to the osseo-cartilaginous framework, and becomes the thinner skin of the dorsal section, the bridge of the nose.\n# Middle third section – the skin overlying the bridge of the nose (mid-dorsal section) is the thinnest, least distensible, nasal skin, because it most adheres to the support framework.\n# Lower third section – the skin of the lower nose is as thick as the skin of the upper nose, because it has more sebaceous glands, especially at the nasal tip.","Rhinoplasty\n\n* Nasal lining – At the vestibule, the human nose is lined with a mucous membrane of squamous epithelium, which tissue then transitions to become columnar respiratory epithelium, a pseudo-stratified, ciliated (lash-like) tissue with abundant seromucinous glands, which maintains the nasal moisture and protects the respiratory tract from bacteriologic infection and foreign objects.\n* Nasal muscles – The movements of the human nose are controlled by groups of facial and neck muscles that are set deep to the skin; they are in four (4) functional groups that are interconnected by the nasal superficial aponeurosis—the superficial musculoaponeurotic system (SMAS)—which is a sheet of dense, fibrous, collagenous connective tissue that covers, invests, and forms the terminations of the muscles.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;The movements of the nose are affected by\n# the elevator muscle group – which includes the procerus muscle and the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle.\n# the depressor muscle group – which includes the alar nasalis muscle and the depressor septi nasi muscle.\n# the compressor muscle group – which includes the transverse nasalis muscle.\n# the dilator muscle group – which includes the dilator naris muscle that expands the nostrils; it is in two parts: (i) the dilator nasi anterior muscle, and (ii) the dilator nasi posterior muscle.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;B. Aesthetics of the nose – nasal subunits and nasal segments\nTo plan, map, and execute the surgical correction of a nasal defect or deformity, the structure of the external nose is divided into nine (9) aesthetic nasal subunits, and six (6) aesthetic nasal segments, which provide the plastic surgeon with the measures for determining the size, extent, and topographic locale of the nasal defect or deformity.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;The surgical nose as nine (9) aesthetic nasal subunits\n# tip subunit\n# columellar subunit\n# right alar base subunit\n# right alar wall subunit\n# left alar wall subunit\n# left alar base subunit\n# dorsal subunit\n# right dorsal wall subunit\n# left dorsal wall subunit","Rhinoplasty\n\nIn turn, the nine (9) aesthetic nasal subunits are configured as six (6) aesthetic nasal segments; each segment comprehends a nasal area greater than that comprehended by a nasal subunit.\n;The surgical nose as six (6) aesthetic nasal segments\n# the dorsal nasal segment\n# the lateral nasal-wall segments\n# the hemi-lobule segment\n# the soft-tissue triangle segments\n# the alar segments\n# the columellar segment","Rhinoplasty\n\nUsing the co-ordinates of the subunits and segments to determine the topographic location of the defect on the nose, the plastic surgeon plans, maps, and executes a rhinoplasty procedure. The unitary division of the nasal topography permits minimal, but precise, cutting, and maximal corrective-tissue coverage, to produce a functional nose of proportionate size, contour, and appearance for the patient. Hence, if more than 50 per cent of an aesthetic subunit is lost (damaged, defective, destroyed) the surgeon replaces the entire aesthetic segment, usually with a regional tissue graft, harvested from either the face or the head, or with a tissue graft harvested from elsewhere on the patient's body.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;C. Nasal blood supply – arteries and veins\nLike the face, the human nose is well vascularized with arteries and veins, and thus supplied with abundant blood. The principal arterial blood-vessel supply to the nose is two-fold: (i) branches from the internal carotid artery, the branch of the anterior ethmoid artery, the branch of the posterior ethmoid artery, which derive from the ophthalmic artery; (ii) branches from the external carotid artery, the sphenopalatine artery, the greater palatine artery, the superior labial artery, and the angular artery.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe external nose is supplied with blood by the facial artery, which becomes the angular artery that courses over the superomedial aspect of the nose. The sellar region (sella turcica, \"Turkish chair\") and the dorsal region of the nose are supplied with blood by branches of the internal maxillary artery (infraorbital) and the ophthalmic arteries that derive from the internal common carotid artery system.","Rhinoplasty\n\nInternally, the lateral nasal wall is supplied with blood by the sphenopalatine artery (from behind and below) and by the anterior ethmoid artery and the posterior ethmoid artery (from above and behind). The nasal septum also is supplied with blood by the sphenopalatine artery, and by the anterior and posterior ethmoid arteries, with the additional circulatory contributions of the superior labial artery and of the greater palatine artery. These three (3) vascular supplies to the internal nose converge in the Kiesselbach plexus (the Little area), which is a region in the anteroinferior-third of the nasal septum, (in front and below). Furthermore, the nasal vein vascularisation of the nose generally follows the arterial pattern of nasal vascularisation. The nasal veins are biologically significant, because they have no vessel-valves, and because of their direct, circulatory communication to the sinus caverns, which makes possible the potential intracranial spreading of a bacterial infection of the nose. Hence, because of such an abundant nasal blood supply, tobacco smoking does therapeutically compromise post-operative healing.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;D. Lymphatic system of the nose\nThe pertinent nasal lymphatic system arises from the superficial mucosa, and drains posteriorly to the retropharyngeal nodes (in back), and anteriorly (in front), either to the upper deep cervical nodes (in the neck), or to the submandibular glands (in the lower jaw), or into both the nodes and the glands of the neck and the jaw.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;E. Nerves of the nose\nThe sensations registered by the human nose derive from the first two (2) branches of cranial nerve V, the trigeminal nerve (nervus trigeminis). The nerve listings indicate the respective innervation (sensory distribution) of the trigeminal nerve branches within the nose, the face, and the upper jaw (maxilla).","Rhinoplasty\n\n;The indicated nerve serves the named anatomic facial and nasal regions:\n;Ophthalmic division innervation\n* Lacrimal nerve – conveys sensation to the skin areas of the lateral orbital (eye socket) region, except for the lacrimal gland. * Frontal nerve – conveys sensation to the skin areas of the forehead and the scalp. * Supraorbital nerve – conveys sensation to the skin areas of the eyelids, the forehead, and the scalp. * Supratrochlear nerve – conveys sensation to the medial region of the eyelid skin area, and the medial region of the forehead skin. * Nasociliary nerve – conveys sensation to the skin area of the nose, and the mucous membrane of the anterior (front) nasal cavity. * Anterior ethmoid nerve – conveys sensation in the anterior (front) half of the nasal cavity: (a) the internal areas of the ethmoid sinus and the frontal sinus; and (b) the external areas, from the nasal tip to the rhinion: the anterior tip of the terminal end of the nasal-bone suture. * Posterior ethmoid nerve – serves the superior (upper) half of the nasal cavity, the sphenoids, and the ethmoids.","Rhinoplasty\n\n* Intratrochlear nerve – conveys sensation to the medial region of the eyelids, the palpebral conjunctiva, the nasion (nasolabial junction), and the bony dorsum.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;The maxillary division innervation\n* Maxillary nerve – conveys sensation to the upper jaw and the face.\n* Infraorbital nerve – conveys sensation to the area from below the eye socket to the external nares (nostrils).\n* Zygomatic nerve – through the zygomatic bone and the zygomatic arch, conveys sensation to the cheekbone areas.\n* Superior posterior dental nerve – sensation in the teeth and the gums.\n* Superior anterior dental nerve – mediates the sneeze reflex.\n* Sphenopalatine nerve – divides into the lateral branch and the septal branch, and conveys sensation from the rear and the central regions of the nasal cavity.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe supply of parasympathetic nerves to the face and the upper jaw (maxilla) derives from the greater superficial petrosal (GSP) branch of cranial nerve VII, the facial nerve. The GSP nerve joins the deep petrosal nerve (of the sympathetic nervous system), derived from the carotid plexus, to form the vidian nerve (in the vidian canal) that traverses the pterygopalatine ganglion (an autonomic ganglion of the maxillary nerve), wherein only the parasympathetic nerves form synapses, which serve the lacrimal gland and the glands of the nose and of the palate, via the (upper jaw) maxillary division of cranial nerve V, the trigeminal nerve.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;F. Bony anatomy of the nose\nIn the upper portion of the nose, the paired nasal bones attach to the frontal bone. Above and to the side (superolaterally), the paired nasal bones connect to the lacrimal bones, and below and to the side (inferolaterally), they attach to the ascending processes of the maxilla (upper jaw). Above and to the back (posterosuperiorly), the bony nasal septum is composed of the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone. The vomer bone lies below and to the back (posteroinferiorly), and partially forms the choanal opening into the nasopharynx, (the upper portion of the pharynx that is continuous with the nasal passages). The floor of the nose comprises the premaxilla bone and the palatine bone, the roof of the mouth.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe nasal septum is composed of the quadrangular cartilage, the vomer bone (the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone), aspects of the premaxilla, and the palatine bones. Each lateral nasal wall contains three pairs of turbinates (nasal conchae), which are small, thin, shell-form bones: (i) the superior concha, (ii) the middle concha, and (iii) the inferior concha, which are the bony framework of the turbinates. Lateral to the turbinates is the medial wall of the maxillary sinus. Inferior to the nasal conchae (turbinates) is the meatus space, with names that correspond to the turbinates, e.g. superior turbinate, superior meatus, et alii. The internal roof of the nose is composed by the horizontal, perforated cribriform plate (of the ethmoid bone) through which pass sensory filaments of the olfactory nerve (Cranial nerve I); finally, below and behind (posteroinferior) the cribriform plate, sloping down at an angle, is the bony face of the sphenoid sinus.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;G. The cartilaginous pyramid of the nose\nThe cartilaginous septum (septum nasi) extends from the nasal bones in the midline (above) to the bony septum in the midline (posteriorly), then down along the bony floor. The septum is quadrangular; the upper half is flanked by two (2) triangular-to-trapezoidal cartilages: the upper lateral-cartilages, which are fused to the dorsal septum in the midline, and laterally attached, with loose ligaments, to the bony margin of the pyriform (pear-shaped) aperture, while the inferior ends of the upper lateral-cartilages are free (unattached). The internal area (angle), formed by the septum and upper lateral-cartilage, constitutes the internal valve of the nose; the sesamoid cartilages are adjacent to the upper lateral-cartilages in the fibroareolar connective tissue.","Rhinoplasty\n\nBeneath the upper lateral-cartilages lay the lower lateral-cartilages; the paired lower lateral-cartilages swing outwards, from medial attachments, to the caudal septum in the midline (the medial crura) to an intermediate crus (shank) area. Finally, the lower lateral-cartilages flare outwards, above and to the side (superolaterally), as the lateral crura; these cartilages are mobile, unlike the upper lateral cartilages. Furthermore, some persons present anatomical evidence of nasal scrolling—i.e., an outward curving of the lower borders of the upper lateral-cartilages, and an inward curving of the cephalic borders of the alar cartilages.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe external nose","Rhinoplasty\n\n;External nasal anatomy\nThe form of the nasal subunits—the dorsum, the sidewalls, the lobule, the soft triangles, the alae, and the columella—are configured differently, according to the race and the ethnic group of the patient, thus the nasal physiognomies denominated as: African, platyrrhine (flat, wide nose); Asiatic, subplatyrrhine (low, wide nose); Caucasian, leptorrhine (narrow nose); and Hispanic, paraleptorrhine (narrow-sided nose). The respective external valve of each nose is variably dependent upon the size, shape, and strength of the lower lateral cartilage.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;Internal nasal anatomy\nIn the midline of the nose, the septum is a composite (osseo-cartilaginous) structure that divides the nose into two (2) similar halves. The lateral nasal wall and the paranasal sinuses, the superior concha, the middle concha, and the inferior concha, form the corresponding passages, the superior meatus, the middle meatus, and the inferior meatus, on the lateral nasal wall. The superior meatus is the drainage area for the posterior ethmoid bone cells and the sphenoid sinus; the middle meatus provides drainage for the anterior ethmoid sinuses and for the maxillary and frontal sinuses; and the inferior meatus provides drainage for the nasolacrimal duct.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe internal nasal valve comprises the area bounded by the upper lateral-cartilage, the septum, the nasal floor, and the anterior head of the inferior turbinate. In the narrow (leptorrhine) nose, this is the narrowest portion of the nasal airway. Generally, this area requires an angle greater than 15 degrees for unobstructed breathing; for the correction of such narrowness, the width of the nasal valve can be increased with spreader grafts and flaring sutures.","Rhinoplasty\n\nNasal analysis","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe surgical management of nasal defects and deformities divides the nose into six (6) anatomic subunits: (i) the dorsum, (ii) the sidewalls (paired), (iii) the hemilobules (paired), (iv) the soft triangles (paired), (v) the alae (paired), and (vi) the columella. Surgical correction and reconstruction comprehend the entire anatomic subunit affected by the defect (wound) or deformity, thus, the entire subunit is corrected, especially when the resection (cutting) of the defect encompasses more than 50 per cent of the subunit. Aesthetically, the nose—from the nasion (the midpoint of the nasofrontal junction) to the columella-labial junction—ideally occupies one-third of the vertical dimension of the person’s face; and, from ala to ala, it ideally should occupy one-fifth of the horizontal dimension of the person's face.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe nasofrontal angle, between the frontal bone and the nasion usually is 120 degrees; the nasofrontal angle is more acute in the male face than in the female face. The nasofacial angle, the slope of the nose relative to the plane of the face, is approximately 30–40 degrees. The nasolabial angle, the slope between the columella and the philtrum, is approximately 90–95 degrees in the male face, and approximately 100–105 degrees in the female face. Therefore, when observing the nose in profile, the normal show of the columella (the height of the visible nasal aperture) is 2 mm; and the dorsum should be rectilinear (straight). When observed from below (worm’s-eye view), the alar base configures an isosceles triangle, with its apex at the infra-tip lobule, immediately beneath the tip of the nose. The facially proportionate projection of the nasal tip (the distance of the nose’s tip from the face) is determined with the Goode Method, wherein the projection of the nasal tip should be 55–60 per cent of the distance between the nasion (nasofrontal junction) and the tip-defining point.","Rhinoplasty\n\nA columellar double break might be present, marking the transition between the intermediate crus of the lower-lateral cartilage and the medial crus.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe Goode Method determines the extension of the nose from the facial surface by comprehending the distance from the alar groove to the tip of the nose, and then relating that measurement (of nasal-tip projection) to the length of the nasal dorsum. The nasal projection measurement is obtained by delineating a right triangle with lines parting from the nasion (nasofrontal juncture) to the alar–facial–groove. Then, a second, perpendicular delineation, that traverses the tip-defining point, establishes the ratio of projection of the nasal tip; hence, the range of 0.55:1 to 0.60:1, is the ideal nasal-tip-to-nasal-length projection.","Rhinoplasty\n\nFile:Class_I_nose.jpg|Rhinoplasty: Nasal Class I. The Roman nose. (Nasology Eden Warwick, 1848)\nFile:Class_II_nose.jpg|Rhinoplasty: Nasal Class II. The Greek nose. (Nasology Eden Warwick, 1848)\nFile:Class_III_nose.jpg|Rhinoplasty: Nasal Class III. The African nose. (Nasology Eden Warwick, 1848)\nFile:Class_IV_nose.jpg|Rhinoplasty: Nasal Class IV. The Hawk nose. (Nasology Eden Warwick, 1848)\nFile:Class_V_nose.jpg|Rhinoplasty: Nasal Class V. The Snub nose. (Nasology Eden Warwick, 1848)\nFile:Class_VI_nose.jpg|Rhinoplasty: Nasal Class VI. The celestial nose. (Nasology Eden Warwick, 1848)","Rhinoplasty\n\nPatient characteristics","Rhinoplasty\n\nTo determine the patient's suitability for undergoing a rhinoplasty procedure, the surgeon clinically evaluates him or her with a complete medical history (anamnesis) to determine his or her physical and psychological health. The prospective patient must explain to the physician–surgeon the functional and aesthetic nasal problems that he or she suffers. The surgeon asks about the ailments' symptoms and their duration, past surgical interventions, allergies, drugs use and drugs abuse (prescription and commercial medications), and a general medical history. Furthermore, additional to physical suitability is psychological suitability—the patient's psychological motive for undergoing nose surgery is critical to the surgeon's pre-operative evaluation of the patient. In the case of men, the surgeon must identify prospective patients presenting the mental traits denoted by the psychiatric acronym SIMON (single, immature, male, over-expectant, and narcissistic), which might indicate a man over-valuing the outcome of a rhinoplasty.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe complete physical examination of the rhinoplasty patient determines if he or she is physically fit to undergo and tolerate the physiologic stresses of nose surgery. The examination comprehends every existing physical problem, and a consultation with an anaesthesiologist, if warranted by the patient's medical data. Specific facial and nasal evaluations record the patient's skin-type, existing surgical scars, and the symmetry and asymmetry of the aesthetic nasal subunits. The external and internal nasal examination concentrates upon the anatomic thirds of the nose—upper section, middle section, lower section—specifically noting their structures; the measures of the nasal angles (at which the external nose projects from the face); and the physical characteristics of the naso-facial bony and soft tissues. The internal examination evaluates the condition of the nasal septum, the internal and external nasal valves, the turbinates, and the nasal lining, paying special attention to the structure and the form of the nasal dorsum and the tip of the nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\nFurthermore, when warranted, specific tests—the mirror test, vasoconstriction examinations, and the Cottle maneuver—are included to the pre-operative evaluation of the prospective rhinoplasty patient. Established by Maurice H. Cottle (1898–1981), the Cottle maneuver is a principal diagnostic technique for detecting an internal nasal-valve disorder; whilst the patient gently inspires, the surgeon laterally pulls the patient's cheek, thereby simulating the widening of the cross-sectional area of the corresponding internal nasal valve. If the maneuver notably facilitates the patient's inspiration, that result is a positive Cottle sign—which generally indicates an airflow-correction to be surgically effected with an installed spreader-graft. Said correction will improve the internal angle of the nasal valve and thus allow unobstructed breathing. Nonetheless, the Cottle maneuver occasionally yields a false-positive Cottle sign, usually observed in the patient afflicted with alar collapse, and in the patient with a scarred nasal-valve region.","Rhinoplasty\n\nSurgical rhinoplasty","Rhinoplasty\n\nOpen rhinoplasty versus closed rhinoplasty","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe plastic surgical correction of congenital and acquired abnormalities of the nose restores functional and aesthetic properties by the surgeon's manipulations of the nasal skin, the subcutaneous (underlying) cartilage-and-bone support framework, and the mucous membrane lining. Technically, the plastic surgeon's incisional approach classifies the nasal surgery either as an open rhinoplasty or as a closed rhinoplasty procedure. In open rhinoplasty, the surgeon makes a small, irregular incision to the columella, the fleshy, exterior-end of the nasal septum; this columellar incision is additional to the usual set of incisions for a nasal correction. In closed rhinoplasty, the surgeon performs every procedural incision endonasally (exclusively within the nose), and does not cut the columella.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;Procedural differences\nExcept for the columellar incision, the technical and procedural approaches of open rhinoplasty and of closed rhinoplasty are similar; yet closed rhinoplasty procedure features:\n* Reduced dissection (cutting) of the nasal tissues—no columellar incision\n* Decreased potential for the excessive reduction (cutting) of the nasal-tip support\n* Reduced post-operative edema\n* Decreased visible scarring\n* Decreased iatrogenic (inadvertent) damage to the nose, by the surgeon\n* Increased availability for effecting in situ procedural and technical changes\n* Palpation that allows the surgeon to feel the interior changes effected to the nose\n* Shorter operating room time\n* Quicker post-surgical recovery and convalescence for the patient","Rhinoplasty\n\n;The \"ethnic nose\"\nThe open rhinoplasty approach affords the plastic surgeon the advantages of ease in securing the grafts (skin, cartilage, bone) and, most important, in seeing the nasal cartilages proper, and so make the appropriate diagnosis. This procedural aspect can be especially difficult in revision surgery, and in rhinoplastic corrections of the thick-skinned \"ethnic nose\" of the colored man or woman. The study, Ethnic Rhinoplasty: a Universal Preoperative Classification System for the Nasal Tip (2009), reports that a nasal-tip classification system, based upon skin thickness, has been proposed to aid the surgeon in determining if an open rhinoplasty or a closed rhinoplasty shall best correct the defect or deformity afflicting the patient’s nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;Etiology\nEtiologically, the open and closed approaches to rhinoplastic correction resolve: (i) nasal pathologies (diseases intrinsic and diseases extrinsic to the nose); (ii) an unsatisfactory aesthetic appearance (disproportion); (iii) a failed primary rhinoplasty; (iv) an obstructed airway; and (v) congenital nose defects and deformities.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;Congenital abnormalities\n* Cleft lip and palate in combination; cleft lip (cheiloschisis) and cleft palate (palatoschisis), individually.\n* Congenital nasal abnormalities\n* Genetically derived ethnic-nose abnormalities","Rhinoplasty\n\nAcquired abnormalities such as:\n* Allergic and vasomotor rhinitis – inflammations of the mucous membrane of the nose caused by an allergen, and caused by circulatory and nervous system disorders.\n* Autoimmune system diseases\n* Bites – animal and human\n* Burns – caused by chemicals, electricity, friction, heat, light, and radiation.\n* Connective-tissue diseases\n* Inflammatory conditions\n* Nasal fractures\n* Naso-orbito-ethmoidal fractures – damages to the nose and the eye-sockets; and damage to the bones and the walls of the nasal cavity; it is the ethmoid bone that separates the brain from the nose.\n* Neoplasms – malignant and benign tumors\n* Septal hematoma – a mass of (usually) clotted blood in the septum\n* Toxins – chemical damages caused by inspired substances – e.g. powdered cocaine, aerosol antihistamine medications, et cetera.\n* Traumatic deformities caused by blunt trauma, penetrating trauma, and blast trauma.\n* Venereal infection – e.g., syphilis","Rhinoplasty\n\nSurgical précis for rhinoplasty","Rhinoplasty\n\nA rhinoplastic correction can be performed on a patient who is under sedation, under general anaesthesia, or under local anaesthesia; initially, a local anaesthetic mixture of lidocaine and epinephrine is injected to numb the area, and temporarily reduce vascularity, thereby limiting any bleeding. Generally, the plastic surgeon first separates the nasal skin and the soft tissues from the osseo-cartilagenous nasal framework, and then corrects (reshapes) them as required, afterwards, sutures the incisions, and then applies either an external or an internal stent, and tape, to immobilize the newly reconstructed nose, and so facilitate the healing of the surgical cuts. Occasionally, the surgeon uses either an autologous cartilage graft or a bone graft, or both, in order to strengthen or to alter the nasal contour(s). The autologous grafts usually are harvested from the nasal septum, but, if it has insufficient cartilage (as can occur in a revision rhinoplasty), then either a costal cartilage graft (from the rib cage) or an auricular cartilage graft (concha from the ear) is harvested from the patient’s body.","Rhinoplasty\n\nWhen the rhinoplasty requires a bone graft, it is harvested from either the cranium, the hips, or the rib cage; moreover, when neither type of autologous graft is available, a synthetic graft (nasal implant) is used to augment the nasal bridge.","Rhinoplasty\n\nPhotographic records","Rhinoplasty\n\nFor the benefit of patient and the physician–surgeon, a photographic history of the entire rhinoplastic procedure is established; beginning at the pre-operative consultation, continuing during the surgical operation procedures, and concluding with the post-operative outcome. To record the \"before-and-after\" physiognomies of the nose and the face of the patient, the specific visual perspectives required are photographs of the nose viewed from the anteroposterior (front-to-back) perspective; the lateral view (profiles), the worm's-eye view (from below), the bird's-eye view (overhead), and three-quarter-profile views.","Rhinoplasty\n\n* Photograph A. – Open rhinoplasty: At rhinoplasty's end, after the plastic surgeon has sutured (closed) the incisions, the corrected (new) nose will be dressed, taped, and splinted immobile to permit the uninterrupted healing of the surgical incisions. The purple-ink guidelines ensured the surgeon’s accurate cutting of the defect correction plan.\n* Photograph B. – Open rhinoplasty: The new nose is prepared with paper tape in order to receive the metal nasal-splint that will immobilize it to maintain its correct shape as a new nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\nFile:RhinoplastySplint1.jpg|Photograph A. Open rhinoplasty: Pre-operative, the guidelines (purple) ensured the surgeon’s accurate incisions in cutting the nasal defect correction plan.\nFile:RhinoplastySplint2.jpg|Photograph B. Open rhinoplasty: Post-operative, the taped nose, prepared to receive the metal nasal splint that immobilizes and protects the newly corrected nose.\nFile:RhinoplastySplint3.jpg|Photograph C. Open rhinoplasty: The metal nasal splint aids wound healing by protecting the tender tissues of the new nose.\nFile:RhinoplastySplint4.jpg|Photograph D. Open rhinoplasty: The taped, splinted, and dressed nose completes the rhinoplasty.","Rhinoplasty\n\n* Photograph C. – Open rhinoplasty: After the preliminary taping of the nose, a custom-made, metal nasal-splint, designed, cut, and formed by the surgeon, is emplaced to immobilize and protect the tender tissues of the new nose during convalescence.\n* Photograph D. – Open rhinoplasty: The taping, emplacement of the metal splint, and dressing of the new nose complete the rhinoplasty procedure. The patient then convalesces, and the wound dressing will be removed at 1-week post-procedure.","Rhinoplasty\n\n* Photograph 1. – Open rhinoplasty: The incisions are endonasal (in the nose), and thus are hidden. The skin-incision to the columella aids the plastic surgeon in precisely suturing to hide the scar—except for the columellar incision (red-dot guideline) across the nasal base. The columellar incision allows the surgeon to view the size, shape, and condition of the nasal cartilages and bones to be corrected. * Photograph 2. – Open rhinoplasty: The nasal interior. The scissors indicate the lower lateral cartilage (blue), which is one of the wing-shaped cartilages that conform the tip of the nose. The jagged red delineation indicates the locale of the columellar incision. Once the skin has been lifted from the bone-and-cartilage framework, the surgeon performs the nasal correction tasks. * Photograph 3. – Open rhinoplasty: To narrow the tip of a too-wide nose, the surgeon first determines the cause of the excess nasal width. The suture being emplaced will narrow the tip of the nose. The red delineation indicates the edge of the nose-tip cartilage, which is narrowed when the surgeon tightens the folded cartilage apex. The suture (light blue) ends in the needle (white); tweezers (green) hold the nasal cartilage in place for the suturing.","Rhinoplasty\n\n* Photograph 4. – Nasal hump excision: The black delineation indicates the desired nose-reduction outcome: a straight nose. The nasal hump is bone (red) above the scalloped grey line, and cartilage (blue) below the scalloped grey line. The surgeon cuts the cartilage portion of the hump with a scalpel, and chisels the bone portion with an osteotome (bone chisel). After chiselling away the main mass of the nasal hump with an osteotome, the surgeon then sculpts, refines, and smoothens the cut nasal bones with rasps (files).","Rhinoplasty\n\nFile:RhinoplastyRasps.jpg|Rhinoplastic instruments: Bone-scraping rasps, of various grades and types, that the plastic surgeon uses to refine the corrections required to produce a new nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\nTypes of rhinoplasty – primary and secondary","Rhinoplasty\n\nIn plastic surgical praxis, the term primary rhinoplasty denotes an initial (first-time) reconstructive, functional, or aesthetic corrective procedure. The term secondary rhinoplasty denotes the revision of a failed rhinoplasty, an occurrence in 5–20 per cent of rhinoplasty operations, hence a revision rhinoplasty. The corrections usual to secondary rhinoplasty include the cosmetic reshaping of the nose because of a functional breathing deficit from an over aggressive rhinoplasty, asymmetry, deviated or crooked nose, areas of collapses, hanging columella, pinched tip, scooped nose and more. Although most revision rhinoplasty procedures are \"open approach\", such a correction is more technically complicated, usually because the nasal support structures either were deformed or destroyed in the primary rhinoplasty; thus the surgeon must re-create the nasal support with cartilage grafts harvested either from the ear (auricular cartilage graft) or from the rib cage (costal cartilage graft).","Rhinoplasty\n\nNasal reconstruction","Rhinoplasty\n\nIn reconstructive rhinoplasty, the defects and deformities that the plastic surgeon encounters, and must restore to normal function, form, and appearance include broken and displaced nasal bones; disrupted and displaced nasal cartilages; a collapsed bridge of the nose; congenital defect, trauma (blunt, penetrating, blast), autoimmune disorder, cancer, intranasal drug-abuse damages, and failed primary rhinoplasty outcomes. Rhinoplasty reduces bony humps, and re-aligns the nasal bones after they are cut (dissected, resected). When cartilage is disrupted, suturing for re-suspension (structural support), or the use of cartilage grafts to camouflage a depression allow the re-establishment of the normal nasal contour of the nose for the patient. When the bridge of the nose is collapsed, rib-cartilage, ear-cartilage, or cranial-bone grafts can be used to restore its anatomic integrity, and thus the aesthetic continuity of the nose. For augmenting the nasal dorsum, autologous cartilage and bone grafts are preferred to (artificial) prostheses, because of the reduced incidence of histologic rejection and medical complications.","Rhinoplasty\n\nSurgical anatomy for nasal reconstruction","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe human nose is a sensory organ that is structurally composed of three types of tissue: (i) an osseo-cartilaginous support framework (nasal skeleton), (ii) a mucous membrane lining, and (iii) an external skin. The anatomic topography of the human nose is a graceful blend of convexities, curves, and depressions, the contours of which show the underlying shape of the nasal skeleton. Hence, these anatomic characteristics permit dividing the nose into nasal subunits: (i) the midline (ii) the nose-tip, (iii) the dorsum, (iv) the soft triangles, (v) the alar lobules, and (vi) the lateral walls. Surgically, the borders of the nasal subunits are ideal locations for the scars, whereby is produced a superior aesthetic outcome, a corrected nose with corresponding skin colors and skin textures.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;Nasal skeleton\nTherefore, the successful rhinoplastic outcome depends entirely upon the respective maintenance or restoration of the anatomic integrity of the nasal skeleton, which comprises (a) the nasal bones and the ascending processes of the maxilla in the upper third; (b) the paired upper-lateral cartilages in the middle third; and (c) the lower-lateral, alar cartilages in the lower third. Hence, managing the surgical reconstruction of a damaged, defective, or deformed nose, requires that the plastic surgeon manipulate three (3) anatomic layers:","Rhinoplasty\n\n# the osseo-cartilagenous framework – The upper lateral cartilages that are tightly attached to the (rear) caudal edge of the nasal bones and the nasal septum; said attachment suspends them above the nasal cavity. The paired alar cartilages configure a tripod-shaped union that supports the lower third of the nose. The paired medial crura conform the central-leg of the tripod, which is attached to the anterior nasal spine and septum, in the midline. The lateral crura compose the second-leg and the third-leg of the tripod, and are attached to the (pear-shaped) pyriform aperture, the nasal-cavity opening at the front of the skull. The dome of the nostrils defines the apex of the alar cartilage, which supports the nasal tip, and is responsible for the light reflex of the tip.\n# the nasal lining – A thin layer of vascular mucosa that adheres tightly to the deep surface of the bones and the cartilages of the nose. Said dense adherence to the nasal interior limits the mobility of the mucosa, consequently, only the smallest of mucosal defects (","Rhinoplasty\n\nPrinciples of rhinoplastic reconstruction","Rhinoplasty\n\n;Principles\nThe technical principles for the surgical reconstruction of a nose derive from the essential operative principles of plastic surgery: that the applied procedure and technique(s) yield the most satisfactory functional and aesthetic outcome. Hence, the rhinoplastic reconstruction of a new nasal subunit, of virtually normal appearance, can be done in a few procedural stages, using intranasal tissues to correct defects of the mucosa; cartilage battens to brace against tissue contraction and depression (topographic collapse); axial skin flaps designed from three-dimensional (3-D) templates derived from the topographic subunits of the nose; and the refinement of the resultant correction with the subcutaneous sculpting of bone, cartilage, and flesh. Nonetheless, the physician-surgeon and the rhinoplasty patient must abide the fact that the reconstructed nasal subunit is not a nose proper, but a collagen-glued collage—of forehead skin, cheek skin, mucosa, vestibular lining, nasal septum, and fragments of ear cartilage—which is perceived as a nose only because its contour, skin color, and skin texture are true to the original nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;Restoration\nIn nasal reconstruction, the plastic surgeon's ultimate goal is recreating the shadows, the contours, the skin color, and the skin texture that define the patient's \"normal nose\", as perceived at conversational distance (c. 1.0 metre). Yet, such an aesthetic outcome suggests the application of a more complex surgical approach, which requires that the surgeon balance the patient's required rhinoplasty, with the patient's aesthetic ideal (body image). In the context of surgically reconstructing the patient's physiognomy, the \"normal nose\" is the three-dimensional (3-D) template for replacing the missing part(s) of a nose (aesthetic nasal subunit, aesthetic nasal segment), which the plastic surgeon re-creates using firm, malleable, modelling materials—such as bone, cartilage, and flaps of skin and of tissue. In repairing a partial nasal defect (wound), such as that of the alar lobule (the dome above the nostrils), the surgeon uses the undamaged, opposite (contralateral) side of the nose as the 3-D model to fabricate the anatomic template for recreating the deformed nasal subunit, by molding the malleable template material directly upon the normal, undamaged nasal anatomy.","Rhinoplasty\n\nTo effect a total nasal reconstruction, the template might derive from quotidian observations of the \"normal nose\" and from photographs of the patient before he or she suffered the nasal damage.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe surgeon replaces missing parts with tissue of like quality and quantity; nasal lining with mucosa, cartilage with cartilage, bone with bone, and skin with skin that best match the native skin color and skin texture of the damaged nasal subunit. For such surgical repairs, skin flaps are preferable to skin grafts, because skin flaps generally are the superior remedy for matching the color and the texture of nasal skin, better resist tissue contracture, and provide better vascularisation of the nasal skeleton; thus, when there is sufficient skin to allow tissue harvesting, nasal skin is the best source of nasal skin. Furthermore, despite its notable scarring propensity, the nasal skin flap is the prime consideration for nasal reconstruction, because of its greater verisimilitude.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe most effective nasal reconstruction for repairing a defect (wound) of the nasal skin, is to re-create the entire nasal subunit; thus, the wound is enlarged to comprehend the entire nasal subunit. Technically, this surgical principle permits laying the scars in the topographic transition zone(s) between and among adjacent aesthetic subunits, which avoids juxtaposing two different types of skin in the same aesthetic subunit, where the differences of color and texture might prove too noticeable, even when reconstructing a nose with skin flaps. Nonetheless, in the final stage of nasal reconstruction—replicating the \"normal nose\" anatomy by subcutaneous sculpting, the surgeon does have technical allowance to revise the scars, and render them (more) inconspicuous.","Rhinoplasty\n\nReasons for reconstruction","Rhinoplasty\n\nReconstruction rhinoplasty is indicated for the correction of defects and deformities caused by:\n# Skin cancer. The most common cause (etiology) for a nasal reconstruction is skin cancer, especially the lesions to the nose of melanoma and basal-cell carcinoma. This oncologic epidemiology occurs more readily among the aged and people who reside in very sunny geographic areas; although every type of skin is susceptible to skin cancer, white-skin is most epidemiologically prone to developing skin cancer. Furthermore, regarding plastic surgical scars, the age of the patient is a notable factor in the timely, post-surgical healing of a skin cancer defect (lesion); in terms of scarrification, the very elastic skin of young people has a greater regenerative propensity for producing scars that are thicker (stronger) and more noticeable. Therefore, in young patients, the strategic placement (hiding) of the rhinoplastic scars is a greater aesthetic consideration than in elder patients; whose less elastic skin produces scars that are narrower and less noticeable. # Traumatic nasal defect.","Rhinoplasty\n\nAlthough trauma is a less common rhinoplastic occurrence, a nasal defect or deformity caused by blunt trauma (impact), penetrating trauma (piercing), and blast trauma (blunt and penetrating) requires a surgical reconstruction that abides the conservational principles of plastic surgery, as in the corrections of cancerous lesions. # Congenital deformities. The unique plastic properties of the bone, cartilage, and skin of patients' afflicted with congenital defects, and associated anomalies, are considered separately.","Rhinoplasty\n\nSurgical techniques","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe effectiveness of a rhinoplastic reconstruction of the external nose derives from the contents of the surgeon's armamentarium of skin-flap techniques applicable to correcting defects of the nasal skin and of the mucosal lining; some management techniques are the Bilobed flap, the Nasolabial flap, the Paramedian forehead flap, and the Septal mucosal flap.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;I. The bilobed flap\nThe design of the bilobed flap derives from the creation of two (2) adjacent random transposition flaps (lobes). In its original design, the leading flap is applied to cover the defect, and the second flap, is emplaced where the skin flexes more, and fills the donor-site wound (from where the first flap was harvested), which then is closed primarily, with sutures. The first flap is oriented geometrically, at 90 degrees from the long axis of the wound (defect), and the second flap is oriented 180 degrees from the axis of the wound. Although effective, the bilobed flap technique did create troublesome \"dog ears\" of excess flesh that required trimming and it also produced a broad skin-donor area that was difficult to confine to the nose. In 1989, J. A. Zitelli modified the bilobed flap technique by: (a) orienting the leading flap at 45 degrees from the long axis of the wound; and (b) orienting the second flap at 90 degrees from the axis of the wound.","Rhinoplasty\n\nSaid orientations and emplacements eliminated the excess-flesh \"dog ears\", and thus required a smaller area of donor skin; resultantly, the broad-based, bilobed flap is less prone to the \"trap door\" and the \"pin cushion\" deformities common to skin-flap transposition procedure.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;Surgical technique – the bilobed flap\nThe design of the bilobed flap co-ordinates its lobes with the long axis of the nasal defect (wound); each lobe of the flap is emplaced at a 45-degree angle to the axis. The two lobes of the bilobed flap rotate along an arc, of which all points are equidistant from the apex of the nasal defect. * Based upon the available area of nasal skin, the surgeon selects the locale for the bilobed flap, and orients the pedicle. If the defect is in the lateral aspect of the nose, the pedicle is based medially. If the defect is at the nasal tip, or at the nasal dorsum, the pedicle is based laterally. An ideal location for the second flap is along the junction of the nasal dorsum and the lateral nasal wall. * The nasal wound is cut and shaped into a teardrop form, by the cutting out of a Burrow's triangle of flesh on the side of pedicle base. Cutting out the Burrow's triangle (skin and subcutaneous fat) permits the moving the pedicle flap, to emplace it without buckling the tissues adjacent to the graft.","Rhinoplasty\n\n* Using a 20 mm calliper as a protractor—one tip at the apex of the wound—the surgeon delineates two semi-circles, an inner semi-circle, and an outer semi-circle. The outer semi-circle defines the necessary length of the two lobes of the skin flap. The inner semi-circle bisects the center of the original wound, and continues across the donor skin, establishing limit measure of the pedicle common to the two lobes of the flap. The surgeon then draws two lines from the apex of the wound; the first line drawn is at an angle of 45 degrees from the long axis of the wound, and the second line drawn is at a 90-degree angle from the axis of the wound. The two (2) lines delineate the central axes of the two lobes of the bilobed flap. * The delineation of each of the two lobes of the flap begins and ends at the inner semi-circle, and extends to the outer semi-circle, to the point where it intersects its central axis.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe width of the first lobe is approximately 2 mm narrower than the width of the wound; the width of the second lobe is approximately 2 mm narrower than the width of the first lobe. * After the cutting from the tissue donor-site, the bilobed flap is elevated to a plane between the subcutaneous fat and the nasalis muscle. The wound is deepened, down to the nasal skeleton, to accommodate the tissue thickness of the bilobed flap. Technically, cutting the wound, enlarging it, is preferable, and safer, than trimming (thinning) the flap to fit the wound. * Undermining the donor site for the second lobe allows closing it primarily; it also eliminates excess-skin \"dog-ears\" at the donor site. Moreover, if the donor site cannot be closed with sutures, or if the skin blanches (whitens) when sutured, usually because of excessively tight sutures, the tension is decreased by reducing the size (length, width, depth) of the wound with deep sutures that will allow it to heal more readily.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;II. Nasolabial flap\nIn the 19th century, the surgical techniques of J.F. Dieffenbach (1792–1847) popularized the nasolabial flap for nasal reconstruction, for which it remains a foundational nose surgery procedure. The nasolabial flap can be either superiorly based or inferiorly based; of which the superiorly based flap is the more practical rhinoplastic application, because it has a more versatile arc of rotation, and the donor-site scar is inconspicuous. Depending upon the how the defect lay upon the nose, the flap pedicle-base can be incorporated either solely to the nasal reconstruction, or it can be divided into a second stage procedure. The blood supply for the flap pedicle are the transverse branches of the contralateral angular artery (the facial artery terminus parallel to the nose), and by a confluence of blood vessels from the angular artery and from the supraorbital artery in the medial canthus, (the angles formed by the meeting of the upper and lower eyelids). Therefore, the incisions for harvesting the nasolabial flap do not continue superiorly beyond the medial canthal tendon.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe nasolabial flap is a random flap that is emplaced with the proximal (near) portion resting upon the lateral wall of the nose, and the distal (far) portion resting upon the cheek, which contains the main angular artery, and so is perfused with retrograde arterial flow.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;Surgical technique – the nasolabial flap\nThe pedicle of the nasolabial flap rests upon the lateral nasal wall, and is transposed a maximum of 60 degrees, in order to avoid the \"bridge effect\" of a flap emplaced across the nasofacial angle. * The surgeon designs the nasolabial flap and sets its central axis at a 45-degree angle from the (long) axis of the nasal dorsum. The shape of the skin flap is cut from the wound template fabricated by the surgeon. * An incision is made to the flap (without an anaesthetic injection of epinephrine), which then is elevated and oriented, in an inferior-to-superior direction, between the subcutaneous fat and the muscle fascia. * The cutting continues until the skin flap can be freely transposed upon the nasal defect. A Burrow’s triangle is excised from the skin between the medial border of the flap and the nasal dorsum; the triangle can be cut either before or after the elevation of the nasolabial. * The flap then is bent back (reflected), and can be thinned (cut) under loupe magnification; however, a nasolabial flap cannot be thinned as easily as an axial skin-flap.","Rhinoplasty\n\n* After the nasolabial flap has been emplaced, the flap donor-site wound is sutured closed. For a wound of the lateral nasal wall that is less than 15 mm wide, the flap donor-site can be closed primarily, with sutures. For a wound wider than 15 mm—especially a wound that comprehends the alar lobule and the lateral wall of the nose—primary closure is not indicated, because such a wound closure imposes excessive stresses upon the skin flap, thereby risking either blanching (whitening) or distortion, or both. Such risks are avoided by advancing (moving) the skin of the cheek towards the nasofacial junction, where it is sutured to the deep tissues. Furthermore, a narrow wound, less than 1 mm wide can be allowed to heal by secondary intention (autonomous re-epithelialisation).","Rhinoplasty\n\n;III. The paramedian forehead flap\nThe paramedian forehead flap is the premier autologous skin graft for the reconstruction of a nose, by replacing any of the aesthetic nasal subunits, especially regarding the problems of different tissue thickness and skin color. The forehead flap is an axial skin flap based upon the supraorbital artery (an ophthalmic artery branch) and the supratrochlear artery (an ophthalmic artery terminus), which can be thinned to the subdermal plexus in order to enhance the functional and aesthetic outcome of the nose. Restricted length is a practical application limit of the paramedian forehead flap, especially when the patient has a low frontal hairline. In such a patient, a small portion of scalp skin can be included to the flap, but it does have a different skin texture and does continue growing hair; such mismatching is avoided with the transverse emplacement of the flap along the hairline; yet that portion of the skin flap is random, and so risks a greater incidence of necrosis.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe paramedian forehead flap has two disadvantages, one operational and one aesthetic: Operationally, the reconstruction of a nose with a paramedian forehead flap is a two-stage surgical procedure, which might a problem for the patient whose health (surgical suitability) includes significant, secondary medical risks. Nonetheless, the second stage of the nasal reconstruction can be performed with the patient under local anaesthesia. Aesthetically, although the flap donor-site scar heals well, it is noticeable, and thus difficult to conceal, especially in men.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;Surgical technique – the paramedian forehead flap\nThe surgeon designs the paramedian forehead flap from a custom-fabricated three-dimensional metal foil template derived from the measures of the nasal defect to be corrected. Using an ultrasonic scanner, the flap-pedicle is centre-aligned upon the Doppler signal of the supraorbital artery. Afterwards, the distal one-half of the flap is dissected and thinned to the subdermal plexus.","Rhinoplasty\n\n* The surgeon fabricates a metal foil template derived from the dimensions of the nasal wound. * Applying a Doppler ultrasonic scanner, the surgeon identifies the axial pedicle of the tissue-flap (composed of the supraorbital artery and the supratrochlear artery), usually at the base, next to the medial brow; the point usually is between the midline and the supraorbital notch. * Tracing the Doppler pulse of the blood flow of the supraorbital artery as far as possible, its delineation is continued as a vertical line, until it intersects with the hairline of the patient. The line extended from the pulse of the blood flow is the central axis of the forehead flap. * The length of the flap is determined by placing an un-folded, un-stretched 4 × 4-inch gauze upon the wound, and with it measuring from the pedicle base to the distal (farthest) point of the wound. This measure is the length of the central axis of the skin flap. * The template is rotated 180 degrees and placed over the distal (far) portion of the axis of the skin flap; the surgeon outlines it with a surgical marker.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe outline markings are continued proximally and parallel to the central axis, maintaining a 2-cm width for the proximal flap. * Without applying an injection of anaesthetic epinephrine, the flap is incised (cut), and the distal one-half is elevated between the frontalis muscle and the subcutaneous fat. * At approximately the mid-portion of the forehead, the surgeon deepens the plane of the dissection down to the submuscular plane. The dissection continues toward the brow and the glabella (the smooth prominence between the eyebrows) until the skin flap is sufficiently mobile to allow its relaxed transposition upon the nose. * Under loupe magnification, the distal portion of the forehead flap is de-fatted, down to the subdermal plexus. Yet, the fat-removal should be conservative, especially if the patient is either a tobacco smoker or a diabetic, or both, because such health factors negatively affect blood circulation and tissue perfusion, and thus the timely and correct healing of the surgical scars to the nose. * The flap is allowed to perfuse, while the donor site is sutured closed by means of the wide undermining deep to the frontalis muscle.","Rhinoplasty\n\nAt that time, diluted epinephrine can be injected to the forehead skin, but not to the area(s) near the pedicle of the forehead flap. Moreover, if the distal wound is wider than 25 mm, it usually is not closed by primary intention, with sutures, but is allowed to heal by secondary intention, by re-epithelialisation. * The forehead flap is attached to the nasal wound with subcutaneous sutures and skin sutures. If the excess tension of a suture compromises the color of the skin flap, the suture can be loosened, with a skin hook, and observed for 10–15 minutes; if the skin color remains compromised (white), the suture is removed. * Upon the complete attachment of the paramedian forehead flap to the nose, the surgical wounds are dressed only with antibiotic ointment.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;IV. Septal mucosal flap\nThe septal mucosal tissue flap is the indicated technique for correcting defects of the distal half of the nose, and for correcting almost every type of large defect of the mucosal lining of the nose. The septal mucosal tissue flap, which is an anteriorly based pedicle-graft supplied with blood by the septal branch of the superior labial artery. To perform such a nasal correction, the entire septal mucoperichondrium can be harvested.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;Surgical technique – the septal mucosal flap\nThe surgeon cuts the anteriorly based septal mucosal tissue-flap as widely as possible, and then releases it with a low, posterior back-cut; but only as required to allow the rotation of the tissue-flap into the nasal wound.","Rhinoplasty\n\n* The surgeon measures the dimensions (length, width, depth) of the nasal wound, and then delineates them upon the nasal septum, and, if possible, incorporates an additional margin of 3–5 mm of width to the wound measurements; furthermore, the base of the mucosal tissue flap should be at least 1.5-cm wide.\n* The surgeon then makes two (2) parallel incisions along the floor and the roof of the nasal septum; the incisions converge anteriorly, towards the front of the nasal spine.\n* Using an elevator, the flap is dissected in a sub-mucoperichondrial plane. The (far) distal edge of the flap is cut with a right-angle Beaver blade, and then is transposed into the wound. The exposed cartilages will reepithelialise (regenerate the epithelium), provided the opposite (contralateral) side of the septal mucosa is undisturbed.","Rhinoplasty\n\nA technical variant of the septal mucosal flap technique is the Trap-door flap, which is used to reconstruct one side of the upper half of the nasal lining. It is emplaced in the contralateral nasal cavity, as a superiorly based septal mucosal flap of rectangular shape, like that of a \"trap-door\". This septomucosal flap variant is a random flap with its pedicle based at the junction of the septum and the lateral nasal skeleton. The surgeon elevates the flap of septal mucosa to the roof of the nasal septum, and then traverses it into the contralateral (opposite) nasal cavity through a slit made by removing a small, narrow portion of the dorsal roof of the septum. Afterwards, the septomucosal flap is stretched across the wound in the mucosal lining of the lateral nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\nSurgical management","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe following rhinoplastic techniques are applied to the surgical management of: (i) partial-thickness defects; (ii) full-thickness defects; (iii) heminasal reconstruction; and (iv) total nasal reconstruction.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;I. Partial-thickness defects\nA partial-thickness defect is a wound with adequate soft-tissue coverage of the underlying nasal skeleton, yet is too large for primary intention closure, with sutures. Based upon the locale of the wound, the surgeon has two (2) options for correcting such a wound: (i) healing the wound by secondary intention (re-epithelialisation); and (ii) healing the wound with a full-thickness skin graft. Moreover, because it avoids the patched appearance of a skin-graft surgical correction, healing by secondary intention can successfully repair nasal wounds up to 10 mm in diameter; and, if the resultant scar proves aesthetically unacceptable, it can be revised later, after the wound has healed.","Rhinoplasty\n\nIn the event, larger nasal wounds (defects) do successfully heal by secondary intention, but do present two disadvantages. First, the resultant scar often is a wide patch of tissue that is aesthetically inferior to the scars produced with other nasal-defect correction techniques; however, the skin of the medial canthus is an exception to such scarring. The second disadvantage to healing by secondary intention is that the contracture of the wound might distort the normal nasal anatomy, which can lead to a pronounced deformity of the alar rim area. For this reason, healing by secondary intention generally is not recommended for defects of the distal third of the nose; nonetheless, the exception is a small wound directly upon the nasal tip.","Rhinoplasty\n\nFull-thickness skin grafts are the effective wound-management technique for defects with a well-vascularized, soft-tissue bed covering the nasal skeleton. The patient’s ear is the preferred skin-graft donor site from which to harvests grafts of pre-auricular skin and grafts of post-auricular skin, usually with an additional, small amount of adipose tissue to fill the wound cavity. Yet, nasal correction with a skin graft harvested from the patient's neck is not recommended, because that skin is low-density pilosebaceous tissue with very few follicles and sebaceous glands, thus is unlike the oily skin of the nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe technical advantages of nasal-defect correction with a skin graft are a brief surgery time, a simple rhinoplastic technique, and a low incidence of tissue morbidity. The most effective corrections are with a shallow wound with sufficient, supporting soft-tissue that will prevent the occurrence of a conspicuous depression. Nonetheless, two disadvantages of skin-graft correction are mismatched skin color and skin texture, which might result in a correction with a patch-work appearance; a third disadvantage is the natural histologic tendency for such skin grafts to contract, which might distort the shape of the corrected nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;II. Full-thickness defects\nFull-thickness nasal defects are in three types: (i) wounds to the skin and to the soft tissues, featuring either exposed bone or exposed cartilage, or both; (ii) wounds extending through the nasal skeleton; and (iii) wounds traversing all three nasal layers: skin, muscle, and the osseo-cartilaginous framework. Based upon the dimensions (length, width, depth) and topographic locale of the wound and the number of missing nasal-tissue layers, the surgeon determines the rhinoplastic technique for correcting a full-thickness defect; each of the aesthetic nasal subunits is considered separately and in combination.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;(a) Medial canthus\nThe skin between the nasal dorsum and the medial canthal tendon is uniquely suited to healing by secondary intention; the outcomes often are superior to what is achieved with either skin grafts or skin-flaps and tissue-flaps. Because the medial canthal tendon is affixed to the facial bone, it readily resists the forces of wound contracture; moreover, the animation (movement) of the medial brow also lends resistance to the forces of wound contracture. Furthermore, the medial canthal region is aesthetically hidden by the shadows of the nasal dorsum and of the supraorbital rim, thereby obscuring any differences in the quality of the color and of the texture of the replacement skin (epithelium).","Rhinoplasty\n\nHealing by secondary intention (re-epithelialisation) occurs even when the wound extends to the nasal bone. Although the rate of healing depends upon the patient's wound-healing capacity, nasal wounds measuring up to 10 mm in diameter usually heal in at 4-weeks post-operative. Nonetheless, one potential, but rare, complication of this nasal correction approach is the formation of a medial canthal web, which can be corrected with two (2) opposing Z-plasties, technique which relieves the disfiguring tensions exerted by the scar tissue's contracture, its shape, and location on the nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\n;(b) Nasal dorsum and lateral nasal wall defect\nThe size of the nasal defect (wound) occurred, in either the dorsum or the lateral wall, or both, determines the reconstructive skin-flap technique applicable to the corresponding aesthetic nasal subunits.","Rhinoplasty\n\n* A wound of less than 10 mm in diameter can be managed either by primary intention healing (suturing) or by secondary intention healing (re-epithelialisation). * A wound measuring 10–15 mm in diameter can be reconstructed with a single-stage modified bilobed flap, because it best matches the skin color and the skin texture of the wounded aesthetic subunit. Although not every scar can be hidden at the margins of the aesthetic nasal subunits concerned, the superior scarring ability of those nasal skin areas minimizes such an histologic disadvantage. In a patient whose basal-cell carcinoma was excised with Mohs surgery, the scar of the nasal reconstruction (an 11 mm full-thickness, laterally based, bilobed-flap applied down to the bone and the cartilage), was hidden by aligning the axis of the second lobe to and emplacing the skin graft at the junction of the nasal dorsum and the lateral wall of the nose. * A wound greater than 15 mm in diameter can be corrected with a paramedian forehead flap, which will reconstruct either the entire nasal dorsum or the lateral wall of the nose, as required.","Rhinoplasty\n\nThe surgical management of such wounds (2 laser and the infrared Erbium: YAG laser are the most effective treatments.","Rhinoplasty\n\n* Wide nose – To narrow a too-wide nose, the plastic surgeon cuts, contours, and rearranges the craniofacial bones to achieve the desired functional and aesthetic outcome of a narrower, straighter nose. To leave no visible, surgical scars upon the new nose, the surgeon effects the osteotome (bone chisel) incisions to the nasal bones beneath the facial skin.","Rhinoplasty\n\nIllustration 1: The surgeon cuts the excessively wide bones of the upper nasal dorsum (violet) with an osteotome (bone chisel), then detaches, corrects, and relocates them inwards, to a position, between the ocular orbits (red), that narrows the width of the nasal dorsum.","Rhinoplasty\n\nIllustration 2: The surgeon chisels two cuts (incisions) to the nasal bones, each incision begins at the nasal cavity. The first incision begins at the yellow dot and extends upwards, along the green arrow, until meeting the zig-zag line (red). The second incision begins at the blue dot and extends upwards, along the black arrow, until meeting the zig-zag line (red). Once cut and loosened from the face, the nasal bone pieces are corrected, then pushed inwards and re-set, thus narrowing the nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\nFile:RhinoplastyOsteotomeHammer.jpg|Rhinoplastic instruments:An osteotome (bone chisel) and a surgical hammer for sculpting craniofacial bones.","Rhinoplasty\n\nPost–surgical recovery","Rhinoplasty\n\n;Convalescence\nThe rhinoplasty patient returns home after surgery, to rest, and allow the nasal cartilage and bone tissues to heal the effects of having been forcefully cut. Assisted with prescribed medications—antibiotics, analgesics, steroids—to alleviate pain and aid wound healing, the patient convalesces for about 1-week, and can go outdoors. Post-operatively, external sutures are removed at 4–5 days; the external cast is removed at 1-week; the stents are removed within 4–14 days; and the \"panda eyes\" periorbital bruising heal at 2-weeks. Throughout the first year post-operative, in the course of the rhinoplastic wounds healing, the tissues will shift moderately as they settle into being a new nose.","Rhinoplasty\n\nRisks","Rhinoplasty\n\nRhinoplasty is safe, yet complications can arise; post-operative bleeding is uncommon, but usually resolves without treatment. Infection is rare, but, when it does occur, it might progress to become an abscess requiring the surgical drainage of the pus, whilst the patient is under general anaesthesia. Adhesions, scars that obstruct the airways can form a bridge across the nasal cavity, from the septum to the turbinates, and require surgical removal. If too much of the osseo-cartilaginous framework is removed, the consequent weakening can cause the external nasal skin to become shapeless, resulting in a \"polly beak\" deformity, resembling the beak of a parrot. Likewise, if the septum is unsupported, the bridge of the nose can sink, resulting in a \"saddle nose\" deformity. The tip of the nose can be over-rotated, causing the nostrils to be too visible, resulting in a porcine nose. If the cartilages of the nose tip are over-resected, it can cause a pinched-tip nose. If the columella is incorrectly cut, variable-degree numbness might result, which requires a months-long resolution.","Rhinoplasty\n\nFurthermore, in the course of the rhinoplasty, the surgeon might accidentally perforate the septum (septal perforation), which later can cause chronic nose bleeding, crusting of nasal fluids, difficult breathing, and whistling breathing. A turbinectomy may result in empty nose syndrome.","Rhinoplasty\n\nNon-surgical rhinoplasty","Rhinoplasty\n\nNon-surgical rhinoplasty is a medical procedure in which injectable fillers, such as collagen, are used to alter and shape a person's nose without invasive surgery. The procedure fills in depressed areas on the nose, lifting the angle of the tip or smoothing the appearance of bumps on the bridge. The procedure does not alter nose size, though it can be used to correct some functional birth defects.","Rhinoplasty\n\nOriginally developed at the turn of the twenty-first century, early attempts used biologically harmful soft-tissue fillers such as paraffin wax and silicone. After 2000, physicians such as Andrew Tuan-Anh Le successfully developed benign techniques using modern fillers.","Surgery\n\nSurgery (from the cheirourgikē (composed of χείρ, \"hand\", and ἔργον, \"work\"), via , meaning \"hand work\") is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance or to repair unwanted ruptured areas (for example, a perforated ear drum).","Surgery\n\nAn act of performing surgery may be called a surgical procedure, operation, or simply surgery. In this context, the verb operate means to perform surgery. The adjective surgical means pertaining to surgery; e.g. surgical instruments or surgical nurse. The patient or subject on which the surgery is performed can be a person or an animal. A surgeon is a person who practices surgery and a surgeon's assistant is a person who practices surgical assistance. A surgical team is made up of surgeon, surgeon's assistant, anesthesia provider, circulating nurse and surgical technologist. Surgery usually spans minutes to hours, but it is typically not an ongoing or periodic type of treatment. The term surgery can also refer to the place where surgery is performed, or simply the office of a physician, dentist, or veterinarian.","Surgery\n\nDefinitions","Surgery\n\nSurgery is a technology consisting of a physical intervention on tissues.","Surgery\n\nAs a general rule, a procedure is considered surgical when it involves cutting of a patient's tissues or closure of a previously sustained wound. Other procedures that do not necessarily fall under this rubric, such as angioplasty or endoscopy, may be considered surgery if they involve \"common\" surgical procedure or settings, such as use of a sterile environment, anesthesia, antiseptic conditions, typical surgical instruments, and suturing or stapling. All forms of surgery are considered invasive procedures; so-called \"noninvasive surgery\" usually refers to an excision that does not penetrate the structure being excised (e.g. laser ablation of the cornea) or to a radiosurgical procedure (e.g. irradiation of a tumor).","Surgery\n\nTypes of surgery","Surgery\n\nSurgical procedures are commonly categorized by urgency, type of procedure, body system involved, degree of invasiveness, and special instrumentation.","Surgery\n\n* Based on timing: Elective surgery is done to correct a non-life-threatening condition, and is carried out at the patient's request, subject to the surgeon's and the surgical facility's availability. A semi-elective surgery is one that must be done to avoid permanent disability or death, but can be postponed for a short time. Emergency surgery is surgery which must be done promptly to save life, limb, or functional capacity. * Based on purpose: Exploratory surgery is performed to aid or confirm a diagnosis. Therapeutic surgery treats a previously diagnosed condition. Cosmetic surgery is done to subjectively improve the appearance of an otherwise normal structure. * By type of procedure: Amputation involves cutting off a body part, usually a limb or digit; castration is also an example. Resection is the removal of all or part of an internal organ or part of the body. Replantation involves reattaching a severed body part. Reconstructive surgery involves reconstruction of an injured, mutilated, or deformed part of the body. Excision is the cutting out or removal of an organ, tissue, or other body part from the patient.","Surgery\n\nTransplant surgery is the replacement of an organ or body part by insertion of another from different human (or animal) into the patient. Removing an organ or body part from a live human or animal for use in transplant is also a type of surgery. * By body part: When surgery is performed on one organ system or structure, it may be classed by the organ, organ system or tissue involved. Examples include cardiac surgery (performed on the heart), gastrointestinal surgery (performed within the digestive tract and its accessory organs), and orthopedic surgery (performed on bones and/or muscles). * By degree of invasiveness of surgical procedures: Minimally-invasive surgery involves smaller outer incision(s) to insert miniaturized instruments within a body cavity or structure, as in laparoscopic surgery or angioplasty. By contrast, an open surgical procedure such as a laparotomy requires a large incision to access the area of interest. * By equipment used: Laser surgery involves use of a laser for cutting tissue instead of a scalpel or similar surgical instruments. Microsurgery involves the use of an operating microscope for the surgeon to see small structures.","Surgery\n\nRobotic surgery makes use of a surgical robot, such as the Da Vinci or the Zeus surgical systems, to control the instrumentation under the direction of the surgeon.","Surgery\n\nTerminology","Surgery\n\n:See also List of surgical procedures\n*Excision surgery names often start with a name for the organ to be excised (cut out) and end in -ectomy. *Procedures involving cutting into an organ or tissue end in -otomy. A surgical procedure cutting through the abdominal wall to gain access to the abdominal cavity is a laparotomy. *Minimally invasive procedures involving small incisions through which an endoscope is inserted end in -oscopy. For example, such surgery in the abdominal cavity is called laparoscopy. *Procedures for formation of a permanent or semi-permanent opening called a stoma in the body end in -ostomy. *Reconstruction, plastic or cosmetic surgery of a body part starts with a name for the body part to be reconstructed and ends in -oplasty. Rhino is used as a prefix for \"nose\", therefore a rhinoplasty is reconstructive or cosmetic surgery for the nose. *Repair of damaged or congenital abnormal structure ends in -rraphy. *Reoperation (return to the operating room) refers to a return to the operating theater after an initial surgery is performed to re-address an aspect of patient care best treated surgically.","Surgery\n\nReasons for reoperation include persistent bleeding after surgery, development of or persistence of infection or, more insidiously, retained foreign objects.","Surgery\n\nDescription of surgical procedure","Surgery\n\nLocation","Surgery\n\nAt a hospital, modern surgery is often done in an operating theater using surgical instruments, an operating table for the patient, and other equipment. Among United States hospitalizations for nonmaternal and nonneonatal conditions in 2012, more than one-fourth of stays and half of hospital costs involved stays that included operating room (OR) procedures. The environment and procedures used in surgery are governed by the principles of aseptic technique: the strict separation of \"sterile\" (free of microorganisms) things from \"unsterile\" or \"contaminated\" things. All surgical instruments must be sterilized, and an instrument must be replaced or re-sterilized if it becomes contaminated (i.e. handled in an unsterile manner, or allowed to touch an unsterile surface). Operating room staff must wear sterile attire (scrubs, a scrub cap, a sterile surgical gown, sterile latex or non-latex polymer gloves and a surgical mask), and they must scrub hands and arms with an approved disinfectant agent before each procedure. There is moderate-quality evidence that usage of two layers of gloves compared to single gloving during surgery reduces perforations and blood stains on the skin, indicating a decrease in percutaneous exposure incidents.","Surgery\n\nPreoperative care","Surgery\n\nPrior to surgery, the patient is given a medical examination, receives certain pre-operative tests, and their physical status is rated according to the ASA physical status classification system. If these results are satisfactory, the patient signs a consent form and is given a surgical clearance. If the procedure is expected to result in significant blood loss, an autologous blood donation may be made some weeks prior to surgery. If the surgery involves the digestive system, the patient may be instructed to perform a bowel prep by drinking a solution of polyethylene glycol the night before the procedure. Patients are also instructed to abstain from food or drink (an NPO order after midnight on the night before the procedure), to minimize the effect of stomach contents on pre-operative medications and reduce the risk of aspiration if the patient vomits during or after the procedure.","Surgery\n\nSome medical systems have a practice of routinely performing chest x-rays before surgery. The premise behind this practice is that the physician might discover some unknown medical condition which would complicate the surgery, and that upon discovering this with the chest x-ray, the physician would adapt the surgery practice accordingly., citing\n* Last reviewed 2011.\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n* In fact, medical specialty professional organizations recommend against routine pre-operative chest x-rays for patients who have an unremarkable medical history and presented with a physical exam which did not indicate a chest x-ray. Routine x-ray examination is more likely to result in problems like misdiagnosis, overtreatment, or other negative outcomes than it is to result in a benefit to the patient. Likewise, other tests including complete blood count, prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, basic metabolic panel, and urinalysis should not be done unless the results of these tests can help evaluate surgical risk.","Surgery\n\nStaging for surgery","Surgery\n\nIn the pre-operative holding area, the patient changes out of his or her street clothes and is asked to confirm the details of his or her surgery. A set of vital signs are recorded, a peripheral IV line is placed, and pre-operative medications (antibiotics, sedatives, etc.) are given. When the patient enters the operating room, the skin surface to be operated on, called the operating field, is cleaned and prepared by applying an antiseptic such as chlorhexidine gluconate or povidone-iodine to reduce the possibility of infection. If hair is present at the surgical site, it is clipped off prior to prep application. The patient is assisted by an anesthesiologist or resident to make a specific surgical position, then sterile drapes are used to cover all of the patient's body except for the head and the surgical site or at least a wide area surrounding the operating field; the drapes are clipped to a pair of poles near the head of the bed to form an \"ether screen\", which separates the anesthetist/anesthesiologist's working area (unsterile) from the surgical site (sterile).","Surgery\n\nAnesthesia is administered to prevent pain from incision, tissue manipulation and suturing. Based on the procedure, anesthesia may be provided locally or as general anesthesia. Spinal anesthesia may be used when the surgical site is too large or deep for a local block, but general anesthesia may not be desirable. With local and spinal anesthesia, the surgical site is anesthetized, but the patient can remain conscious or minimally sedated. In contrast, general anesthesia renders the patient unconscious and paralyzed during surgery. The patient is intubated and is placed on a mechanical ventilator, and anesthesia is produced by a combination of injected and inhaled agents.\nChoice of surgical method and anaesthetic technique aims to reduce risk of complications, shorten time needed for recovery and minimise the surgical stress response.","Surgery\n\nSurgery","Surgery\n\nAn incision is made to access the surgical site. Blood vessels may be clamped or cauterized to prevent bleeding, and retractors may be used to expose the site or keep the incision open. The approach to the surgical site may involve several layers of incision and dissection, as in abdominal surgery, where the incision must traverse skin, subcutaneous tissue, three layers of muscle and then peritoneum. In certain cases, bone may be cut to further access the interior of the body; for example, cutting the skull for brain surgery or cutting the sternum for thoracic (chest) surgery to open up the rib cage. Whilst in surgery health and safety is used to prevent infection or further spreading of the disease. The surgeon will remove hair from the face and eyes, using a head hat. Hands, wrists and forearms are washed thoroughly to prevent germs getting into the operated body, then gloves are placed onto the hands. A PVC apron will be worn at all times, to stop any contamination.","Surgery\n\nA yellow substance – typically an antiseptic iodine solution – is lighly coated onto the located area of the patient's body that will be performed on, this stops germs and disease infecting areas of the body, whilst the patient is being cut into.","Surgery\n\nWork to correct the problem in body then proceeds. This work may involve:","Surgery\n\n*excision – cutting out an organ, tumor, or other tissue. *resection – partial removal of an organ or other bodily structure. *reconnection of organs, tissues, etc., particularly if severed. Resection of organs such as intestines involves reconnection. Internal suturing or stapling may be used. Surgical connection between blood vessels or other tubular or hollow structures such as loops of intestine is called anastomosis. *Reduction – the movement or realignment of a body part to its normal position. e.g. Reduction of a broken nose involves the physical manipulation of the bone and/or cartilage from their displaced state back to their original position to restore normal airflow and aesthetics. *ligation – tying off blood vessels, ducts, or \"tubes\". *grafts – may be severed pieces of tissue cut from the same (or different) body or flaps of tissue still partly connected to the body but resewn for rearranging or restructuring of the area of the body in question. Although grafting is often used in cosmetic surgery, it is also used in other surgery. Grafts may be taken from one area of the patient's body and inserted to another area of the body.","Surgery\n\nAn example is bypass surgery, where clogged blood vessels are bypassed with a graft from another part of the body. Alternatively, grafts may be from other persons, cadavers, or animals. *insertion of prosthetic parts when needed. Pins or screws to set and hold bones may be used. Sections of bone may be replaced with prosthetic rods or other parts. Sometime a plate is inserted to replace a damaged area of skull. Artificial hip replacement has become more common. Heart pacemakers or valves may be inserted. Many other types of prostheses are used. *creation of a stoma, a permanent or semi-permanent opening in the body\n*in transplant surgery, the donor organ (taken out of the donor's body) is inserted into the recipient's body and reconnected to the recipient in all necessary ways (blood vessels, ducts, etc.). *arthrodesis – surgical connection of adjacent bones so the bones can grow together into one. Spinal fusion is an example of adjacent vertebrae connected allowing them to grow together into one piece. *modifying the digestive tract in bariatric surgery for weight loss.","Surgery\n\n*repair of a fistula, hernia, or prolapse\n*other procedures, including:\n*clearing clogged ducts, blood or other vessels\n*removal of calculi (stones)\n*draining of accumulated fluids\n*debridement- removal of dead, damaged, or diseased tissue\nBlood or blood expanders may be administered to compensate for blood lost during surgery. Once the procedure is complete, sutures or staples are used to close the incision. Once the incision is closed, the anesthetic agents are stopped and/or reversed, and the patient is taken off ventilation and extubated (if general anesthesia was administered).Askitopoulou, H., Konsolaki, E., Ramoutsaki, I., Anastassaki, E. Surgical cures by sleep induction as the Asclepieion of Epidaurus. The history of anesthesia: proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium, by José Carlos Diz, Avelino Franco, Douglas R. Bacon, J. Rupreht, Julián Alvarez. Elsevier Science B.V., International Congress Series 1242(2002), pp. 11–17. [https://books.google.com/books?id\nTM-8NIDPowoC&pgPA11&dq\nHistory+of+Hospital%2BAsclepieion&lrlang_en&as_brr\n0&cd1#v\nonepage&qHistory%20of%20Hospital%2BAsclepieion&f\nfalse]","Surgery\n\nPost-operative care","Surgery\n\nAfter completion of surgery, the patient is transferred to the post anesthesia care unit and closely monitored. When the patient is judged to have recovered from the anesthesia, he/she is either transferred to a surgical ward elsewhere in the hospital or discharged home. During the post-operative period, the patient's general function is assessed, the outcome of the procedure is assessed, and the surgical site is checked for signs of infection. There are several risk factors associated with postoperative complications, such as immune deficienty and obesity. Obesity has long been considered a risk factor for adverse post-surgical outcomes. It has been linked to many disorders such as obesity hypoventilation syndrome, atelectasis and pulmonary embolism, adverse cardiovascular effects, and wound healing complications. If removable skin closures are used, they are removed after 7 to 10 days post-operatively, or after healing of the incision is well under way.","Surgery\n\nIt is not uncommon for surgical drains (see Drain (surgery)) to be required to remove blood or fluid from the surgical wound during recovery. Mostly these drains stay in until the volume tapers off, then they are removed. These drains can become clogged, leading to retained blood complications or abscess.","Surgery\n\nPostoperative therapy may include adjuvant treatment such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or administration of medication such as anti-rejection medication for transplants. Other follow-up studies or rehabilitation may be prescribed during and after the recovery period.","Surgery\n\nThe use of topical antibiotics on surgical wounds does not reduce infection rates in comparison with non-antibiotic ointment or no ointment at all. Antibiotic ointments will irritate the skin, slow healing, and greatly increase risk of developing contact dermatitis and antibiotic resistance. Because of this, they should only be used when a person shows signs of infection and not as a preventative.","Surgery\n\nThrough a retrospective analysis of national administrative data, the association between mortality and day of elective surgical procedure suggests a higher risk in procedures carried out later in the working week and on weekends. The odds of death were 44% and 82% higher respectively when comparing procedures on a Friday to a weekend procedure. This “weekday effect” has been postulated to be from several factors including poorer availability of services on a weekend, and also, decrease number and level of experience over a weekend.","Surgery\n\nEpidemiology","Surgery\n\nOf the 38.6 million hospital stays that occurred in U.S. hospitals in 2011, 29% included at least one operating room procedure. These stays accounted for 48% of the total $387 billion in hospital costs.","Surgery\n\nIn total, there were over 15 million operating room procedures performed in U.S. hospitals in 2011. The overall number of procedures remained stable from 2001 to 2011.","Surgery\n\nA study of data from 2003 to 2011 showed that U.S. hospital costs were highest for the surgical service line; the surgical service line costs were $17,600 in 2003 and projected to be $22,500 in 2013. For hospital stays in 2012 in the United States, private insurance had the highest percentage of surgical expenditure. Mean hospital costs in the United States in 2012 were highest for surgical stays.","Surgery\n\nIn special populations","Surgery\n\nElderly people","Surgery\n\nOlder adults have widely varying physical health. Frail elderly people are at significant risk of post-surgical complications and the need for extended care. Assessment of older patients before elective surgery can accurately predict the patients' recovery trajectories. One frailty scale uses five items: unintentional weight loss, muscle weakness, exhaustion, low physical activity, and slowed walking speed. A healthy person scores 0; a very frail person scores 5. Compared to non-frail elderly people, people with intermediate frailty scores (2 or 3) are twice as likely to have post-surgical complications, spend 50% more time in the hospital, and are three times as likely to be discharged to a skilled nursing facility instead of to their own homes. Frail elderly patients (score of 4 or 5) have even worse outcomes, with the risk of being discharged to a nursing home rising to twenty times the rate for non-frail elderly people.","Surgery\n\nOther populations","Surgery\n\n;Children\nSurgery on children requires considerations which are not common in adult surgery. Children and adolescents are still developing physically and mentally making it difficult for them to make informed decisions and give consent for surgical treatments. Bariatric surgery in youth is among the controversial topics related to surgery in children.","Surgery\n\n;Persons with health conditions\nA person with a debilitating medical condition may have special needs during a surgery which a typical patient would not.","Surgery\n\n;Vulnerable populations\nDoctors perform surgery with the consent of the patient. Some patients are able to give better informed consent than others. Populations such as incarcerated persons, the mentally incompetent, persons subject to coercion, and other people who are not able to make decisions with the same authority as a typical patient have special needs when making decisions about their personal healthcare, including surgery.","Surgery\n\nIn low- and middle-income countries","Surgery\n\nIn 2014, the Lancet Commission on Global Surgery was launched to examine the case for surgery as an integral component of global health care and to provide recommendations regarding the delivery of surgical and anesthesia services in low and middle income countries. The primary conclusions of the study were as follows:","Surgery\n\n* Five billion people worldwide lack access to safe, affordable surgical and anesthesia care. Areas in which especially large proportions of the population lack access include Africa, the Indian Subcontinent, Central Asia, and to a lesser extent, Russia and China. Of the estimated 312.9 million surgical procedures undertaken worldwide in 2012, only 6.3% were done in countries comprising the poorest 37.3% of the world's population.\n* An additional 143 million surgical procedures are needed each year to prevent unnecessary death and disability.\n* 33 million people face catastrophic payments for surgical and anesthesia care each year.\n* Investment in surgical and anesthesia services is cost-effective, saves lives, and promotes economic growth\n* Surgery is an indispensable part of health care.","Surgery\n\nHistory","Surgery\n\nAncient Egypt","Surgery\n\nSurgical treatments date back to the prehistoric era. The oldest for which there is evidence is trepanation, in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, thus exposing the dura mater in order to treat health problems related to intra cranial pressure and other diseases. Prehistoric surgical techniques are seen in Ancient Egypt, where a mandible dated to approximately 2650 BCE shows two perforations just below the root of the first molar, indicating the draining of an abscessed tooth. Surgical texts from ancient Egypt date back about 3500 years ago. Surgical operations were performed by priests, specialized in medical treatments similar to today., and used sutures to close wounds. Infections were treated with honey.","Surgery\n\nIndia and China","Surgery\n\nRemains from the early Harappan periods of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 BCE) show evidence of teeth having been drilled dating back 9,000 years. Susruta was an ancient Indian surgeon commonly credited as the author of the treatise Sushruta Samhita. He is dubbed as the \"founding father of surgery\" and his period is usually placed between the period of 1200 BC – 600 BC. One of the earliest known mention of the name is from the Bower Manuscript where Sushruta is listed as one of the ten sages residing in the Himalayas. Texts also suggest that he learned surgery at Kasi from Lord Dhanvantari, the god of medicine in Hindu mythology. It is one of the oldest known surgical texts and it describes in detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments, as well as procedures on performing various forms of cosmetic surgery, plastic surgery and rhinoplasty.","Surgery\n\nInstruments resembling surgical tools have also been found in the archaeological sites of Bronze Age China dating from the Shang Dynasty, along with seeds likely used for herbalism.","Surgery\n\nAncient Greece","Surgery\n\nIn ancient Greece, temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as Asclepieia (, sing. Asclepieion Ασκληπιείον), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing. In the Asclepieion of Epidaurus, some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place. The Greek Galen was one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye surgery—that were not tried again for almost two millennia.","Surgery\n\nIn the Middle East, surgery was developed to a high degree in the Islamic world. Abulcasis (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi), an Andalusian-Arab physician and scientist who practised in the Zahra suburb of Córdoba, wrote medical texts that influenced European surgical procedures.","Surgery\n\nEarly modern Europe","Surgery\n\nIn Europe, the demand grew for surgeons to formally study for many years before practicing; universities such as Montpellier, Padua and Bologna were particularly renowned. In the 12th century, Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia, laying the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals. Barber-surgeons generally had a bad reputation that was not to improve until the development of academic surgery as a specialty of medicine, rather than an accessory field. Basic surgical principles for asepsis etc., are known as Halsteads principles.","Surgery\n\nThere were some important advances to the art of surgery during this period. The professor of anatomy at the University of Padua, Andreas Vesalius, was a pivotal figure in the Renaissance transition from classical medicine and anatomy based on the works of Galen, to an empirical approach of 'hands-on' dissection. In his anatomic treatis, De humani corporis fabrica, he exposed the many anatomical errors in Galen and advocated that all surgeons should train by engaging in practical dissections themselves.","Surgery\n\nThe second figure of importance in this era was Ambroise Paré (sometimes spelled \"Ambrose\" ), a French army surgeon from the 1530s until his death in 1590. The practice for cauterizing gunshot wounds on the battlefield had been to use boiling oil; an extremely dangerous and painful procedure. Paré began to employ a less irritating emollient, made of egg yolk, rose oil and turpentine. He also described more efficient techniques for the effective ligation of the blood vessels during an amputation.","Surgery\n\nModern surgery","Surgery\n\nThe discipline of surgery was put on a sound, scientific footing during the Age of Enlightenment in Europe. An important figure in this regard was the English surgical scientist, John Hunter, generally regarded as the father of modern scientific surgery. He brought an empirical and experimental approach to the science and was renowned around Europe for the quality of his research and his written works. Hunter reconstructed surgical knowledge from scratch; refusing to rely on the testimonies of others, he conducted his own surgical experiments to determine the truth of the matter. To aid comparative analysis, he built up a collection of over 13,000 specimens of separate organ systems, from the simplest plants and animals to humans.","Surgery\n\nHe greatly advanced knowledge of venereal disease and introduced many new techniques of surgery, including new methods for repairing damage to the Achilles tendon and a more effective method for applying ligature of the arteries in case of an aneurysm. He was also one of the first to understand the importance of pathology, the danger of the spread of infection and how the problem of inflammation of the wound, bone lesions and even tuberculosis often undid any benefit that was gained from the intervention. He consequently adopted the position that all surgical procedures should be used only as a last resort.","Surgery\n\nOther important 18th- and early 19th-century surgeons included Percival Pott (1713–1788) who described tuberculosis on the spine and first demonstrated that a cancer may be caused by an environmental carcinogen – (he noticed a connection between chimney sweep's exposure to soot and their high incidence of scrotal cancer). Astley Paston Cooper (1768–1841) first performed a successful ligation of the abdominal aorta, and James Syme (1799–1870) pioneered the Symes Amputation for the ankle joint and successfully carried out the first hip disarticulation.","Surgery\n\nModern pain control through anesthesia was discovered in the mid-19th century. Before the advent of anesthesia, surgery was a traumatically painful procedure and surgeons were encouraged to be as swift as possible to minimize patient suffering. This also meant that operations were largely restricted to amputations and external growth removals. Beginning in the 1840s, surgery began to change dramatically in character with the discovery of effective and practical anaesthetic chemicals such as ether, first used by the American surgeon Crawford Long, and chloroform, discovered by James Young Simpson and later pioneered by John Snow, physician to Queen Victoria. In addition to relieving patient suffering, anaesthesia allowed more intricate operations in the internal regions of the human body. In addition, the discovery of muscle relaxants such as curare allowed for safer applications.","Surgery\n\nInfection and antisepsis","Surgery\n\nUnfortunately, the introduction of anesthetics encouraged more surgery, which inadvertently caused more dangerous patient post-operative infections. The concept of infection was unknown until relatively modern times. The first progress in combating infection was made in 1847 by the Hungarian doctor Ignaz Semmelweis who noticed that medical students fresh from the dissecting room were causing excess maternal death compared to midwives. Semmelweis, despite ridicule and opposition, introduced compulsory handwashing for everyone entering the maternal wards and was rewarded with a plunge in maternal and fetal deaths, however the Royal Society dismissed his advice.","Surgery\n\nUntil the pioneering work of British surgeon Joseph Lister in the 1860s, most medical men believed that chemical damage from exposures to bad air (see \"miasma\") was responsible for infections in wounds, and facilities for washing hands or a patient's wounds were not available. Lister became aware of the work of French chemist Louis Pasteur, who showed that rotting and fermentation could occur under anaerobic conditions if micro-organisms were present. Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate the micro-organisms responsible for gangrene: filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to chemical solutions. Lister confirmed Pasteur's conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop antiseptic techniques for wounds. As the first two methods suggested by Pasteur were inappropriate for the treatment of human tissue, Lister experimented with the third, spraying carbolic acid on his instruments. He found that this remarkably reduced the incidence of gangrene and he published his results in The Lancet.","Surgery\n\nThe Lancet, \"On a new method of treating compound fracture, abscess, etc.: with observation on the conditions of suppuration\".5 articles running from:Volume 89, Issue 2272, 16 March 1867, pages 326–329 (Originally published as Volume 1, Issue 2272)\nto:Volume 90, Issue 2291, 27 July 1867, pages 95–96 Originally published as Volume 2, Issue 2291 Later, on 9 August 1867, he read a paper before the British Medical Association in Dublin, on the Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery, which was reprinted in The British Medical Journal. Modernized version of text E-text, audio at Project Gutenberg. His work was groundbreaking and laid the foundations for a rapid advance in infection control that saw modern antiseptic operating theatres widely used within 50 years.","Surgery\n\nLister continued to develop improved methods of antisepsis and asepsis when he realised that infection could be better avoided by preventing bacteria from getting into wounds in the first place. This led to the rise of sterile surgery. Lister introduced the Steam Steriliser to sterilize equipment, instituted rigorous hand washing and later implemented the wearing of rubber gloves. These three crucial advances – the adoption of a scientific methodology toward surgical operations, the use of anaesthetic and the introduction of sterilised equipment – laid the groundwork for the modern invasive surgical techniques of today.","Surgery\n\nThe use of X-rays as an important medical diagnostic tool began with their discovery in 1895 by German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen. He noticed that these rays could penetrate the skin, allowing the skeletal structure to be captured on a specially treated photographic plate.","Surgery\n\nSurgical specialties","Surgery\n\n* General surgery\n*:","Surgery\n\n* craniofacial surgery\n* Dental surgery\n* Gynaecology\n* Neurosurgery\n* Ophthalmology\n* Oral and maxillofacial surgery\n* Orthopaedic surgery\n* Otolaryngology\n* Podiatric surgery\n* Urology","Surgery\n\nNational societies","Surgery\n\n*American College of Surgeons\n*American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons\n*American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons\n*Royal Australasian College of Surgeons\n*Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons\n*Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada\n*Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland\n*Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh\n*Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow\n*Royal College of Surgeons of England"],"string":"[\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nRhinoplasty (, , nose + , to shape), commonly known as a nose job, is a plastic surgery procedure for correcting and reconstructing the form, restoring the functions, and aesthetically enhancing the nose by resolving nasal trauma (blunt, penetrating, blast), congenital defect, respiratory impediment, or a failed primary rhinoplasty. Most patients ask to remove a bump, narrow nostril width, change the angle between the nose and the mouth, as well as correct injuries, birth defects, or other problems that affect breathing, such as deviated nasal septum or a sinus condition.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIn the surgeries—closed rhinoplasty and open rhinoplasty—an otolaryngologist (ear, nose, and throat specialist), a maxillofacial surgeon (jaw, face, and neck specialist), or a plastic surgeon creates a functional, aesthetic, and facially proportionate nose by separating the nasal skin and the soft tissues from the osseo-cartilaginous nasal framework, correcting them as required for form and function, suturing the incisions, using [http://www.drsamrizk.com/mps-procedures-surgical-rhinoplasty.html tissue glue] and applying either a package or a stent, or both, to immobilize the corrected nose to ensure the proper healing of the surgical incision.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nHistory of surgical rhinoplasty\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nTreatments for the plastic repair of a broken nose are first mentioned in the Edwin Smith Papyrus, a transcription of an Ancient Egyptian medical text, the oldest known surgical treatise, dated to the Old Kingdom from 3000 to 2500 BC. Rhinoplasty techniques were carried out in ancient India by the ayurvedic physician Sushruta (c. 800 BC), who described reconstruction of the nose in the Sushruta samhita (c. 500 BC), his medico–surgical compendium. The physician Sushruta and his medical students developed and applied plastic surgical techniques for reconstructing noses, genitalia, earlobes, et cetera, that were amputated as religious, criminal, or military punishment. Sushruta also developed the forehead flap rhinoplasty procedure that remains contemporary plastic surgical practice. In the Sushruta samhita compendium, the physician Sushruta describes the (modern) free-graft Indian rhinoplasty as the Nasikasandhana.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nDuring the Roman Empire (27 BC – AD 476) the encyclopaedist Aulus Cornelius Celsus (c. 25 BC – AD 50) published the 8-tome De Medicina (On Medicine, c. AD 14), which described plastic surgery techniques and procedures for the correction and the reconstruction of the nose and other body parts.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nAt the Byzantine Roman court of the Emperor Julian the Apostate (AD 331–363), the royal physician Oribasius (c. AD 320–400) published the 70-volume Synagogue Medicae (Medical Compilations, AD 4th century), which described facial-defect reconstructions that featured loose sutures that permitted a surgical wound to heal without distorting the facial flesh; how to clean the bone exposed in a wound; debridement, how to remove damaged tissue to forestall infection and so accelerate healing of the wound; and how to use autologous skin flaps to repair damaged cheeks, eyebrows, lips, and nose, to restore the patient’s normal visage.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nNonetheless, during the centuries of the European Middle Ages (AD 5th–15th centuries) that followed the Imperial Roman collapse (AD 476), the 5th-century BC Asian plastic surgery knowledge of the Sushruta samhita went unknown to the West until the 10th century AD, with the publication, in Old English, of the Anglo-Saxon physician's manual Bald's Leechbook (c. AD 920) describing the plastic repair of a cleft lip; as a medical compendium, the Leechbook is notable for categorizing ailments and treatments as internal medicine and as external medicine, for providing herbal medical remedies, and for providing supernatural incantations (prayers), when required.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIn the 11th century, at Damascus, the Arab physician Ibn Abi Usaibia (1203–1270) translated the Sushruta samhita from Sanskrit to Arabic. In due course, Sushruta’s medical compendium travelled from Arabia to Persia to Egypt, and, by the 15th century, Western European medicine had encountered it as the medical atlas Cerrahiyet-ul Haniye (Imperial Surgery, 15th century), by Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu (1385–1468); among its surgical techniques featured a breast reduction procedure.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIn Italy, Gasparo Tagliacozzi (1546–1599), professor of surgery and anatomy at the University of Bologna, published Curtorum Chirurgia Per Insitionem (The Surgery of Defects by Implantations, 1597), a technico–procedural manual for the surgical repair and reconstruction of facial wounds in soldiers. The illustrations featured a re-attachment rhinoplasty using a biceps muscle pedicle flap; the graft attached at 3-weeks post-procedure; which, at 2-weeks post-attachment, the surgeon then shaped into a nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIn time, the 5th-century BC Indian rhinoplasty technique—featuring a free-flap graft—was rediscovered by Western medicine in the 18th century, during the Third Anglo–Mysore War (1789–1792) of colonial annexation, by the British against Tipu Sultan, when the East India Company surgeons Thomas Cruso and James Findlay witnessed Indian rhinoplasty procedures at the British Residency in Poona. In the English-language Madras Gazette, the surgeons published photographs of the rhinoplasty procedure and its nasal reconstruction outcomes; later, in the October 1794 issue of the Gentleman's Magazine of London, the doctors Cruso and Findlay published an illustrated report describing a forehead pedicle-flap rhinoplasty that was a technical variant of the free-flap graft technique that Sushruta had described some twenty-three centuries earlier.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nPre-dating the Indian Sushruta samhita medical compendium is the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BC), an Ancient Egyptian medical papyrus that describes rhinoplasty as the plastic surgical operation for reconstructing a nose destroyed by rhinectomy, such a mutilation was inflicted as a criminal, religious, political, and military punishment in that time and culture. In the event, the Indian rhinoplasty technique continued in 19th-century Western European medicine; in Great Britain, Joseph Constantine Carpue (1764–1846) published the Account of Two Successful Operations for Restoring a Lost Nose (1815), which described two rhinoplasties: the reconstruction of a battle-wounded nose, and the repair of an arsenic-damaged nose. (cf. Carpue’s operation)\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIn Germany, rhinoplastic technique was refined by surgeons such as the Berlin University professor of surgery Karl Ferdinand von Gräfe (1787–1840), who published Rhinoplastik (Rebuilding the Nose, 1818) wherein he described fifty-five (55) historical plastic surgery procedures (Indian rhinoplasty, Italian rhinoplasty, etc.), and his technically innovative free-graft nasal reconstruction (with a tissue-flap harvested from the patient’s arm), and surgical approaches to eyelid, cleft lip, and cleft palate corrections. Dr. von Gräfe’s protégé, the medical and surgical polymath Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach (1794–1847), who was among the first surgeons to anaesthetize the patient before performing the nose surgery, published Die Operative Chirurgie (Operative Surgery, 1845), which became a foundational medical and plastic surgical text. (see strabismus, torticollis) Moreover, the Prussian Jacques Joseph (1865–1934) published Nasenplastik und sonstige Gesichtsplastik (Rhinoplasty and other Facial Plastic Surgeries, 1928), which described refined surgical techniques for performing nose-reduction rhinoplasty via internal incisions.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIn the United States, in 1887, the otolaryngologist John Orlando Roe (1848–1915) performed the first modern endonasal rhinoplasty (closed rhinoplasty), about which he reported in the article \\\"The Deformity Termed 'Pug Nose' and its Correction, by a Simple Operation\\\" (1887), and about his management of saddle nose deformities.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIn the early 20th century, Freer, in 1902, and Killian, in 1904, respectively pioneered the Submucous Resection septoplasty (SMR) procedure for correcting a deviated septum; they raised mucoperichondrial tissue flaps, and resected the cartilaginous and bony septum (including the vomer bone and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone), maintaining septal support with a 1.0-cm margin at the dorsum and a 1.0-cm margin at the caudad, for which innovations the technique became the foundational, standard septoplastic procedure. In 1921, A. Rethi introduced the open rhinoplasty approach featuring an incision to the columella to facilitate modifying the tip of the nose. In 1929, Peer and Metzenbaum performed the first manipulation of the caudal septum, where it originates and projects from the forehead. In 1947, Maurice H. Cottle (1898–1981) endonasally resolved a septal deviation with a minimalist hemitransfixion incision, which conserved the septum; thus, he advocated for the practical primacy of the closed rhinoplasty approach. In 1957, A. Sercer advocated the “decortication of the nose” (Dekortication des Nase) technique which featured a columellar-incision open rhinoplasty that allowed greater access to the nasal cavity and to the nasal septum.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nNonetheless, at mid–20th century, despite such refinement of the open rhinoplasty approach, the endonasal rhinoplasty was the usual approach to nose surgery—until the 1970s, when Padovan presented his technical refinements, advocating the open rhinoplasty approach; he was seconded by Wilfred S. Goodman in the later 1970s, and by Jack P. Gunter in the 1990s. Goodman impelled technical and procedural progress with the article External Approach to Rhinoplasty (1973), which reported his technical refinements and popularized the open rhinoplasty approach. In 1982, Jack Anderson reported his refinements of nose surgery technique in the article Open Rhinoplasty: An Assessment (1982). During the 1970s, the principal application of open rhinoplasty was to the first-time rhinoplasty patient (i.e., a primary rhinoplasty), not as a revision surgery (i.e., a secondary rhinoplasty) to correct a failed nose surgery. In 1987, in the article External Approach for Secondary Rhinoplasty (1987), Jack P. Gunter reported the technical effectiveness of the open rhinoplasty approach for performing a secondary rhinoplasty; his improved techniques advanced the management of a failed nose surgery.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nHence does contemporary rhinoplastic praxis derive from the primeval (c. 600 BC) Indian rhinoplasty (nasal reconstruction via an autologous forehead-skin flap) and its technical variants: Carpue's operation, the Italian rhinoplasty (pedicle-flap reconstruction, aka the Tagliocotian rhinoplasty); and the closed-approach endonasal rhinoplasty, featuring exclusively internal incisions that allow the plastic surgeon to palpate (feel) the corrections being effected to the nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nNon-surgical rhinoplasty\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nAnatomy of the human nose\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nEmbryologic development\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nAt four (4) weeks of gestational development, the neural crest cells (the precursors of the nose) begin their caudad migration (from the posterior) towards the midface. Two symmetrical nasal placodes (the future olfactory epithelium) develop inferiorly, which the nasal pits then divide into the medial and the lateral nasal processes (the future upper lip and nose). The medial processes then form the septum, the philtrum, and the premaxilla of the nose; the lateral processes form the sides of the nose; and the mouth forms from the stomodeum (the anterior ectodermal portion of the alimentary tract), which is inferior to the nasal complex.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nA nasobuccal membrane separates the mouth from the nose; respectively, the inferior oral cavity (the mouth) and the superior nasal cavity (the nose). As the olfactory pits deepen, said development forms the choanae, the two openings that connect the nasal cavity and the nasopharynx (upper part of the pharynx that is continuous with the nasal passages). Initially, primitive-form choanae develop, which then further develop into the secondary, permanent choanae.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nAt ten (10) weeks of gestation, the cells differentiate into muscle, cartilage, and bone. If this important, early facial embryogenesis fails, it might result in anomalies such as choanal atresia (absent or closed passage), medial nasal clefts (fissures), or lateral nasal clefts, nasal aplasia (faulty or incomplete development), and polyrrhinia (double nose).\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThis normal, human embryologic development is exceptionally important—because the newborn infant breathes through his or her nose during the first 6 weeks of life—thus, when a child is afflicted with bilateral choanal atresia, the blockage of the posterior nasal passage, either by abnormal bony tissue or by abnormal soft tissue, emergency remedial action is required to ensure that the child can breathe.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe structures of the nose\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nFor plastic surgical correction, the structural anatomy of the nose comprehends: A. the nasal soft tissues; B. the aesthetic subunits and segments; C. the blood supply arteries and veins; D. the nasal lymphatic system; E. the facial and nasal nerves; F. the nasal bones; and G. the nasal cartilages.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;A. The nasal soft tissues\\n* Nasal skin – Like the underlying bone-and-cartilage (osseo-cartilaginous) support framework of the nose, the external skin is divided into vertical thirds (anatomic sections); from the glabella (the space between the eyebrows), to the bridge, to the tip, for corrective plastic surgery, the nasal skin is anatomically considered, as the:\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n# Upper third section – the skin of the upper nose is thick, and relatively distensible (flexible and mobile), but then tapers, adhering tightly to the osseo-cartilaginous framework, and becomes the thinner skin of the dorsal section, the bridge of the nose.\\n# Middle third section – the skin overlying the bridge of the nose (mid-dorsal section) is the thinnest, least distensible, nasal skin, because it most adheres to the support framework.\\n# Lower third section – the skin of the lower nose is as thick as the skin of the upper nose, because it has more sebaceous glands, especially at the nasal tip.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n* Nasal lining – At the vestibule, the human nose is lined with a mucous membrane of squamous epithelium, which tissue then transitions to become columnar respiratory epithelium, a pseudo-stratified, ciliated (lash-like) tissue with abundant seromucinous glands, which maintains the nasal moisture and protects the respiratory tract from bacteriologic infection and foreign objects.\\n* Nasal muscles – The movements of the human nose are controlled by groups of facial and neck muscles that are set deep to the skin; they are in four (4) functional groups that are interconnected by the nasal superficial aponeurosis—the superficial musculoaponeurotic system (SMAS)—which is a sheet of dense, fibrous, collagenous connective tissue that covers, invests, and forms the terminations of the muscles.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;The movements of the nose are affected by\\n# the elevator muscle group – which includes the procerus muscle and the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle.\\n# the depressor muscle group – which includes the alar nasalis muscle and the depressor septi nasi muscle.\\n# the compressor muscle group – which includes the transverse nasalis muscle.\\n# the dilator muscle group – which includes the dilator naris muscle that expands the nostrils; it is in two parts: (i) the dilator nasi anterior muscle, and (ii) the dilator nasi posterior muscle.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;B. Aesthetics of the nose – nasal subunits and nasal segments\\nTo plan, map, and execute the surgical correction of a nasal defect or deformity, the structure of the external nose is divided into nine (9) aesthetic nasal subunits, and six (6) aesthetic nasal segments, which provide the plastic surgeon with the measures for determining the size, extent, and topographic locale of the nasal defect or deformity.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;The surgical nose as nine (9) aesthetic nasal subunits\\n# tip subunit\\n# columellar subunit\\n# right alar base subunit\\n# right alar wall subunit\\n# left alar wall subunit\\n# left alar base subunit\\n# dorsal subunit\\n# right dorsal wall subunit\\n# left dorsal wall subunit\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIn turn, the nine (9) aesthetic nasal subunits are configured as six (6) aesthetic nasal segments; each segment comprehends a nasal area greater than that comprehended by a nasal subunit.\\n;The surgical nose as six (6) aesthetic nasal segments\\n# the dorsal nasal segment\\n# the lateral nasal-wall segments\\n# the hemi-lobule segment\\n# the soft-tissue triangle segments\\n# the alar segments\\n# the columellar segment\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nUsing the co-ordinates of the subunits and segments to determine the topographic location of the defect on the nose, the plastic surgeon plans, maps, and executes a rhinoplasty procedure. The unitary division of the nasal topography permits minimal, but precise, cutting, and maximal corrective-tissue coverage, to produce a functional nose of proportionate size, contour, and appearance for the patient. Hence, if more than 50 per cent of an aesthetic subunit is lost (damaged, defective, destroyed) the surgeon replaces the entire aesthetic segment, usually with a regional tissue graft, harvested from either the face or the head, or with a tissue graft harvested from elsewhere on the patient's body.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;C. Nasal blood supply – arteries and veins\\nLike the face, the human nose is well vascularized with arteries and veins, and thus supplied with abundant blood. The principal arterial blood-vessel supply to the nose is two-fold: (i) branches from the internal carotid artery, the branch of the anterior ethmoid artery, the branch of the posterior ethmoid artery, which derive from the ophthalmic artery; (ii) branches from the external carotid artery, the sphenopalatine artery, the greater palatine artery, the superior labial artery, and the angular artery.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe external nose is supplied with blood by the facial artery, which becomes the angular artery that courses over the superomedial aspect of the nose. The sellar region (sella turcica, \\\"Turkish chair\\\") and the dorsal region of the nose are supplied with blood by branches of the internal maxillary artery (infraorbital) and the ophthalmic arteries that derive from the internal common carotid artery system.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nInternally, the lateral nasal wall is supplied with blood by the sphenopalatine artery (from behind and below) and by the anterior ethmoid artery and the posterior ethmoid artery (from above and behind). The nasal septum also is supplied with blood by the sphenopalatine artery, and by the anterior and posterior ethmoid arteries, with the additional circulatory contributions of the superior labial artery and of the greater palatine artery. These three (3) vascular supplies to the internal nose converge in the Kiesselbach plexus (the Little area), which is a region in the anteroinferior-third of the nasal septum, (in front and below). Furthermore, the nasal vein vascularisation of the nose generally follows the arterial pattern of nasal vascularisation. The nasal veins are biologically significant, because they have no vessel-valves, and because of their direct, circulatory communication to the sinus caverns, which makes possible the potential intracranial spreading of a bacterial infection of the nose. Hence, because of such an abundant nasal blood supply, tobacco smoking does therapeutically compromise post-operative healing.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;D. Lymphatic system of the nose\\nThe pertinent nasal lymphatic system arises from the superficial mucosa, and drains posteriorly to the retropharyngeal nodes (in back), and anteriorly (in front), either to the upper deep cervical nodes (in the neck), or to the submandibular glands (in the lower jaw), or into both the nodes and the glands of the neck and the jaw.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;E. Nerves of the nose\\nThe sensations registered by the human nose derive from the first two (2) branches of cranial nerve V, the trigeminal nerve (nervus trigeminis). The nerve listings indicate the respective innervation (sensory distribution) of the trigeminal nerve branches within the nose, the face, and the upper jaw (maxilla).\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;The indicated nerve serves the named anatomic facial and nasal regions:\\n;Ophthalmic division innervation\\n* Lacrimal nerve – conveys sensation to the skin areas of the lateral orbital (eye socket) region, except for the lacrimal gland. * Frontal nerve – conveys sensation to the skin areas of the forehead and the scalp. * Supraorbital nerve – conveys sensation to the skin areas of the eyelids, the forehead, and the scalp. * Supratrochlear nerve – conveys sensation to the medial region of the eyelid skin area, and the medial region of the forehead skin. * Nasociliary nerve – conveys sensation to the skin area of the nose, and the mucous membrane of the anterior (front) nasal cavity. * Anterior ethmoid nerve – conveys sensation in the anterior (front) half of the nasal cavity: (a) the internal areas of the ethmoid sinus and the frontal sinus; and (b) the external areas, from the nasal tip to the rhinion: the anterior tip of the terminal end of the nasal-bone suture. * Posterior ethmoid nerve – serves the superior (upper) half of the nasal cavity, the sphenoids, and the ethmoids.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n* Intratrochlear nerve – conveys sensation to the medial region of the eyelids, the palpebral conjunctiva, the nasion (nasolabial junction), and the bony dorsum.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;The maxillary division innervation\\n* Maxillary nerve – conveys sensation to the upper jaw and the face.\\n* Infraorbital nerve – conveys sensation to the area from below the eye socket to the external nares (nostrils).\\n* Zygomatic nerve – through the zygomatic bone and the zygomatic arch, conveys sensation to the cheekbone areas.\\n* Superior posterior dental nerve – sensation in the teeth and the gums.\\n* Superior anterior dental nerve – mediates the sneeze reflex.\\n* Sphenopalatine nerve – divides into the lateral branch and the septal branch, and conveys sensation from the rear and the central regions of the nasal cavity.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe supply of parasympathetic nerves to the face and the upper jaw (maxilla) derives from the greater superficial petrosal (GSP) branch of cranial nerve VII, the facial nerve. The GSP nerve joins the deep petrosal nerve (of the sympathetic nervous system), derived from the carotid plexus, to form the vidian nerve (in the vidian canal) that traverses the pterygopalatine ganglion (an autonomic ganglion of the maxillary nerve), wherein only the parasympathetic nerves form synapses, which serve the lacrimal gland and the glands of the nose and of the palate, via the (upper jaw) maxillary division of cranial nerve V, the trigeminal nerve.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;F. Bony anatomy of the nose\\nIn the upper portion of the nose, the paired nasal bones attach to the frontal bone. Above and to the side (superolaterally), the paired nasal bones connect to the lacrimal bones, and below and to the side (inferolaterally), they attach to the ascending processes of the maxilla (upper jaw). Above and to the back (posterosuperiorly), the bony nasal septum is composed of the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone. The vomer bone lies below and to the back (posteroinferiorly), and partially forms the choanal opening into the nasopharynx, (the upper portion of the pharynx that is continuous with the nasal passages). The floor of the nose comprises the premaxilla bone and the palatine bone, the roof of the mouth.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe nasal septum is composed of the quadrangular cartilage, the vomer bone (the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone), aspects of the premaxilla, and the palatine bones. Each lateral nasal wall contains three pairs of turbinates (nasal conchae), which are small, thin, shell-form bones: (i) the superior concha, (ii) the middle concha, and (iii) the inferior concha, which are the bony framework of the turbinates. Lateral to the turbinates is the medial wall of the maxillary sinus. Inferior to the nasal conchae (turbinates) is the meatus space, with names that correspond to the turbinates, e.g. superior turbinate, superior meatus, et alii. The internal roof of the nose is composed by the horizontal, perforated cribriform plate (of the ethmoid bone) through which pass sensory filaments of the olfactory nerve (Cranial nerve I); finally, below and behind (posteroinferior) the cribriform plate, sloping down at an angle, is the bony face of the sphenoid sinus.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;G. The cartilaginous pyramid of the nose\\nThe cartilaginous septum (septum nasi) extends from the nasal bones in the midline (above) to the bony septum in the midline (posteriorly), then down along the bony floor. The septum is quadrangular; the upper half is flanked by two (2) triangular-to-trapezoidal cartilages: the upper lateral-cartilages, which are fused to the dorsal septum in the midline, and laterally attached, with loose ligaments, to the bony margin of the pyriform (pear-shaped) aperture, while the inferior ends of the upper lateral-cartilages are free (unattached). The internal area (angle), formed by the septum and upper lateral-cartilage, constitutes the internal valve of the nose; the sesamoid cartilages are adjacent to the upper lateral-cartilages in the fibroareolar connective tissue.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nBeneath the upper lateral-cartilages lay the lower lateral-cartilages; the paired lower lateral-cartilages swing outwards, from medial attachments, to the caudal septum in the midline (the medial crura) to an intermediate crus (shank) area. Finally, the lower lateral-cartilages flare outwards, above and to the side (superolaterally), as the lateral crura; these cartilages are mobile, unlike the upper lateral cartilages. Furthermore, some persons present anatomical evidence of nasal scrolling—i.e., an outward curving of the lower borders of the upper lateral-cartilages, and an inward curving of the cephalic borders of the alar cartilages.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe external nose\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;External nasal anatomy\\nThe form of the nasal subunits—the dorsum, the sidewalls, the lobule, the soft triangles, the alae, and the columella—are configured differently, according to the race and the ethnic group of the patient, thus the nasal physiognomies denominated as: African, platyrrhine (flat, wide nose); Asiatic, subplatyrrhine (low, wide nose); Caucasian, leptorrhine (narrow nose); and Hispanic, paraleptorrhine (narrow-sided nose). The respective external valve of each nose is variably dependent upon the size, shape, and strength of the lower lateral cartilage.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;Internal nasal anatomy\\nIn the midline of the nose, the septum is a composite (osseo-cartilaginous) structure that divides the nose into two (2) similar halves. The lateral nasal wall and the paranasal sinuses, the superior concha, the middle concha, and the inferior concha, form the corresponding passages, the superior meatus, the middle meatus, and the inferior meatus, on the lateral nasal wall. The superior meatus is the drainage area for the posterior ethmoid bone cells and the sphenoid sinus; the middle meatus provides drainage for the anterior ethmoid sinuses and for the maxillary and frontal sinuses; and the inferior meatus provides drainage for the nasolacrimal duct.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe internal nasal valve comprises the area bounded by the upper lateral-cartilage, the septum, the nasal floor, and the anterior head of the inferior turbinate. In the narrow (leptorrhine) nose, this is the narrowest portion of the nasal airway. Generally, this area requires an angle greater than 15 degrees for unobstructed breathing; for the correction of such narrowness, the width of the nasal valve can be increased with spreader grafts and flaring sutures.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nNasal analysis\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe surgical management of nasal defects and deformities divides the nose into six (6) anatomic subunits: (i) the dorsum, (ii) the sidewalls (paired), (iii) the hemilobules (paired), (iv) the soft triangles (paired), (v) the alae (paired), and (vi) the columella. Surgical correction and reconstruction comprehend the entire anatomic subunit affected by the defect (wound) or deformity, thus, the entire subunit is corrected, especially when the resection (cutting) of the defect encompasses more than 50 per cent of the subunit. Aesthetically, the nose—from the nasion (the midpoint of the nasofrontal junction) to the columella-labial junction—ideally occupies one-third of the vertical dimension of the person’s face; and, from ala to ala, it ideally should occupy one-fifth of the horizontal dimension of the person's face.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe nasofrontal angle, between the frontal bone and the nasion usually is 120 degrees; the nasofrontal angle is more acute in the male face than in the female face. The nasofacial angle, the slope of the nose relative to the plane of the face, is approximately 30–40 degrees. The nasolabial angle, the slope between the columella and the philtrum, is approximately 90–95 degrees in the male face, and approximately 100–105 degrees in the female face. Therefore, when observing the nose in profile, the normal show of the columella (the height of the visible nasal aperture) is 2 mm; and the dorsum should be rectilinear (straight). When observed from below (worm’s-eye view), the alar base configures an isosceles triangle, with its apex at the infra-tip lobule, immediately beneath the tip of the nose. The facially proportionate projection of the nasal tip (the distance of the nose’s tip from the face) is determined with the Goode Method, wherein the projection of the nasal tip should be 55–60 per cent of the distance between the nasion (nasofrontal junction) and the tip-defining point.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nA columellar double break might be present, marking the transition between the intermediate crus of the lower-lateral cartilage and the medial crus.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe Goode Method determines the extension of the nose from the facial surface by comprehending the distance from the alar groove to the tip of the nose, and then relating that measurement (of nasal-tip projection) to the length of the nasal dorsum. The nasal projection measurement is obtained by delineating a right triangle with lines parting from the nasion (nasofrontal juncture) to the alar–facial–groove. Then, a second, perpendicular delineation, that traverses the tip-defining point, establishes the ratio of projection of the nasal tip; hence, the range of 0.55:1 to 0.60:1, is the ideal nasal-tip-to-nasal-length projection.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nFile:Class_I_nose.jpg|Rhinoplasty: Nasal Class I. The Roman nose. (Nasology Eden Warwick, 1848)\\nFile:Class_II_nose.jpg|Rhinoplasty: Nasal Class II. The Greek nose. (Nasology Eden Warwick, 1848)\\nFile:Class_III_nose.jpg|Rhinoplasty: Nasal Class III. The African nose. (Nasology Eden Warwick, 1848)\\nFile:Class_IV_nose.jpg|Rhinoplasty: Nasal Class IV. The Hawk nose. (Nasology Eden Warwick, 1848)\\nFile:Class_V_nose.jpg|Rhinoplasty: Nasal Class V. The Snub nose. (Nasology Eden Warwick, 1848)\\nFile:Class_VI_nose.jpg|Rhinoplasty: Nasal Class VI. The celestial nose. (Nasology Eden Warwick, 1848)\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nPatient characteristics\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nTo determine the patient's suitability for undergoing a rhinoplasty procedure, the surgeon clinically evaluates him or her with a complete medical history (anamnesis) to determine his or her physical and psychological health. The prospective patient must explain to the physician–surgeon the functional and aesthetic nasal problems that he or she suffers. The surgeon asks about the ailments' symptoms and their duration, past surgical interventions, allergies, drugs use and drugs abuse (prescription and commercial medications), and a general medical history. Furthermore, additional to physical suitability is psychological suitability—the patient's psychological motive for undergoing nose surgery is critical to the surgeon's pre-operative evaluation of the patient. In the case of men, the surgeon must identify prospective patients presenting the mental traits denoted by the psychiatric acronym SIMON (single, immature, male, over-expectant, and narcissistic), which might indicate a man over-valuing the outcome of a rhinoplasty.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe complete physical examination of the rhinoplasty patient determines if he or she is physically fit to undergo and tolerate the physiologic stresses of nose surgery. The examination comprehends every existing physical problem, and a consultation with an anaesthesiologist, if warranted by the patient's medical data. Specific facial and nasal evaluations record the patient's skin-type, existing surgical scars, and the symmetry and asymmetry of the aesthetic nasal subunits. The external and internal nasal examination concentrates upon the anatomic thirds of the nose—upper section, middle section, lower section—specifically noting their structures; the measures of the nasal angles (at which the external nose projects from the face); and the physical characteristics of the naso-facial bony and soft tissues. The internal examination evaluates the condition of the nasal septum, the internal and external nasal valves, the turbinates, and the nasal lining, paying special attention to the structure and the form of the nasal dorsum and the tip of the nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nFurthermore, when warranted, specific tests—the mirror test, vasoconstriction examinations, and the Cottle maneuver—are included to the pre-operative evaluation of the prospective rhinoplasty patient. Established by Maurice H. Cottle (1898–1981), the Cottle maneuver is a principal diagnostic technique for detecting an internal nasal-valve disorder; whilst the patient gently inspires, the surgeon laterally pulls the patient's cheek, thereby simulating the widening of the cross-sectional area of the corresponding internal nasal valve. If the maneuver notably facilitates the patient's inspiration, that result is a positive Cottle sign—which generally indicates an airflow-correction to be surgically effected with an installed spreader-graft. Said correction will improve the internal angle of the nasal valve and thus allow unobstructed breathing. Nonetheless, the Cottle maneuver occasionally yields a false-positive Cottle sign, usually observed in the patient afflicted with alar collapse, and in the patient with a scarred nasal-valve region.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nSurgical rhinoplasty\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nOpen rhinoplasty versus closed rhinoplasty\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe plastic surgical correction of congenital and acquired abnormalities of the nose restores functional and aesthetic properties by the surgeon's manipulations of the nasal skin, the subcutaneous (underlying) cartilage-and-bone support framework, and the mucous membrane lining. Technically, the plastic surgeon's incisional approach classifies the nasal surgery either as an open rhinoplasty or as a closed rhinoplasty procedure. In open rhinoplasty, the surgeon makes a small, irregular incision to the columella, the fleshy, exterior-end of the nasal septum; this columellar incision is additional to the usual set of incisions for a nasal correction. In closed rhinoplasty, the surgeon performs every procedural incision endonasally (exclusively within the nose), and does not cut the columella.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;Procedural differences\\nExcept for the columellar incision, the technical and procedural approaches of open rhinoplasty and of closed rhinoplasty are similar; yet closed rhinoplasty procedure features:\\n* Reduced dissection (cutting) of the nasal tissues—no columellar incision\\n* Decreased potential for the excessive reduction (cutting) of the nasal-tip support\\n* Reduced post-operative edema\\n* Decreased visible scarring\\n* Decreased iatrogenic (inadvertent) damage to the nose, by the surgeon\\n* Increased availability for effecting in situ procedural and technical changes\\n* Palpation that allows the surgeon to feel the interior changes effected to the nose\\n* Shorter operating room time\\n* Quicker post-surgical recovery and convalescence for the patient\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;The \\\"ethnic nose\\\"\\nThe open rhinoplasty approach affords the plastic surgeon the advantages of ease in securing the grafts (skin, cartilage, bone) and, most important, in seeing the nasal cartilages proper, and so make the appropriate diagnosis. This procedural aspect can be especially difficult in revision surgery, and in rhinoplastic corrections of the thick-skinned \\\"ethnic nose\\\" of the colored man or woman. The study, Ethnic Rhinoplasty: a Universal Preoperative Classification System for the Nasal Tip (2009), reports that a nasal-tip classification system, based upon skin thickness, has been proposed to aid the surgeon in determining if an open rhinoplasty or a closed rhinoplasty shall best correct the defect or deformity afflicting the patient’s nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;Etiology\\nEtiologically, the open and closed approaches to rhinoplastic correction resolve: (i) nasal pathologies (diseases intrinsic and diseases extrinsic to the nose); (ii) an unsatisfactory aesthetic appearance (disproportion); (iii) a failed primary rhinoplasty; (iv) an obstructed airway; and (v) congenital nose defects and deformities.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;Congenital abnormalities\\n* Cleft lip and palate in combination; cleft lip (cheiloschisis) and cleft palate (palatoschisis), individually.\\n* Congenital nasal abnormalities\\n* Genetically derived ethnic-nose abnormalities\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nAcquired abnormalities such as:\\n* Allergic and vasomotor rhinitis – inflammations of the mucous membrane of the nose caused by an allergen, and caused by circulatory and nervous system disorders.\\n* Autoimmune system diseases\\n* Bites – animal and human\\n* Burns – caused by chemicals, electricity, friction, heat, light, and radiation.\\n* Connective-tissue diseases\\n* Inflammatory conditions\\n* Nasal fractures\\n* Naso-orbito-ethmoidal fractures – damages to the nose and the eye-sockets; and damage to the bones and the walls of the nasal cavity; it is the ethmoid bone that separates the brain from the nose.\\n* Neoplasms – malignant and benign tumors\\n* Septal hematoma – a mass of (usually) clotted blood in the septum\\n* Toxins – chemical damages caused by inspired substances – e.g. powdered cocaine, aerosol antihistamine medications, et cetera.\\n* Traumatic deformities caused by blunt trauma, penetrating trauma, and blast trauma.\\n* Venereal infection – e.g., syphilis\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nSurgical précis for rhinoplasty\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nA rhinoplastic correction can be performed on a patient who is under sedation, under general anaesthesia, or under local anaesthesia; initially, a local anaesthetic mixture of lidocaine and epinephrine is injected to numb the area, and temporarily reduce vascularity, thereby limiting any bleeding. Generally, the plastic surgeon first separates the nasal skin and the soft tissues from the osseo-cartilagenous nasal framework, and then corrects (reshapes) them as required, afterwards, sutures the incisions, and then applies either an external or an internal stent, and tape, to immobilize the newly reconstructed nose, and so facilitate the healing of the surgical cuts. Occasionally, the surgeon uses either an autologous cartilage graft or a bone graft, or both, in order to strengthen or to alter the nasal contour(s). The autologous grafts usually are harvested from the nasal septum, but, if it has insufficient cartilage (as can occur in a revision rhinoplasty), then either a costal cartilage graft (from the rib cage) or an auricular cartilage graft (concha from the ear) is harvested from the patient’s body.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nWhen the rhinoplasty requires a bone graft, it is harvested from either the cranium, the hips, or the rib cage; moreover, when neither type of autologous graft is available, a synthetic graft (nasal implant) is used to augment the nasal bridge.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nPhotographic records\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nFor the benefit of patient and the physician–surgeon, a photographic history of the entire rhinoplastic procedure is established; beginning at the pre-operative consultation, continuing during the surgical operation procedures, and concluding with the post-operative outcome. To record the \\\"before-and-after\\\" physiognomies of the nose and the face of the patient, the specific visual perspectives required are photographs of the nose viewed from the anteroposterior (front-to-back) perspective; the lateral view (profiles), the worm's-eye view (from below), the bird's-eye view (overhead), and three-quarter-profile views.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n* Photograph A. – Open rhinoplasty: At rhinoplasty's end, after the plastic surgeon has sutured (closed) the incisions, the corrected (new) nose will be dressed, taped, and splinted immobile to permit the uninterrupted healing of the surgical incisions. The purple-ink guidelines ensured the surgeon’s accurate cutting of the defect correction plan.\\n* Photograph B. – Open rhinoplasty: The new nose is prepared with paper tape in order to receive the metal nasal-splint that will immobilize it to maintain its correct shape as a new nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nFile:RhinoplastySplint1.jpg|Photograph A. Open rhinoplasty: Pre-operative, the guidelines (purple) ensured the surgeon’s accurate incisions in cutting the nasal defect correction plan.\\nFile:RhinoplastySplint2.jpg|Photograph B. Open rhinoplasty: Post-operative, the taped nose, prepared to receive the metal nasal splint that immobilizes and protects the newly corrected nose.\\nFile:RhinoplastySplint3.jpg|Photograph C. Open rhinoplasty: The metal nasal splint aids wound healing by protecting the tender tissues of the new nose.\\nFile:RhinoplastySplint4.jpg|Photograph D. Open rhinoplasty: The taped, splinted, and dressed nose completes the rhinoplasty.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n* Photograph C. – Open rhinoplasty: After the preliminary taping of the nose, a custom-made, metal nasal-splint, designed, cut, and formed by the surgeon, is emplaced to immobilize and protect the tender tissues of the new nose during convalescence.\\n* Photograph D. – Open rhinoplasty: The taping, emplacement of the metal splint, and dressing of the new nose complete the rhinoplasty procedure. The patient then convalesces, and the wound dressing will be removed at 1-week post-procedure.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n* Photograph 1. – Open rhinoplasty: The incisions are endonasal (in the nose), and thus are hidden. The skin-incision to the columella aids the plastic surgeon in precisely suturing to hide the scar—except for the columellar incision (red-dot guideline) across the nasal base. The columellar incision allows the surgeon to view the size, shape, and condition of the nasal cartilages and bones to be corrected. * Photograph 2. – Open rhinoplasty: The nasal interior. The scissors indicate the lower lateral cartilage (blue), which is one of the wing-shaped cartilages that conform the tip of the nose. The jagged red delineation indicates the locale of the columellar incision. Once the skin has been lifted from the bone-and-cartilage framework, the surgeon performs the nasal correction tasks. * Photograph 3. – Open rhinoplasty: To narrow the tip of a too-wide nose, the surgeon first determines the cause of the excess nasal width. The suture being emplaced will narrow the tip of the nose. The red delineation indicates the edge of the nose-tip cartilage, which is narrowed when the surgeon tightens the folded cartilage apex. The suture (light blue) ends in the needle (white); tweezers (green) hold the nasal cartilage in place for the suturing.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n* Photograph 4. – Nasal hump excision: The black delineation indicates the desired nose-reduction outcome: a straight nose. The nasal hump is bone (red) above the scalloped grey line, and cartilage (blue) below the scalloped grey line. The surgeon cuts the cartilage portion of the hump with a scalpel, and chisels the bone portion with an osteotome (bone chisel). After chiselling away the main mass of the nasal hump with an osteotome, the surgeon then sculpts, refines, and smoothens the cut nasal bones with rasps (files).\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nFile:RhinoplastyRasps.jpg|Rhinoplastic instruments: Bone-scraping rasps, of various grades and types, that the plastic surgeon uses to refine the corrections required to produce a new nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nTypes of rhinoplasty – primary and secondary\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIn plastic surgical praxis, the term primary rhinoplasty denotes an initial (first-time) reconstructive, functional, or aesthetic corrective procedure. The term secondary rhinoplasty denotes the revision of a failed rhinoplasty, an occurrence in 5–20 per cent of rhinoplasty operations, hence a revision rhinoplasty. The corrections usual to secondary rhinoplasty include the cosmetic reshaping of the nose because of a functional breathing deficit from an over aggressive rhinoplasty, asymmetry, deviated or crooked nose, areas of collapses, hanging columella, pinched tip, scooped nose and more. Although most revision rhinoplasty procedures are \\\"open approach\\\", such a correction is more technically complicated, usually because the nasal support structures either were deformed or destroyed in the primary rhinoplasty; thus the surgeon must re-create the nasal support with cartilage grafts harvested either from the ear (auricular cartilage graft) or from the rib cage (costal cartilage graft).\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nNasal reconstruction\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIn reconstructive rhinoplasty, the defects and deformities that the plastic surgeon encounters, and must restore to normal function, form, and appearance include broken and displaced nasal bones; disrupted and displaced nasal cartilages; a collapsed bridge of the nose; congenital defect, trauma (blunt, penetrating, blast), autoimmune disorder, cancer, intranasal drug-abuse damages, and failed primary rhinoplasty outcomes. Rhinoplasty reduces bony humps, and re-aligns the nasal bones after they are cut (dissected, resected). When cartilage is disrupted, suturing for re-suspension (structural support), or the use of cartilage grafts to camouflage a depression allow the re-establishment of the normal nasal contour of the nose for the patient. When the bridge of the nose is collapsed, rib-cartilage, ear-cartilage, or cranial-bone grafts can be used to restore its anatomic integrity, and thus the aesthetic continuity of the nose. For augmenting the nasal dorsum, autologous cartilage and bone grafts are preferred to (artificial) prostheses, because of the reduced incidence of histologic rejection and medical complications.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nSurgical anatomy for nasal reconstruction\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe human nose is a sensory organ that is structurally composed of three types of tissue: (i) an osseo-cartilaginous support framework (nasal skeleton), (ii) a mucous membrane lining, and (iii) an external skin. The anatomic topography of the human nose is a graceful blend of convexities, curves, and depressions, the contours of which show the underlying shape of the nasal skeleton. Hence, these anatomic characteristics permit dividing the nose into nasal subunits: (i) the midline (ii) the nose-tip, (iii) the dorsum, (iv) the soft triangles, (v) the alar lobules, and (vi) the lateral walls. Surgically, the borders of the nasal subunits are ideal locations for the scars, whereby is produced a superior aesthetic outcome, a corrected nose with corresponding skin colors and skin textures.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;Nasal skeleton\\nTherefore, the successful rhinoplastic outcome depends entirely upon the respective maintenance or restoration of the anatomic integrity of the nasal skeleton, which comprises (a) the nasal bones and the ascending processes of the maxilla in the upper third; (b) the paired upper-lateral cartilages in the middle third; and (c) the lower-lateral, alar cartilages in the lower third. Hence, managing the surgical reconstruction of a damaged, defective, or deformed nose, requires that the plastic surgeon manipulate three (3) anatomic layers:\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n# the osseo-cartilagenous framework – The upper lateral cartilages that are tightly attached to the (rear) caudal edge of the nasal bones and the nasal septum; said attachment suspends them above the nasal cavity. The paired alar cartilages configure a tripod-shaped union that supports the lower third of the nose. The paired medial crura conform the central-leg of the tripod, which is attached to the anterior nasal spine and septum, in the midline. The lateral crura compose the second-leg and the third-leg of the tripod, and are attached to the (pear-shaped) pyriform aperture, the nasal-cavity opening at the front of the skull. The dome of the nostrils defines the apex of the alar cartilage, which supports the nasal tip, and is responsible for the light reflex of the tip.\\n# the nasal lining – A thin layer of vascular mucosa that adheres tightly to the deep surface of the bones and the cartilages of the nose. Said dense adherence to the nasal interior limits the mobility of the mucosa, consequently, only the smallest of mucosal defects (\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nPrinciples of rhinoplastic reconstruction\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;Principles\\nThe technical principles for the surgical reconstruction of a nose derive from the essential operative principles of plastic surgery: that the applied procedure and technique(s) yield the most satisfactory functional and aesthetic outcome. Hence, the rhinoplastic reconstruction of a new nasal subunit, of virtually normal appearance, can be done in a few procedural stages, using intranasal tissues to correct defects of the mucosa; cartilage battens to brace against tissue contraction and depression (topographic collapse); axial skin flaps designed from three-dimensional (3-D) templates derived from the topographic subunits of the nose; and the refinement of the resultant correction with the subcutaneous sculpting of bone, cartilage, and flesh. Nonetheless, the physician-surgeon and the rhinoplasty patient must abide the fact that the reconstructed nasal subunit is not a nose proper, but a collagen-glued collage—of forehead skin, cheek skin, mucosa, vestibular lining, nasal septum, and fragments of ear cartilage—which is perceived as a nose only because its contour, skin color, and skin texture are true to the original nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;Restoration\\nIn nasal reconstruction, the plastic surgeon's ultimate goal is recreating the shadows, the contours, the skin color, and the skin texture that define the patient's \\\"normal nose\\\", as perceived at conversational distance (c. 1.0 metre). Yet, such an aesthetic outcome suggests the application of a more complex surgical approach, which requires that the surgeon balance the patient's required rhinoplasty, with the patient's aesthetic ideal (body image). In the context of surgically reconstructing the patient's physiognomy, the \\\"normal nose\\\" is the three-dimensional (3-D) template for replacing the missing part(s) of a nose (aesthetic nasal subunit, aesthetic nasal segment), which the plastic surgeon re-creates using firm, malleable, modelling materials—such as bone, cartilage, and flaps of skin and of tissue. In repairing a partial nasal defect (wound), such as that of the alar lobule (the dome above the nostrils), the surgeon uses the undamaged, opposite (contralateral) side of the nose as the 3-D model to fabricate the anatomic template for recreating the deformed nasal subunit, by molding the malleable template material directly upon the normal, undamaged nasal anatomy.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nTo effect a total nasal reconstruction, the template might derive from quotidian observations of the \\\"normal nose\\\" and from photographs of the patient before he or she suffered the nasal damage.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe surgeon replaces missing parts with tissue of like quality and quantity; nasal lining with mucosa, cartilage with cartilage, bone with bone, and skin with skin that best match the native skin color and skin texture of the damaged nasal subunit. For such surgical repairs, skin flaps are preferable to skin grafts, because skin flaps generally are the superior remedy for matching the color and the texture of nasal skin, better resist tissue contracture, and provide better vascularisation of the nasal skeleton; thus, when there is sufficient skin to allow tissue harvesting, nasal skin is the best source of nasal skin. Furthermore, despite its notable scarring propensity, the nasal skin flap is the prime consideration for nasal reconstruction, because of its greater verisimilitude.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe most effective nasal reconstruction for repairing a defect (wound) of the nasal skin, is to re-create the entire nasal subunit; thus, the wound is enlarged to comprehend the entire nasal subunit. Technically, this surgical principle permits laying the scars in the topographic transition zone(s) between and among adjacent aesthetic subunits, which avoids juxtaposing two different types of skin in the same aesthetic subunit, where the differences of color and texture might prove too noticeable, even when reconstructing a nose with skin flaps. Nonetheless, in the final stage of nasal reconstruction—replicating the \\\"normal nose\\\" anatomy by subcutaneous sculpting, the surgeon does have technical allowance to revise the scars, and render them (more) inconspicuous.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nReasons for reconstruction\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nReconstruction rhinoplasty is indicated for the correction of defects and deformities caused by:\\n# Skin cancer. The most common cause (etiology) for a nasal reconstruction is skin cancer, especially the lesions to the nose of melanoma and basal-cell carcinoma. This oncologic epidemiology occurs more readily among the aged and people who reside in very sunny geographic areas; although every type of skin is susceptible to skin cancer, white-skin is most epidemiologically prone to developing skin cancer. Furthermore, regarding plastic surgical scars, the age of the patient is a notable factor in the timely, post-surgical healing of a skin cancer defect (lesion); in terms of scarrification, the very elastic skin of young people has a greater regenerative propensity for producing scars that are thicker (stronger) and more noticeable. Therefore, in young patients, the strategic placement (hiding) of the rhinoplastic scars is a greater aesthetic consideration than in elder patients; whose less elastic skin produces scars that are narrower and less noticeable. # Traumatic nasal defect.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nAlthough trauma is a less common rhinoplastic occurrence, a nasal defect or deformity caused by blunt trauma (impact), penetrating trauma (piercing), and blast trauma (blunt and penetrating) requires a surgical reconstruction that abides the conservational principles of plastic surgery, as in the corrections of cancerous lesions. # Congenital deformities. The unique plastic properties of the bone, cartilage, and skin of patients' afflicted with congenital defects, and associated anomalies, are considered separately.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nSurgical techniques\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe effectiveness of a rhinoplastic reconstruction of the external nose derives from the contents of the surgeon's armamentarium of skin-flap techniques applicable to correcting defects of the nasal skin and of the mucosal lining; some management techniques are the Bilobed flap, the Nasolabial flap, the Paramedian forehead flap, and the Septal mucosal flap.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;I. The bilobed flap\\nThe design of the bilobed flap derives from the creation of two (2) adjacent random transposition flaps (lobes). In its original design, the leading flap is applied to cover the defect, and the second flap, is emplaced where the skin flexes more, and fills the donor-site wound (from where the first flap was harvested), which then is closed primarily, with sutures. The first flap is oriented geometrically, at 90 degrees from the long axis of the wound (defect), and the second flap is oriented 180 degrees from the axis of the wound. Although effective, the bilobed flap technique did create troublesome \\\"dog ears\\\" of excess flesh that required trimming and it also produced a broad skin-donor area that was difficult to confine to the nose. In 1989, J. A. Zitelli modified the bilobed flap technique by: (a) orienting the leading flap at 45 degrees from the long axis of the wound; and (b) orienting the second flap at 90 degrees from the axis of the wound.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nSaid orientations and emplacements eliminated the excess-flesh \\\"dog ears\\\", and thus required a smaller area of donor skin; resultantly, the broad-based, bilobed flap is less prone to the \\\"trap door\\\" and the \\\"pin cushion\\\" deformities common to skin-flap transposition procedure.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;Surgical technique – the bilobed flap\\nThe design of the bilobed flap co-ordinates its lobes with the long axis of the nasal defect (wound); each lobe of the flap is emplaced at a 45-degree angle to the axis. The two lobes of the bilobed flap rotate along an arc, of which all points are equidistant from the apex of the nasal defect. * Based upon the available area of nasal skin, the surgeon selects the locale for the bilobed flap, and orients the pedicle. If the defect is in the lateral aspect of the nose, the pedicle is based medially. If the defect is at the nasal tip, or at the nasal dorsum, the pedicle is based laterally. An ideal location for the second flap is along the junction of the nasal dorsum and the lateral nasal wall. * The nasal wound is cut and shaped into a teardrop form, by the cutting out of a Burrow's triangle of flesh on the side of pedicle base. Cutting out the Burrow's triangle (skin and subcutaneous fat) permits the moving the pedicle flap, to emplace it without buckling the tissues adjacent to the graft.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n* Using a 20 mm calliper as a protractor—one tip at the apex of the wound—the surgeon delineates two semi-circles, an inner semi-circle, and an outer semi-circle. The outer semi-circle defines the necessary length of the two lobes of the skin flap. The inner semi-circle bisects the center of the original wound, and continues across the donor skin, establishing limit measure of the pedicle common to the two lobes of the flap. The surgeon then draws two lines from the apex of the wound; the first line drawn is at an angle of 45 degrees from the long axis of the wound, and the second line drawn is at a 90-degree angle from the axis of the wound. The two (2) lines delineate the central axes of the two lobes of the bilobed flap. * The delineation of each of the two lobes of the flap begins and ends at the inner semi-circle, and extends to the outer semi-circle, to the point where it intersects its central axis.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe width of the first lobe is approximately 2 mm narrower than the width of the wound; the width of the second lobe is approximately 2 mm narrower than the width of the first lobe. * After the cutting from the tissue donor-site, the bilobed flap is elevated to a plane between the subcutaneous fat and the nasalis muscle. The wound is deepened, down to the nasal skeleton, to accommodate the tissue thickness of the bilobed flap. Technically, cutting the wound, enlarging it, is preferable, and safer, than trimming (thinning) the flap to fit the wound. * Undermining the donor site for the second lobe allows closing it primarily; it also eliminates excess-skin \\\"dog-ears\\\" at the donor site. Moreover, if the donor site cannot be closed with sutures, or if the skin blanches (whitens) when sutured, usually because of excessively tight sutures, the tension is decreased by reducing the size (length, width, depth) of the wound with deep sutures that will allow it to heal more readily.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;II. Nasolabial flap\\nIn the 19th century, the surgical techniques of J.F. Dieffenbach (1792–1847) popularized the nasolabial flap for nasal reconstruction, for which it remains a foundational nose surgery procedure. The nasolabial flap can be either superiorly based or inferiorly based; of which the superiorly based flap is the more practical rhinoplastic application, because it has a more versatile arc of rotation, and the donor-site scar is inconspicuous. Depending upon the how the defect lay upon the nose, the flap pedicle-base can be incorporated either solely to the nasal reconstruction, or it can be divided into a second stage procedure. The blood supply for the flap pedicle are the transverse branches of the contralateral angular artery (the facial artery terminus parallel to the nose), and by a confluence of blood vessels from the angular artery and from the supraorbital artery in the medial canthus, (the angles formed by the meeting of the upper and lower eyelids). Therefore, the incisions for harvesting the nasolabial flap do not continue superiorly beyond the medial canthal tendon.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe nasolabial flap is a random flap that is emplaced with the proximal (near) portion resting upon the lateral wall of the nose, and the distal (far) portion resting upon the cheek, which contains the main angular artery, and so is perfused with retrograde arterial flow.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;Surgical technique – the nasolabial flap\\nThe pedicle of the nasolabial flap rests upon the lateral nasal wall, and is transposed a maximum of 60 degrees, in order to avoid the \\\"bridge effect\\\" of a flap emplaced across the nasofacial angle. * The surgeon designs the nasolabial flap and sets its central axis at a 45-degree angle from the (long) axis of the nasal dorsum. The shape of the skin flap is cut from the wound template fabricated by the surgeon. * An incision is made to the flap (without an anaesthetic injection of epinephrine), which then is elevated and oriented, in an inferior-to-superior direction, between the subcutaneous fat and the muscle fascia. * The cutting continues until the skin flap can be freely transposed upon the nasal defect. A Burrow’s triangle is excised from the skin between the medial border of the flap and the nasal dorsum; the triangle can be cut either before or after the elevation of the nasolabial. * The flap then is bent back (reflected), and can be thinned (cut) under loupe magnification; however, a nasolabial flap cannot be thinned as easily as an axial skin-flap.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n* After the nasolabial flap has been emplaced, the flap donor-site wound is sutured closed. For a wound of the lateral nasal wall that is less than 15 mm wide, the flap donor-site can be closed primarily, with sutures. For a wound wider than 15 mm—especially a wound that comprehends the alar lobule and the lateral wall of the nose—primary closure is not indicated, because such a wound closure imposes excessive stresses upon the skin flap, thereby risking either blanching (whitening) or distortion, or both. Such risks are avoided by advancing (moving) the skin of the cheek towards the nasofacial junction, where it is sutured to the deep tissues. Furthermore, a narrow wound, less than 1 mm wide can be allowed to heal by secondary intention (autonomous re-epithelialisation).\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;III. The paramedian forehead flap\\nThe paramedian forehead flap is the premier autologous skin graft for the reconstruction of a nose, by replacing any of the aesthetic nasal subunits, especially regarding the problems of different tissue thickness and skin color. The forehead flap is an axial skin flap based upon the supraorbital artery (an ophthalmic artery branch) and the supratrochlear artery (an ophthalmic artery terminus), which can be thinned to the subdermal plexus in order to enhance the functional and aesthetic outcome of the nose. Restricted length is a practical application limit of the paramedian forehead flap, especially when the patient has a low frontal hairline. In such a patient, a small portion of scalp skin can be included to the flap, but it does have a different skin texture and does continue growing hair; such mismatching is avoided with the transverse emplacement of the flap along the hairline; yet that portion of the skin flap is random, and so risks a greater incidence of necrosis.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe paramedian forehead flap has two disadvantages, one operational and one aesthetic: Operationally, the reconstruction of a nose with a paramedian forehead flap is a two-stage surgical procedure, which might a problem for the patient whose health (surgical suitability) includes significant, secondary medical risks. Nonetheless, the second stage of the nasal reconstruction can be performed with the patient under local anaesthesia. Aesthetically, although the flap donor-site scar heals well, it is noticeable, and thus difficult to conceal, especially in men.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;Surgical technique – the paramedian forehead flap\\nThe surgeon designs the paramedian forehead flap from a custom-fabricated three-dimensional metal foil template derived from the measures of the nasal defect to be corrected. Using an ultrasonic scanner, the flap-pedicle is centre-aligned upon the Doppler signal of the supraorbital artery. Afterwards, the distal one-half of the flap is dissected and thinned to the subdermal plexus.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n* The surgeon fabricates a metal foil template derived from the dimensions of the nasal wound. * Applying a Doppler ultrasonic scanner, the surgeon identifies the axial pedicle of the tissue-flap (composed of the supraorbital artery and the supratrochlear artery), usually at the base, next to the medial brow; the point usually is between the midline and the supraorbital notch. * Tracing the Doppler pulse of the blood flow of the supraorbital artery as far as possible, its delineation is continued as a vertical line, until it intersects with the hairline of the patient. The line extended from the pulse of the blood flow is the central axis of the forehead flap. * The length of the flap is determined by placing an un-folded, un-stretched 4 × 4-inch gauze upon the wound, and with it measuring from the pedicle base to the distal (farthest) point of the wound. This measure is the length of the central axis of the skin flap. * The template is rotated 180 degrees and placed over the distal (far) portion of the axis of the skin flap; the surgeon outlines it with a surgical marker.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe outline markings are continued proximally and parallel to the central axis, maintaining a 2-cm width for the proximal flap. * Without applying an injection of anaesthetic epinephrine, the flap is incised (cut), and the distal one-half is elevated between the frontalis muscle and the subcutaneous fat. * At approximately the mid-portion of the forehead, the surgeon deepens the plane of the dissection down to the submuscular plane. The dissection continues toward the brow and the glabella (the smooth prominence between the eyebrows) until the skin flap is sufficiently mobile to allow its relaxed transposition upon the nose. * Under loupe magnification, the distal portion of the forehead flap is de-fatted, down to the subdermal plexus. Yet, the fat-removal should be conservative, especially if the patient is either a tobacco smoker or a diabetic, or both, because such health factors negatively affect blood circulation and tissue perfusion, and thus the timely and correct healing of the surgical scars to the nose. * The flap is allowed to perfuse, while the donor site is sutured closed by means of the wide undermining deep to the frontalis muscle.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nAt that time, diluted epinephrine can be injected to the forehead skin, but not to the area(s) near the pedicle of the forehead flap. Moreover, if the distal wound is wider than 25 mm, it usually is not closed by primary intention, with sutures, but is allowed to heal by secondary intention, by re-epithelialisation. * The forehead flap is attached to the nasal wound with subcutaneous sutures and skin sutures. If the excess tension of a suture compromises the color of the skin flap, the suture can be loosened, with a skin hook, and observed for 10–15 minutes; if the skin color remains compromised (white), the suture is removed. * Upon the complete attachment of the paramedian forehead flap to the nose, the surgical wounds are dressed only with antibiotic ointment.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;IV. Septal mucosal flap\\nThe septal mucosal tissue flap is the indicated technique for correcting defects of the distal half of the nose, and for correcting almost every type of large defect of the mucosal lining of the nose. The septal mucosal tissue flap, which is an anteriorly based pedicle-graft supplied with blood by the septal branch of the superior labial artery. To perform such a nasal correction, the entire septal mucoperichondrium can be harvested.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;Surgical technique – the septal mucosal flap\\nThe surgeon cuts the anteriorly based septal mucosal tissue-flap as widely as possible, and then releases it with a low, posterior back-cut; but only as required to allow the rotation of the tissue-flap into the nasal wound.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n* The surgeon measures the dimensions (length, width, depth) of the nasal wound, and then delineates them upon the nasal septum, and, if possible, incorporates an additional margin of 3–5 mm of width to the wound measurements; furthermore, the base of the mucosal tissue flap should be at least 1.5-cm wide.\\n* The surgeon then makes two (2) parallel incisions along the floor and the roof of the nasal septum; the incisions converge anteriorly, towards the front of the nasal spine.\\n* Using an elevator, the flap is dissected in a sub-mucoperichondrial plane. The (far) distal edge of the flap is cut with a right-angle Beaver blade, and then is transposed into the wound. The exposed cartilages will reepithelialise (regenerate the epithelium), provided the opposite (contralateral) side of the septal mucosa is undisturbed.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nA technical variant of the septal mucosal flap technique is the Trap-door flap, which is used to reconstruct one side of the upper half of the nasal lining. It is emplaced in the contralateral nasal cavity, as a superiorly based septal mucosal flap of rectangular shape, like that of a \\\"trap-door\\\". This septomucosal flap variant is a random flap with its pedicle based at the junction of the septum and the lateral nasal skeleton. The surgeon elevates the flap of septal mucosa to the roof of the nasal septum, and then traverses it into the contralateral (opposite) nasal cavity through a slit made by removing a small, narrow portion of the dorsal roof of the septum. Afterwards, the septomucosal flap is stretched across the wound in the mucosal lining of the lateral nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nSurgical management\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe following rhinoplastic techniques are applied to the surgical management of: (i) partial-thickness defects; (ii) full-thickness defects; (iii) heminasal reconstruction; and (iv) total nasal reconstruction.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;I. Partial-thickness defects\\nA partial-thickness defect is a wound with adequate soft-tissue coverage of the underlying nasal skeleton, yet is too large for primary intention closure, with sutures. Based upon the locale of the wound, the surgeon has two (2) options for correcting such a wound: (i) healing the wound by secondary intention (re-epithelialisation); and (ii) healing the wound with a full-thickness skin graft. Moreover, because it avoids the patched appearance of a skin-graft surgical correction, healing by secondary intention can successfully repair nasal wounds up to 10 mm in diameter; and, if the resultant scar proves aesthetically unacceptable, it can be revised later, after the wound has healed.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIn the event, larger nasal wounds (defects) do successfully heal by secondary intention, but do present two disadvantages. First, the resultant scar often is a wide patch of tissue that is aesthetically inferior to the scars produced with other nasal-defect correction techniques; however, the skin of the medial canthus is an exception to such scarring. The second disadvantage to healing by secondary intention is that the contracture of the wound might distort the normal nasal anatomy, which can lead to a pronounced deformity of the alar rim area. For this reason, healing by secondary intention generally is not recommended for defects of the distal third of the nose; nonetheless, the exception is a small wound directly upon the nasal tip.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nFull-thickness skin grafts are the effective wound-management technique for defects with a well-vascularized, soft-tissue bed covering the nasal skeleton. The patient’s ear is the preferred skin-graft donor site from which to harvests grafts of pre-auricular skin and grafts of post-auricular skin, usually with an additional, small amount of adipose tissue to fill the wound cavity. Yet, nasal correction with a skin graft harvested from the patient's neck is not recommended, because that skin is low-density pilosebaceous tissue with very few follicles and sebaceous glands, thus is unlike the oily skin of the nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe technical advantages of nasal-defect correction with a skin graft are a brief surgery time, a simple rhinoplastic technique, and a low incidence of tissue morbidity. The most effective corrections are with a shallow wound with sufficient, supporting soft-tissue that will prevent the occurrence of a conspicuous depression. Nonetheless, two disadvantages of skin-graft correction are mismatched skin color and skin texture, which might result in a correction with a patch-work appearance; a third disadvantage is the natural histologic tendency for such skin grafts to contract, which might distort the shape of the corrected nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;II. Full-thickness defects\\nFull-thickness nasal defects are in three types: (i) wounds to the skin and to the soft tissues, featuring either exposed bone or exposed cartilage, or both; (ii) wounds extending through the nasal skeleton; and (iii) wounds traversing all three nasal layers: skin, muscle, and the osseo-cartilaginous framework. Based upon the dimensions (length, width, depth) and topographic locale of the wound and the number of missing nasal-tissue layers, the surgeon determines the rhinoplastic technique for correcting a full-thickness defect; each of the aesthetic nasal subunits is considered separately and in combination.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;(a) Medial canthus\\nThe skin between the nasal dorsum and the medial canthal tendon is uniquely suited to healing by secondary intention; the outcomes often are superior to what is achieved with either skin grafts or skin-flaps and tissue-flaps. Because the medial canthal tendon is affixed to the facial bone, it readily resists the forces of wound contracture; moreover, the animation (movement) of the medial brow also lends resistance to the forces of wound contracture. Furthermore, the medial canthal region is aesthetically hidden by the shadows of the nasal dorsum and of the supraorbital rim, thereby obscuring any differences in the quality of the color and of the texture of the replacement skin (epithelium).\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nHealing by secondary intention (re-epithelialisation) occurs even when the wound extends to the nasal bone. Although the rate of healing depends upon the patient's wound-healing capacity, nasal wounds measuring up to 10 mm in diameter usually heal in at 4-weeks post-operative. Nonetheless, one potential, but rare, complication of this nasal correction approach is the formation of a medial canthal web, which can be corrected with two (2) opposing Z-plasties, technique which relieves the disfiguring tensions exerted by the scar tissue's contracture, its shape, and location on the nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;(b) Nasal dorsum and lateral nasal wall defect\\nThe size of the nasal defect (wound) occurred, in either the dorsum or the lateral wall, or both, determines the reconstructive skin-flap technique applicable to the corresponding aesthetic nasal subunits.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n* A wound of less than 10 mm in diameter can be managed either by primary intention healing (suturing) or by secondary intention healing (re-epithelialisation). * A wound measuring 10–15 mm in diameter can be reconstructed with a single-stage modified bilobed flap, because it best matches the skin color and the skin texture of the wounded aesthetic subunit. Although not every scar can be hidden at the margins of the aesthetic nasal subunits concerned, the superior scarring ability of those nasal skin areas minimizes such an histologic disadvantage. In a patient whose basal-cell carcinoma was excised with Mohs surgery, the scar of the nasal reconstruction (an 11 mm full-thickness, laterally based, bilobed-flap applied down to the bone and the cartilage), was hidden by aligning the axis of the second lobe to and emplacing the skin graft at the junction of the nasal dorsum and the lateral wall of the nose. * A wound greater than 15 mm in diameter can be corrected with a paramedian forehead flap, which will reconstruct either the entire nasal dorsum or the lateral wall of the nose, as required.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nThe surgical management of such wounds (2 laser and the infrared Erbium: YAG laser are the most effective treatments.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n* Wide nose – To narrow a too-wide nose, the plastic surgeon cuts, contours, and rearranges the craniofacial bones to achieve the desired functional and aesthetic outcome of a narrower, straighter nose. To leave no visible, surgical scars upon the new nose, the surgeon effects the osteotome (bone chisel) incisions to the nasal bones beneath the facial skin.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIllustration 1: The surgeon cuts the excessively wide bones of the upper nasal dorsum (violet) with an osteotome (bone chisel), then detaches, corrects, and relocates them inwards, to a position, between the ocular orbits (red), that narrows the width of the nasal dorsum.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nIllustration 2: The surgeon chisels two cuts (incisions) to the nasal bones, each incision begins at the nasal cavity. The first incision begins at the yellow dot and extends upwards, along the green arrow, until meeting the zig-zag line (red). The second incision begins at the blue dot and extends upwards, along the black arrow, until meeting the zig-zag line (red). Once cut and loosened from the face, the nasal bone pieces are corrected, then pushed inwards and re-set, thus narrowing the nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nFile:RhinoplastyOsteotomeHammer.jpg|Rhinoplastic instruments:An osteotome (bone chisel) and a surgical hammer for sculpting craniofacial bones.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nPost–surgical recovery\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\n;Convalescence\\nThe rhinoplasty patient returns home after surgery, to rest, and allow the nasal cartilage and bone tissues to heal the effects of having been forcefully cut. Assisted with prescribed medications—antibiotics, analgesics, steroids—to alleviate pain and aid wound healing, the patient convalesces for about 1-week, and can go outdoors. Post-operatively, external sutures are removed at 4–5 days; the external cast is removed at 1-week; the stents are removed within 4–14 days; and the \\\"panda eyes\\\" periorbital bruising heal at 2-weeks. Throughout the first year post-operative, in the course of the rhinoplastic wounds healing, the tissues will shift moderately as they settle into being a new nose.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nRisks\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nRhinoplasty is safe, yet complications can arise; post-operative bleeding is uncommon, but usually resolves without treatment. Infection is rare, but, when it does occur, it might progress to become an abscess requiring the surgical drainage of the pus, whilst the patient is under general anaesthesia. Adhesions, scars that obstruct the airways can form a bridge across the nasal cavity, from the septum to the turbinates, and require surgical removal. If too much of the osseo-cartilaginous framework is removed, the consequent weakening can cause the external nasal skin to become shapeless, resulting in a \\\"polly beak\\\" deformity, resembling the beak of a parrot. Likewise, if the septum is unsupported, the bridge of the nose can sink, resulting in a \\\"saddle nose\\\" deformity. The tip of the nose can be over-rotated, causing the nostrils to be too visible, resulting in a porcine nose. If the cartilages of the nose tip are over-resected, it can cause a pinched-tip nose. If the columella is incorrectly cut, variable-degree numbness might result, which requires a months-long resolution.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nFurthermore, in the course of the rhinoplasty, the surgeon might accidentally perforate the septum (septal perforation), which later can cause chronic nose bleeding, crusting of nasal fluids, difficult breathing, and whistling breathing. A turbinectomy may result in empty nose syndrome.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nNon-surgical rhinoplasty\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nNon-surgical rhinoplasty is a medical procedure in which injectable fillers, such as collagen, are used to alter and shape a person's nose without invasive surgery. The procedure fills in depressed areas on the nose, lifting the angle of the tip or smoothing the appearance of bumps on the bridge. The procedure does not alter nose size, though it can be used to correct some functional birth defects.\",\n \"Rhinoplasty\\n\\nOriginally developed at the turn of the twenty-first century, early attempts used biologically harmful soft-tissue fillers such as paraffin wax and silicone. After 2000, physicians such as Andrew Tuan-Anh Le successfully developed benign techniques using modern fillers.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nSurgery (from the cheirourgikē (composed of χείρ, \\\"hand\\\", and ἔργον, \\\"work\\\"), via , meaning \\\"hand work\\\") is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance or to repair unwanted ruptured areas (for example, a perforated ear drum).\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nAn act of performing surgery may be called a surgical procedure, operation, or simply surgery. In this context, the verb operate means to perform surgery. The adjective surgical means pertaining to surgery; e.g. surgical instruments or surgical nurse. The patient or subject on which the surgery is performed can be a person or an animal. A surgeon is a person who practices surgery and a surgeon's assistant is a person who practices surgical assistance. A surgical team is made up of surgeon, surgeon's assistant, anesthesia provider, circulating nurse and surgical technologist. Surgery usually spans minutes to hours, but it is typically not an ongoing or periodic type of treatment. The term surgery can also refer to the place where surgery is performed, or simply the office of a physician, dentist, or veterinarian.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nDefinitions\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nSurgery is a technology consisting of a physical intervention on tissues.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nAs a general rule, a procedure is considered surgical when it involves cutting of a patient's tissues or closure of a previously sustained wound. Other procedures that do not necessarily fall under this rubric, such as angioplasty or endoscopy, may be considered surgery if they involve \\\"common\\\" surgical procedure or settings, such as use of a sterile environment, anesthesia, antiseptic conditions, typical surgical instruments, and suturing or stapling. All forms of surgery are considered invasive procedures; so-called \\\"noninvasive surgery\\\" usually refers to an excision that does not penetrate the structure being excised (e.g. laser ablation of the cornea) or to a radiosurgical procedure (e.g. irradiation of a tumor).\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nTypes of surgery\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nSurgical procedures are commonly categorized by urgency, type of procedure, body system involved, degree of invasiveness, and special instrumentation.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\n* Based on timing: Elective surgery is done to correct a non-life-threatening condition, and is carried out at the patient's request, subject to the surgeon's and the surgical facility's availability. A semi-elective surgery is one that must be done to avoid permanent disability or death, but can be postponed for a short time. Emergency surgery is surgery which must be done promptly to save life, limb, or functional capacity. * Based on purpose: Exploratory surgery is performed to aid or confirm a diagnosis. Therapeutic surgery treats a previously diagnosed condition. Cosmetic surgery is done to subjectively improve the appearance of an otherwise normal structure. * By type of procedure: Amputation involves cutting off a body part, usually a limb or digit; castration is also an example. Resection is the removal of all or part of an internal organ or part of the body. Replantation involves reattaching a severed body part. Reconstructive surgery involves reconstruction of an injured, mutilated, or deformed part of the body. Excision is the cutting out or removal of an organ, tissue, or other body part from the patient.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nTransplant surgery is the replacement of an organ or body part by insertion of another from different human (or animal) into the patient. Removing an organ or body part from a live human or animal for use in transplant is also a type of surgery. * By body part: When surgery is performed on one organ system or structure, it may be classed by the organ, organ system or tissue involved. Examples include cardiac surgery (performed on the heart), gastrointestinal surgery (performed within the digestive tract and its accessory organs), and orthopedic surgery (performed on bones and/or muscles). * By degree of invasiveness of surgical procedures: Minimally-invasive surgery involves smaller outer incision(s) to insert miniaturized instruments within a body cavity or structure, as in laparoscopic surgery or angioplasty. By contrast, an open surgical procedure such as a laparotomy requires a large incision to access the area of interest. * By equipment used: Laser surgery involves use of a laser for cutting tissue instead of a scalpel or similar surgical instruments. Microsurgery involves the use of an operating microscope for the surgeon to see small structures.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nRobotic surgery makes use of a surgical robot, such as the Da Vinci or the Zeus surgical systems, to control the instrumentation under the direction of the surgeon.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nTerminology\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\n:See also List of surgical procedures\\n*Excision surgery names often start with a name for the organ to be excised (cut out) and end in -ectomy. *Procedures involving cutting into an organ or tissue end in -otomy. A surgical procedure cutting through the abdominal wall to gain access to the abdominal cavity is a laparotomy. *Minimally invasive procedures involving small incisions through which an endoscope is inserted end in -oscopy. For example, such surgery in the abdominal cavity is called laparoscopy. *Procedures for formation of a permanent or semi-permanent opening called a stoma in the body end in -ostomy. *Reconstruction, plastic or cosmetic surgery of a body part starts with a name for the body part to be reconstructed and ends in -oplasty. Rhino is used as a prefix for \\\"nose\\\", therefore a rhinoplasty is reconstructive or cosmetic surgery for the nose. *Repair of damaged or congenital abnormal structure ends in -rraphy. *Reoperation (return to the operating room) refers to a return to the operating theater after an initial surgery is performed to re-address an aspect of patient care best treated surgically.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nReasons for reoperation include persistent bleeding after surgery, development of or persistence of infection or, more insidiously, retained foreign objects.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nDescription of surgical procedure\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nLocation\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nAt a hospital, modern surgery is often done in an operating theater using surgical instruments, an operating table for the patient, and other equipment. Among United States hospitalizations for nonmaternal and nonneonatal conditions in 2012, more than one-fourth of stays and half of hospital costs involved stays that included operating room (OR) procedures. The environment and procedures used in surgery are governed by the principles of aseptic technique: the strict separation of \\\"sterile\\\" (free of microorganisms) things from \\\"unsterile\\\" or \\\"contaminated\\\" things. All surgical instruments must be sterilized, and an instrument must be replaced or re-sterilized if it becomes contaminated (i.e. handled in an unsterile manner, or allowed to touch an unsterile surface). Operating room staff must wear sterile attire (scrubs, a scrub cap, a sterile surgical gown, sterile latex or non-latex polymer gloves and a surgical mask), and they must scrub hands and arms with an approved disinfectant agent before each procedure. There is moderate-quality evidence that usage of two layers of gloves compared to single gloving during surgery reduces perforations and blood stains on the skin, indicating a decrease in percutaneous exposure incidents.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nPreoperative care\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nPrior to surgery, the patient is given a medical examination, receives certain pre-operative tests, and their physical status is rated according to the ASA physical status classification system. If these results are satisfactory, the patient signs a consent form and is given a surgical clearance. If the procedure is expected to result in significant blood loss, an autologous blood donation may be made some weeks prior to surgery. If the surgery involves the digestive system, the patient may be instructed to perform a bowel prep by drinking a solution of polyethylene glycol the night before the procedure. Patients are also instructed to abstain from food or drink (an NPO order after midnight on the night before the procedure), to minimize the effect of stomach contents on pre-operative medications and reduce the risk of aspiration if the patient vomits during or after the procedure.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nSome medical systems have a practice of routinely performing chest x-rays before surgery. The premise behind this practice is that the physician might discover some unknown medical condition which would complicate the surgery, and that upon discovering this with the chest x-ray, the physician would adapt the surgery practice accordingly., citing\\n* Last reviewed 2011.\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n*\\n* In fact, medical specialty professional organizations recommend against routine pre-operative chest x-rays for patients who have an unremarkable medical history and presented with a physical exam which did not indicate a chest x-ray. Routine x-ray examination is more likely to result in problems like misdiagnosis, overtreatment, or other negative outcomes than it is to result in a benefit to the patient. Likewise, other tests including complete blood count, prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, basic metabolic panel, and urinalysis should not be done unless the results of these tests can help evaluate surgical risk.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nStaging for surgery\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nIn the pre-operative holding area, the patient changes out of his or her street clothes and is asked to confirm the details of his or her surgery. A set of vital signs are recorded, a peripheral IV line is placed, and pre-operative medications (antibiotics, sedatives, etc.) are given. When the patient enters the operating room, the skin surface to be operated on, called the operating field, is cleaned and prepared by applying an antiseptic such as chlorhexidine gluconate or povidone-iodine to reduce the possibility of infection. If hair is present at the surgical site, it is clipped off prior to prep application. The patient is assisted by an anesthesiologist or resident to make a specific surgical position, then sterile drapes are used to cover all of the patient's body except for the head and the surgical site or at least a wide area surrounding the operating field; the drapes are clipped to a pair of poles near the head of the bed to form an \\\"ether screen\\\", which separates the anesthetist/anesthesiologist's working area (unsterile) from the surgical site (sterile).\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nAnesthesia is administered to prevent pain from incision, tissue manipulation and suturing. Based on the procedure, anesthesia may be provided locally or as general anesthesia. Spinal anesthesia may be used when the surgical site is too large or deep for a local block, but general anesthesia may not be desirable. With local and spinal anesthesia, the surgical site is anesthetized, but the patient can remain conscious or minimally sedated. In contrast, general anesthesia renders the patient unconscious and paralyzed during surgery. The patient is intubated and is placed on a mechanical ventilator, and anesthesia is produced by a combination of injected and inhaled agents.\\nChoice of surgical method and anaesthetic technique aims to reduce risk of complications, shorten time needed for recovery and minimise the surgical stress response.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nSurgery\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nAn incision is made to access the surgical site. Blood vessels may be clamped or cauterized to prevent bleeding, and retractors may be used to expose the site or keep the incision open. The approach to the surgical site may involve several layers of incision and dissection, as in abdominal surgery, where the incision must traverse skin, subcutaneous tissue, three layers of muscle and then peritoneum. In certain cases, bone may be cut to further access the interior of the body; for example, cutting the skull for brain surgery or cutting the sternum for thoracic (chest) surgery to open up the rib cage. Whilst in surgery health and safety is used to prevent infection or further spreading of the disease. The surgeon will remove hair from the face and eyes, using a head hat. Hands, wrists and forearms are washed thoroughly to prevent germs getting into the operated body, then gloves are placed onto the hands. A PVC apron will be worn at all times, to stop any contamination.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nA yellow substance – typically an antiseptic iodine solution – is lighly coated onto the located area of the patient's body that will be performed on, this stops germs and disease infecting areas of the body, whilst the patient is being cut into.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nWork to correct the problem in body then proceeds. This work may involve:\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\n*excision – cutting out an organ, tumor, or other tissue. *resection – partial removal of an organ or other bodily structure. *reconnection of organs, tissues, etc., particularly if severed. Resection of organs such as intestines involves reconnection. Internal suturing or stapling may be used. Surgical connection between blood vessels or other tubular or hollow structures such as loops of intestine is called anastomosis. *Reduction – the movement or realignment of a body part to its normal position. e.g. Reduction of a broken nose involves the physical manipulation of the bone and/or cartilage from their displaced state back to their original position to restore normal airflow and aesthetics. *ligation – tying off blood vessels, ducts, or \\\"tubes\\\". *grafts – may be severed pieces of tissue cut from the same (or different) body or flaps of tissue still partly connected to the body but resewn for rearranging or restructuring of the area of the body in question. Although grafting is often used in cosmetic surgery, it is also used in other surgery. Grafts may be taken from one area of the patient's body and inserted to another area of the body.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nAn example is bypass surgery, where clogged blood vessels are bypassed with a graft from another part of the body. Alternatively, grafts may be from other persons, cadavers, or animals. *insertion of prosthetic parts when needed. Pins or screws to set and hold bones may be used. Sections of bone may be replaced with prosthetic rods or other parts. Sometime a plate is inserted to replace a damaged area of skull. Artificial hip replacement has become more common. Heart pacemakers or valves may be inserted. Many other types of prostheses are used. *creation of a stoma, a permanent or semi-permanent opening in the body\\n*in transplant surgery, the donor organ (taken out of the donor's body) is inserted into the recipient's body and reconnected to the recipient in all necessary ways (blood vessels, ducts, etc.). *arthrodesis – surgical connection of adjacent bones so the bones can grow together into one. Spinal fusion is an example of adjacent vertebrae connected allowing them to grow together into one piece. *modifying the digestive tract in bariatric surgery for weight loss.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\n*repair of a fistula, hernia, or prolapse\\n*other procedures, including:\\n*clearing clogged ducts, blood or other vessels\\n*removal of calculi (stones)\\n*draining of accumulated fluids\\n*debridement- removal of dead, damaged, or diseased tissue\\nBlood or blood expanders may be administered to compensate for blood lost during surgery. Once the procedure is complete, sutures or staples are used to close the incision. Once the incision is closed, the anesthetic agents are stopped and/or reversed, and the patient is taken off ventilation and extubated (if general anesthesia was administered).Askitopoulou, H., Konsolaki, E., Ramoutsaki, I., Anastassaki, E. Surgical cures by sleep induction as the Asclepieion of Epidaurus. The history of anesthesia: proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium, by José Carlos Diz, Avelino Franco, Douglas R. Bacon, J. Rupreht, Julián Alvarez. Elsevier Science B.V., International Congress Series 1242(2002), pp. 11–17. [https://books.google.com/books?id\\nTM-8NIDPowoC&pgPA11&dq\\nHistory+of+Hospital%2BAsclepieion&lrlang_en&as_brr\\n0&cd1#v\\nonepage&qHistory%20of%20Hospital%2BAsclepieion&f\\nfalse]\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nPost-operative care\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nAfter completion of surgery, the patient is transferred to the post anesthesia care unit and closely monitored. When the patient is judged to have recovered from the anesthesia, he/she is either transferred to a surgical ward elsewhere in the hospital or discharged home. During the post-operative period, the patient's general function is assessed, the outcome of the procedure is assessed, and the surgical site is checked for signs of infection. There are several risk factors associated with postoperative complications, such as immune deficienty and obesity. Obesity has long been considered a risk factor for adverse post-surgical outcomes. It has been linked to many disorders such as obesity hypoventilation syndrome, atelectasis and pulmonary embolism, adverse cardiovascular effects, and wound healing complications. If removable skin closures are used, they are removed after 7 to 10 days post-operatively, or after healing of the incision is well under way.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nIt is not uncommon for surgical drains (see Drain (surgery)) to be required to remove blood or fluid from the surgical wound during recovery. Mostly these drains stay in until the volume tapers off, then they are removed. These drains can become clogged, leading to retained blood complications or abscess.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nPostoperative therapy may include adjuvant treatment such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or administration of medication such as anti-rejection medication for transplants. Other follow-up studies or rehabilitation may be prescribed during and after the recovery period.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nThe use of topical antibiotics on surgical wounds does not reduce infection rates in comparison with non-antibiotic ointment or no ointment at all. Antibiotic ointments will irritate the skin, slow healing, and greatly increase risk of developing contact dermatitis and antibiotic resistance. Because of this, they should only be used when a person shows signs of infection and not as a preventative.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nThrough a retrospective analysis of national administrative data, the association between mortality and day of elective surgical procedure suggests a higher risk in procedures carried out later in the working week and on weekends. The odds of death were 44% and 82% higher respectively when comparing procedures on a Friday to a weekend procedure. This “weekday effect” has been postulated to be from several factors including poorer availability of services on a weekend, and also, decrease number and level of experience over a weekend.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nEpidemiology\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nOf the 38.6 million hospital stays that occurred in U.S. hospitals in 2011, 29% included at least one operating room procedure. These stays accounted for 48% of the total $387 billion in hospital costs.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nIn total, there were over 15 million operating room procedures performed in U.S. hospitals in 2011. The overall number of procedures remained stable from 2001 to 2011.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nA study of data from 2003 to 2011 showed that U.S. hospital costs were highest for the surgical service line; the surgical service line costs were $17,600 in 2003 and projected to be $22,500 in 2013. For hospital stays in 2012 in the United States, private insurance had the highest percentage of surgical expenditure. Mean hospital costs in the United States in 2012 were highest for surgical stays.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nIn special populations\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nElderly people\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nOlder adults have widely varying physical health. Frail elderly people are at significant risk of post-surgical complications and the need for extended care. Assessment of older patients before elective surgery can accurately predict the patients' recovery trajectories. One frailty scale uses five items: unintentional weight loss, muscle weakness, exhaustion, low physical activity, and slowed walking speed. A healthy person scores 0; a very frail person scores 5. Compared to non-frail elderly people, people with intermediate frailty scores (2 or 3) are twice as likely to have post-surgical complications, spend 50% more time in the hospital, and are three times as likely to be discharged to a skilled nursing facility instead of to their own homes. Frail elderly patients (score of 4 or 5) have even worse outcomes, with the risk of being discharged to a nursing home rising to twenty times the rate for non-frail elderly people.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nOther populations\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\n;Children\\nSurgery on children requires considerations which are not common in adult surgery. Children and adolescents are still developing physically and mentally making it difficult for them to make informed decisions and give consent for surgical treatments. Bariatric surgery in youth is among the controversial topics related to surgery in children.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\n;Persons with health conditions\\nA person with a debilitating medical condition may have special needs during a surgery which a typical patient would not.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\n;Vulnerable populations\\nDoctors perform surgery with the consent of the patient. Some patients are able to give better informed consent than others. Populations such as incarcerated persons, the mentally incompetent, persons subject to coercion, and other people who are not able to make decisions with the same authority as a typical patient have special needs when making decisions about their personal healthcare, including surgery.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nIn low- and middle-income countries\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nIn 2014, the Lancet Commission on Global Surgery was launched to examine the case for surgery as an integral component of global health care and to provide recommendations regarding the delivery of surgical and anesthesia services in low and middle income countries. The primary conclusions of the study were as follows:\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\n* Five billion people worldwide lack access to safe, affordable surgical and anesthesia care. Areas in which especially large proportions of the population lack access include Africa, the Indian Subcontinent, Central Asia, and to a lesser extent, Russia and China. Of the estimated 312.9 million surgical procedures undertaken worldwide in 2012, only 6.3% were done in countries comprising the poorest 37.3% of the world's population.\\n* An additional 143 million surgical procedures are needed each year to prevent unnecessary death and disability.\\n* 33 million people face catastrophic payments for surgical and anesthesia care each year.\\n* Investment in surgical and anesthesia services is cost-effective, saves lives, and promotes economic growth\\n* Surgery is an indispensable part of health care.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nAncient Egypt\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nSurgical treatments date back to the prehistoric era. The oldest for which there is evidence is trepanation, in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, thus exposing the dura mater in order to treat health problems related to intra cranial pressure and other diseases. Prehistoric surgical techniques are seen in Ancient Egypt, where a mandible dated to approximately 2650 BCE shows two perforations just below the root of the first molar, indicating the draining of an abscessed tooth. Surgical texts from ancient Egypt date back about 3500 years ago. Surgical operations were performed by priests, specialized in medical treatments similar to today., and used sutures to close wounds. Infections were treated with honey.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nIndia and China\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nRemains from the early Harappan periods of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 BCE) show evidence of teeth having been drilled dating back 9,000 years. Susruta was an ancient Indian surgeon commonly credited as the author of the treatise Sushruta Samhita. He is dubbed as the \\\"founding father of surgery\\\" and his period is usually placed between the period of 1200 BC – 600 BC. One of the earliest known mention of the name is from the Bower Manuscript where Sushruta is listed as one of the ten sages residing in the Himalayas. Texts also suggest that he learned surgery at Kasi from Lord Dhanvantari, the god of medicine in Hindu mythology. It is one of the oldest known surgical texts and it describes in detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments, as well as procedures on performing various forms of cosmetic surgery, plastic surgery and rhinoplasty.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nInstruments resembling surgical tools have also been found in the archaeological sites of Bronze Age China dating from the Shang Dynasty, along with seeds likely used for herbalism.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nAncient Greece\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nIn ancient Greece, temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as Asclepieia (, sing. Asclepieion Ασκληπιείον), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing. In the Asclepieion of Epidaurus, some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place. The Greek Galen was one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye surgery—that were not tried again for almost two millennia.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nIn the Middle East, surgery was developed to a high degree in the Islamic world. Abulcasis (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi), an Andalusian-Arab physician and scientist who practised in the Zahra suburb of Córdoba, wrote medical texts that influenced European surgical procedures.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nEarly modern Europe\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nIn Europe, the demand grew for surgeons to formally study for many years before practicing; universities such as Montpellier, Padua and Bologna were particularly renowned. In the 12th century, Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia, laying the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals. Barber-surgeons generally had a bad reputation that was not to improve until the development of academic surgery as a specialty of medicine, rather than an accessory field. Basic surgical principles for asepsis etc., are known as Halsteads principles.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nThere were some important advances to the art of surgery during this period. The professor of anatomy at the University of Padua, Andreas Vesalius, was a pivotal figure in the Renaissance transition from classical medicine and anatomy based on the works of Galen, to an empirical approach of 'hands-on' dissection. In his anatomic treatis, De humani corporis fabrica, he exposed the many anatomical errors in Galen and advocated that all surgeons should train by engaging in practical dissections themselves.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nThe second figure of importance in this era was Ambroise Paré (sometimes spelled \\\"Ambrose\\\" ), a French army surgeon from the 1530s until his death in 1590. The practice for cauterizing gunshot wounds on the battlefield had been to use boiling oil; an extremely dangerous and painful procedure. Paré began to employ a less irritating emollient, made of egg yolk, rose oil and turpentine. He also described more efficient techniques for the effective ligation of the blood vessels during an amputation.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nModern surgery\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nThe discipline of surgery was put on a sound, scientific footing during the Age of Enlightenment in Europe. An important figure in this regard was the English surgical scientist, John Hunter, generally regarded as the father of modern scientific surgery. He brought an empirical and experimental approach to the science and was renowned around Europe for the quality of his research and his written works. Hunter reconstructed surgical knowledge from scratch; refusing to rely on the testimonies of others, he conducted his own surgical experiments to determine the truth of the matter. To aid comparative analysis, he built up a collection of over 13,000 specimens of separate organ systems, from the simplest plants and animals to humans.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nHe greatly advanced knowledge of venereal disease and introduced many new techniques of surgery, including new methods for repairing damage to the Achilles tendon and a more effective method for applying ligature of the arteries in case of an aneurysm. He was also one of the first to understand the importance of pathology, the danger of the spread of infection and how the problem of inflammation of the wound, bone lesions and even tuberculosis often undid any benefit that was gained from the intervention. He consequently adopted the position that all surgical procedures should be used only as a last resort.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nOther important 18th- and early 19th-century surgeons included Percival Pott (1713–1788) who described tuberculosis on the spine and first demonstrated that a cancer may be caused by an environmental carcinogen – (he noticed a connection between chimney sweep's exposure to soot and their high incidence of scrotal cancer). Astley Paston Cooper (1768–1841) first performed a successful ligation of the abdominal aorta, and James Syme (1799–1870) pioneered the Symes Amputation for the ankle joint and successfully carried out the first hip disarticulation.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nModern pain control through anesthesia was discovered in the mid-19th century. Before the advent of anesthesia, surgery was a traumatically painful procedure and surgeons were encouraged to be as swift as possible to minimize patient suffering. This also meant that operations were largely restricted to amputations and external growth removals. Beginning in the 1840s, surgery began to change dramatically in character with the discovery of effective and practical anaesthetic chemicals such as ether, first used by the American surgeon Crawford Long, and chloroform, discovered by James Young Simpson and later pioneered by John Snow, physician to Queen Victoria. In addition to relieving patient suffering, anaesthesia allowed more intricate operations in the internal regions of the human body. In addition, the discovery of muscle relaxants such as curare allowed for safer applications.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nInfection and antisepsis\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nUnfortunately, the introduction of anesthetics encouraged more surgery, which inadvertently caused more dangerous patient post-operative infections. The concept of infection was unknown until relatively modern times. The first progress in combating infection was made in 1847 by the Hungarian doctor Ignaz Semmelweis who noticed that medical students fresh from the dissecting room were causing excess maternal death compared to midwives. Semmelweis, despite ridicule and opposition, introduced compulsory handwashing for everyone entering the maternal wards and was rewarded with a plunge in maternal and fetal deaths, however the Royal Society dismissed his advice.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nUntil the pioneering work of British surgeon Joseph Lister in the 1860s, most medical men believed that chemical damage from exposures to bad air (see \\\"miasma\\\") was responsible for infections in wounds, and facilities for washing hands or a patient's wounds were not available. Lister became aware of the work of French chemist Louis Pasteur, who showed that rotting and fermentation could occur under anaerobic conditions if micro-organisms were present. Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate the micro-organisms responsible for gangrene: filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to chemical solutions. Lister confirmed Pasteur's conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop antiseptic techniques for wounds. As the first two methods suggested by Pasteur were inappropriate for the treatment of human tissue, Lister experimented with the third, spraying carbolic acid on his instruments. He found that this remarkably reduced the incidence of gangrene and he published his results in The Lancet.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nThe Lancet, \\\"On a new method of treating compound fracture, abscess, etc.: with observation on the conditions of suppuration\\\".5 articles running from:Volume 89, Issue 2272, 16 March 1867, pages 326–329 (Originally published as Volume 1, Issue 2272)\\nto:Volume 90, Issue 2291, 27 July 1867, pages 95–96 Originally published as Volume 2, Issue 2291 Later, on 9 August 1867, he read a paper before the British Medical Association in Dublin, on the Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery, which was reprinted in The British Medical Journal. Modernized version of text E-text, audio at Project Gutenberg. His work was groundbreaking and laid the foundations for a rapid advance in infection control that saw modern antiseptic operating theatres widely used within 50 years.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nLister continued to develop improved methods of antisepsis and asepsis when he realised that infection could be better avoided by preventing bacteria from getting into wounds in the first place. This led to the rise of sterile surgery. Lister introduced the Steam Steriliser to sterilize equipment, instituted rigorous hand washing and later implemented the wearing of rubber gloves. These three crucial advances – the adoption of a scientific methodology toward surgical operations, the use of anaesthetic and the introduction of sterilised equipment – laid the groundwork for the modern invasive surgical techniques of today.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nThe use of X-rays as an important medical diagnostic tool began with their discovery in 1895 by German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen. He noticed that these rays could penetrate the skin, allowing the skeletal structure to be captured on a specially treated photographic plate.\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nSurgical specialties\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\n* General surgery\\n*:\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\n* craniofacial surgery\\n* Dental surgery\\n* Gynaecology\\n* Neurosurgery\\n* Ophthalmology\\n* Oral and maxillofacial surgery\\n* Orthopaedic surgery\\n* Otolaryngology\\n* Podiatric surgery\\n* Urology\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\nNational societies\",\n \"Surgery\\n\\n*American College of Surgeons\\n*American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons\\n*American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons\\n*Royal Australasian College of Surgeons\\n*Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons\\n*Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada\\n*Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland\\n*Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh\\n*Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow\\n*Royal College of Surgeons of England\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":136098,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_481"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which English monarch, who ruled from April 1509 to January 1547, is remembered for having married Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, Catherine Parr, Elizabeth Blount, and Mary Boleyn?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"King Henry VIII"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["henry viii king of england","king of england henry viii","henry viii kids","henry tudor viii","henry viii musician","henry duke of york","king henry eighth","henry 8th","king henry 8","henry 8","henry viii england","bluff hal","henry viii of ireland","henryviii","heinrich viii","early years of henry viii","henry viii s compositions","ehnry viii","king henry viii","henry ⅷ","bluff king hal","henry eighth","henry viii tudor","henry viii","my great matter","henry viii of england","king henry viii of england"],"string":"[\n \"henry viii king of england\",\n \"king of england henry viii\",\n \"henry viii kids\",\n \"henry tudor viii\",\n \"henry viii musician\",\n \"henry duke of york\",\n \"king henry eighth\",\n \"henry 8th\",\n \"king henry 8\",\n \"henry 8\",\n \"henry viii england\",\n \"bluff hal\",\n \"henry viii of ireland\",\n \"henryviii\",\n \"heinrich viii\",\n \"early years of henry viii\",\n \"henry viii s compositions\",\n \"ehnry viii\",\n \"king henry viii\",\n \"henry ⅷ\",\n \"bluff king hal\",\n \"henry eighth\",\n \"henry viii tudor\",\n \"henry viii\",\n \"my great matter\",\n \"henry viii of england\",\n \"king henry viii of england\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories. The monarch's title is \"King\" (male) or \"Queen\" (female). The current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic and representational duties. As the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is, by tradition, commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces. Though the ultimate formal executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch's royal prerogative, these powers may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament and, in practice, within the constraints of convention and precedent.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe British monarchy traces its origins from the petty kingdoms of early medieval Scotland and Anglo-Saxon England, which consolidated into the kingdoms of England and Scotland by the 10th century AD. In 1066, the last crowned Anglo-Saxon monarch, Harold II, was defeated and killed during the Norman conquest of England and the English monarchy passed to the Normans' victorious leader, William the Conqueror, and his descendants.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn the 13th century, Wales, as a principality, became a client state of the English kingdom, while Magna Carta began a process of reducing the English monarch's political powers.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nFrom 1603, when the Scottish monarch King James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Act of Settlement 1701, which is still in force, excluded Roman Catholics, or those who marry Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the world's surface at its greatest extent in 1921.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn the 1920s, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the Union as the Irish Free State, and the Balfour Declaration recognised the evolution of the dominions of the empire into separate, self-governing countries within a Commonwealth of Nations. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, effectively bringing the empire to an end. George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the same person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. The terms British monarchy and British monarch are frequently still employed in reference to the shared individual and institution; however, each country is sovereign and independent of the others, and the monarch has a different, specific, and official national title and style for each realm.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nConstitutional role","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch (otherwise referred to as the Sovereign or \"His/Her Majesty\", abbreviated H.M.) is the Head of State. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. God Save the Queen (or God Save the King) is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins and banknotes.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Monarch takes little direct part in Government. The decisions to exercise sovereign powers are delegated from the Monarch, either by statute or by convention, to Ministers or officers of the Crown, or other public bodies, exclusive of the Monarch personally. Thus the acts of state done in the name of the Crown, such as Crown Appointments, even if personally performed by the Monarch, such as the Queen's Speech and the State Opening of Parliament, depend upon decisions made elsewhere:\n* Legislative power is exercised by the Queen-in-Parliament, by and with the advice and consent of Parliament, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. * Executive power is exercised by Her Majesty's Government, which comprises Ministers, primarily the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, which is technically a committee of the Privy Council. They have the direction of the Armed Forces of the Crown, the Civil Service and other Crown Servants such as the Diplomatic and Secret Services (the Queen receives certain foreign intelligence reports before the Prime Minister does\"In London, the revelations from [1989 Soviet defector Vladimir] Pasechnik were summarized into a quick note for the Joint Intelligence Committee.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe first recipient of such reports is always Her Majesty, The Queen. The second is the prime minister, who at the time was Margaret Thatcher|[Margaret] Thatcher.\" Hoffman, David E. (Emanuel), The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy (N.Y.: Doubleday, 1st ed. [1st printing?] (ISBN 978-0-385-52437-7) 2009), p. 336 (author contributing editor & formerly U.S. White House, diplomatic, & Jerusalem correspondent, Moscow bureau chief, & foreign news asst. managing editor for The Wash. Post).). * Judicial power is vested in the Judiciary, who by constitution and statute have judicial independence of the Government. * The Church of England, of which the Monarch is the head, has its own legislative, judicial and executive structures. * Powers independent of government are legally granted to other public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council, Royal Commission or otherwise.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Sovereign's role as a constitutional monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours. This role has been recognised since the 19th century. The constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the \"dignified part\" rather than the \"efficient part\" of government.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAppointment of the Prime Minister","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nWhenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister (who by convention appoints and may dismiss every other Minister of the Crown, and thereby constitutes and controls the government). In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Sovereign must appoint an individual who commands the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of the party or coalition that has a majority in that House. The Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after \"kissing hands\" that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn a hung parliament where no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command the most support, though it would usually be the leader of the largest party. Since 1945, there have only been two hung parliaments. The first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilson's Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party. The second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives (the largest party) and Liberal Democrats (the third largest party) agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nDissolution of Parliament","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn 1950 the King's Private Secretary writing pseudonymously to The Times newspaper asserted a constitutional convention: according to the Lascelles Principles, if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse, and would do so under three conditions. When Prime Minister Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974, the Queen granted his request as Heath had already failed to form a coalition. The resulting general election gave Wilson a small majority. The monarch could in theory unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but a Prime Minister's term now comes to an end only by electoral defeat, death, or resignation. The last monarch to remove a Prime Minister was William IV, who dismissed Lord Melbourne in 1834. The Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 removed the monarch's authority to dissolve Parliament; the Act specifically retained the monarch's power of prorogation however, which is a regular feature of the parliamentary calendar.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nRoyal Prerogative","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nSome of the government's executive authority is theoretically and nominally vested in the Sovereign and is known as the royal prerogative. The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, exercising prerogative only on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament, often through the Prime Minister or Privy Council. In practice, prerogative powers are exercised only on the Prime Minister's advice – the Prime Minister, and not the Sovereign, has control. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister. No records of these audiences are taken and the proceedings remain fully confidential. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the decisions of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet (providing they command the support of the House). In Bagehot's words: \"the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights – the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn.\"","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAlthough the Royal Prerogative is extensive and parliamentary approval is not formally required for its exercise, it is limited. Many Crown prerogatives have fallen out of use or have been permanently transferred to Parliament. For example, the monarch cannot impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, \"The Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers\", and Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Royal Prerogative includes the powers to appoint and dismiss ministers, regulate the civil service, issue passports, declare war, make peace, direct the actions of the military, and negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The monarch is commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces (the Royal Navy, the British Army, and the Royal Air Force), accredits British High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives diplomats from foreign states.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIt is the prerogative of the monarch to summon and prorogue Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the monarch's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament, during which the Sovereign reads the Speech from the throne in the Chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term, and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Commons. A general election is normally held five years after the previous one under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, but can be held sooner if the Prime Minister loses a motion of confidence, or if two-thirds of the members of the House of Commons vote to hold an early election.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nBefore a bill passed by the legislative Houses can become law, the royal assent (the monarch's approval) is required. In theory, assent can either be granted (making the bill law) or withheld (vetoing the bill), but since 1707 assent has always been granted.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarch has a similar relationship with the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament, and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the National Assembly for Wales. In Scottish matters, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government. However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, in Welsh matters the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly, if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Sovereign is deemed the \"fount of justice\"; although the Sovereign does not personally rule in judicial cases, judicial functions are performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on the monarch's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown. The common law holds that the Sovereign \"can do no wrong\"; the monarch cannot be prosecuted for criminal offences. The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government), but not lawsuits against the monarch personally. The Sovereign exercises the \"prerogative of mercy\", which is used to pardon convicted offenders or reduce sentences.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarch is the \"fount of honour\", the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. The Crown creates all peerages, appoints members of the orders of chivalry, grants knighthoods and awards other honours. Although peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the Prime Minister, some honours are within the personal gift of the Sovereign, and are not granted on ministerial advice. The monarch alone appoints members of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of Merit.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nHistory","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nEnglish monarchy","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nFollowing Viking raids and settlement in the ninth century, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex, achieved dominance over western Mercia, and assumed the title \"King of the English\". His grandson Æthelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to the present borders of England, though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation. William, Duke of Normandy's conquest of England in 1066 was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in the Anglo-Saxon period, while the Feudal System continued to develop.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nWilliam I was succeeded by two of his sons: William II, then Henry I. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry's death in 1135, one of William I's grandsons, Stephen, laid claim to the throne and took power with the support of most of the barons. Matilda challenged his reign; as a result, England descended into a period of disorder known as the Anarchy. Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power, but agreed to a compromise under which Matilda's son Henry would succeed him. Henry accordingly became the first Angevin king of England and the first monarch of the Plantagenet dynasty as Henry II in 1154.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons, the future monarchs Richard I and John. Nevertheless, Henry managed to expand his kingdom, forming what is retrospectively known as the Angevin Empire. Upon Henry's death, his elder son Richard succeeded to the throne; he was absent from England for most of his reign, as he left to fight in the Crusades. He was killed besieging a castle, and John succeeded him.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nJohn's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, particularly over the limits of royal power. In 1215, the barons coerced the king into issuing Magna Carta (Latin for \"Great Charter\") to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon afterwards, further disagreements plunged England into a civil war known as the First Barons' War. The war came to an abrupt end after John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine-year-old son Henry III. Later in Henry's reign, Simon de Montfort led the barons in another rebellion, beginning the Second Barons' War. The war ended in a clear royalist victory and in the death of many rebels, but not before the king had agreed to summon a parliament in 1265.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe next monarch, Edward I (\"Edward Longshanks\"), was far more successful in maintaining royal power and responsible for the conquest of Wales. He attempted to establish English domination of Scotland. However, gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, Edward II, who also faced conflict with the nobility. In 1311, Edward II was forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of baronial \"ordainers\"; however, military victories helped him regain control in 1322. Nevertheless, in 1327, Edward was deposed and then murdered by his wife Isabella. His 14-year-old son became Edward III. Edward III claimed the French Crown, setting off the Hundred Years' War between England and France.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nHis campaigns conquered much French territory, but by 1374, all the gains had been lost. Edward's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses. In 1377, Edward III died, leaving the Crown to his 10-year-old grandson Richard II. Like many of his predecessors, Richard II conflicted with the nobles by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, while he was campaigning in Ireland, his cousin Henry Bolingbroke seized power. Richard was deposed, imprisoned, and eventually murdered, probably by starvation, and Henry became king as Henry IV.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nHenry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster; hence, his dynasty was known as the House of Lancaster. For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son, the future Henry V. Henry V's own reign, which began in 1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years' War in France. Although he was victorious, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son Henry VI on the throne and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe unpopularity of Henry VI's counsellors and his belligerent consort, Margaret of Anjou, as well as his own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York, so called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was Richard, Duke of York. Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460, his eldest son, Edward IV, led the Yorkists to victory in 1461. The Wars of the Roses, nevertheless, continued intermittently during his reign and those of his son Edward V and brother Richard III. Edward V disappeared, presumably murdered by Richard. Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch led by Henry Tudor, in 1485, when Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nNow King Henry VII, he neutralised the remaining Yorkist forces, partly by marrying Elizabeth of York, a Yorkist heir. Through skill and ability, Henry re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end. The reign of the second Tudor king, Henry VIII, was one of great political change. Religious upheaval and disputes with the Pope led the monarch to break from the Roman Catholic Church and to establish the Church of England (the Anglican Church).","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nWales – which had been conquered centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion – was annexed to England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Henry VIII's son and successor, the young Edward VI, continued with further religious reforms, but his early death in 1553 precipitated a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half-sister Mary to succeed, and therefore drew up a will designating Lady Jane Grey as his heiress. Jane's reign, however, lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her and declared herself the lawful sovereign. Mary I married Philip of Spain, who was declared king and co-ruler, pursued disastrous wars in France, and attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism, burning Protestants at the stake as heretics in the process. Upon her death in 1558, the pair were succeeded by her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth I. England returned to Protestantism and continued its growth into a major world power by building its navy and exploring the New World.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nScottish monarchy","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of the Roman empire from Britain in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts in the north east, the Britons in the south, including the Kingdom of Strathclyde, and the Gaels or Scotti (who would later give their name to Scotland), of the Irish petty kingdom of Dál Riata in the west. Kenneth MacAlpin is traditionally viewed as the first king of a united Scotland (known as Scotia to writers in Latin, or Alba to the Scots). The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were absorbed.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nEarly Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead the custom of tanistry was followed, where the monarchy alternated between different branches of the House of Alpin. As a result, however, the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. From 942 to 1005, seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle. In 1005, Malcolm II ascended the throne having killed many rivals. He continued to ruthlessly eliminate opposition, and when he died in 1034 he was succeeded by his grandson, Duncan I, instead of a cousin, as had been usual. In 1040, Duncan suffered defeat in battle at the hands of Macbeth, who was killed himself in 1057 by Duncan's son Malcolm. The following year, after killing Macbeth's stepson Lulach, Malcolm ascended the throne as Malcolm III.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nWith a further series of battles and deposings, five of Malcolm's sons as well as one of his brothers successively became king. Eventually, the Crown came to his youngest son, David. David was succeeded by his grandsons Malcolm IV, and then by William the Lion, the longest-reigning King of Scots before the Union of the Crowns. William participated in a rebellion against King Henry II of England but when the rebellion failed, William was captured by the English. In exchange for his release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades. William died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II. Alexander II, as well as his successor Alexander III, attempted to take over the Western Isles, which were still under the overlordship of Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing Treaty of Perth recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAlexander III's unexpected death in a riding accident in 1286 precipitated a major succession crisis. Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England for help in determining who was the rightful heir. Edward chose Alexander's three-year-old Norwegian granddaughter, Margaret. On her way to Scotland in 1290, however, Margaret died at sea, and Edward was again asked to adjudicate between 13 rival claimants to the throne. A court was set up and after two years of deliberation, it pronounced John Balliol to be king. However, Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal, and tried to exert influence over Scotland. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England, Edward I invaded. During the first ten years of the ensuing Wars of Scottish Independence, Scotland had no monarch, until Robert the Bruce declared himself king in 1306.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nRobert's efforts to control Scotland culminated in success, and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later, Robert died and was succeeded by his five-year-old son, David II. On the pretext of restoring John Balliol's rightful heir, Edward Balliol, the English again invaded in 1332. During the next four years, Balliol was crowned, deposed, restored, deposed, restored, and deposed until he eventually settled in England, and David remained king for the next 35 years.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nDavid II died childless in 1371 and was succeeded by his nephew Robert II of the House of Stuart. The reigns of both Robert II and his successor, Robert III, were marked by a general decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, regents had to rule the country; the monarch, Robert III's son James I, had been taken captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to Scotland in 1424; to restore his authority, he used ruthless measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. He was assassinated by a group of nobles. James II continued his father's policies by subduing influential noblemen but he was killed in an accident at the age of thirty, and a council of regents again assumed power. James III was defeated in a battle against rebellious Scottish earls in 1488, leading to another boy-king: James IV.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn 1513 James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met with disaster at Flodden Field; the King, many senior noblemen, and hundreds of soldiers were killed. As his son and successor, James V, was an infant, the government was again taken over by regents. James V led another disastrous war with the English in 1542, and his death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six-day-old daughter, Mary. Once again, a regency was established.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nMary, a Roman Catholic, reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. As a result of the efforts of reformers such as John Knox, a Protestant ascendancy was established. Mary caused alarm by marrying her Catholic cousin, Lord Darnley, in 1565. After Lord Darnley's assassination in 1567, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of Darnley's murder. The nobility rebelled against the Queen, forcing her to abdicate. She fled to England, and the Crown went to her infant son James VI, who was brought up as a Protestant. Mary was imprisoned and later executed by the English Queen Elizabeth I.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nPersonal union and republican phase","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nElizabeth's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England. Since she had no children, she was succeeded by the Scottish monarch James VI, who was the great-grandson of Henry VIII's older sister and hence Elizabeth's first cousin twice removed. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the \"Union of the Crowns\". Although England and Scotland were in personal union under one monarch – James I became the first monarch to style himself \"King of Great Britain and Ireland\" in 1604 – they remained separate kingdoms. James I's successor, Charles I, experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. He provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to 1640, unilaterally levying taxes and adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive to the Scottish Presbyterians and the English Puritans). His attempt to enforce Anglicanism led to organised rebellion in Scotland (the \"Bishops' Wars\") and ignited the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In 1642, the conflict between the King and English Parliament reached its climax and the English Civil War began.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Civil War culminated in the execution of the king in 1649, the overthrow of the English monarchy, and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England. Charles I's son, Charles II, was proclaimed King of Great Britain in Scotland, but he was forced to flee abroad after he invaded England and was defeated at the Battle of Worcester. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself Lord Protector (effectively becoming a military dictator, but refusing the title of king). Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing; he soon resigned. The lack of clear leadership led to civil and military unrest, and for a popular desire to restore the monarchy. In 1660, the monarchy was restored and Charles II returned to Britain.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nCharles II's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children, and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. A parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line of succession arose; the \"Petitioners\", who supported exclusion, became the Whig Party, whereas the \"Abhorrers\", who opposed exclusion, became the Tory Party. The Exclusion Bill failed; on several occasions, Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled without a Parliament until his death in 1685. When James succeeded Charles, he pursued a policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects. Many opposed James's decisions to maintain a large standing army, to appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices, and to imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his policies. As a result, a group of Protestants known as the Immortal Seven invited James II's daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange to depose the king. William obliged, arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great public support.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nFaced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials, James fled the realm and William and Mary (rather than James II's Catholic son) were declared joint Sovereigns of England, Scotland and Ireland.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nJames's overthrow, known as the Glorious Revolution, was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power. The Bill of Rights 1689 affirmed parliamentary supremacy, and declared that the English people held certain rights, including the freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of Rights required future monarchs to be Protestants, and provided that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary's sister Anne would inherit the Crown. Mary died childless in 1694, leaving William as the sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of Anne's children had died, leaving her as the only individual left in the line of succession. Parliament was afraid that the former James II or his supporters, known as Jacobites, might attempt to reclaim the throne. Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701, which excluded James and his Catholic relations from the succession and made William's nearest Protestant relations, the family of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, next in line to the throne after his sister-in-law Anne. Soon after the passage of the Act, William III died, leaving the Crown to Anne.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAfter the 1707 Acts of Union","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAfter Anne's accession, the problem of the succession re-emerged. The Scottish Parliament, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia's family as the next heirs, passed the Act of Security 1704, threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705, threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by restricting trade. The Scottish and English parliaments negotiated the Acts of Union 1707, under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with succession under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by her second cousin, and Sophia's son, George I, Elector of Hanover, who consolidated his position by defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719. The new monarch was less active in government than many of his British predecessors, but retained control over his German kingdoms, with which Britain was now in personal union. Power shifted towards George's ministers, especially to Sir Robert Walpole, who is often considered the first British prime minister, although the title was not then in use. The next monarch, George II, witnessed the final end of the Jacobite threat in 1746, when the Catholic Stuarts were completely defeated. During the long reign of his grandson, George III, Britain's American colonies were lost, the former colonies having formed the United States of America, but British influence elsewhere in the world continued to grow, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created by the Acts of Union 1800.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nFrom 1811 to 1820, George III suffered a severe bout of what is now believed to be porphyria, an illness rendering him incapable of ruling. His son, the future George IV, ruled in his stead as Prince Regent. During the Regency and his own reign, the power of the monarchy declined, and by the time of his successor, William IV, the monarch was no longer able to effectively interfere with parliamentary power. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, and appointed a Tory, Sir Robert Peel. In the ensuing elections, however, Peel lost. The king had no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. During William IV's reign, the Reform Act 1832, which reformed parliamentary representation, was passed. Together with others passed later in the century, the Act led to an expansion of the electoral franchise and the rise of the House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV's successor, Victoria. As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover, which only permitted succession in the male line, so the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The Victorian era was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over India, Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. However, her reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement, due in part to Victoria's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nVictoria's son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1901. In 1917, the next monarch, George V, changed \"Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\" to \"Windsor\" in response to the anti-German sympathies aroused by the First World War. George V's reign was marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom, and the Irish Free State, an independent nation, in 1922.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nShared monarchy","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nDuring the twentieth century, the Commonwealth of Nations evolved from the British Empire. Prior to 1926, the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively; the Dominions and Crown colonies were subordinate to the United Kingdom. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave complete self-government to the Dominions, effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion. The concept was solidified by the Statute of Westminster 1931, which has been likened to \"a treaty among the Commonwealth countries\".","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it is often still referred to as \"British\" for legal and historical reasons and for convenience. The monarch became separately monarch of the United Kingdom, monarch of Canada, monarch of Australia, and so forth. The independent states within the Commonwealth would share the same monarch in a relationship likened to a personal union.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nGeorge V's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of Edward VIII, who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry the divorced American Wallis Simpson, even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcées. Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to abdicate; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth countries granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were excluded from the line of succession, and the Crown went to his brother, George VI. George served as a rallying figure for the British people during World War II, making morale-boosting visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and to areas bombed by Nazi Germany. In June 1948 George VI relinquished the title Emperor of India, although remaining head of state of the Dominion of India.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAt first, every member of the Commonwealth retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, but when the Dominion of India became a republic in 1950, it would no longer share in a common monarchy. Instead, the British monarch was acknowledged as \"Head of the Commonwealth\" in all Commonwealth member states, whether they were realms or republics. The position is purely ceremonial, and is not inherited by the British monarch as of right but is vested in an individual chosen by the Commonwealth heads of government. Member states of the Commonwealth that share the same person as monarch are known as Commonwealth realms.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nMonarchy in Ireland","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn 1155 the only English pope, Pope Adrian IV, authorised King Henry II of England to take possession of Ireland as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship. The pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church into line with Rome, despite this process already underway in Ireland by 1155. An all-island kingship of Ireland had been created in 854 by Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid. His last successor was Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, who had become King of Ireland in early 1166, and exiled Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster. Diarmait asked Henry II for help, gaining a group of Anglo-Norman aristocrats and adventurers, led by Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, to help him regain his throne. Diarmait and his Anglo-Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again. De Clare married Diarmait's daughter, and when Diarmait died in 1171, de Clare became King of Leinster. Henry was afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman kingdom, so he took advantage of the papal bull and invaded, forcing de Clare and the other Anglo-Norman aristocrats in Ireland and the major Irish kings and lords to recognise him as their overlord.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nEnglish lords came close to colonising the entire island, but a Gaelic resurgence from the 1260s resulted in the island divided between Gaelic-Irish and Anglo-Irish lords by 1400. Many of the latter became completely Gaelicised, and did not recognise England's kings except perhaps nominally. Some, such as Manus O'Donnell and Conn O'Neill, 1st Earl of Tyrone, were kings themselves.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nBy 1541, King Henry VIII of England had broken with the Church of Rome and declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England. The pope's grant of Ireland to the English monarch became invalid, so Henry summoned a meeting of the Irish Parliament to change his title from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland. However much of the island was beyond English control, resulting in the extended Tudor conquest of Ireland that only made the Kingdom of Ireland a reality in 1603, at the conclusion of the Nine Years' War (Ireland). Nevertheless, Ireland retained its own parliament, becoming an independent state in 1642-1649 (Confederate Ireland), and again in 1688-91. Only warfare such as the Williamite War in Ireland and subsequent occupation enabled the English crown from 1692, and successive British states from 1707, to retain the country.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn 1800, as a result of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Act of Union merged the kingdom of Great Britain and the kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The whole island of Ireland continued to be a part of the United Kingdom until 1922, when what is now the Republic of Ireland won independence as the Irish Free State, a separate Dominion within the Commonwealth. The Irish Free State was renamed Éire (or \"Ireland\") in 1937, and in 1949 declared itself a republic, left the Commonwealth and severed all ties with the monarchy. Northern Ireland remained within the Union. In 1927, the United Kingdom changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, while the monarch's style for the next twenty years became \"of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India\".","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nModern status","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIn the 1990s, Republicanism in the United Kingdom grew, partly on account of negative publicity associated with the Royal Family (for instance, immediately following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales). However, recent polls show that around 70–80% of the British public support the continuation of the monarchy.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nReligious role","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe sovereign is the Supreme Governor of the established Church of England. Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the monarch, on the advice of the Prime Minister, who chooses the appointee from a list of nominees prepared by a Church Commission. The Crown's role in the Church of England is titular; the most senior clergyman, the Archbishop of Canterbury, is the spiritual leader of the Church and of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The monarch takes an oath to preserve Church of Scotland and he or she holds the power to appoint the Lord High Commissioner to the Church's General Assembly, but otherwise plays no part in its governance, and enjoys no powers over it. The Sovereign plays no formal role in the disestablished Church in Wales or Church of Ireland.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nSuccession","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the laws governing succession to the shared throne requires the unanimous consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Acts of Union 1707. The rules of succession may only be changed by an Act of Parliament; it is not possible for an individual to renounce his or her right of succession. The Act of Settlement restricts the succession to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover (1630–1714), a granddaughter of James I.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nUpon the death of the Sovereign, his or her heir immediately and automatically succeeds (hence the phrase \"The king is dead, long live the king!\"), and the accession of the sovereign is publicly proclaimed by an Accession Council that meets at St James's Palace. The monarch is crowned in Westminster Abbey, normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury. A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign; indeed, the ceremony usually takes place many months after accession to allow sufficient time for its preparation and for a period of mourning.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nAfter an individual ascends the throne, he or she reigns until death. The only voluntary abdication, that of Edward VIII, had to be authorised by a special Act of Parliament, His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was James VII and II, who fled into exile in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nRestrictions by gender and religion","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nSuccession was largely governed by male-preference cognatic primogeniture, under which sons inherit before daughters, and elder children inherit before younger ones of the same gender. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Cameron, announced at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 that all 16 Commonwealth realms, including the United Kingdom, had agreed to abolish the gender-preference rule for anyone born after the date of the meeting, 28 October 2011. They also agreed that future monarchs would no longer be prohibited from marrying a Roman Catholic – a law which dated from the Act of Settlement 1701. However, since the monarch is also the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, the law which prohibits a Roman Catholic from acceding to the throne remains. The necessary UK legislation making the changes received the royal assent on 25 April 2013 and was brought into force in March 2015 after the equivalent legislation was approved in all the other Commonwealth realms.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nOnly individuals who are Protestants may inherit the Crown. Roman Catholics are prohibited from succeeding. An individual thus disabled from inheriting the Crown is deemed \"naturally dead\" for succession purposes, and the disqualification does not extend to the individual's legitimate descendants.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nRegency","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Regency Acts allow for regencies in the event of a monarch who is a minor or who is physically or mentally incapacitated. When a regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line of succession automatically becomes regent, unless they themselves are a minor or incapacitated. Special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II by the Regency Act 1953, which stated that the Duke of Edinburgh (the Queen's husband) could act as regent in these circumstances.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nDuring a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom, the sovereign may temporarily delegate some of his or her functions to Counsellors of State, the monarch's spouse and the first four adults in the line of succession. The present Counsellors of State are: The Duke of Edinburgh, The Prince of Wales, The Duke of Cambridge, Prince Harry and The Duke of York.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nFinances","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nUntil 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, which included the profits of the Crown Estate (the royal property portfolio). King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List, and this arrangement persisted until 2012. An annual Property Services Grant-in-aid paid for the upkeep of the royal residences, and an annual Royal Travel Grant-in-Aid paid for travel. The Civil List covered most expenses, including those for staffing, state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment. Its size was fixed by Parliament every 10 years; any money saved was carried forward to the next 10-year period. From 2012 until 2020, the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid are to be replaced with a single Sovereign Grant, which will be set at 15% of the revenues generated by the Crown Estate.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Crown Estate is one of the largest property owners in the United Kingdom, with holdings of £7.3 billion in 2011. It is held in trust, and cannot be sold or owned by the Sovereign in a private capacity. In modern times, the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate to the Treasury have exceeded the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid. For example, the Crown Estate produced £200 million in the financial year 2007–8, whereas reported parliamentary funding for the monarch was £40 million during the same period.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nLike the Crown Estate, the land and assets of the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued at £383 million in 2011, are held in trust. The revenues of the Duchy form part of the Privy Purse, and are used for expenses not borne by the parliamentary grants. The Duchy of Cornwall is a similar estate held in trust to meet the expenses of the monarch's eldest son. The Royal Collection, which includes artworks and the Crown Jewels, is not owned by the Sovereign personally and is held in trust, as are the occupied palaces in the United Kingdom such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe sovereign is subject to indirect taxes such as value-added tax, and since 1993 the Queen has paid income tax and capital gains tax on personal income. Parliamentary grants to the Sovereign are not treated as income as they are solely for official expenditure. Republicans estimate that the real cost of the monarchy, including security and potential income not claimed by the state, such as profits from the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall and rent of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, is £334 million a year.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nEstimates of the Queen's wealth vary, depending on whether assets owned by her personally or held in trust for the nation are included. Forbes magazine estimated her wealth at US$450 million in 2010, but no official figure is available. In 1993, the Lord Chamberlain said estimates of £100 million were \"grossly overstated\". Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth in 1971 at £2 million (the equivalent of about £ today).","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nResidences","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Sovereign's official residence in London is Buckingham Palace. It is the site of most state banquets, investitures, royal christenings and other ceremonies. Another official residence is Windsor Castle, the largest occupied castle in the world, which is used principally at weekends, Easter and during Royal Ascot, an annual race meeting that is part of the social calendar. The Sovereign's official residence in Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh. The monarch stays at Holyrood for at least one week each year, and when visiting Scotland on state occasions.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nHistorically, the Palace of Westminster and the Tower of London were the main residences of the English Sovereign until Henry VIII acquired the Palace of Whitehall. Whitehall was destroyed by fire in 1698, leading to a shift to St James's Palace. Although replaced as the monarch's primary London residence by Buckingham Palace in 1837, St James's is still the senior palace and remains the ceremonial Royal residence. For example, foreign ambassadors are accredited to the Court of St James's, and the Palace is the site of the meeting of the Accession Council. It is also used by other members of the Royal Family.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nOther residences include Clarence House and Kensington Palace. The palaces belong to the Crown; they are held in trust for future rulers, and cannot be sold by the monarch. Sandringham House in Norfolk and Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire are privately owned by the Queen.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nStyle","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe present Sovereign's full style and title is \"Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith\". The title \"Head of the Commonwealth\" is held by the Queen personally, and is not vested in the British Crown. Pope Leo X first granted the title \"Defender of the Faith\" to King Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the Protestant Reformation, particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments. After Henry broke from the Roman Church, Pope Paul III revoked the grant, but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Sovereign is known as \"His Majesty\" or \"Her Majesty\". The form \"Britannic Majesty\" appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the British monarch from foreign rulers. The monarch chooses his or her regnal name, not necessarily his or her first name – King George VI, King Edward VII and Queen Victoria did not use their first names.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nIf only one monarch has used a particular name, no ordinal is used; for example, Queen Victoria is not known as \"Victoria I\", and ordinals are not used for English monarchs who reigned before the Norman conquest of England. The question of whether numbering for British monarchs is based on previous English or Scottish monarchs was raised in 1953 when Scottish nationalists challenged the Queen's use of \"Elizabeth II\", on the grounds that there had never been an \"Elizabeth I\" in Scotland. In MacCormick v Lord Advocate, the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that the Queen's title was a matter of her own choice and prerogative. The Home Secretary told the House of Commons that monarchs since the Acts of Union had consistently used the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals, which in the applicable four cases has been the English ordinal. The Prime Minister confirmed this practice, but noted that \"neither The Queen nor her advisers could seek to bind their successors\". Future monarchs will apply this policy.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nTraditionally, the signature of the monarch includes their regnal name but not ordinal, followed by the letter R, which stands for rex or regina (Latin for king and queen, respectively). The present monarch's signature is \"Elizabeth R\". From 1877 until 1948 reigning monarchs added the letter I to their signatures, for imperator or imperatrix (emperor or empress in Latin), from their status as Emperor or Empress of India. For example, Queen Victoria signed as \"Victoria RI\" from 1877.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nArms","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom are \"Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or [for England]; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules [for Scotland]; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent [for Ireland]\". The supporters are the Lion and the Unicorn; the motto is \"Dieu et mon droit\" (French: \"God and my Right\"). Surrounding the shield is a representation of a Garter bearing the motto of the Chivalric order of the same name; \"Honi soit qui mal y pense\". (Old French: \"Shame be to him who thinks evil of it\"). In Scotland, the monarch uses an alternative form of the arms in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland, II England, and III Ireland. The mottoes are \"In Defens\" (an abbreviated form of the Scots \"In My Defens God Me Defend\") and the motto of the Order of the Thistle; \"Nemo me impune lacessit\". (Latin: \"No-one provokes me with impunity\"); the supporters are the unicorn and lion, who support both the escutcheon and lances, from which fly the flags of Scotland and England.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarch's official flag in the United Kingdom is the Royal Standard, which depicts the Royal Arms. It is flown only from buildings, vessels and vehicles in which the Sovereign is present. The Royal Standard is never flown at half-mast because there is always a sovereign: when one dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly.","Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nWhen the monarch is not in residence, the Union Flag is flown at Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle and Sandringham House, whereas in Scotland the Royal Standard of Scotland is flown at Holyrood Palace and Balmoral Castle.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine of Aragon (Castilian: Catalina; also spelled Katherine, 16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536) was the Queen of England from June 1509 until May 1533 as the first wife of King Henry VIII; she was previously Princess of Wales as the wife of his elder brother Arthur.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nThe daughter of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, Catherine was three years old when she was betrothed to Prince Arthur, heir apparent to the English throne. They married in 1501, and Arthur died five months later. In 1507, she held the position of ambassador for the Spanish Court in England, becoming the first female ambassador in European history. Catherine subsequently married Arthur's younger brother, the recently succeeded Henry VIII, in 1509. For six months in 1513, she served as regent of England while Henry VIII was in France. During that time the English won the Battle of Flodden, an event in which Catherine played an important part.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nBy 1525, Henry VIII was infatuated with Anne Boleyn and dissatisfied that his marriage to Catherine had produced no surviving sons, leaving their daughter, the future Mary I of England, as heiress presumptive at a time when there was no established precedent for a woman on the throne. He sought to have their marriage annulled, setting in motion a chain of events that led to England's schism with the Catholic Church. When Pope Clement VII refused to annul the marriage, Henry defied him by assuming supremacy over religious matters. In 1533 their marriage was consequently declared invalid and Henry married Anne on the judgement of clergy in England, without reference to the Pope. Catherine refused to accept Henry as Supreme Head of the Church in England and considered herself the King's rightful wife and queen, attracting much popular sympathy. Despite this, she was acknowledged only as Dowager Princess of Wales by Henry. After being banished from court, she lived out the remainder of her life at Kimbolton Castle, and died there on 7 January 1536.\nCatherine's English subjects held her in high esteem, and her death set off tremendous mourning among the English people.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nThe controversial book The Education of Christian Women by Juan Luis Vives, which claimed women have the right to an education, was commissioned by and dedicated to her. Such was Catherine's impression on people that even her enemy, Thomas Cromwell, said of her, \"If not for her sex, she could have defied all the heroes of History.\" She successfully appealed for the lives of the rebels involved in the Evil May Day, for the sake of their families. Catherine also won widespread admiration by starting an extensive programme for the relief of the poor. She was a patron of Renaissance humanism, and a friend of the great scholars Erasmus of Rotterdam and Thomas More.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nEarly life","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine was born at the Archbishop's Palace in Alcalá de Henares near Madrid, on the night of 16 December 1485. She was the youngest surviving child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. Catherine was quite short in stature with long red hair, wide blue eyes, a round face, and a fair complexion. She was descended, on her maternal side, from the English royal house; her great-grandmother Catherine of Lancaster, after whom she was named, and her great-great-grandmother Philippa of Lancaster were both daughters of John of Gaunt and granddaughters of Edward III of England. Consequently, she was third cousin of her father-in-law, Henry VII of England, and fourth cousin of her mother-in-law Elizabeth of York.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine was educated by a tutor, Alessandro Geraldini, who was a clerk in Holy Orders. She studied arithmetic, canon and civil law, classical literature, genealogy and heraldry, history, philosophy, religion, and theology. She had a strong religious upbringing and developed her Roman Catholic faith that would play a major role in later life. She learned to speak, read and write in Spanish and Latin, and spoke French and Greek. She was also taught domestic skills, such as cooking, dancing, drawing, embroidery, good manners, lace-making, music, needlepoint, sewing, spinning, and weaving. The great scholar Erasmus later said that Catherine \"loved good literature which she had studied with success since childhood\".","Catherine of Aragon\n\nAt an early age, Catherine was considered a suitable wife for Arthur, Prince of Wales, heir apparent to the English throne, due to the English ancestry she inherited from her mother. By means of her mother, Catherine had a stronger legitimate claim to the English throne than King Henry VII himself through the first two wives of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster: Blanche of Lancaster and Constance of Castile. In contrast, Henry VII was the descendant of Gaunt's third marriage to Katherine Swynford, whose children were born out of wedlock and only legitimised after the death of Constance and the marriage of John to Katherine. The children of John and Katherine, while legitimised, were barred from inheriting the English throne, a stricture that was ignored in later generations. Because of Henry's descent through illegitimate children barred from succession to the English throne, the Tudor monarchy was not accepted by all European kingdoms.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nAt the time, the House of Trastámara was the most prestigious in Europe, due to the rule of the Catholic Monarchs, so the alliance of Catherine and Arthur validated the House of Tudor in the eyes of European royalty and strengthened the Tudor claim to the English throne via Catherine of Aragon's ancestry. It would have given a male heir an indisputable claim to the throne. The two were married by proxy on 19 May 1499 and corresponded in Latin until Arthur turned fifteen, when it was decided that they were old enough to be married.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nWhen Catherine of Aragon travelled to London, she brought a group of her African attendants with her, including one identified as the trumpeter John Blanke. They are the first Africans recorded to have arrived in London at the time, and were considered luxury servants. They caused a great impression about the princess and the power of her family.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nAs wife and widow of Arthur","Catherine of Aragon\n\nThe couple met on 4 November 1501 at Dogmersfield in Hampshire. Little is known about their first impressions of each other, but Arthur did write to his parents-in-law that he would be \"a true and loving husband\" and told his parents that he was immensely happy to \"behold the face of his lovely bride\". The couple had corresponded in Latin, but found that they could not understand each other, since they had learned different pronunciations. Ten days later, on 14 November 1501, they were married at Old St. Paul's Cathedral. A dowry of 200,000 crowns had been agreed, and half was paid shortly after the marriage.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nOnce married, Arthur was sent to Ludlow Castle on the borders of Wales to preside over the Council of Wales and the Marches, as was his duty as Prince of Wales, and his bride accompanied him. The couple stayed at Castle Lodge, Ludlow. A few months later, they both became ill, possibly with the sweating sickness which was sweeping the area. Arthur died on 2 April 1502; Catherine recovered to find herself a widow.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nAt this point, Henry VII faced the challenge of avoiding the obligation to return her 200,000 ducat dowry, half of which he had not yet received, to her father, as required by her marriage contract should she return home. Following the death of his queen, Elizabeth of York, in February 1503, Henry VII initially considered marrying Catherine himself, but the opposition of her father and potential questions over the legitimacy of the couple's issue put paid to the idea. To settle the matter, it was agreed that Catherine would marry Henry VII's second son, Henry, Duke of York, who was five years younger than she was. The death of Catherine's mother, however, meant that her \"value\" in the marriage market decreased. Castile was a much larger kingdom than Aragon, and it was inherited by Catherine's mentally unstable elder sister, Joanna. Ostensibly, the marriage was delayed until Henry was old enough, but Ferdinand II procrastinated so much over payment of the remainder of Catherine's dowry that it became doubtful that the marriage would take place. She lived as a virtual prisoner at Durham House in London.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nSome of the letters she wrote to her father complaining of her treatment have survived. In one of these letters she tells him that \"I choose what I believe, and say nothing. For I am not as simple as I may seem.\" She had little money and struggled to cope, as she had to support her ladies-in-waiting as well as herself. In 1507 she served as the Spanish ambassador to England, the first female ambassador in European history. While Henry VII and his councillors expected her to be easily manipulated, Catherine went on to prove them wrong.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nMarriage to Arthur's brother depended on the Pope granting a dispensation because canon law forbade men to marry their brother's widow (Lev. 18:16 ). Catherine testified that her marriage to Arthur was never consummated as, also according to canon law, a marriage was not valid until consummated.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nQueen of England (1509–1533)","Catherine of Aragon\n\nWedding","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine's wedding took place on 11 June 1509, seven years after Prince Arthur's death. She married Henry VIII, who had only just acceded to the throne, in a private ceremony in the church of the Observant Friars outside Greenwich Palace. She was 23 years of age. The king was just days short of his 18th birthday.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCoronation","Catherine of Aragon\n\nOn Saturday 23 June 1509, the traditional eve-of-coronation procession to Westminster was greeted by a large and enthusiastic crowd. As was the custom, the couple spent the night before their coronation at the Tower of London. On Midsummer's Day, Sunday, 1509, Henry VIII and Catherine were anointed and crowned together by the Archbishop of Canterbury at a lavish ceremony at Westminster Abbey. The coronation was followed by a banquet in Westminster Hall. Many new Knights of the Bath were created in honour of the coronation.\nIn that month that followed, many social occasions presented the new Queen to the English public. She made a fine impression and was well received by the people of England.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nPregnancies and children","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine was pregnant six times altogether: \n*In August 1509, two months after the wedding, Catherine's first pregnancy was announced. On 31 January 1510 she gave birth prematurely to a stillborn girl. *In May 1510, four months after the loss of her first child, Catherine announced her second pregnancy. A son, Henry, Duke of Cornwall, was born on 1 January 1511. In his honour, guns were fired from the Tower of London and the city bells were rung, beacons were lit and free wine was distributed to all the population. Five days after his birth, on 6 January 1511, the prince was christened at Richmond Palace, his godparents being the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Earl of Surrey and the Countess of Devon. On 22 February 1511, after only 52 days of life, the young prince died suddenly. It was said that he died of an intestinal complaint. *By early 1513, Catherine was pregnant again. On 30 June 1513, Catherine was left as regent in England when Henry VIII went to fight in France. In November 1513, she went into labour prematurely and gave birth to a son, the second Henry, Duke of Cornwall.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nThe child died shortly after birth and was buried in Westminster Abbey. *In June 1514, Catherine announced her fourth pregnancy. On 8 January 1515, she gave birth to a stillborn boy. *In the summer of 1515, Catherine announced her fifth pregnancy; however, less hope was placed on an heir resulting her previous failed pregnancies. On 18 February 1516, Catherine delivered a healthy girl at 4 a.m. at Greenwich Palace, Kent. She was named Mary and christened three days later (21 February) with great ceremony at the Church of Observant Friars. Despite his evident disappointment, Henry VIII said that if it were a girl this time then surely boys would follow. *In February 1518, Catherine announced her sixth pregnancy. In March, she visited Merton College, Oxford and also made a pilgrimage to the shrine of St Frideswide, asking for a healthy son. On 10 November 1518 she gave birth to a daughter, but the child was weak and lived either only a few hours or at most a week.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nInfluence","Catherine of Aragon\n\nOn 11June 1513, Henry appointed Catherine Regent or Governor of England while he went to France on a military campaign. \nWhen Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Longueville, was captured at Thérouanne, Henry sent him to stay in Catherine's household. She wrote to Wolsey that she and her council would prefer the Duke to stay in the Tower of London as the Scots were \"so busy as they now be\" and she added her prayers for \"God to sende us as good lukke against the Scotts, as the King hath ther.\" The war with Scotland occupied her subjects, and she was \"horrible busy with making standards, banners, and badges\" at Richmond Palace. The Scots invaded and on 3 September 1513, she ordered Thomas Lovell to raise an army in the midland counties.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine rode north in full armour to address the troops, despite being heavily pregnant at the time. Her fine speech was reported to the historian Peter Martyr d'Anghiera in Valladolid within a fortnight. Although an Italian newsletter said she was 100 mi north of London when news of the victory at Battle of Flodden Field reached her, she was near Buckingham. From Woburn Abbey she sent a letter to Henry along with a piece of the bloodied coat of King James IV of Scotland, who died in the battle, for Henry to use as a banner at the siege of Tournai.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine's religious dedication increased as she aged, as did her interest in academics. She continued to broaden her knowledge and provide training for her daughter, Mary. Education among women became fashionable, partly because of Catherine's influence, and she donated large sums of money to several colleges. Henry, however, still considered a male heir essential. The Tudor dynasty was new, and its legitimacy might still be tested. A long civil war (1135–54) had been fought the last time a woman, (Empress Matilda), had inherited the throne. The disasters of civil war were still fresh in living memory from the Wars of the Roses.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nIn 1520, Catherine's nephew Holy Roman Emperor Charles V paid a state visit to England, and she urged Henry to enter an alliance with Charles rather than with France. Immediately after his departure, she accompanied Henry to France on the celebrated visit to Francis I, the so-called Field of the Cloth of Gold. Within two years, war was declared against France and the Emperor was once again welcome in England, where plans were afoot to betroth him to Catherine's daughter Mary.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nThe King's great matter","Catherine of Aragon\n\nIn 1525, Henry VIII became enamoured of Anne Boleyn, a lady-in-waiting to Queen Catherine who was 9 years younger than Henry. Henry began pursuing her; Catherine was no longer able to bear children by this time. Henry began to believe that his marriage was cursed and sought confirmation from the Bible, which he interpreted to say that if a man marries his brother's wife, the couple will be childless. Even if her marriage to Arthur had not been consummated (and Catherine would insist to her dying day that she had come to Henry's bed a virgin), Henry's interpretation of that biblical passage meant that their marriage had been wrong in the eyes of God. Whether the Pope at the time of Henry and Catherine's marriage had had the right to overrule Henry's claimed scriptural impediment would become a hot topic in Henry's campaign to wrest an annulment from the present Pope. It is possible that the idea of annulment had been suggested to Henry much earlier than this, and is highly probable that it was motivated by his desire for a son.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nBefore Henry's father ascended the throne, England was beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown, and Henry may have wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nIt soon became the one absorbing object of Henry's desires to secure an annulment. Catherine was defiant when it was suggested that she quietly retire to a nunnery, saying, \"God never called me to a nunnery. I am the King's true and legitimate wife\". He set his hopes upon an appeal to the Holy See, acting independently of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, whom he told nothing of his plans. William Knight, the King's secretary, was sent to Pope Clement VII to sue for an annulment, on the grounds that the dispensing bull of Pope Julius II was obtained by false pretences.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nAs the Pope was, at that time, the prisoner of Catherine's nephew, Emperor Charles V, following the Sack of Rome in May 1527, Knight had difficulty in obtaining access to him. In the end, Henry's envoy had to return without accomplishing much. Henry now had no choice but to put this great matter into the hands of Thomas Wolsey, and Wolsey did all he could to secure a decision in Henry's favour. Wolsey went so far as to convene an ecclesiastical court in England with a representative of the Pope presiding, and Henry and Catherine herself in attendance. The Pope had no intention of allowing a decision to be reached in England, and his legate was recalled. (How far the pope was influenced by Charles V is difficult to say, but it is clear Henry saw that the Pope was unlikely to annul his marriage to the Emperor's aunt.) The Pope forbade Henry to marry again before a decision was given in Rome. Wolsey had failed and was dismissed from public office in 1529. Wolsey then began a secret plot to have Anne Boleyn forced into exile and began communicating with the Pope to that end.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nWhen this was discovered, Henry ordered Wolsey's arrest and, had he not been terminally ill and died in 1530, he might have been executed for treason. A year later, Catherine was banished from court, and her old rooms were given to Anne Boleyn. When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, the Boleyn family's chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, was appointed to the vacant position.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nWhen Henry decided to annul his marriage to Catherine, John Fisher became her most trusted counsellor and one of her chief supporters. He appeared in the legates' court on her behalf, where he shocked people with the directness of his language, and by declaring that, like John the Baptist, he was ready to die on behalf of the indissolubility of marriage. Henry was so enraged by this that he wrote a long Latin address to the legates in answer to Fisher's speech. Fisher's copy of this still exists, with his manuscript annotations in the margin which show how little he feared Henry's anger. The removal of the cause to Rome ended Fisher's role in the matter, but Henry never forgave him. Other people who supported Catherine's case included Thomas More, Henry's own sister Mary Tudor, Queen of France - though as a member of the Tudor family and of royal blood, she was safe from any punishment and execution - María de Salinas, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Pope Paul III and Protestant Reformers Martin Luther and William Tyndale.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nBanishment and death","Catherine of Aragon\n\nUpon returning to Dover from a meeting with King Francis I of France in Calais, Henry married Anne Boleyn in a secret ceremony. Some sources speculate that Anne was already pregnant at the time (and Henry did not want to risk a son being born illegitimate) but others testify that Anne (who had seen her sister Mary Boleyn taken up as the king's mistress and summarily cast aside) refused to sleep with Henry until they were married. Henry defended the legality of their union by pointing out that Catherine had previously been married. If she and Arthur had consummated their marriage, Henry by canon law had the right to remarry. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgement at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of Henry's marriage to Catherine, declared the marriage illegal, even though Catherine testified she and Arthur had never had physical relations. Cranmer ruled Henry and Anne's marriage valid five days later, on 28 May 1533.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nUntil the end of her life, Catherine would refer to herself as Henry's only lawful wedded wife and England's only rightful queen, and her servants continued to address her by that title. Henry refused her the right to any title but \"Dowager Princess of Wales\" in recognition of her position as his brother's widow.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine went to live at The More castle in the winter of 1531/32. In 1535 she was transferred to Kimbolton Castle. There, she confined herself to one room (which she left only to attend Mass), dressed only in the hair shirt of the Order of St. Francis, and fasted continuously. While she was permitted to receive occasional visitors, she was forbidden to see her daughter Mary. They were also forbidden to communicate in writing, but sympathizers discreetly ferried letters between the two. Henry offered both mother and daughter better quarters and permission to see each other if they would acknowledge Anne Boleyn as the new queen. Both refused.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nIn late December 1535, sensing her death was near, Catherine made her will, and wrote to her nephew, the Emperor Charles V, asking him to protect her daughter. She then penned one final letter to Henry, her \"most dear lord and husband\":","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine died at Kimbolton Castle on 1536. The following day, news of her death reached the king. At the time there were rumours that she was poisoned, possibly by Gregory di Casale. According to the chronicler Edward Hall, Anne Boleyn wore yellow for the mourning, which has been interpreted in various ways; Polydore Vergil interpreted this to mean that Anne did not mourn. Chapuys reported that it was King Henry who decked himself in yellow, celebrating the news and making a great show of his and Anne's daughter, Elizabeth, to his courtiers. This was seen as distasteful and vulgar by many. Another theory is that the dressing in yellow was out of respect for Catherine as yellow was said to be the Spanish colour of mourning. Certainly, later in the day it is reported that Henry and Anne both individually and privately wept for her death. On the day of Catherine's funeral, Anne Boleyn miscarried a boy. Rumours then circulated that Catherine had been poisoned by Anne or Henry, or both, as Anne had threatened to murder both Catherine and Mary on several occasions.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nThe rumours were born after the apparent discovery during her embalming that there was a black growth on her heart that might have been caused by poisoning. Modern medical experts are in agreement that her heart's discolouration was due not to poisoning, but to cancer, something which was not understood at the time.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine was buried in Peterborough Cathedral with the ceremony due to a Dowager Princess of Wales, not a queen. Henry did not attend the funeral and forbade Mary to attend.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nFaith","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine was a member of the Third Order of Saint Francis and she was punctilious in her religious obligations in the Order, integrating without demur her necessary duties as queen with her personal piety. After her divorce, she was quoted \"I would rather be a poor beggar’s wife and be sure of heaven, than queen of all the world and stand in doubt thereof by reason of my own consent.\"","Catherine of Aragon\n\nThe outward celebration of saints and holy relics formed no major part of her personal devotions, which she rather expressed in the Mass, prayer, confession and penance. Privately, however, she was aware of what she identified as the shortcomings of the papacy and church officialdom. Her doubts about Church improprieties certainly did not extend so far as to support the allegations of corruption made public by Martin Luther in Wittenberg in 1517, which were soon to have such far-reaching consequences in initiating the Protestant Reformation.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nIn 1523 Alfonso de Villa Sancta, a learned friar of the Observant (reform) branch of the Friars Minor and friend of the king's old advisor Erasmus, dedicated to the queen his book De Liberio Arbitrio adversus Melanchthonem denouncing Philip Melanchthon, a supporter of Luther. Acting as her confessor, he was able to nominate her for the title of \"Defender of the Faith\" for denying Luther's arguments.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nAppearance","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine was of a very fair complexion, had blue eyes, and had a hair colour that was between reddish-blonde and auburn like her mother and sister Joanna. In her youth she was described as \"the most beautiful creature in the world\" and that there was \"nothing lacking in her that the most beautiful girl should have.\" Thomas More and Lord Herbert would reflect later in her lifetime that in regard to her appearance \"there were few women who could compete with the Queen [Catherine] in her prime.\"","Catherine of Aragon\n\nLegacy, memory, and historiography","Catherine of Aragon\n\nThe controversial book \"The Education of Christian Women\" by Juan Luis Vives, which claimed women have the right to an education, was dedicated to and commissioned by her. Such was Catherine's impression on people, that even her enemy, Thomas Cromwell, said of her \"If not for her sex, she could have defied all the heroes of History.\" She successfully appealed for the lives of the rebels involved in the Evil May Day for the sake of their families. Furthermore, Catherine won widespread admiration by starting an extensive programme for the relief of the poor. She was also a patron of Renaissance humanism, and a friend of the great scholars Erasmus of Rotterdam and Saint Thomas More. Some saw her as a martyr.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nIn the reign of her daughter Mary I of England, her marriage to Henry VIII was declared \"good and valid\". Her daughter Queen Mary also had several portraits commissioned of Catherine, and it would not by any means be the last time she was painted. After her death, numerous portraits were painted of her, particularly of her speech at the Legatine Trial, a moment accurately rendered in Shakespeare's play about Henry VIII.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nHer tomb in Peterborough Cathedral can be seen and there is hardly ever a time when it is not decorated with flowers or pomegranates, her heraldic symbol. It bears the title Katharine Queen of England.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nIn the 20th century, George V's wife, Mary of Teck, had her grave upgraded and there are now banners there denoting Catherine as a Queen of England. Every year at Peterborough Cathedral there is a service in her memory. There are processions, prayers, and various events in the Cathedral including processions to Catherine's grave in which candles, pomegranates, flowers and other offerings are placed on her grave. On the service commemorating the 470th anniversary of her death, the Spanish Ambassador to the United Kingdom attended. During the 2010 service a rendition of Catherine of Aragon's speech before the Legatine court was read by Jane Lapotaire. There is a statue of her in her birthplace of Alcalá de Henares, as a young woman holding a book and a rose.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine has remained a popular biographical subject to the present day. The American historian Garrett Mattingly was the author of a popular biography Katherine of Aragon in 1942. In 1966, Catherine and her many supporters at court were the subjects of Catherine of Aragon and her Friends, a biography by John E. Paul. In 1967, Mary M. Luke wrote the first book of her Tudor trilogy, Catherine the Queen which portrayed her and the controversial era of English history through which she lived.\n In recent years, the historian Alison Weir covered her life extensively in her biography The Six Wives of Henry VIII, first published in 1991. Antonia Fraser did the same in her own 1992 biography of the same title; as did the British historian David Starkey in his 2003 book Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII. Giles Tremlett's biography Catherine of Aragon: The Spanish Queen of Henry VIII came out in 2010, and Julia Fox's 2011 dual biography Sister Queens: The Noble, Tragic Lives of Katherine of Aragon and Juana, Queen of Castile.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nPlaces and statues","Catherine of Aragon\n\n* In Alcalá de Henares, the place of Catherine's birth, a statue of Catherine as a young woman holding a rose and a book can be seen in the Archbishop's Palace.\n* Peterborough is twinned with the Spanish city of Alcalá de Henares, located in the wider Community of Madrid. Children from schools in the two places have learned about each other as part of the twinning venture, and artists have even come over from Alcalá de Henares to paint Catherine's tombstone.\n* Many places in Ampthill are named after Catherine. Also in Ampthill there is a cross in Ampthill Great Park named \"Queen Catherine's Cross\" in her honour. It is on the site of the castle where she was sent during her divorce from the King.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nSpelling of her name","Catherine of Aragon\n\nHer baptismal name was \"Catalina\", but \"Katherine\" was soon the accepted form in England after her marriage to Arthur. Catherine herself signed her name \"Katherine\", \"Katherina\", \"Katharine\" and sometimes \"Katharina\". In a letter to her, Arthur, her husband, addressed her as \"Princess Katerine\". Her daughter Queen Mary I called her \"Quene Kateryn\", in her will. Rarely were names, particularly first names, written in an exact manner during the sixteenth century and it is evident from Catherine's own letters that she endorsed different variations. \nLoveknots built into his various palaces by her husband, Henry VIII, display the initials \"H & K\", as do other items belonging to Henry and Catherine, including gold goblets, a gold salt cellar, basins of gold, and candlesticks. Her tomb in Peterborough Cathedral is marked \"Katharine Queen of England\".","Catherine of Aragon\n\nIn art and media","Catherine of Aragon\n\nOver the years, numerous artistic and cultural works have been dedicated to Catherine, have been written about her, or have mentioned her, including some by her husband Henry VIII, who wrote \"Grene growth the holy\" about and for her, and Juan Luis Vives, who dedicated The Education of Christian Women to her.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine of Aragon has been portrayed in film, television, plays, novels, songs, poems, and other creative forms many times, and as a result she has stayed very much in popular memory. There has never been a film or television series in which she is the main character, the nearest is the first episode of The Six Wives of Henry VIII, which is told from her point of view (and in which she is portrayed by Annette Crosbie). William Shakespeare's play Henry VIII succeeds in recreating with great accuracy Catherine's statement about the legitimacy of her marriage at the court in Blackfriars before King Henry, and Shakespeare's portrayal of Catherine is remarkably sympathetic; however, most of the rest of the play is an attempt to absolve many, especially Henry VIII, and the timing of key incidents (including Catherine's death) is changed and other events are avoided (the play makes Henry nearly an innocent pawn in the hands of a dastardly Cardinal Wolsey, and the play stops short of Anne Boleyn's execution).","Catherine of Aragon\n\nAlthough Catherine is often portrayed in film and on stage as having possessed stereotypically Spanish dark hair and eyes and olive complexion, existing portraits and contemporary descriptions depict her with blue eyes, fair skin, and reddish-blonde hair, not uncommon for Spaniards from the northern regions of Spain, including her father's land of Aragon. And she was part English, through her ancestresses Katherine of Lancaster and Philippa of Lancaster, who were daughters of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine often is played with a Spanish accent. From most reports, this is accurate, as she never fully mastered the English language.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nIn January, 2013, the National Portrait Gallery in London revealed that its curators had recently discovered that a portrait at Lambeth Palace formerly believed to have been a portrait of Catherine Parr in fact shows Catherine of Aragon. The National Portrait Gallery announced that the painting, which had hung in a private sitting room of the Archbishop of Canterbury since at least the 19th century, would be paired with a portrait of Henry VIII already in the museum's collection, and would remain at the museum on loan.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nMusic and rhymes","Catherine of Aragon\n\n* The song \"Green groweth the holly\" is said to have been written for her by Henry VIII.\n* In the children's nursery rhyme \"I Had a Little Nut Tree\" she is the \"King of Spain's Daughter.\"\n* In Rick Wakeman's album The Six Wives of Henry VIII, \"Catherine of Aragon\" is listed as Track no. 1.","Catherine of Aragon\n\nBooks","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine is the main character in:\n* Katharine, The Virgin Widow, The Shadow of the Pomegranate, and The King's Secret Matter (later published in an omnibus Katharine of Aragon) by Jean Plaidy\n* My Catalina by Maureen Peters\n* The King's Pleasure, by Norah Lofts;\n* The Constant Princess, by Philippa Gregory (a novel about Catherine's younger years);\n* Patience, Princess Catherine by Carolyn Meyer (young adult novel);\n* Isabella's Daughter by Charity Bishop.\n* Catherine of Aragon/My Tudor Queen\" by Alison Prince.\n* Katherine of Aragon, The True Queen by Alison Weir","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine is a character in:\n* Murder Most Royal by Jean Plaidy;\n* The Trusted Servant by Alison Macleod\n* The Other Boleyn Girl by Philippa Gregory (a novel about Mary Boleyn's life)\n* The Dark Rose, Volume 2 of The Morland Dynasty, by Cynthia Harrod-Eagles\n* Wolf Hall by Hilary Mantel\n* I, Elizabeth by Rosalind Miles\n* Keeper of the King's Secrets by Michelle Diener","Catherine of Aragon\n\nTheatre, film, stage, and TV","Catherine of Aragon\n\nCatherine was portrayed by:","Catherine of Aragon\n\n* Sarah Siddons in the 18th century, in Shakespeare's Henry VIII. She told Samuel Johnson that the role of Queen Catherine was her favourite of all the Shakespearean roles she had played, as it was \"the most natural\". * Violet Vanbrugh in the 1911 short film production of William Shakespeare's play Henry VIII (first film portrayal). * German actress Hedwig Pauly-Winterstein in the film Anna Boleyn. * Rosalie Crutchley in The Sword and the Rose, an account of Mary Tudor's romance with the Duke of Suffolk in 1515. (Crutchley later played Henry's sixth queen Katherine Parr in The Six Wives of Henry VIII.)\n* Greek actress Irene Papas in Hal B. Wallis' acclaimed film Anne of the Thousand Days (1969). * Frances Cuka in the 1972 film Henry VIII and His Six Wives. Keith Michell reprised his role as Henry VIII. A scene was incorporated between Frances Cuka and Charlotte Rampling (playing Anne Boleyn) to show their quiet, glacial enmity. * Claire Bloom in a 1979 adaptation of Shakespeare's Henry VIII. * British actress Annette Crosbie in a 90-minute television drama titled \"Catherine of Aragon\", the first part of the BBC series The Six Wives of Henry VIII.","Catherine of Aragon\n\n* Annabelle Dowler in Dr. David Starkey's 2001 documentary series on Henry VIII's Six Wives. * Spanish actress Yolanda Vasquez, a brief appearance in the British TV version \"The Other Boleyn Girl\" (January 2003), opposite Jared Harris as Henry VIII and Natascha McElhone as Mary Boleyn. * Assumpta Serna in the October 2003 ITV two-part television drama, \"Henry VIII\" which starred Ray Winstone in the title role. Part 1 chronicled the king's life from the birth of his bastard son, Henry Fitzroy until the execution of Anne Boleyn in 1536. David Suchet co-starred as Cardinal Wolsey. * Marge Simpson (voiced by Julie Kavner), as \"Margerine of Aragon\" in The Simpsons episode \"Margical History Tour.\"\n* Maria Doyle Kennedy in the Showtime 2007 television series, The Tudors opposite Jonathan Rhys Meyers as Henry. For her performance, Kennedy won an IFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role Television, and a Gemini Award for an Actress in a Featured Supporting Role in a Dramatic Series. * Ana Torrent in the 2007 film adaptation of the novel The Other Boleyn Girl by Philippa Gregory, with Eric Bana as Henry VIII.","Catherine of Aragon\n\n* Virginia Weeks portrayed her in the play Six Dead Queens and an Inflatable Henry, and is one of only three productions that show Catherine with the correct colouring. * In 2008 she was played by Victoria Pelro in the film The Twisted Tale of Bloody Mary. * She is played by Siobhan Hewlett in the 2009 documentary Henry: Mind of a Tyrant. This documentary is one of the few portrayals of Catherine to get her appearance correct. * Kate Duchêne in a 2010 adaptation of Shakespeare's Henry VIII at Shakespeare's Globe Theatre. * Joanne Whalley in Wolf Hall. *Natalia Rodríguez Arroyo in the Spanish historical series Isabel. *Mélida Molina in the Spanish historical series Carlos, Rey Emperador. *Jessica Ransom in the CBBC series Horrible Histories","Catherine of Aragon\n\nAncestry","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne Boleyn (, or) \n( 1501 – 19 May 1536) was Queen of England from 1533 to 1536 as the second wife of King Henry VIII, and Marquess of Pembroke in her own right. Henry's marriage to Anne, and her subsequent execution by beheading, made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that was the start of the English Reformation.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Howard, and was educated in the Netherlands and France, largely as a maid of honour to Claude of France. She returned to England in early 1522, to marry her Irish cousin James Butler, 9th Earl of Ormond; the marriage plans were broken up by Cardinal Wolsey, and instead she secured a post at court as maid of honour to Henry VIII's wife, Catherine of Aragon.","Anne Boleyn\n\nEarly in 1523 Anne was secretly betrothed to Henry Percy, son of the 5th Earl of Northumberland, but the betrothal was broken by Cardinal Wolsey in January 1524 and Anne was sent back home to Hever Castle. In February/March 1526, Henry VIII began his pursuit of Anne. She resisted his attempts to seduce her, refusing to become his mistress – which her sister Mary had been. It soon became the one absorbing object of Henry's desires to annul his marriage to Queen Catherine so he would be free to marry Anne. When it became clear that Pope Clement VII would not annul the marriage, the breaking of the power of the Catholic Church in England began. In 1532, Henry granted Anne the Marquessate of Pembroke.","Anne Boleyn\n\nHenry and Anne married on 25 January 1533, after a secret marriage on 14 November 1532. On 23 May 1533, newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer declared Henry and Catherine's marriage null and void; five days later, he declared Henry and Anne's marriage valid. Shortly afterwards, the Pope decreed sentences of excommunication against Henry and Cranmer. As a result of this marriage and these excommunications, the first break between the Church of England and Rome took place and the Church of England was brought under the King's control. Anne was crowned Queen of England on 1 June 1533. On 7 September, she gave birth to the future Queen Elizabeth I. Henry was disappointed to have a daughter rather than a son but hoped a son would follow and professed to love Elizabeth. Anne subsequently had three miscarriages, and by March 1536, Henry was courting Jane Seymour.","Anne Boleyn\n\nHenry had Anne investigated for high treason in April 1536. On 2 May she was arrested and sent to the Tower of London, where she was tried before a jury of peers – which included Henry Percy, her former betrothed, and her own uncle, Thomas Howard – and found guilty on 15 May. She was beheaded four days later. Modern historians view the charges against her, which included adultery, incest, and plotting to kill the king, as unconvincing. Some say that Anne was accused of witchcraft but the indictments make no mention of this charge.","Anne Boleyn\n\nFollowing the coronation of her daughter Elizabeth as queen, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of John Foxe. Over the centuries, she has inspired or been mentioned in numerous artistic and cultural works. As a result, she has retained her hold on the popular imagination. Anne has been called \"the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had\", since she provided the occasion for Henry VIII to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, and declare his independence from Rome.","Anne Boleyn\n\nEarly years","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, later Earl of Wiltshire and Earl of Ormond, and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk. Thomas Boleyn was a well respected diplomat with a gift for languages; he was also a favourite of King Henry VII, who sent him on many diplomatic missions abroad. Anne and her siblings grew up at Hever Castle in Kent. However, the siblings were born in Norfolk at the Boleyn home at Blickling. A lack of parish records from the period has made it impossible to establish Anne's date of birth. Contemporary evidence is contradictory, with several dates having been put forward by various historians. An Italian, writing in 1600, suggested that she had been born in 1499, while Sir Thomas More's son-in-law, William Roper, indicated a much later date of 1512. Her birth was most likely sometime between 1501 and 1507. As with Anne herself, it is uncertain when her two siblings were born, but it seems clear that her sister Mary was older than Anne. Mary's children clearly believed their mother had been the elder sister. Most historians now agree that Mary was born in 1499.","Anne Boleyn\n\nMary's grandson claimed the Ormonde title in 1596 on the basis she was the elder daughter, which Elizabeth I accepted. Their brother George was born around 1504.","Anne Boleyn\n\nThe academic debate about Anne's birth date focuses on two key dates: 1501 and 1507. Eric Ives, a British historian and legal expert, advocates the 1501 date, while Retha Warnicke, an American scholar who has also written a biography of Anne, prefers 1507. The key piece of surviving written evidence is a letter Anne wrote sometime in 1514. She wrote it in French to her father, who was still living in England while Anne was completing her education at Mechelen, in the Burgundian Netherlands, now Belgium. Ives argues that the style of the letter and its mature handwriting prove that Anne must have been about thirteen at the time of its composition, while Warnicke argues that the numerous misspellings and grammar errors show that the letter was written by a child. In Ives's view, this would also be around the minimum age that a girl could be a maid of honour, as Anne was to the regent, Margaret of Austria. This is supported by claims by a chronicler from the late 16th century, who wrote that Anne was twenty when she returned from France.","Anne Boleyn\n\nThese findings are contested by Warnicke in several books and articles, and the evidence does not conclusively support either date.","Anne Boleyn\n\nThere are two independent contemporary sources for the 1507 date. Author Gareth Russell wrote a summary of the evidence and relates that Jane Dormer, Duchess of Feria, wrote her memoirs shortly before her death in 1612; in it the former lady-in-waiting and confidante to Queen Mary I wrote of Anne Boleyn: \"She was convicted and condemned and was not yet twenty-nine years of age.\" William Camden wrote a history of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and was granted access to the private papers of Lord Burghley and to the state archives. In that history, in the chapter dealing with Elizabeth's early life, he records in the margin that Anne was born in MDVII (1507).","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne's great great great-grandparents included a Lord Mayor of London, a duke, an earl, two aristocratic ladies, and a knight. One of\nthem, Geoffrey Boleyn, had been a mercer and wool merchant before becoming Lord Mayor. The Boleyn family originally came from Blickling in Norfolk, 15 mi north of Norwich. At the time of Anne's birth, the Boleyn family was considered one of the most respected in the English aristocracy. Among her relatives, she numbered the Howards, one of the preeminent families in the land; and one of her ancestors included King Edward I of England. According to Eric Ives, she was certainly of more noble birth than Jane Seymour, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr, Henry VIII's three other English wives. The spelling of the Boleyn name was variable, as common at the time. Sometimes it was written as Bullen, hence the bull heads which formed part of her family arms. At the court of Margaret of Austria in the Netherlands, Anne is listed as Boullan. From there she signed the letter to her father as Anna de Boullan. She is also referred to as \"Anna Bolina\"; this Latinised form is used in most portraits of her.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne's early education was typical for women of her class. In 1513, Anne was invited to join the schoolroom of Margaret of Austria and her four wards. Her academic education was limited to arithmetic, her family genealogy, grammar, history, reading, spelling, and writing. She developed domestic skills such as dancing, embroidery, good manners, household management, music, needlework, and singing. Anne learned to play games, such as cards, chess, and dice. She was also taught archery, falconry, horseback riding, and hunting.","Anne Boleyn\n\nNetherlands and France","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne's father continued his diplomatic career under Henry VIII. In Europe, Thomas Boleyn's charm won many admirers, including Margaret of Austria, daughter of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. During this period, Margaret ruled the Netherlands on her nephew Charles's behalf and was so impressed with Boleyn that she offered his daughter Anne a place in her household. Ordinarily, a girl had to be twelve years old to have such an honour, but Anne may have been younger, as the Archduchess affectionately referred to her as \"la petite Boulin \". Anne made a good impression in the Netherlands with her manners and studiousness, Margaret reported that she was well spoken and pleasant for her young age. and told Sir Thomas Boleyn that his daughter was \"so presentable and so pleasant, considering her youthful age, that I am more beholden to you for sending her to me, than you to me\" (E.W. Ives, op.cit.). Anne stayed with Margaret from spring 1513 until her father arranged for her to attend Henry VIII's sister Mary, who was about to marry Louis XII of France in October 1514.","Anne Boleyn\n\nIn France, Anne was a maid of honour to Queen Mary, and then to Mary's 15-year-old stepdaughter Queen Claude, with whom she stayed nearly seven years. In the Queen's household, she completed her study of French and developed interests in art, fashion, illuminated manuscripts, literature, music, poetry,and religious philosophy. She also acquired knowledge of French culture, dance, etiquette, literature, music, and poetry and came to gain experience in flirtation and the game of courtly love. Though all knowledge about Anne's experiences in the French court are conjecture, even Eric Ives, in his latest edition of the biography, conjectures that she was likely to have made the acquaintance of King Francis I's sister, Marguerite de Navarre, a patron of humanists and reformers. Marguerite de Navarre was also an author in her own right, and her works include elements of Christian mysticism and reform that verged on heresy, though she was protected by her status as the French king's beloved sister. She or her circle may have encouraged Anne's interest in reform, as well as in poetry and literature.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne's education in France proved itself in later years, inspiring many new trends among the ladies and courtiers of England, and it may have been instrumental in pressing their King toward the culture-shattering contretemps with the Papacy itself. Eric Ives's latest version of his biography hypothesises that Anne may have had evangelistic conviction and a strong spiritual inner life. William Forrest, author of a contemporary poem about Catherine of Aragon, complimented Anne's \"passing excellent\" skill as a dancer. \"Here\", he wrote, \"was [a] fresh young damsel, that could trip and go.\"","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne had been of average height and she had a slender build with long straight and thick black or dark brown hair, dark brown eyes, a considerably strong nose, a definite wide mouth with slim lips, and an olive complexion. She was considered to be brilliant, charming, driven, elegant, forthright, and graceful with a keen wit and a lively, opinionated, and passionate personality. Anne was depicted to be \"sweet and cheerful\" in her youth and she enjoyed cards and dice games, drinking wine, eating French cuisine, flirting, gambling, gossiping, and hearing a good joke. She was fond of archery, falconry, hunting, and the occasional game of bowls. Yet Anne also had a sharp tongue and a terrible temper.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne exerted a powerful charm on those who met her, though opinions differed on her attractiveness. The Venetian diarist Marino Sanuto, who saw Anne when Henry VIII met Francis I at Calais in October 1532, described her as \"not one of the handsomest women in the world; she is of middling stature, swarthy complexion, long neck, wide mouth, bosom not much raised... eyes, which are black and beautiful\".Strong, p. 6. Simon Grynée wrote to Martin Bucer in September 1531 that Anne was \"young, good-looking, of a rather dark complexion\". Lancelot de Carle called her \"beautiful with an elegant figure\", and a Venetian in Paris in 1528 also reported that she was said to be beautiful. The most influential description of Anne, but also the least reliable, was written by the Catholic propagandist and polemicist Nicholas Sanders in 1586, half a century after Anne's death: \"Anne Boleyn was rather tall of stature, with black hair, and an oval face of a sallow complexion, as if troubled with jaundice. It is said she had a projecting tooth under the upper lip, and on her right hand six fingers.","Anne Boleyn\n\nThere was a large wen under her chin, and therefore to hide its ugliness she wore a high dress covering her throat... She was handsome to look at, with a pretty mouth\". Sanders held Anne responsible for Henry VIII's rejection of the Catholic Church, and writing fifty years after her death, was keen to demonise her. Sanders's description contributed to what biographer Eric Ives calls the \"monster legend\" of Anne Boleyn. Though his details were fictitious, they have formed the basis for references to Anne's appearance even in some modern textbooks.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne's experience in France made her a devout Christian in the new tradition of Renaissance humanism. Anne knew little Latin but, trained at a French court, she was influenced by an \"evangelical variety of French humanism\" which led her to champion the vernacular Bible. While she would later hold the reformist position that the papacy was a corrupting influence on Christianity, her conservative tendencies could be seen in her devotion to the Virgin Mary. Anne's European education ended in 1521, when her father summoned her back to England. She sailed from Calais in January 1522.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAt the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne was recalled to marry her Irish cousin, James Butler, a young man who was several years older than she and who was living at the English court, in an attempt to settle a dispute over the title and estates of the Earldom of Ormond. The 7th Earl of Ormond died in 1515, leaving his daughters, Margaret Boleyn and Anne St Leger, as co-heiresses. In Ireland, the great-great-grandson of the 3rd earl, Sir Piers Butler, contested the will and claimed the Earldom himself. He was already in possession of Kilkenny Castle – the ancestral seat of the earls. Sir Thomas Boleyn, being the son of the eldest daughter, felt the title belonged to him and protested to his brother-in-law, the Duke of Norfolk, who spoke to King Henry about the matter. Henry, fearful the dispute could be the spark to ignite civil war in Ireland, sought to resolve the matter by arranging an alliance between Piers's son, James, and Anne Boleyn. She would bring her Ormond inheritance as dowry and thus end the dispute. The plan ended in failure, perhaps because Sir Thomas hoped for a grander marriage for his daughter or because he himself coveted the titles.","Anne Boleyn\n\nWhatever the reason, the marriage negotiations came to a complete halt. James Butler later married Lady Joan Fitzgerald, daughter and heiress of James FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Desmond and Amy O'Brien.","Anne Boleyn\n\nMary Boleyn, Anne Boleyn's older sister, had earlier been recalled from France in late 1519, ostensibly for her affairs with the French king and his courtiers. She married William Carey, a minor noble, in February 1520, at Greenwich, with Henry VIII in attendance; soon after, Mary Boleyn became the English King's mistress. Historians dispute King Henry VIII's paternity of one or both of Mary Boleyn's children born during this marriage. Henry VIII: The King and His Court, by Alison Weir, questions the paternity of Henry Carey; Dr. G.W. Bernard (The King's Reformation) and Joanna Denny (Anne Boleyn: A New Life of England's Tragic Queen) argue that Henry VIII was their father. Henry did not acknowledge either child, as he did his son Henry Fitzroy, his illegitimate son by Elizabeth Blount, Lady Talboys.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne made her début at the Château Vert (Green Castle) pageant in honour of the imperial ambassadors on 4 March 1522, playing \"Perseverance.\" There she took part in an elaborate dance accompanying Henry's younger sister Mary, several other ladies of the court, and her sister. All wore gowns of white satin embroidered with gold thread. She quickly established herself as one of the most stylish and accomplished women at the court, and soon a number of young men were competing for her.","Anne Boleyn\n\nThe American historian Retha M. Warnicke writes that Anne was \"the perfect woman courtier... her carriage was graceful and her French clothes were pleasing and stylish; she danced with ease, had a pleasant singing voice, played the lute and several other musical instruments well, and spoke French fluently... A remarkable, intelligent, quick-witted young noblewoman... that first drew people into conversation with her and then amused and entertained them. In short, her energy and vitality made her the center of attention in any social gathering.\" Henry VIII's biographer J. J. Scarisbrick adds that Anne \"revelled in\" the attention she received from her admirers.","Anne Boleyn\n\nDuring this time, Anne was courted by Henry Percy, son of the Earl of Northumberland, and entered into a secret betrothal with the young man. Thomas Wolsey's gentleman usher, George Cavendish, maintained the two had not been lovers. If Cavendish is to be believed, their relationship was celibate. The romance was broken off when Percy's father refused to support their engagement. Cardinal Wolsey refused the match for several conjectured reasons. According to Cavendish, Anne was sent from court to her family's countryside estates, but it is not known for how long. Upon her return to court, she again entered the service of Catherine of Aragon. Percy was married to Lady Mary Talbot, to whom he had been betrothed since adolescence.","Anne Boleyn\n\nPrior to her marriage to King Henry VIII, Anne had befriended Sir Thomas Wyatt, who was one of the greatest poets of the Tudor reign. In 1520, Wyatt married Elizabeth Cobham, who told by many accounts, was not a wife of his choosing. Thus, in 1525, Wyatt charged his wife with adultery and separated from her; coincidentally, historians believe that it was also the year where his interest in Anne intensified. While Anne Boleyn was still King Henry's mistress in 1532, Wyatt accompanied the royal couple to Calais in France. A year later, Anne Boleyn and the King were secretly married, and Wyatt served in Anne's coronation in June 1533.","Anne Boleyn\n\nIn 1526, King Henry became enamoured with Anne and began his pursuit. Some say that Anne resisted the King's attempts to seduce her, refusing to become his mistress, often leaving court for the seclusion of Hever Castle. But within a year, he proposed marriage to her, and she accepted. Both assumed an annulment could be obtained within a matter of months. There is no evidence to suggest that they engaged in a sexual relationship until very shortly before their marriage; Henry's love letters to Anne suggest that their love affair remained unconsummated for much of their seven-year courtship.","Anne Boleyn\n\nHenry's annulment","Anne Boleyn\n\nIt is probable that the idea of annulment (not divorce as commonly assumed) had suggested itself to Henry much earlier than this and was motivated by his desire for an heir to secure the Tudor claim to the crown. Before Henry's father Henry VII ascended the throne, England was beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the crown and Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. He and Catherine had no living sons: all Catherine's children except Mary died in infancy. Catherine of Aragon had first come to England to be bride to Henry's brother Arthur who died soon after their marriage. Since Spain and England still wanted an alliance, a dispensation was granted by Pope Julius II on the grounds that Catherine was still a virgin. The marriage of Catherine and Henry took place in 1509, but eventually he became dubious about its validity, due to Catherine's inability to provide an heir being seen as a sign of God's displeasure. His feelings for Anne, and her refusals to become his mistress, probably contributed to Henry's decision that no Pope had a right to overrule the Bible.","Anne Boleyn\n\nThis meant that he had been living in sin with Catherine of Aragon all these years, though Catherine hotly contested this and refused to concede that her marriage to Arthur had been consummated. It also meant that his daughter Mary was a bastard, and that the new Pope (Clement VII) would have to admit the previous Pope's mistake and annul the marriage. Henry's quest for an annulment became euphemistically known as the \"King's Great Matter.\"","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne saw an opportunity in Henry's infatuation and the convenient moral quandary. She determined that she would yield to his embraces only as his acknowledged queen. She began to take her place at his side in policy and in state, but not yet in his bed.","Anne Boleyn\n\nScholars and historians hold various opinions as to how deep Anne's commitment to the Reformation was, how much she was perhaps only personally ambitious, and how much she had to do with Henry's defiance of papal power. There is anecdotal evidence, related to biographer George Wyatt by her former lady-in-waiting Anne Gainsford, that Anne brought to Henry's attention a heretical pamphlet, perhaps Tyndale's \"The Obedience of a Christian Man\" or one by Simon Fish called \"Supplication for Beggars,\" which cried out to monarchs to rein in the evil excesses of the Catholic Church. She was sympathetic to those seeking further reformation of the Church, and actively protected scholars working on English translations of the scriptures. According to Maria Dowling, \"Anne tried to educate her waiting-women in scriptural piety” and is believed to have reproved her cousin, Mary Shelton, for “having 'idle poesies' written in her prayer book.” If Cavendish is to be believed, Anne's outrage at Wolsey may have personalised whatever philosophical defiance she brought with her from France.","Anne Boleyn\n\nFurther, the most recent edition of Ives's biography admits that Anne may very well have had a personal spiritual awakening in her youth which spurred her on, not just as catalyst but expediter for Henry's Reformation, though the process took a number of years.","Anne Boleyn\n\nIn 1528, sweating sickness broke out with great severity. In London, the mortality rate was great and the court was dispersed. Henry left London, frequently changing his residence; Anne Boleyn retreated to the Boleyn residence at Hever Castle, but contracted the illness; her brother-in-law, William Carey, died. Henry sent his own physician to Hever Castle to care for Anne, and shortly afterwards, she recovered. It soon became the one absorbing object of Henry's desires to secure an annulment from Catherine. Henry had set his hopes upon a direct appeal to the Holy See, acting independently of Cardinal Wolsey, to whom he at first communicated nothing of his plans related to Anne. In 1527 William Knight, the King's secretary, was sent to Pope Clement VII to sue for the annulment of his marriage to Catherine, on the grounds that the dispensing bull of Pope Julius II permitting him to marry his brother's widow, Catherine, had been obtained under false pretences. Henry also petitioned, in the event of his becoming free, a dispensation to contract a new marriage with any woman even in the first degree of affinity, whether the affinity was contracted by lawful or unlawful connection.","Anne Boleyn\n\nThis clearly referred to Anne.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAs the Pope was, at that time, prisoner of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, as a result of the Sack of Rome in May 1527, Knight had some difficulty obtaining access. In the end he had to return with a conditional dispensation, which Wolsey insisted was technically insufficient. Henry now had no choice but to put his great matter into Wolsey's hands, who did all he could to secure a decision in Henry's favour, even going so far as to convene an ecclesiastical court in England, with a special emissary, Lorenzo Campeggio from the Pope himself to decide the matter. But the Pope never had empowered his deputy to make any decision. The Pope was still a veritable hostage of Charles V, and Charles V was the loyal nephew of Henry's queen, Catherine. The Pope forbade Henry to contract a new marriage until a decision was reached in Rome, not in England. Convinced that Wolsey's loyalties lay with the Pope, not England, Anne, as well as Wolsey's many enemies, ensured his dismissal from public office in 1529.","Anne Boleyn\n\nGeorge Cavendish, Wolsey's chamberlain, records that the servants who waited on the king and Anne at dinner in 1529 in Grafton heard her say that the dishonour that Wolsey had brought upon the realm would have cost any other Englishman his head. Henry replied, \"Why then I perceive...you are not the Cardinal's friend.\" Henry finally agreed to Wolsey's arrest on grounds of praemunire. Had it not been for his death from illness in 1530, he might have been executed for treason. A year later in 1531 (fully two years before Henry's marriage to Anne), Queen Catherine was banished from court and her rooms were given to Anne.","Anne Boleyn\n\nPublic support remained with Queen Catherine. One evening in the autumn of 1531, Anne was dining at a manor house on the river Thames and was almost seized by a crowd of angry women. Anne just managed to escape by boat.","Anne Boleyn\n\nWhen Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died in 1532, the Boleyn family chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, was appointed, with papal approval.","Anne Boleyn\n\nIn 1532, Thomas Cromwell brought before Parliament a number of acts including the Supplication against the Ordinaries and Submission of the Clergy, which recognised royal supremacy over the church, thus finalising the break with Rome. Following these acts, Thomas More resigned as Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister.","Anne Boleyn\n\nPremarital role and marriage","Anne Boleyn\n\nEven before her marriage, Anne Boleyn was able to grant petitions, receive diplomats, give patronage and had enormous influence over her future husband to plead the cause of foreign diplomats. The ambassador from Milan wrote in 1531 that it was essential to have her approval if one wanted to influence the English government, a view corroborated by an earlier French ambassador in 1529.","Anne Boleyn\n\nDuring this period, Anne Boleyn played an important role in England's international position by solidifying an alliance with France. She established an excellent rapport with the French ambassador, Gilles de la Pommeraie. Anne and Henry attended a meeting with the French king at Calais in winter 1532, in which Henry hoped to enlist the support of Francis I of France for his intended marriage. On 1 September 1532, Henry granted her suo jure the Marquessate of Pembroke, an appropriate peerage for a future queen; as such she became a rich and important woman: the three dukes and two marquesses who existed in 1532 were the King's brother-in-law, the King's illegitimate son, and other descendants of royalty; she ranked above all other peeresses. The Pembroke lands and the title of Earl of Pembroke had been held by Henry's great-uncle, and Henry performed the investiture himself.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne's family also profited from the relationship. Her father, already Viscount Rochford, was created Earl of Wiltshire. Henry also came to an arrangement with Anne's Irish cousin and created him Earl of Ormond. At the magnificent banquet to celebrate her father's elevation, Anne took precedence over the Duchesses of Suffolk and Norfolk, seated in the place of honour beside the King which was usually occupied by the Queen. Thanks to Anne's intervention, her widowed sister Mary received an annual pension of £100, and Mary's son, Henry Carey, was educated at a prestigious Cistercian monastery.","Anne Boleyn\n\nThe conference at Calais was something of a political triumph, but even though the French government gave implicit support for Henry's remarriage and Francis I himself held private conference with Anne, the French King maintained alliances with the Pope which he could not explicitly defy.","Anne Boleyn\n\nSoon after returning to Dover, Henry and Anne married in a secret ceremony on November 14, 1532. She soon became pregnant and, to legalise the first wedding considered to be unlawful at the time, there was a second wedding service, also private in accordance with The Royal Book, which took place in London on 25 January 1533. Events now began to move at a quick pace. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer (who had been hastened, with the Pope's assent, into the position of Archbishop of Canterbury recently vacated by the death of Warham) sat in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of the King's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. He thereupon declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be good and valid.","Anne Boleyn\n\nQueen of England: 1533–1536","Anne Boleyn\n\nCatherine was formally stripped of her title as queen and Anne was consequently crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533 in a magnificent ceremony at Westminster Abbey with a banquet afterwards. She was the last queen consort of England to be crowned separately from her husband. Unlike any other queen consort, Anne was crowned with St Edward's Crown, which had previously been used to crown only a monarch. Historian Alice Hunt suggests that this was done because Anne's pregnancy was visible by then and she was carrying the heir who was presumed to be male.Alice Hunt, The Drama of Coronation: Medieval Ceremony in Early Modern England, Cambridge University Press, 2008 On the previous day, Anne had taken part in an elaborate procession through the streets of London seated in a litter of \"white cloth of gold\" that rested on two palfreys clothed to the ground in white damask, while the barons of the Cinque Ports held a canopy of cloth of gold over her head. In accordance with tradition she wore white, and on her head a gold coronet beneath which her long dark hair hung down freely. The public's response to her appearance was lukewarm.","Anne Boleyn\n\nMeanwhile, the House of Commons had forbidden all appeals to Rome and exacted the penalties of praemunire against all who introduced papal bulls into England. It was only then that Pope Clement at last took the step of announcing a provisional sentence of excommunication against the King and Cranmer. He condemned the marriage to Anne, and in March 1534, he declared the marriage to Catherine legal and again ordered Henry to return to her. Henry now required his subjects to swear the oath attached to the First Succession Act, which effectively rejected papal authority in legal matters and recognised Anne Boleyn as queen. Those who refused, such as Sir Thomas More, who had resigned as Lord Chancellor, and John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, were then placed in the Tower of London. In late 1534 parliament declared Henry \"the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England\". The Church in England was now under Henry's control, not Rome's.","Anne Boleyn\n\nOn 14 May 1534, in one of the realm's first official acts protecting Protestant Reformers, Anne wrote a letter to Thomas Cromwell seeking his aid in ensuring that English merchant Richard Herman be reinstated a member of the merchant adventurers in Antwerp and no longer persecuted simply because he had helped in \"setting forth of the New testament in English.\" Before and after her coronation, Anne protected and promoted evangelicals and those wishing to study the scriptures of William Tyndale. She had a decisive role in influencing the Protestant reformer Matthew Parker to attend court as her chaplain, and prior to her death entrusted her daughter to Parker's care.","Anne Boleyn\n\nStruggle for a son","Anne Boleyn\n\nAfter her coronation, Anne settled into a quiet routine at the King's favourite residence, Greenwich Palace, to prepare for the birth of her baby. The child was born slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533. Between three and four in the afternoon, Anne gave birth to a girl, who was christened Elizabeth, probably in honour of either or both Anne's mother Elizabeth Howard and Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York. But the birth of a girl was a heavy blow to her parents, since they had confidently expected a boy. All but one of the royal physicians and astrologers had predicted a son for them and the French king had already been asked to stand as his godfather. Now the prepared letters announcing the birth of a prince had an s hastily added to them to read princes[s] and the traditional jousting tournament for the birth of an heir was cancelled.","Anne Boleyn\n\nNevertheless, the infant princess was given a splendid christening, but Anne feared that Catherine's daughter, Mary, now stripped of her title of princess and labelled a bastard, posed a threat to Elizabeth's position. Henry soothed his wife's fears by separating Mary from her many servants and sending her to Hatfield House, where Princess Elizabeth would be living with her own sizeable staff of servants, and where the country air was thought better for the baby's health. Anne frequently visited her daughter at Hatfield and other residences.","Anne Boleyn\n\nThe new queen had a larger staff of servants than Catherine. There were more than 250 servants to tend to her personal needs, everyone from priests to stable-boys, and more than 60 maids-of-honour who served her and accompanied her to social events. She also employed several priests who acted as her confessors, chaplains, and religious advisers. One of these was Matthew Parker, who would become one of the chief architects of Anglican thought during the reign of Anne's daughter, Elizabeth I.","Anne Boleyn\n\nStrife with the king","Anne Boleyn\n\nThe king and his new queen enjoyed a reasonably happy accord with periods of calm and affection. Anne Boleyn's sharp intelligence, political acumen and forward manners, although desirable in a mistress, were, at the time, unacceptable in a wife. She was once reported to have spoken to her uncle in words that \"shouldn't be used to a dog\". After a stillbirth or miscarriage as early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the possibility of divorcing her without having to return to Catherine.Williams, p.138. Nothing came of the issue as the royal couple reconciled and spent summer 1535 on progress. By October, she was again pregnant.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne Boleyn presided over a magnificent court. She spent lavish amounts of money on gowns, jewels, head-dresses, ostrich-feather fans, riding equipment, furniture and upholstery, maintaining the ostentatious display required by her status. Numerous palaces were renovated to suit her and Henry's extravagant tastes. Her motto was \"The most happy\", and she had chosen a white falcon as her personal device.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne was blamed for the tyranny of her husband's government and was referred to by some of her subjects as \"The king's whore\" or a \"naughty paike [prostitute]\". Public opinion turned further against her following her failure to produce a son. It sank even lower after the executions of her enemies Sir Thomas More and Bishop John Fisher.","Anne Boleyn\n\nDownfall and execution: 1536","Anne Boleyn\n\nOn 8 January 1536, news of Catherine of Aragon's death reached the King and Anne, who were overjoyed. The following day, Henry and Anne wore yellow, the symbol of joy and celebration in England, from head to toe, and celebrated Catherine's death with festivities. In Spain, the home country of Catherine of Aragon, yellow was the colour of mourning, in addition to black. For this reason, the wearing of yellow by Henry and Anne may have been a symbol of mourning. With Mary's mother dead, Anne attempted to make peace with her. Mary rebuffed Anne's overtures, perhaps because of rumours circulating that Catherine had been poisoned by Anne and/or Henry. These began after the discovery during her embalming that her heart was blackened. Modern medical experts are in agreement that this was not the result of poisoning, but of cancer of the heart, something which was not understood at the time.","Anne Boleyn\n\nThe Queen, pregnant again, was aware of the dangers if she failed to give birth to a son. With Catherine dead, Henry would be free to marry without any taint of illegality. At this time Henry began paying court to Jane Seymour. He gave her a locket with a miniature portrait of himself inside and Jane, in the presence of Anne, began opening and shutting it. Anne responded by ripping off the locket with such force her fingers bled.","Anne Boleyn\n\nLater that month, the King was unhorsed in a tournament and knocked unconscious for two hours, a worrying incident that Anne believed led to her miscarriage five days later. Another possible cause of the miscarriage was an incident in which, upon entering a room, Anne saw Jane Seymour sitting on the lap of Henry. After flying into a rage, Henry soothed her, saying \"peace be sweetheart, and all will be well.\" Whatever the cause, on the day that Catherine of Aragon was buried at Peterborough Abbey, Anne miscarried a baby which, according to the imperial ambassador Eustace Chapuys, she had borne for about three and a half months, and which \"seemed to be a male child\". Chapuys commented \"She has miscarried of her saviour.\" In Chapuys' opinion, this loss was the beginning of the end of the royal marriage.","Anne Boleyn\n\nGiven Henry's desperate desire for a son, the sequence of Anne's pregnancies has attracted much interest. Author Mike Ashley speculated that Anne had two stillborn children after Elizabeth's birth and before the male child she miscarried in 1536. Most sources attest only to the birth of Elizabeth in September 1533, a possible miscarriage in the summer of 1534, and the miscarriage of a male child, of almost four months gestation, in January 1536. As Anne recovered from her miscarriage, Henry declared that he had been seduced into the marriage by means of \"sortilege\"—a French term indicating either \"deception\" or \"spells\". His new mistress, Jane Seymour, was quickly moved into royal quarters. This was followed by Anne's brother George being refused a prestigious court honour, the Order of the Garter, given instead to Sir Nicholas Carew.","Anne Boleyn\n\nCharges of adultery, incest and treason","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne's biographer Eric Ives believes that her fall and execution were primarily engineered by her former ally Thomas Cromwell. The conversations between Chapuys and Cromwell thereafter indicate Cromwell as the instigator of the plot to remove Anne; evidence of this is seen in the Spanish Chronicle and through letters written from Chapuys to Charles V. Anne argued with Cromwell over the redistribution of Church revenues and over foreign policy. She advocated that revenues be distributed to charitable and educational institutions; and she favoured a French alliance. Cromwell insisted on filling the King's depleted coffers, while taking a cut for himself, and preferred an imperial alliance. For these reasons, Ives suggests, \"Anne Boleyn had become a major threat to Thomas Cromwell.\" Cromwell's biographer John Schofield, on the other hand, contends that no power struggle existed between Anne and Cromwell and that \"not a trace can be found of a Cromwellian conspiracy against Anne... Cromwell became involved in the royal marital drama only when Henry ordered him onto the case.\" Cromwell did not manufacture the accusations of adultery, though he and other officials used them to bolster Henry's case against Anne.","Anne Boleyn\n\nHistorian Retha Warnicke questions whether Cromwell could have or wished to manipulate the king in such a matter. Such a bold attempt by Cromwell, given the limited evidence, could have risked his office, even his life. Henry himself issued the crucial instructions: his officials, including Cromwell, carried them out. The result, historians agree, was a legal travesty. However modern lawyers have concluded that the rules of the time were not bent in order to assure Anne Boleyn's conviction; there was no need to tamper with rules that guaranteed the desired result since law at the time, like armies, was an engine of state, not a mechanism for justice.","Anne Boleyn\n\nTowards the end of April a Flemish musician in Anne's service named Mark Smeaton was arrested. He initially denied being the Queen's lover but later confessed, perhaps tortured or promised freedom. Another courtier, Henry Norris, was arrested on May Day, but being an aristocrat, could not be tortured. Prior to his arrest, Norris was treated kindly by the King, who offered him his own horse to use on the May Day festivities. It seems likely that during the festivities, the King was notified of Smeaton's confession and it was shortly thereafter the alleged conspirators were arrested upon his orders. Norris denied his guilt and swore that Queen Anne was innocent; one of the most damaging pieces of evidence against Norris was an overheard conversation with Anne at the end of April, where she accused him of coming often to her chambers not to pay court to her lady-in-waiting Madge Shelton but to herself. Sir Francis Weston was arrested two days later on the same charge, as was William Brereton, a Groom of the King's Privy Chamber.","Anne Boleyn\n\nSir Thomas Wyatt, a poet and friend of the Boleyns who was allegedly infatuated with her before her marriage to the king, was also imprisoned for the same charge but later released, most likely due to his or his family's friendship with Cromwell. Sir Richard Page was also accused of having a sexual relationship with the Queen, but he was acquitted of all charges after further investigation could not implicate him with Anne. The final accused was Queen Anne's own brother, George Boleyn, arrested on charges of incest and treason. He was accused of two incidents of incest: November 1535 at Whitehall and the following month at Eltham.","Anne Boleyn\n\nOn 2 May 1536, Anne was arrested and taken to the Tower of London by barge. It is likely that Anne may have entered through the Court Gate in the Byward Tower rather than the Traitors' Gate, according to historian and author of The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn, Eric Ives. In the Tower, she collapsed, demanding to know the location of her father and \"swete broder\", as well as the charges against her.","Anne Boleyn\n\nIn what is reputed to be her last letter to King Henry, dated 6 May, she wrote:","Anne Boleyn\n\nFour of the accused men were tried in Westminster on 12 May 1536. Weston, Brereton, and Norris publicly maintained their innocence and only the tortured Smeaton supported the Crown by pleading guilty. Three days later, Anne and George Boleyn were tried separately in the Tower of London, before a jury of 27 peers. She was accused of adultery, incest, and high treason. By the Treason Act of Edward III, adultery on the part of a queen was a form of treason (because of the implications for the succession to the throne) for which the penalty was hanging, drawing and quartering for a man and burning alive for a woman, but the accusations, and especially that of incestuous adultery, were also designed to impugn her moral character. The other form of treason alleged against her was that of plotting the king's death, with her \"lovers\", so that she might later marry Henry Norris. Henry Percy, 6th Earl of Northumberland sat on the jury that unanimously found Anne guilty. When the verdict was announced, he collapsed and had to be carried from the courtroom. He died eight months later, leaving no heirs and therefore was succeeded by his nephew.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAccording to a 1980 legal review by Schauer and Schauer, \"there is little if any evidence, apart from Smeaton's possible torture, that the rules of the time were in any way bent in order to assure Anne Boleyn's conviction\".","Anne Boleyn\n\nOn 14 May, Cranmer declared Anne's marriage to Henry null and void.","Anne Boleyn\n\nFinal hours","Anne Boleyn\n\nAlthough the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned to death. George Boleyn and the other accused men were executed on 17 May 1536. William Kingston, the Constable of the Tower, reported Anne seemed very happy and ready to be done with life. Henry commuted Anne's sentence from burning to beheading, and rather than have a queen beheaded with the common axe, he brought an expert swordsman from Saint-Omer in France, to perform the execution. On the morning of 19 May, Kingston wrote:","Anne Boleyn\n\nHer impending death may have caused her great sorrow for some time during her imprisonment. The poem \"Oh Death Rock Me Asleep\" is generally believed to have been authored by Anne and reveals that she may have hoped death would end her suffering.","Anne Boleyn\n\nShortly before dawn, she called Kingston to hear mass with her, and swore in his presence, on the eternal salvation of her soul, upon the Holy Sacraments, that she had never been unfaithful to the king. She ritually repeated this oath both immediately before and after receiving the sacrament of the Eucharist.","Anne Boleyn\n\nOn the morning of Friday 19 May, Anne Boleyn was executed within the Tower precincts, not upon the site of the execution memorial, but rather, according to historian Eric Ives, on a scaffold erected on the north side of the White Tower, in front of what is now the Waterloo Barracks. She wore a red petticoat under a loose, dark grey gown of damask trimmed in fur and a mantle of ermine. Accompanied by two female attendants, Anne made her final walk from the Queen's House to the scaffold and she showed a \"devilish spirit\" and looked \"as gay as if she was not going to die\". Anne climbed the scaffold and made a short speech to the crowd:","Anne Boleyn\n\nThis version of her speech is found in Foxe's, Actes and Monuments and an almost identical version in Ives (2005). In a 1,318 line poem, written in French, two weeks after Anne's death, Lancelot de Carle provides a moving account of her last words and their effect on the crowd:She gracefully addressed the people from the scaffold with a voice somewhat overcome by weakness, but which gathered strength as she went on. She begged her hearers to forgive her if she had not used them all with becoming gentleness, and asked for their prayers. It was needless, she said, to relate why she was there, but she prayed the Judge of all the world to have compassion on those who had condemned her, and she begged them to pray for the King, in whom she had always found great kindness, fear of God, and love of his subjects.","Anne Boleyn\n\nThe spectators could not refrain from tears.Lancelot de Carle, a secretary to the French Ambassador, Antoine de Castelnau, was in London in May 1536, and was an eyewitness to her trial and execution.John Guy contends that Crispin de Milherve, who was an eyewitness to Anne Boleyn's trial and execution, and Lancelot de Carle have been shown by French scholars to be the same person. The poem, Épistre Contenant le Procès Criminel Faict à l'Encontre de la Royne Anne Boullant d'Angleterre, (A Letter Containing the Criminal Charges Laid Against Queen Anne Boleyn of England), provides a detailed account of Anne's early life and the circumstances relating to her arrest, trial and execution. All the accounts are similar. It is thought that Anne avoided criticising Henry to save Elizabeth and her family from further consequences, but even under such extreme pressure Anne did not confess guilt, and indeed subtly implied her innocence, in her appeal to those who might \"meddle of my cause\".","Anne Boleyn\n\nDeath and burial","Anne Boleyn\n\nThe ermine mantle was removed and Anne lifted off her headdress, tucking her hair under a coif. After a brief farewell to her weeping ladies and a request for prayers, she kneeled down and one of her ladies tied a blindfold over her eyes. She knelt upright, in the French style of executions. Her final prayer consisted of her repeating continually, \"Jesu receive my soul; O Lord God have pity on my soul.\"","Anne Boleyn\n\nThe execution consisted of a single stroke. It was witnessed by Thomas Cromwell; Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk; the King's illegitimate son, Henry Fitzroy; the Lord Mayor of London, as well as aldermen, sheriffs, and representatives of the various craft guilds. Most of the King's Council were also present. Cranmer, who was at Lambeth Palace, was reported to have broken down in tears after telling Alexander Ales: \"She who has been the Queen of England on earth will today become a Queen in heaven.\" When the charges were first brought against Anne, Cranmer had expressed his astonishment to Henry and his belief that \"she should not be culpable.\" Still, Cranmer felt vulnerable because of his closeness to the queen, and so on the night before the execution, he declared Henry's marriage to Anne to have been void, like Catherine's before her. He made no serious attempt to save Anne's life, although some sources record that he had prepared her for death by hearing her last private confession of sins, in which she had stated her innocence before God.Schama, p.307.","Anne Boleyn\n\nOn the day of her death, a Scottish friend found Cranmer weeping uncontrollably in his London gardens, saying that he was sure that Anne had now gone to Heaven.","Anne Boleyn\n\nShe was then buried in an unmarked grave in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula. Her skeleton was identified during renovations of the chapel in 1876, in the reign of Queen Victoria, and Anne's resting place is now marked in the marble floor.","Anne Boleyn\n\nRecognition and legacy","Anne Boleyn\n\nNicholas Sander, a Catholic recusant born c. 1530, was committed to deposing Elizabeth I and re-establishing Catholicism in England. In his De Origine ac Progressu schismatis Anglicani (The Rise and Growth of the Anglican Schism), published in 1585, he was the first to write that Anne had six fingers on her right hand. Since physical deformities were generally interpreted as a sign of evil, it is unlikely that Anne Boleyn would have gained Henry's romantic attention had she had any. Upon exhumation in 1876, no abnormalities were discovered. Her frame was described as delicate, approximately 5'3\", with finely formed, tapering fingers.","Anne Boleyn\n\nAnne Boleyn was described by contemporaries as intelligent and gifted in musical arts and scholarly pursuits. She was also strong-willed and proud, and often quarrelled with Henry. Biographer Eric Ives evaluates the apparent contradictions in Anne's persona:","Anne Boleyn\n\nNo contemporary portraits of Anne Boleyn survive. A bust of her was cast on a commemorative medallion in 1534, believed to have been struck to celebrate her second pregnancy.","Anne Boleyn\n\nFollowing the coronation of her daughter as queen, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of John Foxe, who argued that Anne had saved England from the evils of Roman Catholicism and that God had provided proof of her innocence and virtue by making sure her daughter Elizabeth I ascended the throne. An example of Anne's direct influence in the reformed church is what Alexander Ales described to Queen Elizabeth as the \"evangelical bishops whom your holy mother appointed from among those scholars who favoured the purer doctrine\". Over the centuries, Anne has inspired or been mentioned in numerous artistic and cultural works. As a result, she has remained in the popular memory and has been called \"the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had.\"","Anne Boleyn\n\nLegends","Anne Boleyn\n\nMany legends and fantastic stories about Anne Boleyn have survived over the centuries. One is that she was secretly buried in Salle Church in Norfolk under a black slab near the tombs of her ancestors. Her body was said to have rested in an Essex church on its journey to Norfolk. Another is that her heart, at her request, was buried in Erwarton (Arwarton) Church, Suffolk by her uncle Sir Philip Parker.","Anne Boleyn\n\nIn 18th-century Sicily, the peasants of the village of Nicolosi believed that Anne Boleyn, for having made Henry VIII a heretic, was condemned to burn for eternity inside Mount Etna. This legend was often told for the benefit of foreign travellers.","Anne Boleyn\n\nA number of people have claimed to have seen Anne's ghost at Hever Castle, Blickling Hall, Salle Church, the Tower of London, and Marwell Hall. The most famous account of her reputed sighting has been described by paranormal researcher Hans Holzer. In 1864, Major General J.D. Dundas of the 60th Rifles regiment was quartered in the Tower of London. As he was looking out the window of his quarters, he noticed a guard below in the courtyard, in front of the lodgings where Anne had been imprisoned, behaving strangely. He appeared to challenge something, which to the General \"looked like a whitish, female figure sliding towards the soldier\". The guard charged through the form with his bayonet, then fainted. Only the General's testimony and corroboration at the court-martial saved the guard from a lengthy prison sentence for having fainted while on duty. In 1960, Canon W. S. Pakenham-Walsh, vicar of Sulgrave, Northamptonshire, reported having conversations with Anne.","Anne Boleyn\n\nIssue","Anne Boleyn\n\nAncestry"],"string":"[\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories. The monarch's title is \\\"King\\\" (male) or \\\"Queen\\\" (female). The current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic and representational duties. As the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is, by tradition, commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces. Though the ultimate formal executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch's royal prerogative, these powers may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament and, in practice, within the constraints of convention and precedent.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe British monarchy traces its origins from the petty kingdoms of early medieval Scotland and Anglo-Saxon England, which consolidated into the kingdoms of England and Scotland by the 10th century AD. In 1066, the last crowned Anglo-Saxon monarch, Harold II, was defeated and killed during the Norman conquest of England and the English monarchy passed to the Normans' victorious leader, William the Conqueror, and his descendants.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn the 13th century, Wales, as a principality, became a client state of the English kingdom, while Magna Carta began a process of reducing the English monarch's political powers.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nFrom 1603, when the Scottish monarch King James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The Act of Settlement 1701, which is still in force, excluded Roman Catholics, or those who marry Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the world's surface at its greatest extent in 1921.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn the 1920s, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the Union as the Irish Free State, and the Balfour Declaration recognised the evolution of the dominions of the empire into separate, self-governing countries within a Commonwealth of Nations. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, effectively bringing the empire to an end. George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the same person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. The terms British monarchy and British monarch are frequently still employed in reference to the shared individual and institution; however, each country is sovereign and independent of the others, and the monarch has a different, specific, and official national title and style for each realm.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nConstitutional role\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch (otherwise referred to as the Sovereign or \\\"His/Her Majesty\\\", abbreviated H.M.) is the Head of State. Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. God Save the Queen (or God Save the King) is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins and banknotes.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Monarch takes little direct part in Government. The decisions to exercise sovereign powers are delegated from the Monarch, either by statute or by convention, to Ministers or officers of the Crown, or other public bodies, exclusive of the Monarch personally. Thus the acts of state done in the name of the Crown, such as Crown Appointments, even if personally performed by the Monarch, such as the Queen's Speech and the State Opening of Parliament, depend upon decisions made elsewhere:\\n* Legislative power is exercised by the Queen-in-Parliament, by and with the advice and consent of Parliament, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. * Executive power is exercised by Her Majesty's Government, which comprises Ministers, primarily the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, which is technically a committee of the Privy Council. They have the direction of the Armed Forces of the Crown, the Civil Service and other Crown Servants such as the Diplomatic and Secret Services (the Queen receives certain foreign intelligence reports before the Prime Minister does\\\"In London, the revelations from [1989 Soviet defector Vladimir] Pasechnik were summarized into a quick note for the Joint Intelligence Committee.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe first recipient of such reports is always Her Majesty, The Queen. The second is the prime minister, who at the time was Margaret Thatcher|[Margaret] Thatcher.\\\" Hoffman, David E. (Emanuel), The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy (N.Y.: Doubleday, 1st ed. [1st printing?] (ISBN 978-0-385-52437-7) 2009), p. 336 (author contributing editor & formerly U.S. White House, diplomatic, & Jerusalem correspondent, Moscow bureau chief, & foreign news asst. managing editor for The Wash. Post).). * Judicial power is vested in the Judiciary, who by constitution and statute have judicial independence of the Government. * The Church of England, of which the Monarch is the head, has its own legislative, judicial and executive structures. * Powers independent of government are legally granted to other public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council, Royal Commission or otherwise.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Sovereign's role as a constitutional monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours. This role has been recognised since the 19th century. The constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the \\\"dignified part\\\" rather than the \\\"efficient part\\\" of government.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAppointment of the Prime Minister\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nWhenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister (who by convention appoints and may dismiss every other Minister of the Crown, and thereby constitutes and controls the government). In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the Sovereign must appoint an individual who commands the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of the party or coalition that has a majority in that House. The Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after \\\"kissing hands\\\" that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn a hung parliament where no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command the most support, though it would usually be the leader of the largest party. Since 1945, there have only been two hung parliaments. The first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilson's Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party. The second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives (the largest party) and Liberal Democrats (the third largest party) agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nDissolution of Parliament\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn 1950 the King's Private Secretary writing pseudonymously to The Times newspaper asserted a constitutional convention: according to the Lascelles Principles, if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse, and would do so under three conditions. When Prime Minister Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974, the Queen granted his request as Heath had already failed to form a coalition. The resulting general election gave Wilson a small majority. The monarch could in theory unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister, but a Prime Minister's term now comes to an end only by electoral defeat, death, or resignation. The last monarch to remove a Prime Minister was William IV, who dismissed Lord Melbourne in 1834. The Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 removed the monarch's authority to dissolve Parliament; the Act specifically retained the monarch's power of prorogation however, which is a regular feature of the parliamentary calendar.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nRoyal Prerogative\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nSome of the government's executive authority is theoretically and nominally vested in the Sovereign and is known as the royal prerogative. The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, exercising prerogative only on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament, often through the Prime Minister or Privy Council. In practice, prerogative powers are exercised only on the Prime Minister's advice – the Prime Minister, and not the Sovereign, has control. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister. No records of these audiences are taken and the proceedings remain fully confidential. The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the decisions of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet (providing they command the support of the House). In Bagehot's words: \\\"the Sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights – the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn.\\\"\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAlthough the Royal Prerogative is extensive and parliamentary approval is not formally required for its exercise, it is limited. Many Crown prerogatives have fallen out of use or have been permanently transferred to Parliament. For example, the monarch cannot impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, \\\"The Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers\\\", and Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Royal Prerogative includes the powers to appoint and dismiss ministers, regulate the civil service, issue passports, declare war, make peace, direct the actions of the military, and negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The monarch is commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces (the Royal Navy, the British Army, and the Royal Air Force), accredits British High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives diplomats from foreign states.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIt is the prerogative of the monarch to summon and prorogue Parliament. Each parliamentary session begins with the monarch's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament, during which the Sovereign reads the Speech from the throne in the Chamber of the House of Lords, outlining the Government's legislative agenda. Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins, and formally concludes the session. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term, and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Commons. A general election is normally held five years after the previous one under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, but can be held sooner if the Prime Minister loses a motion of confidence, or if two-thirds of the members of the House of Commons vote to hold an early election.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nBefore a bill passed by the legislative Houses can become law, the royal assent (the monarch's approval) is required. In theory, assent can either be granted (making the bill law) or withheld (vetoing the bill), but since 1707 assent has always been granted.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe monarch has a similar relationship with the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament, and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the National Assembly for Wales. In Scottish matters, the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government. However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, in Welsh matters the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The Sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly, if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Sovereign is deemed the \\\"fount of justice\\\"; although the Sovereign does not personally rule in judicial cases, judicial functions are performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on the monarch's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown. The common law holds that the Sovereign \\\"can do no wrong\\\"; the monarch cannot be prosecuted for criminal offences. The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government), but not lawsuits against the monarch personally. The Sovereign exercises the \\\"prerogative of mercy\\\", which is used to pardon convicted offenders or reduce sentences.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe monarch is the \\\"fount of honour\\\", the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. The Crown creates all peerages, appoints members of the orders of chivalry, grants knighthoods and awards other honours. Although peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the Prime Minister, some honours are within the personal gift of the Sovereign, and are not granted on ministerial advice. The monarch alone appoints members of the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of Merit.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nEnglish monarchy\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nFollowing Viking raids and settlement in the ninth century, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex, achieved dominance over western Mercia, and assumed the title \\\"King of the English\\\". His grandson Æthelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to the present borders of England, though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation. William, Duke of Normandy's conquest of England in 1066 was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in the Anglo-Saxon period, while the Feudal System continued to develop.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nWilliam I was succeeded by two of his sons: William II, then Henry I. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry's death in 1135, one of William I's grandsons, Stephen, laid claim to the throne and took power with the support of most of the barons. Matilda challenged his reign; as a result, England descended into a period of disorder known as the Anarchy. Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power, but agreed to a compromise under which Matilda's son Henry would succeed him. Henry accordingly became the first Angevin king of England and the first monarch of the Plantagenet dynasty as Henry II in 1154.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons, the future monarchs Richard I and John. Nevertheless, Henry managed to expand his kingdom, forming what is retrospectively known as the Angevin Empire. Upon Henry's death, his elder son Richard succeeded to the throne; he was absent from England for most of his reign, as he left to fight in the Crusades. He was killed besieging a castle, and John succeeded him.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nJohn's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, particularly over the limits of royal power. In 1215, the barons coerced the king into issuing Magna Carta (Latin for \\\"Great Charter\\\") to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon afterwards, further disagreements plunged England into a civil war known as the First Barons' War. The war came to an abrupt end after John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine-year-old son Henry III. Later in Henry's reign, Simon de Montfort led the barons in another rebellion, beginning the Second Barons' War. The war ended in a clear royalist victory and in the death of many rebels, but not before the king had agreed to summon a parliament in 1265.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe next monarch, Edward I (\\\"Edward Longshanks\\\"), was far more successful in maintaining royal power and responsible for the conquest of Wales. He attempted to establish English domination of Scotland. However, gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, Edward II, who also faced conflict with the nobility. In 1311, Edward II was forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of baronial \\\"ordainers\\\"; however, military victories helped him regain control in 1322. Nevertheless, in 1327, Edward was deposed and then murdered by his wife Isabella. His 14-year-old son became Edward III. Edward III claimed the French Crown, setting off the Hundred Years' War between England and France.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nHis campaigns conquered much French territory, but by 1374, all the gains had been lost. Edward's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses. In 1377, Edward III died, leaving the Crown to his 10-year-old grandson Richard II. Like many of his predecessors, Richard II conflicted with the nobles by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, while he was campaigning in Ireland, his cousin Henry Bolingbroke seized power. Richard was deposed, imprisoned, and eventually murdered, probably by starvation, and Henry became king as Henry IV.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nHenry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster; hence, his dynasty was known as the House of Lancaster. For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son, the future Henry V. Henry V's own reign, which began in 1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years' War in France. Although he was victorious, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son Henry VI on the throne and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe unpopularity of Henry VI's counsellors and his belligerent consort, Margaret of Anjou, as well as his own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York, so called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was Richard, Duke of York. Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460, his eldest son, Edward IV, led the Yorkists to victory in 1461. The Wars of the Roses, nevertheless, continued intermittently during his reign and those of his son Edward V and brother Richard III. Edward V disappeared, presumably murdered by Richard. Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch led by Henry Tudor, in 1485, when Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nNow King Henry VII, he neutralised the remaining Yorkist forces, partly by marrying Elizabeth of York, a Yorkist heir. Through skill and ability, Henry re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end. The reign of the second Tudor king, Henry VIII, was one of great political change. Religious upheaval and disputes with the Pope led the monarch to break from the Roman Catholic Church and to establish the Church of England (the Anglican Church).\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nWales – which had been conquered centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion – was annexed to England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Henry VIII's son and successor, the young Edward VI, continued with further religious reforms, but his early death in 1553 precipitated a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half-sister Mary to succeed, and therefore drew up a will designating Lady Jane Grey as his heiress. Jane's reign, however, lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her and declared herself the lawful sovereign. Mary I married Philip of Spain, who was declared king and co-ruler, pursued disastrous wars in France, and attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism, burning Protestants at the stake as heretics in the process. Upon her death in 1558, the pair were succeeded by her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth I. England returned to Protestantism and continued its growth into a major world power by building its navy and exploring the New World.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nScottish monarchy\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of the Roman empire from Britain in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts in the north east, the Britons in the south, including the Kingdom of Strathclyde, and the Gaels or Scotti (who would later give their name to Scotland), of the Irish petty kingdom of Dál Riata in the west. Kenneth MacAlpin is traditionally viewed as the first king of a united Scotland (known as Scotia to writers in Latin, or Alba to the Scots). The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were absorbed.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nEarly Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead the custom of tanistry was followed, where the monarchy alternated between different branches of the House of Alpin. As a result, however, the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. From 942 to 1005, seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle. In 1005, Malcolm II ascended the throne having killed many rivals. He continued to ruthlessly eliminate opposition, and when he died in 1034 he was succeeded by his grandson, Duncan I, instead of a cousin, as had been usual. In 1040, Duncan suffered defeat in battle at the hands of Macbeth, who was killed himself in 1057 by Duncan's son Malcolm. The following year, after killing Macbeth's stepson Lulach, Malcolm ascended the throne as Malcolm III.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nWith a further series of battles and deposings, five of Malcolm's sons as well as one of his brothers successively became king. Eventually, the Crown came to his youngest son, David. David was succeeded by his grandsons Malcolm IV, and then by William the Lion, the longest-reigning King of Scots before the Union of the Crowns. William participated in a rebellion against King Henry II of England but when the rebellion failed, William was captured by the English. In exchange for his release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades. William died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II. Alexander II, as well as his successor Alexander III, attempted to take over the Western Isles, which were still under the overlordship of Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing Treaty of Perth recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAlexander III's unexpected death in a riding accident in 1286 precipitated a major succession crisis. Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England for help in determining who was the rightful heir. Edward chose Alexander's three-year-old Norwegian granddaughter, Margaret. On her way to Scotland in 1290, however, Margaret died at sea, and Edward was again asked to adjudicate between 13 rival claimants to the throne. A court was set up and after two years of deliberation, it pronounced John Balliol to be king. However, Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal, and tried to exert influence over Scotland. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England, Edward I invaded. During the first ten years of the ensuing Wars of Scottish Independence, Scotland had no monarch, until Robert the Bruce declared himself king in 1306.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nRobert's efforts to control Scotland culminated in success, and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later, Robert died and was succeeded by his five-year-old son, David II. On the pretext of restoring John Balliol's rightful heir, Edward Balliol, the English again invaded in 1332. During the next four years, Balliol was crowned, deposed, restored, deposed, restored, and deposed until he eventually settled in England, and David remained king for the next 35 years.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nDavid II died childless in 1371 and was succeeded by his nephew Robert II of the House of Stuart. The reigns of both Robert II and his successor, Robert III, were marked by a general decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, regents had to rule the country; the monarch, Robert III's son James I, had been taken captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to Scotland in 1424; to restore his authority, he used ruthless measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. He was assassinated by a group of nobles. James II continued his father's policies by subduing influential noblemen but he was killed in an accident at the age of thirty, and a council of regents again assumed power. James III was defeated in a battle against rebellious Scottish earls in 1488, leading to another boy-king: James IV.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn 1513 James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met with disaster at Flodden Field; the King, many senior noblemen, and hundreds of soldiers were killed. As his son and successor, James V, was an infant, the government was again taken over by regents. James V led another disastrous war with the English in 1542, and his death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six-day-old daughter, Mary. Once again, a regency was established.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nMary, a Roman Catholic, reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. As a result of the efforts of reformers such as John Knox, a Protestant ascendancy was established. Mary caused alarm by marrying her Catholic cousin, Lord Darnley, in 1565. After Lord Darnley's assassination in 1567, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of Darnley's murder. The nobility rebelled against the Queen, forcing her to abdicate. She fled to England, and the Crown went to her infant son James VI, who was brought up as a Protestant. Mary was imprisoned and later executed by the English Queen Elizabeth I.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nPersonal union and republican phase\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nElizabeth's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England. Since she had no children, she was succeeded by the Scottish monarch James VI, who was the great-grandson of Henry VIII's older sister and hence Elizabeth's first cousin twice removed. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the \\\"Union of the Crowns\\\". Although England and Scotland were in personal union under one monarch – James I became the first monarch to style himself \\\"King of Great Britain and Ireland\\\" in 1604 – they remained separate kingdoms. James I's successor, Charles I, experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. He provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to 1640, unilaterally levying taxes and adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive to the Scottish Presbyterians and the English Puritans). His attempt to enforce Anglicanism led to organised rebellion in Scotland (the \\\"Bishops' Wars\\\") and ignited the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In 1642, the conflict between the King and English Parliament reached its climax and the English Civil War began.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Civil War culminated in the execution of the king in 1649, the overthrow of the English monarchy, and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England. Charles I's son, Charles II, was proclaimed King of Great Britain in Scotland, but he was forced to flee abroad after he invaded England and was defeated at the Battle of Worcester. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself Lord Protector (effectively becoming a military dictator, but refusing the title of king). Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing; he soon resigned. The lack of clear leadership led to civil and military unrest, and for a popular desire to restore the monarchy. In 1660, the monarchy was restored and Charles II returned to Britain.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nCharles II's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children, and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. A parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line of succession arose; the \\\"Petitioners\\\", who supported exclusion, became the Whig Party, whereas the \\\"Abhorrers\\\", who opposed exclusion, became the Tory Party. The Exclusion Bill failed; on several occasions, Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled without a Parliament until his death in 1685. When James succeeded Charles, he pursued a policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects. Many opposed James's decisions to maintain a large standing army, to appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices, and to imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his policies. As a result, a group of Protestants known as the Immortal Seven invited James II's daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange to depose the king. William obliged, arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great public support.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nFaced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials, James fled the realm and William and Mary (rather than James II's Catholic son) were declared joint Sovereigns of England, Scotland and Ireland.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nJames's overthrow, known as the Glorious Revolution, was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power. The Bill of Rights 1689 affirmed parliamentary supremacy, and declared that the English people held certain rights, including the freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of Rights required future monarchs to be Protestants, and provided that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary's sister Anne would inherit the Crown. Mary died childless in 1694, leaving William as the sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of Anne's children had died, leaving her as the only individual left in the line of succession. Parliament was afraid that the former James II or his supporters, known as Jacobites, might attempt to reclaim the throne. Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701, which excluded James and his Catholic relations from the succession and made William's nearest Protestant relations, the family of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, next in line to the throne after his sister-in-law Anne. Soon after the passage of the Act, William III died, leaving the Crown to Anne.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAfter the 1707 Acts of Union\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAfter Anne's accession, the problem of the succession re-emerged. The Scottish Parliament, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia's family as the next heirs, passed the Act of Security 1704, threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705, threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by restricting trade. The Scottish and English parliaments negotiated the Acts of Union 1707, under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with succession under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by her second cousin, and Sophia's son, George I, Elector of Hanover, who consolidated his position by defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719. The new monarch was less active in government than many of his British predecessors, but retained control over his German kingdoms, with which Britain was now in personal union. Power shifted towards George's ministers, especially to Sir Robert Walpole, who is often considered the first British prime minister, although the title was not then in use. The next monarch, George II, witnessed the final end of the Jacobite threat in 1746, when the Catholic Stuarts were completely defeated. During the long reign of his grandson, George III, Britain's American colonies were lost, the former colonies having formed the United States of America, but British influence elsewhere in the world continued to grow, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created by the Acts of Union 1800.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nFrom 1811 to 1820, George III suffered a severe bout of what is now believed to be porphyria, an illness rendering him incapable of ruling. His son, the future George IV, ruled in his stead as Prince Regent. During the Regency and his own reign, the power of the monarchy declined, and by the time of his successor, William IV, the monarch was no longer able to effectively interfere with parliamentary power. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, and appointed a Tory, Sir Robert Peel. In the ensuing elections, however, Peel lost. The king had no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. During William IV's reign, the Reform Act 1832, which reformed parliamentary representation, was passed. Together with others passed later in the century, the Act led to an expansion of the electoral franchise and the rise of the House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV's successor, Victoria. As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover, which only permitted succession in the male line, so the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The Victorian era was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over India, Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. However, her reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement, due in part to Victoria's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nVictoria's son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1901. In 1917, the next monarch, George V, changed \\\"Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\\\" to \\\"Windsor\\\" in response to the anti-German sympathies aroused by the First World War. George V's reign was marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom, and the Irish Free State, an independent nation, in 1922.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nShared monarchy\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nDuring the twentieth century, the Commonwealth of Nations evolved from the British Empire. Prior to 1926, the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively; the Dominions and Crown colonies were subordinate to the United Kingdom. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave complete self-government to the Dominions, effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion. The concept was solidified by the Statute of Westminster 1931, which has been likened to \\\"a treaty among the Commonwealth countries\\\".\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it is often still referred to as \\\"British\\\" for legal and historical reasons and for convenience. The monarch became separately monarch of the United Kingdom, monarch of Canada, monarch of Australia, and so forth. The independent states within the Commonwealth would share the same monarch in a relationship likened to a personal union.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nGeorge V's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of Edward VIII, who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry the divorced American Wallis Simpson, even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcées. Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to abdicate; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth countries granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were excluded from the line of succession, and the Crown went to his brother, George VI. George served as a rallying figure for the British people during World War II, making morale-boosting visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and to areas bombed by Nazi Germany. In June 1948 George VI relinquished the title Emperor of India, although remaining head of state of the Dominion of India.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAt first, every member of the Commonwealth retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, but when the Dominion of India became a republic in 1950, it would no longer share in a common monarchy. Instead, the British monarch was acknowledged as \\\"Head of the Commonwealth\\\" in all Commonwealth member states, whether they were realms or republics. The position is purely ceremonial, and is not inherited by the British monarch as of right but is vested in an individual chosen by the Commonwealth heads of government. Member states of the Commonwealth that share the same person as monarch are known as Commonwealth realms.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nMonarchy in Ireland\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn 1155 the only English pope, Pope Adrian IV, authorised King Henry II of England to take possession of Ireland as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship. The pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church into line with Rome, despite this process already underway in Ireland by 1155. An all-island kingship of Ireland had been created in 854 by Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid. His last successor was Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, who had become King of Ireland in early 1166, and exiled Diarmait Mac Murchada, King of Leinster. Diarmait asked Henry II for help, gaining a group of Anglo-Norman aristocrats and adventurers, led by Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, to help him regain his throne. Diarmait and his Anglo-Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again. De Clare married Diarmait's daughter, and when Diarmait died in 1171, de Clare became King of Leinster. Henry was afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman kingdom, so he took advantage of the papal bull and invaded, forcing de Clare and the other Anglo-Norman aristocrats in Ireland and the major Irish kings and lords to recognise him as their overlord.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nEnglish lords came close to colonising the entire island, but a Gaelic resurgence from the 1260s resulted in the island divided between Gaelic-Irish and Anglo-Irish lords by 1400. Many of the latter became completely Gaelicised, and did not recognise England's kings except perhaps nominally. Some, such as Manus O'Donnell and Conn O'Neill, 1st Earl of Tyrone, were kings themselves.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nBy 1541, King Henry VIII of England had broken with the Church of Rome and declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England. The pope's grant of Ireland to the English monarch became invalid, so Henry summoned a meeting of the Irish Parliament to change his title from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland. However much of the island was beyond English control, resulting in the extended Tudor conquest of Ireland that only made the Kingdom of Ireland a reality in 1603, at the conclusion of the Nine Years' War (Ireland). Nevertheless, Ireland retained its own parliament, becoming an independent state in 1642-1649 (Confederate Ireland), and again in 1688-91. Only warfare such as the Williamite War in Ireland and subsequent occupation enabled the English crown from 1692, and successive British states from 1707, to retain the country.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn 1800, as a result of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Act of Union merged the kingdom of Great Britain and the kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The whole island of Ireland continued to be a part of the United Kingdom until 1922, when what is now the Republic of Ireland won independence as the Irish Free State, a separate Dominion within the Commonwealth. The Irish Free State was renamed Éire (or \\\"Ireland\\\") in 1937, and in 1949 declared itself a republic, left the Commonwealth and severed all ties with the monarchy. Northern Ireland remained within the Union. In 1927, the United Kingdom changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, while the monarch's style for the next twenty years became \\\"of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India\\\".\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nModern status\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIn the 1990s, Republicanism in the United Kingdom grew, partly on account of negative publicity associated with the Royal Family (for instance, immediately following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales). However, recent polls show that around 70–80% of the British public support the continuation of the monarchy.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nReligious role\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe sovereign is the Supreme Governor of the established Church of England. Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the monarch, on the advice of the Prime Minister, who chooses the appointee from a list of nominees prepared by a Church Commission. The Crown's role in the Church of England is titular; the most senior clergyman, the Archbishop of Canterbury, is the spiritual leader of the Church and of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The monarch takes an oath to preserve Church of Scotland and he or she holds the power to appoint the Lord High Commissioner to the Church's General Assembly, but otherwise plays no part in its governance, and enjoys no powers over it. The Sovereign plays no formal role in the disestablished Church in Wales or Church of Ireland.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nSuccession\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the laws governing succession to the shared throne requires the unanimous consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes such as the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Acts of Union 1707. The rules of succession may only be changed by an Act of Parliament; it is not possible for an individual to renounce his or her right of succession. The Act of Settlement restricts the succession to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover (1630–1714), a granddaughter of James I.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nUpon the death of the Sovereign, his or her heir immediately and automatically succeeds (hence the phrase \\\"The king is dead, long live the king!\\\"), and the accession of the sovereign is publicly proclaimed by an Accession Council that meets at St James's Palace. The monarch is crowned in Westminster Abbey, normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury. A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign; indeed, the ceremony usually takes place many months after accession to allow sufficient time for its preparation and for a period of mourning.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nAfter an individual ascends the throne, he or she reigns until death. The only voluntary abdication, that of Edward VIII, had to be authorised by a special Act of Parliament, His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was James VII and II, who fled into exile in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nRestrictions by gender and religion\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nSuccession was largely governed by male-preference cognatic primogeniture, under which sons inherit before daughters, and elder children inherit before younger ones of the same gender. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Cameron, announced at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 that all 16 Commonwealth realms, including the United Kingdom, had agreed to abolish the gender-preference rule for anyone born after the date of the meeting, 28 October 2011. They also agreed that future monarchs would no longer be prohibited from marrying a Roman Catholic – a law which dated from the Act of Settlement 1701. However, since the monarch is also the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, the law which prohibits a Roman Catholic from acceding to the throne remains. The necessary UK legislation making the changes received the royal assent on 25 April 2013 and was brought into force in March 2015 after the equivalent legislation was approved in all the other Commonwealth realms.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nOnly individuals who are Protestants may inherit the Crown. Roman Catholics are prohibited from succeeding. An individual thus disabled from inheriting the Crown is deemed \\\"naturally dead\\\" for succession purposes, and the disqualification does not extend to the individual's legitimate descendants.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nRegency\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Regency Acts allow for regencies in the event of a monarch who is a minor or who is physically or mentally incapacitated. When a regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line of succession automatically becomes regent, unless they themselves are a minor or incapacitated. Special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II by the Regency Act 1953, which stated that the Duke of Edinburgh (the Queen's husband) could act as regent in these circumstances.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nDuring a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom, the sovereign may temporarily delegate some of his or her functions to Counsellors of State, the monarch's spouse and the first four adults in the line of succession. The present Counsellors of State are: The Duke of Edinburgh, The Prince of Wales, The Duke of Cambridge, Prince Harry and The Duke of York.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nFinances\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nUntil 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, which included the profits of the Crown Estate (the royal property portfolio). King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List, and this arrangement persisted until 2012. An annual Property Services Grant-in-aid paid for the upkeep of the royal residences, and an annual Royal Travel Grant-in-Aid paid for travel. The Civil List covered most expenses, including those for staffing, state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment. Its size was fixed by Parliament every 10 years; any money saved was carried forward to the next 10-year period. From 2012 until 2020, the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid are to be replaced with a single Sovereign Grant, which will be set at 15% of the revenues generated by the Crown Estate.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Crown Estate is one of the largest property owners in the United Kingdom, with holdings of £7.3 billion in 2011. It is held in trust, and cannot be sold or owned by the Sovereign in a private capacity. In modern times, the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate to the Treasury have exceeded the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid. For example, the Crown Estate produced £200 million in the financial year 2007–8, whereas reported parliamentary funding for the monarch was £40 million during the same period.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nLike the Crown Estate, the land and assets of the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued at £383 million in 2011, are held in trust. The revenues of the Duchy form part of the Privy Purse, and are used for expenses not borne by the parliamentary grants. The Duchy of Cornwall is a similar estate held in trust to meet the expenses of the monarch's eldest son. The Royal Collection, which includes artworks and the Crown Jewels, is not owned by the Sovereign personally and is held in trust, as are the occupied palaces in the United Kingdom such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe sovereign is subject to indirect taxes such as value-added tax, and since 1993 the Queen has paid income tax and capital gains tax on personal income. Parliamentary grants to the Sovereign are not treated as income as they are solely for official expenditure. Republicans estimate that the real cost of the monarchy, including security and potential income not claimed by the state, such as profits from the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall and rent of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, is £334 million a year.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nEstimates of the Queen's wealth vary, depending on whether assets owned by her personally or held in trust for the nation are included. Forbes magazine estimated her wealth at US$450 million in 2010, but no official figure is available. In 1993, the Lord Chamberlain said estimates of £100 million were \\\"grossly overstated\\\". Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth in 1971 at £2 million (the equivalent of about £ today).\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nResidences\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Sovereign's official residence in London is Buckingham Palace. It is the site of most state banquets, investitures, royal christenings and other ceremonies. Another official residence is Windsor Castle, the largest occupied castle in the world, which is used principally at weekends, Easter and during Royal Ascot, an annual race meeting that is part of the social calendar. The Sovereign's official residence in Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh. The monarch stays at Holyrood for at least one week each year, and when visiting Scotland on state occasions.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nHistorically, the Palace of Westminster and the Tower of London were the main residences of the English Sovereign until Henry VIII acquired the Palace of Whitehall. Whitehall was destroyed by fire in 1698, leading to a shift to St James's Palace. Although replaced as the monarch's primary London residence by Buckingham Palace in 1837, St James's is still the senior palace and remains the ceremonial Royal residence. For example, foreign ambassadors are accredited to the Court of St James's, and the Palace is the site of the meeting of the Accession Council. It is also used by other members of the Royal Family.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nOther residences include Clarence House and Kensington Palace. The palaces belong to the Crown; they are held in trust for future rulers, and cannot be sold by the monarch. Sandringham House in Norfolk and Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire are privately owned by the Queen.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nStyle\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe present Sovereign's full style and title is \\\"Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith\\\". The title \\\"Head of the Commonwealth\\\" is held by the Queen personally, and is not vested in the British Crown. Pope Leo X first granted the title \\\"Defender of the Faith\\\" to King Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the Protestant Reformation, particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments. After Henry broke from the Roman Church, Pope Paul III revoked the grant, but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Sovereign is known as \\\"His Majesty\\\" or \\\"Her Majesty\\\". The form \\\"Britannic Majesty\\\" appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the British monarch from foreign rulers. The monarch chooses his or her regnal name, not necessarily his or her first name – King George VI, King Edward VII and Queen Victoria did not use their first names.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nIf only one monarch has used a particular name, no ordinal is used; for example, Queen Victoria is not known as \\\"Victoria I\\\", and ordinals are not used for English monarchs who reigned before the Norman conquest of England. The question of whether numbering for British monarchs is based on previous English or Scottish monarchs was raised in 1953 when Scottish nationalists challenged the Queen's use of \\\"Elizabeth II\\\", on the grounds that there had never been an \\\"Elizabeth I\\\" in Scotland. In MacCormick v Lord Advocate, the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that the Queen's title was a matter of her own choice and prerogative. The Home Secretary told the House of Commons that monarchs since the Acts of Union had consistently used the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals, which in the applicable four cases has been the English ordinal. The Prime Minister confirmed this practice, but noted that \\\"neither The Queen nor her advisers could seek to bind their successors\\\". Future monarchs will apply this policy.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nTraditionally, the signature of the monarch includes their regnal name but not ordinal, followed by the letter R, which stands for rex or regina (Latin for king and queen, respectively). The present monarch's signature is \\\"Elizabeth R\\\". From 1877 until 1948 reigning monarchs added the letter I to their signatures, for imperator or imperatrix (emperor or empress in Latin), from their status as Emperor or Empress of India. For example, Queen Victoria signed as \\\"Victoria RI\\\" from 1877.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nArms\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom are \\\"Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or [for England]; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules [for Scotland]; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent [for Ireland]\\\". The supporters are the Lion and the Unicorn; the motto is \\\"Dieu et mon droit\\\" (French: \\\"God and my Right\\\"). Surrounding the shield is a representation of a Garter bearing the motto of the Chivalric order of the same name; \\\"Honi soit qui mal y pense\\\". (Old French: \\\"Shame be to him who thinks evil of it\\\"). In Scotland, the monarch uses an alternative form of the arms in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland, II England, and III Ireland. The mottoes are \\\"In Defens\\\" (an abbreviated form of the Scots \\\"In My Defens God Me Defend\\\") and the motto of the Order of the Thistle; \\\"Nemo me impune lacessit\\\". (Latin: \\\"No-one provokes me with impunity\\\"); the supporters are the unicorn and lion, who support both the escutcheon and lances, from which fly the flags of Scotland and England.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nThe monarch's official flag in the United Kingdom is the Royal Standard, which depicts the Royal Arms. It is flown only from buildings, vessels and vehicles in which the Sovereign is present. The Royal Standard is never flown at half-mast because there is always a sovereign: when one dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly.\",\n \"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\\n\\nWhen the monarch is not in residence, the Union Flag is flown at Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle and Sandringham House, whereas in Scotland the Royal Standard of Scotland is flown at Holyrood Palace and Balmoral Castle.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine of Aragon (Castilian: Catalina; also spelled Katherine, 16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536) was the Queen of England from June 1509 until May 1533 as the first wife of King Henry VIII; she was previously Princess of Wales as the wife of his elder brother Arthur.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nThe daughter of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, Catherine was three years old when she was betrothed to Prince Arthur, heir apparent to the English throne. They married in 1501, and Arthur died five months later. In 1507, she held the position of ambassador for the Spanish Court in England, becoming the first female ambassador in European history. Catherine subsequently married Arthur's younger brother, the recently succeeded Henry VIII, in 1509. For six months in 1513, she served as regent of England while Henry VIII was in France. During that time the English won the Battle of Flodden, an event in which Catherine played an important part.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nBy 1525, Henry VIII was infatuated with Anne Boleyn and dissatisfied that his marriage to Catherine had produced no surviving sons, leaving their daughter, the future Mary I of England, as heiress presumptive at a time when there was no established precedent for a woman on the throne. He sought to have their marriage annulled, setting in motion a chain of events that led to England's schism with the Catholic Church. When Pope Clement VII refused to annul the marriage, Henry defied him by assuming supremacy over religious matters. In 1533 their marriage was consequently declared invalid and Henry married Anne on the judgement of clergy in England, without reference to the Pope. Catherine refused to accept Henry as Supreme Head of the Church in England and considered herself the King's rightful wife and queen, attracting much popular sympathy. Despite this, she was acknowledged only as Dowager Princess of Wales by Henry. After being banished from court, she lived out the remainder of her life at Kimbolton Castle, and died there on 7 January 1536.\\nCatherine's English subjects held her in high esteem, and her death set off tremendous mourning among the English people.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nThe controversial book The Education of Christian Women by Juan Luis Vives, which claimed women have the right to an education, was commissioned by and dedicated to her. Such was Catherine's impression on people that even her enemy, Thomas Cromwell, said of her, \\\"If not for her sex, she could have defied all the heroes of History.\\\" She successfully appealed for the lives of the rebels involved in the Evil May Day, for the sake of their families. Catherine also won widespread admiration by starting an extensive programme for the relief of the poor. She was a patron of Renaissance humanism, and a friend of the great scholars Erasmus of Rotterdam and Thomas More.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine was born at the Archbishop's Palace in Alcalá de Henares near Madrid, on the night of 16 December 1485. She was the youngest surviving child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. Catherine was quite short in stature with long red hair, wide blue eyes, a round face, and a fair complexion. She was descended, on her maternal side, from the English royal house; her great-grandmother Catherine of Lancaster, after whom she was named, and her great-great-grandmother Philippa of Lancaster were both daughters of John of Gaunt and granddaughters of Edward III of England. Consequently, she was third cousin of her father-in-law, Henry VII of England, and fourth cousin of her mother-in-law Elizabeth of York.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine was educated by a tutor, Alessandro Geraldini, who was a clerk in Holy Orders. She studied arithmetic, canon and civil law, classical literature, genealogy and heraldry, history, philosophy, religion, and theology. She had a strong religious upbringing and developed her Roman Catholic faith that would play a major role in later life. She learned to speak, read and write in Spanish and Latin, and spoke French and Greek. She was also taught domestic skills, such as cooking, dancing, drawing, embroidery, good manners, lace-making, music, needlepoint, sewing, spinning, and weaving. The great scholar Erasmus later said that Catherine \\\"loved good literature which she had studied with success since childhood\\\".\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nAt an early age, Catherine was considered a suitable wife for Arthur, Prince of Wales, heir apparent to the English throne, due to the English ancestry she inherited from her mother. By means of her mother, Catherine had a stronger legitimate claim to the English throne than King Henry VII himself through the first two wives of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster: Blanche of Lancaster and Constance of Castile. In contrast, Henry VII was the descendant of Gaunt's third marriage to Katherine Swynford, whose children were born out of wedlock and only legitimised after the death of Constance and the marriage of John to Katherine. The children of John and Katherine, while legitimised, were barred from inheriting the English throne, a stricture that was ignored in later generations. Because of Henry's descent through illegitimate children barred from succession to the English throne, the Tudor monarchy was not accepted by all European kingdoms.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nAt the time, the House of Trastámara was the most prestigious in Europe, due to the rule of the Catholic Monarchs, so the alliance of Catherine and Arthur validated the House of Tudor in the eyes of European royalty and strengthened the Tudor claim to the English throne via Catherine of Aragon's ancestry. It would have given a male heir an indisputable claim to the throne. The two were married by proxy on 19 May 1499 and corresponded in Latin until Arthur turned fifteen, when it was decided that they were old enough to be married.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nWhen Catherine of Aragon travelled to London, she brought a group of her African attendants with her, including one identified as the trumpeter John Blanke. They are the first Africans recorded to have arrived in London at the time, and were considered luxury servants. They caused a great impression about the princess and the power of her family.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nAs wife and widow of Arthur\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nThe couple met on 4 November 1501 at Dogmersfield in Hampshire. Little is known about their first impressions of each other, but Arthur did write to his parents-in-law that he would be \\\"a true and loving husband\\\" and told his parents that he was immensely happy to \\\"behold the face of his lovely bride\\\". The couple had corresponded in Latin, but found that they could not understand each other, since they had learned different pronunciations. Ten days later, on 14 November 1501, they were married at Old St. Paul's Cathedral. A dowry of 200,000 crowns had been agreed, and half was paid shortly after the marriage.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nOnce married, Arthur was sent to Ludlow Castle on the borders of Wales to preside over the Council of Wales and the Marches, as was his duty as Prince of Wales, and his bride accompanied him. The couple stayed at Castle Lodge, Ludlow. A few months later, they both became ill, possibly with the sweating sickness which was sweeping the area. Arthur died on 2 April 1502; Catherine recovered to find herself a widow.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nAt this point, Henry VII faced the challenge of avoiding the obligation to return her 200,000 ducat dowry, half of which he had not yet received, to her father, as required by her marriage contract should she return home. Following the death of his queen, Elizabeth of York, in February 1503, Henry VII initially considered marrying Catherine himself, but the opposition of her father and potential questions over the legitimacy of the couple's issue put paid to the idea. To settle the matter, it was agreed that Catherine would marry Henry VII's second son, Henry, Duke of York, who was five years younger than she was. The death of Catherine's mother, however, meant that her \\\"value\\\" in the marriage market decreased. Castile was a much larger kingdom than Aragon, and it was inherited by Catherine's mentally unstable elder sister, Joanna. Ostensibly, the marriage was delayed until Henry was old enough, but Ferdinand II procrastinated so much over payment of the remainder of Catherine's dowry that it became doubtful that the marriage would take place. She lived as a virtual prisoner at Durham House in London.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nSome of the letters she wrote to her father complaining of her treatment have survived. In one of these letters she tells him that \\\"I choose what I believe, and say nothing. For I am not as simple as I may seem.\\\" She had little money and struggled to cope, as she had to support her ladies-in-waiting as well as herself. In 1507 she served as the Spanish ambassador to England, the first female ambassador in European history. While Henry VII and his councillors expected her to be easily manipulated, Catherine went on to prove them wrong.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nMarriage to Arthur's brother depended on the Pope granting a dispensation because canon law forbade men to marry their brother's widow (Lev. 18:16 ). Catherine testified that her marriage to Arthur was never consummated as, also according to canon law, a marriage was not valid until consummated.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nQueen of England (1509–1533)\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nWedding\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine's wedding took place on 11 June 1509, seven years after Prince Arthur's death. She married Henry VIII, who had only just acceded to the throne, in a private ceremony in the church of the Observant Friars outside Greenwich Palace. She was 23 years of age. The king was just days short of his 18th birthday.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCoronation\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nOn Saturday 23 June 1509, the traditional eve-of-coronation procession to Westminster was greeted by a large and enthusiastic crowd. As was the custom, the couple spent the night before their coronation at the Tower of London. On Midsummer's Day, Sunday, 1509, Henry VIII and Catherine were anointed and crowned together by the Archbishop of Canterbury at a lavish ceremony at Westminster Abbey. The coronation was followed by a banquet in Westminster Hall. Many new Knights of the Bath were created in honour of the coronation.\\nIn that month that followed, many social occasions presented the new Queen to the English public. She made a fine impression and was well received by the people of England.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nPregnancies and children\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine was pregnant six times altogether: \\n*In August 1509, two months after the wedding, Catherine's first pregnancy was announced. On 31 January 1510 she gave birth prematurely to a stillborn girl. *In May 1510, four months after the loss of her first child, Catherine announced her second pregnancy. A son, Henry, Duke of Cornwall, was born on 1 January 1511. In his honour, guns were fired from the Tower of London and the city bells were rung, beacons were lit and free wine was distributed to all the population. Five days after his birth, on 6 January 1511, the prince was christened at Richmond Palace, his godparents being the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Earl of Surrey and the Countess of Devon. On 22 February 1511, after only 52 days of life, the young prince died suddenly. It was said that he died of an intestinal complaint. *By early 1513, Catherine was pregnant again. On 30 June 1513, Catherine was left as regent in England when Henry VIII went to fight in France. In November 1513, she went into labour prematurely and gave birth to a son, the second Henry, Duke of Cornwall.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nThe child died shortly after birth and was buried in Westminster Abbey. *In June 1514, Catherine announced her fourth pregnancy. On 8 January 1515, she gave birth to a stillborn boy. *In the summer of 1515, Catherine announced her fifth pregnancy; however, less hope was placed on an heir resulting her previous failed pregnancies. On 18 February 1516, Catherine delivered a healthy girl at 4 a.m. at Greenwich Palace, Kent. She was named Mary and christened three days later (21 February) with great ceremony at the Church of Observant Friars. Despite his evident disappointment, Henry VIII said that if it were a girl this time then surely boys would follow. *In February 1518, Catherine announced her sixth pregnancy. In March, she visited Merton College, Oxford and also made a pilgrimage to the shrine of St Frideswide, asking for a healthy son. On 10 November 1518 she gave birth to a daughter, but the child was weak and lived either only a few hours or at most a week.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nInfluence\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nOn 11June 1513, Henry appointed Catherine Regent or Governor of England while he went to France on a military campaign. \\nWhen Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Longueville, was captured at Thérouanne, Henry sent him to stay in Catherine's household. She wrote to Wolsey that she and her council would prefer the Duke to stay in the Tower of London as the Scots were \\\"so busy as they now be\\\" and she added her prayers for \\\"God to sende us as good lukke against the Scotts, as the King hath ther.\\\" The war with Scotland occupied her subjects, and she was \\\"horrible busy with making standards, banners, and badges\\\" at Richmond Palace. The Scots invaded and on 3 September 1513, she ordered Thomas Lovell to raise an army in the midland counties.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine rode north in full armour to address the troops, despite being heavily pregnant at the time. Her fine speech was reported to the historian Peter Martyr d'Anghiera in Valladolid within a fortnight. Although an Italian newsletter said she was 100 mi north of London when news of the victory at Battle of Flodden Field reached her, she was near Buckingham. From Woburn Abbey she sent a letter to Henry along with a piece of the bloodied coat of King James IV of Scotland, who died in the battle, for Henry to use as a banner at the siege of Tournai.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine's religious dedication increased as she aged, as did her interest in academics. She continued to broaden her knowledge and provide training for her daughter, Mary. Education among women became fashionable, partly because of Catherine's influence, and she donated large sums of money to several colleges. Henry, however, still considered a male heir essential. The Tudor dynasty was new, and its legitimacy might still be tested. A long civil war (1135–54) had been fought the last time a woman, (Empress Matilda), had inherited the throne. The disasters of civil war were still fresh in living memory from the Wars of the Roses.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nIn 1520, Catherine's nephew Holy Roman Emperor Charles V paid a state visit to England, and she urged Henry to enter an alliance with Charles rather than with France. Immediately after his departure, she accompanied Henry to France on the celebrated visit to Francis I, the so-called Field of the Cloth of Gold. Within two years, war was declared against France and the Emperor was once again welcome in England, where plans were afoot to betroth him to Catherine's daughter Mary.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nThe King's great matter\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nIn 1525, Henry VIII became enamoured of Anne Boleyn, a lady-in-waiting to Queen Catherine who was 9 years younger than Henry. Henry began pursuing her; Catherine was no longer able to bear children by this time. Henry began to believe that his marriage was cursed and sought confirmation from the Bible, which he interpreted to say that if a man marries his brother's wife, the couple will be childless. Even if her marriage to Arthur had not been consummated (and Catherine would insist to her dying day that she had come to Henry's bed a virgin), Henry's interpretation of that biblical passage meant that their marriage had been wrong in the eyes of God. Whether the Pope at the time of Henry and Catherine's marriage had had the right to overrule Henry's claimed scriptural impediment would become a hot topic in Henry's campaign to wrest an annulment from the present Pope. It is possible that the idea of annulment had been suggested to Henry much earlier than this, and is highly probable that it was motivated by his desire for a son.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nBefore Henry's father ascended the throne, England was beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown, and Henry may have wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nIt soon became the one absorbing object of Henry's desires to secure an annulment. Catherine was defiant when it was suggested that she quietly retire to a nunnery, saying, \\\"God never called me to a nunnery. I am the King's true and legitimate wife\\\". He set his hopes upon an appeal to the Holy See, acting independently of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, whom he told nothing of his plans. William Knight, the King's secretary, was sent to Pope Clement VII to sue for an annulment, on the grounds that the dispensing bull of Pope Julius II was obtained by false pretences.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nAs the Pope was, at that time, the prisoner of Catherine's nephew, Emperor Charles V, following the Sack of Rome in May 1527, Knight had difficulty in obtaining access to him. In the end, Henry's envoy had to return without accomplishing much. Henry now had no choice but to put this great matter into the hands of Thomas Wolsey, and Wolsey did all he could to secure a decision in Henry's favour. Wolsey went so far as to convene an ecclesiastical court in England with a representative of the Pope presiding, and Henry and Catherine herself in attendance. The Pope had no intention of allowing a decision to be reached in England, and his legate was recalled. (How far the pope was influenced by Charles V is difficult to say, but it is clear Henry saw that the Pope was unlikely to annul his marriage to the Emperor's aunt.) The Pope forbade Henry to marry again before a decision was given in Rome. Wolsey had failed and was dismissed from public office in 1529. Wolsey then began a secret plot to have Anne Boleyn forced into exile and began communicating with the Pope to that end.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nWhen this was discovered, Henry ordered Wolsey's arrest and, had he not been terminally ill and died in 1530, he might have been executed for treason. A year later, Catherine was banished from court, and her old rooms were given to Anne Boleyn. When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, the Boleyn family's chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, was appointed to the vacant position.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nWhen Henry decided to annul his marriage to Catherine, John Fisher became her most trusted counsellor and one of her chief supporters. He appeared in the legates' court on her behalf, where he shocked people with the directness of his language, and by declaring that, like John the Baptist, he was ready to die on behalf of the indissolubility of marriage. Henry was so enraged by this that he wrote a long Latin address to the legates in answer to Fisher's speech. Fisher's copy of this still exists, with his manuscript annotations in the margin which show how little he feared Henry's anger. The removal of the cause to Rome ended Fisher's role in the matter, but Henry never forgave him. Other people who supported Catherine's case included Thomas More, Henry's own sister Mary Tudor, Queen of France - though as a member of the Tudor family and of royal blood, she was safe from any punishment and execution - María de Salinas, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Pope Paul III and Protestant Reformers Martin Luther and William Tyndale.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nBanishment and death\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nUpon returning to Dover from a meeting with King Francis I of France in Calais, Henry married Anne Boleyn in a secret ceremony. Some sources speculate that Anne was already pregnant at the time (and Henry did not want to risk a son being born illegitimate) but others testify that Anne (who had seen her sister Mary Boleyn taken up as the king's mistress and summarily cast aside) refused to sleep with Henry until they were married. Henry defended the legality of their union by pointing out that Catherine had previously been married. If she and Arthur had consummated their marriage, Henry by canon law had the right to remarry. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgement at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of Henry's marriage to Catherine, declared the marriage illegal, even though Catherine testified she and Arthur had never had physical relations. Cranmer ruled Henry and Anne's marriage valid five days later, on 28 May 1533.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nUntil the end of her life, Catherine would refer to herself as Henry's only lawful wedded wife and England's only rightful queen, and her servants continued to address her by that title. Henry refused her the right to any title but \\\"Dowager Princess of Wales\\\" in recognition of her position as his brother's widow.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine went to live at The More castle in the winter of 1531/32. In 1535 she was transferred to Kimbolton Castle. There, she confined herself to one room (which she left only to attend Mass), dressed only in the hair shirt of the Order of St. Francis, and fasted continuously. While she was permitted to receive occasional visitors, she was forbidden to see her daughter Mary. They were also forbidden to communicate in writing, but sympathizers discreetly ferried letters between the two. Henry offered both mother and daughter better quarters and permission to see each other if they would acknowledge Anne Boleyn as the new queen. Both refused.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nIn late December 1535, sensing her death was near, Catherine made her will, and wrote to her nephew, the Emperor Charles V, asking him to protect her daughter. She then penned one final letter to Henry, her \\\"most dear lord and husband\\\":\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine died at Kimbolton Castle on 1536. The following day, news of her death reached the king. At the time there were rumours that she was poisoned, possibly by Gregory di Casale. According to the chronicler Edward Hall, Anne Boleyn wore yellow for the mourning, which has been interpreted in various ways; Polydore Vergil interpreted this to mean that Anne did not mourn. Chapuys reported that it was King Henry who decked himself in yellow, celebrating the news and making a great show of his and Anne's daughter, Elizabeth, to his courtiers. This was seen as distasteful and vulgar by many. Another theory is that the dressing in yellow was out of respect for Catherine as yellow was said to be the Spanish colour of mourning. Certainly, later in the day it is reported that Henry and Anne both individually and privately wept for her death. On the day of Catherine's funeral, Anne Boleyn miscarried a boy. Rumours then circulated that Catherine had been poisoned by Anne or Henry, or both, as Anne had threatened to murder both Catherine and Mary on several occasions.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nThe rumours were born after the apparent discovery during her embalming that there was a black growth on her heart that might have been caused by poisoning. Modern medical experts are in agreement that her heart's discolouration was due not to poisoning, but to cancer, something which was not understood at the time.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine was buried in Peterborough Cathedral with the ceremony due to a Dowager Princess of Wales, not a queen. Henry did not attend the funeral and forbade Mary to attend.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nFaith\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine was a member of the Third Order of Saint Francis and she was punctilious in her religious obligations in the Order, integrating without demur her necessary duties as queen with her personal piety. After her divorce, she was quoted \\\"I would rather be a poor beggar’s wife and be sure of heaven, than queen of all the world and stand in doubt thereof by reason of my own consent.\\\"\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nThe outward celebration of saints and holy relics formed no major part of her personal devotions, which she rather expressed in the Mass, prayer, confession and penance. Privately, however, she was aware of what she identified as the shortcomings of the papacy and church officialdom. Her doubts about Church improprieties certainly did not extend so far as to support the allegations of corruption made public by Martin Luther in Wittenberg in 1517, which were soon to have such far-reaching consequences in initiating the Protestant Reformation.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nIn 1523 Alfonso de Villa Sancta, a learned friar of the Observant (reform) branch of the Friars Minor and friend of the king's old advisor Erasmus, dedicated to the queen his book De Liberio Arbitrio adversus Melanchthonem denouncing Philip Melanchthon, a supporter of Luther. Acting as her confessor, he was able to nominate her for the title of \\\"Defender of the Faith\\\" for denying Luther's arguments.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nAppearance\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine was of a very fair complexion, had blue eyes, and had a hair colour that was between reddish-blonde and auburn like her mother and sister Joanna. In her youth she was described as \\\"the most beautiful creature in the world\\\" and that there was \\\"nothing lacking in her that the most beautiful girl should have.\\\" Thomas More and Lord Herbert would reflect later in her lifetime that in regard to her appearance \\\"there were few women who could compete with the Queen [Catherine] in her prime.\\\"\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nLegacy, memory, and historiography\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nThe controversial book \\\"The Education of Christian Women\\\" by Juan Luis Vives, which claimed women have the right to an education, was dedicated to and commissioned by her. Such was Catherine's impression on people, that even her enemy, Thomas Cromwell, said of her \\\"If not for her sex, she could have defied all the heroes of History.\\\" She successfully appealed for the lives of the rebels involved in the Evil May Day for the sake of their families. Furthermore, Catherine won widespread admiration by starting an extensive programme for the relief of the poor. She was also a patron of Renaissance humanism, and a friend of the great scholars Erasmus of Rotterdam and Saint Thomas More. Some saw her as a martyr.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nIn the reign of her daughter Mary I of England, her marriage to Henry VIII was declared \\\"good and valid\\\". Her daughter Queen Mary also had several portraits commissioned of Catherine, and it would not by any means be the last time she was painted. After her death, numerous portraits were painted of her, particularly of her speech at the Legatine Trial, a moment accurately rendered in Shakespeare's play about Henry VIII.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nHer tomb in Peterborough Cathedral can be seen and there is hardly ever a time when it is not decorated with flowers or pomegranates, her heraldic symbol. It bears the title Katharine Queen of England.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nIn the 20th century, George V's wife, Mary of Teck, had her grave upgraded and there are now banners there denoting Catherine as a Queen of England. Every year at Peterborough Cathedral there is a service in her memory. There are processions, prayers, and various events in the Cathedral including processions to Catherine's grave in which candles, pomegranates, flowers and other offerings are placed on her grave. On the service commemorating the 470th anniversary of her death, the Spanish Ambassador to the United Kingdom attended. During the 2010 service a rendition of Catherine of Aragon's speech before the Legatine court was read by Jane Lapotaire. There is a statue of her in her birthplace of Alcalá de Henares, as a young woman holding a book and a rose.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine has remained a popular biographical subject to the present day. The American historian Garrett Mattingly was the author of a popular biography Katherine of Aragon in 1942. In 1966, Catherine and her many supporters at court were the subjects of Catherine of Aragon and her Friends, a biography by John E. Paul. In 1967, Mary M. Luke wrote the first book of her Tudor trilogy, Catherine the Queen which portrayed her and the controversial era of English history through which she lived.\\n In recent years, the historian Alison Weir covered her life extensively in her biography The Six Wives of Henry VIII, first published in 1991. Antonia Fraser did the same in her own 1992 biography of the same title; as did the British historian David Starkey in his 2003 book Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII. Giles Tremlett's biography Catherine of Aragon: The Spanish Queen of Henry VIII came out in 2010, and Julia Fox's 2011 dual biography Sister Queens: The Noble, Tragic Lives of Katherine of Aragon and Juana, Queen of Castile.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nPlaces and statues\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\n* In Alcalá de Henares, the place of Catherine's birth, a statue of Catherine as a young woman holding a rose and a book can be seen in the Archbishop's Palace.\\n* Peterborough is twinned with the Spanish city of Alcalá de Henares, located in the wider Community of Madrid. Children from schools in the two places have learned about each other as part of the twinning venture, and artists have even come over from Alcalá de Henares to paint Catherine's tombstone.\\n* Many places in Ampthill are named after Catherine. Also in Ampthill there is a cross in Ampthill Great Park named \\\"Queen Catherine's Cross\\\" in her honour. It is on the site of the castle where she was sent during her divorce from the King.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nSpelling of her name\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nHer baptismal name was \\\"Catalina\\\", but \\\"Katherine\\\" was soon the accepted form in England after her marriage to Arthur. Catherine herself signed her name \\\"Katherine\\\", \\\"Katherina\\\", \\\"Katharine\\\" and sometimes \\\"Katharina\\\". In a letter to her, Arthur, her husband, addressed her as \\\"Princess Katerine\\\". Her daughter Queen Mary I called her \\\"Quene Kateryn\\\", in her will. Rarely were names, particularly first names, written in an exact manner during the sixteenth century and it is evident from Catherine's own letters that she endorsed different variations. \\nLoveknots built into his various palaces by her husband, Henry VIII, display the initials \\\"H & K\\\", as do other items belonging to Henry and Catherine, including gold goblets, a gold salt cellar, basins of gold, and candlesticks. Her tomb in Peterborough Cathedral is marked \\\"Katharine Queen of England\\\".\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nIn art and media\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nOver the years, numerous artistic and cultural works have been dedicated to Catherine, have been written about her, or have mentioned her, including some by her husband Henry VIII, who wrote \\\"Grene growth the holy\\\" about and for her, and Juan Luis Vives, who dedicated The Education of Christian Women to her.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine of Aragon has been portrayed in film, television, plays, novels, songs, poems, and other creative forms many times, and as a result she has stayed very much in popular memory. There has never been a film or television series in which she is the main character, the nearest is the first episode of The Six Wives of Henry VIII, which is told from her point of view (and in which she is portrayed by Annette Crosbie). William Shakespeare's play Henry VIII succeeds in recreating with great accuracy Catherine's statement about the legitimacy of her marriage at the court in Blackfriars before King Henry, and Shakespeare's portrayal of Catherine is remarkably sympathetic; however, most of the rest of the play is an attempt to absolve many, especially Henry VIII, and the timing of key incidents (including Catherine's death) is changed and other events are avoided (the play makes Henry nearly an innocent pawn in the hands of a dastardly Cardinal Wolsey, and the play stops short of Anne Boleyn's execution).\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nAlthough Catherine is often portrayed in film and on stage as having possessed stereotypically Spanish dark hair and eyes and olive complexion, existing portraits and contemporary descriptions depict her with blue eyes, fair skin, and reddish-blonde hair, not uncommon for Spaniards from the northern regions of Spain, including her father's land of Aragon. And she was part English, through her ancestresses Katherine of Lancaster and Philippa of Lancaster, who were daughters of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine often is played with a Spanish accent. From most reports, this is accurate, as she never fully mastered the English language.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nIn January, 2013, the National Portrait Gallery in London revealed that its curators had recently discovered that a portrait at Lambeth Palace formerly believed to have been a portrait of Catherine Parr in fact shows Catherine of Aragon. The National Portrait Gallery announced that the painting, which had hung in a private sitting room of the Archbishop of Canterbury since at least the 19th century, would be paired with a portrait of Henry VIII already in the museum's collection, and would remain at the museum on loan.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nMusic and rhymes\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\n* The song \\\"Green groweth the holly\\\" is said to have been written for her by Henry VIII.\\n* In the children's nursery rhyme \\\"I Had a Little Nut Tree\\\" she is the \\\"King of Spain's Daughter.\\\"\\n* In Rick Wakeman's album The Six Wives of Henry VIII, \\\"Catherine of Aragon\\\" is listed as Track no. 1.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nBooks\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine is the main character in:\\n* Katharine, The Virgin Widow, The Shadow of the Pomegranate, and The King's Secret Matter (later published in an omnibus Katharine of Aragon) by Jean Plaidy\\n* My Catalina by Maureen Peters\\n* The King's Pleasure, by Norah Lofts;\\n* The Constant Princess, by Philippa Gregory (a novel about Catherine's younger years);\\n* Patience, Princess Catherine by Carolyn Meyer (young adult novel);\\n* Isabella's Daughter by Charity Bishop.\\n* Catherine of Aragon/My Tudor Queen\\\" by Alison Prince.\\n* Katherine of Aragon, The True Queen by Alison Weir\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine is a character in:\\n* Murder Most Royal by Jean Plaidy;\\n* The Trusted Servant by Alison Macleod\\n* The Other Boleyn Girl by Philippa Gregory (a novel about Mary Boleyn's life)\\n* The Dark Rose, Volume 2 of The Morland Dynasty, by Cynthia Harrod-Eagles\\n* Wolf Hall by Hilary Mantel\\n* I, Elizabeth by Rosalind Miles\\n* Keeper of the King's Secrets by Michelle Diener\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nTheatre, film, stage, and TV\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nCatherine was portrayed by:\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\n* Sarah Siddons in the 18th century, in Shakespeare's Henry VIII. She told Samuel Johnson that the role of Queen Catherine was her favourite of all the Shakespearean roles she had played, as it was \\\"the most natural\\\". * Violet Vanbrugh in the 1911 short film production of William Shakespeare's play Henry VIII (first film portrayal). * German actress Hedwig Pauly-Winterstein in the film Anna Boleyn. * Rosalie Crutchley in The Sword and the Rose, an account of Mary Tudor's romance with the Duke of Suffolk in 1515. (Crutchley later played Henry's sixth queen Katherine Parr in The Six Wives of Henry VIII.)\\n* Greek actress Irene Papas in Hal B. Wallis' acclaimed film Anne of the Thousand Days (1969). * Frances Cuka in the 1972 film Henry VIII and His Six Wives. Keith Michell reprised his role as Henry VIII. A scene was incorporated between Frances Cuka and Charlotte Rampling (playing Anne Boleyn) to show their quiet, glacial enmity. * Claire Bloom in a 1979 adaptation of Shakespeare's Henry VIII. * British actress Annette Crosbie in a 90-minute television drama titled \\\"Catherine of Aragon\\\", the first part of the BBC series The Six Wives of Henry VIII.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\n* Annabelle Dowler in Dr. David Starkey's 2001 documentary series on Henry VIII's Six Wives. * Spanish actress Yolanda Vasquez, a brief appearance in the British TV version \\\"The Other Boleyn Girl\\\" (January 2003), opposite Jared Harris as Henry VIII and Natascha McElhone as Mary Boleyn. * Assumpta Serna in the October 2003 ITV two-part television drama, \\\"Henry VIII\\\" which starred Ray Winstone in the title role. Part 1 chronicled the king's life from the birth of his bastard son, Henry Fitzroy until the execution of Anne Boleyn in 1536. David Suchet co-starred as Cardinal Wolsey. * Marge Simpson (voiced by Julie Kavner), as \\\"Margerine of Aragon\\\" in The Simpsons episode \\\"Margical History Tour.\\\"\\n* Maria Doyle Kennedy in the Showtime 2007 television series, The Tudors opposite Jonathan Rhys Meyers as Henry. For her performance, Kennedy won an IFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role Television, and a Gemini Award for an Actress in a Featured Supporting Role in a Dramatic Series. * Ana Torrent in the 2007 film adaptation of the novel The Other Boleyn Girl by Philippa Gregory, with Eric Bana as Henry VIII.\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\n* Virginia Weeks portrayed her in the play Six Dead Queens and an Inflatable Henry, and is one of only three productions that show Catherine with the correct colouring. * In 2008 she was played by Victoria Pelro in the film The Twisted Tale of Bloody Mary. * She is played by Siobhan Hewlett in the 2009 documentary Henry: Mind of a Tyrant. This documentary is one of the few portrayals of Catherine to get her appearance correct. * Kate Duchêne in a 2010 adaptation of Shakespeare's Henry VIII at Shakespeare's Globe Theatre. * Joanne Whalley in Wolf Hall. *Natalia Rodríguez Arroyo in the Spanish historical series Isabel. *Mélida Molina in the Spanish historical series Carlos, Rey Emperador. *Jessica Ransom in the CBBC series Horrible Histories\",\n \"Catherine of Aragon\\n\\nAncestry\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne Boleyn (, or) \\n( 1501 – 19 May 1536) was Queen of England from 1533 to 1536 as the second wife of King Henry VIII, and Marquess of Pembroke in her own right. Henry's marriage to Anne, and her subsequent execution by beheading, made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that was the start of the English Reformation.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Howard, and was educated in the Netherlands and France, largely as a maid of honour to Claude of France. She returned to England in early 1522, to marry her Irish cousin James Butler, 9th Earl of Ormond; the marriage plans were broken up by Cardinal Wolsey, and instead she secured a post at court as maid of honour to Henry VIII's wife, Catherine of Aragon.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nEarly in 1523 Anne was secretly betrothed to Henry Percy, son of the 5th Earl of Northumberland, but the betrothal was broken by Cardinal Wolsey in January 1524 and Anne was sent back home to Hever Castle. In February/March 1526, Henry VIII began his pursuit of Anne. She resisted his attempts to seduce her, refusing to become his mistress – which her sister Mary had been. It soon became the one absorbing object of Henry's desires to annul his marriage to Queen Catherine so he would be free to marry Anne. When it became clear that Pope Clement VII would not annul the marriage, the breaking of the power of the Catholic Church in England began. In 1532, Henry granted Anne the Marquessate of Pembroke.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nHenry and Anne married on 25 January 1533, after a secret marriage on 14 November 1532. On 23 May 1533, newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer declared Henry and Catherine's marriage null and void; five days later, he declared Henry and Anne's marriage valid. Shortly afterwards, the Pope decreed sentences of excommunication against Henry and Cranmer. As a result of this marriage and these excommunications, the first break between the Church of England and Rome took place and the Church of England was brought under the King's control. Anne was crowned Queen of England on 1 June 1533. On 7 September, she gave birth to the future Queen Elizabeth I. Henry was disappointed to have a daughter rather than a son but hoped a son would follow and professed to love Elizabeth. Anne subsequently had three miscarriages, and by March 1536, Henry was courting Jane Seymour.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nHenry had Anne investigated for high treason in April 1536. On 2 May she was arrested and sent to the Tower of London, where she was tried before a jury of peers – which included Henry Percy, her former betrothed, and her own uncle, Thomas Howard – and found guilty on 15 May. She was beheaded four days later. Modern historians view the charges against her, which included adultery, incest, and plotting to kill the king, as unconvincing. Some say that Anne was accused of witchcraft but the indictments make no mention of this charge.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nFollowing the coronation of her daughter Elizabeth as queen, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of John Foxe. Over the centuries, she has inspired or been mentioned in numerous artistic and cultural works. As a result, she has retained her hold on the popular imagination. Anne has been called \\\"the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had\\\", since she provided the occasion for Henry VIII to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, and declare his independence from Rome.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nEarly years\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, later Earl of Wiltshire and Earl of Ormond, and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk. Thomas Boleyn was a well respected diplomat with a gift for languages; he was also a favourite of King Henry VII, who sent him on many diplomatic missions abroad. Anne and her siblings grew up at Hever Castle in Kent. However, the siblings were born in Norfolk at the Boleyn home at Blickling. A lack of parish records from the period has made it impossible to establish Anne's date of birth. Contemporary evidence is contradictory, with several dates having been put forward by various historians. An Italian, writing in 1600, suggested that she had been born in 1499, while Sir Thomas More's son-in-law, William Roper, indicated a much later date of 1512. Her birth was most likely sometime between 1501 and 1507. As with Anne herself, it is uncertain when her two siblings were born, but it seems clear that her sister Mary was older than Anne. Mary's children clearly believed their mother had been the elder sister. Most historians now agree that Mary was born in 1499.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nMary's grandson claimed the Ormonde title in 1596 on the basis she was the elder daughter, which Elizabeth I accepted. Their brother George was born around 1504.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThe academic debate about Anne's birth date focuses on two key dates: 1501 and 1507. Eric Ives, a British historian and legal expert, advocates the 1501 date, while Retha Warnicke, an American scholar who has also written a biography of Anne, prefers 1507. The key piece of surviving written evidence is a letter Anne wrote sometime in 1514. She wrote it in French to her father, who was still living in England while Anne was completing her education at Mechelen, in the Burgundian Netherlands, now Belgium. Ives argues that the style of the letter and its mature handwriting prove that Anne must have been about thirteen at the time of its composition, while Warnicke argues that the numerous misspellings and grammar errors show that the letter was written by a child. In Ives's view, this would also be around the minimum age that a girl could be a maid of honour, as Anne was to the regent, Margaret of Austria. This is supported by claims by a chronicler from the late 16th century, who wrote that Anne was twenty when she returned from France.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThese findings are contested by Warnicke in several books and articles, and the evidence does not conclusively support either date.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThere are two independent contemporary sources for the 1507 date. Author Gareth Russell wrote a summary of the evidence and relates that Jane Dormer, Duchess of Feria, wrote her memoirs shortly before her death in 1612; in it the former lady-in-waiting and confidante to Queen Mary I wrote of Anne Boleyn: \\\"She was convicted and condemned and was not yet twenty-nine years of age.\\\" William Camden wrote a history of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and was granted access to the private papers of Lord Burghley and to the state archives. In that history, in the chapter dealing with Elizabeth's early life, he records in the margin that Anne was born in MDVII (1507).\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne's great great great-grandparents included a Lord Mayor of London, a duke, an earl, two aristocratic ladies, and a knight. One of\\nthem, Geoffrey Boleyn, had been a mercer and wool merchant before becoming Lord Mayor. The Boleyn family originally came from Blickling in Norfolk, 15 mi north of Norwich. At the time of Anne's birth, the Boleyn family was considered one of the most respected in the English aristocracy. Among her relatives, she numbered the Howards, one of the preeminent families in the land; and one of her ancestors included King Edward I of England. According to Eric Ives, she was certainly of more noble birth than Jane Seymour, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr, Henry VIII's three other English wives. The spelling of the Boleyn name was variable, as common at the time. Sometimes it was written as Bullen, hence the bull heads which formed part of her family arms. At the court of Margaret of Austria in the Netherlands, Anne is listed as Boullan. From there she signed the letter to her father as Anna de Boullan. She is also referred to as \\\"Anna Bolina\\\"; this Latinised form is used in most portraits of her.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne's early education was typical for women of her class. In 1513, Anne was invited to join the schoolroom of Margaret of Austria and her four wards. Her academic education was limited to arithmetic, her family genealogy, grammar, history, reading, spelling, and writing. She developed domestic skills such as dancing, embroidery, good manners, household management, music, needlework, and singing. Anne learned to play games, such as cards, chess, and dice. She was also taught archery, falconry, horseback riding, and hunting.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nNetherlands and France\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne's father continued his diplomatic career under Henry VIII. In Europe, Thomas Boleyn's charm won many admirers, including Margaret of Austria, daughter of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. During this period, Margaret ruled the Netherlands on her nephew Charles's behalf and was so impressed with Boleyn that she offered his daughter Anne a place in her household. Ordinarily, a girl had to be twelve years old to have such an honour, but Anne may have been younger, as the Archduchess affectionately referred to her as \\\"la petite Boulin \\\". Anne made a good impression in the Netherlands with her manners and studiousness, Margaret reported that she was well spoken and pleasant for her young age. and told Sir Thomas Boleyn that his daughter was \\\"so presentable and so pleasant, considering her youthful age, that I am more beholden to you for sending her to me, than you to me\\\" (E.W. Ives, op.cit.). Anne stayed with Margaret from spring 1513 until her father arranged for her to attend Henry VIII's sister Mary, who was about to marry Louis XII of France in October 1514.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nIn France, Anne was a maid of honour to Queen Mary, and then to Mary's 15-year-old stepdaughter Queen Claude, with whom she stayed nearly seven years. In the Queen's household, she completed her study of French and developed interests in art, fashion, illuminated manuscripts, literature, music, poetry,and religious philosophy. She also acquired knowledge of French culture, dance, etiquette, literature, music, and poetry and came to gain experience in flirtation and the game of courtly love. Though all knowledge about Anne's experiences in the French court are conjecture, even Eric Ives, in his latest edition of the biography, conjectures that she was likely to have made the acquaintance of King Francis I's sister, Marguerite de Navarre, a patron of humanists and reformers. Marguerite de Navarre was also an author in her own right, and her works include elements of Christian mysticism and reform that verged on heresy, though she was protected by her status as the French king's beloved sister. She or her circle may have encouraged Anne's interest in reform, as well as in poetry and literature.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne's education in France proved itself in later years, inspiring many new trends among the ladies and courtiers of England, and it may have been instrumental in pressing their King toward the culture-shattering contretemps with the Papacy itself. Eric Ives's latest version of his biography hypothesises that Anne may have had evangelistic conviction and a strong spiritual inner life. William Forrest, author of a contemporary poem about Catherine of Aragon, complimented Anne's \\\"passing excellent\\\" skill as a dancer. \\\"Here\\\", he wrote, \\\"was [a] fresh young damsel, that could trip and go.\\\"\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne had been of average height and she had a slender build with long straight and thick black or dark brown hair, dark brown eyes, a considerably strong nose, a definite wide mouth with slim lips, and an olive complexion. She was considered to be brilliant, charming, driven, elegant, forthright, and graceful with a keen wit and a lively, opinionated, and passionate personality. Anne was depicted to be \\\"sweet and cheerful\\\" in her youth and she enjoyed cards and dice games, drinking wine, eating French cuisine, flirting, gambling, gossiping, and hearing a good joke. She was fond of archery, falconry, hunting, and the occasional game of bowls. Yet Anne also had a sharp tongue and a terrible temper.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne exerted a powerful charm on those who met her, though opinions differed on her attractiveness. The Venetian diarist Marino Sanuto, who saw Anne when Henry VIII met Francis I at Calais in October 1532, described her as \\\"not one of the handsomest women in the world; she is of middling stature, swarthy complexion, long neck, wide mouth, bosom not much raised... eyes, which are black and beautiful\\\".Strong, p. 6. Simon Grynée wrote to Martin Bucer in September 1531 that Anne was \\\"young, good-looking, of a rather dark complexion\\\". Lancelot de Carle called her \\\"beautiful with an elegant figure\\\", and a Venetian in Paris in 1528 also reported that she was said to be beautiful. The most influential description of Anne, but also the least reliable, was written by the Catholic propagandist and polemicist Nicholas Sanders in 1586, half a century after Anne's death: \\\"Anne Boleyn was rather tall of stature, with black hair, and an oval face of a sallow complexion, as if troubled with jaundice. It is said she had a projecting tooth under the upper lip, and on her right hand six fingers.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThere was a large wen under her chin, and therefore to hide its ugliness she wore a high dress covering her throat... She was handsome to look at, with a pretty mouth\\\". Sanders held Anne responsible for Henry VIII's rejection of the Catholic Church, and writing fifty years after her death, was keen to demonise her. Sanders's description contributed to what biographer Eric Ives calls the \\\"monster legend\\\" of Anne Boleyn. Though his details were fictitious, they have formed the basis for references to Anne's appearance even in some modern textbooks.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne's experience in France made her a devout Christian in the new tradition of Renaissance humanism. Anne knew little Latin but, trained at a French court, she was influenced by an \\\"evangelical variety of French humanism\\\" which led her to champion the vernacular Bible. While she would later hold the reformist position that the papacy was a corrupting influence on Christianity, her conservative tendencies could be seen in her devotion to the Virgin Mary. Anne's European education ended in 1521, when her father summoned her back to England. She sailed from Calais in January 1522.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAt the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne was recalled to marry her Irish cousin, James Butler, a young man who was several years older than she and who was living at the English court, in an attempt to settle a dispute over the title and estates of the Earldom of Ormond. The 7th Earl of Ormond died in 1515, leaving his daughters, Margaret Boleyn and Anne St Leger, as co-heiresses. In Ireland, the great-great-grandson of the 3rd earl, Sir Piers Butler, contested the will and claimed the Earldom himself. He was already in possession of Kilkenny Castle – the ancestral seat of the earls. Sir Thomas Boleyn, being the son of the eldest daughter, felt the title belonged to him and protested to his brother-in-law, the Duke of Norfolk, who spoke to King Henry about the matter. Henry, fearful the dispute could be the spark to ignite civil war in Ireland, sought to resolve the matter by arranging an alliance between Piers's son, James, and Anne Boleyn. She would bring her Ormond inheritance as dowry and thus end the dispute. The plan ended in failure, perhaps because Sir Thomas hoped for a grander marriage for his daughter or because he himself coveted the titles.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nWhatever the reason, the marriage negotiations came to a complete halt. James Butler later married Lady Joan Fitzgerald, daughter and heiress of James FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Desmond and Amy O'Brien.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nMary Boleyn, Anne Boleyn's older sister, had earlier been recalled from France in late 1519, ostensibly for her affairs with the French king and his courtiers. She married William Carey, a minor noble, in February 1520, at Greenwich, with Henry VIII in attendance; soon after, Mary Boleyn became the English King's mistress. Historians dispute King Henry VIII's paternity of one or both of Mary Boleyn's children born during this marriage. Henry VIII: The King and His Court, by Alison Weir, questions the paternity of Henry Carey; Dr. G.W. Bernard (The King's Reformation) and Joanna Denny (Anne Boleyn: A New Life of England's Tragic Queen) argue that Henry VIII was their father. Henry did not acknowledge either child, as he did his son Henry Fitzroy, his illegitimate son by Elizabeth Blount, Lady Talboys.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne made her début at the Château Vert (Green Castle) pageant in honour of the imperial ambassadors on 4 March 1522, playing \\\"Perseverance.\\\" There she took part in an elaborate dance accompanying Henry's younger sister Mary, several other ladies of the court, and her sister. All wore gowns of white satin embroidered with gold thread. She quickly established herself as one of the most stylish and accomplished women at the court, and soon a number of young men were competing for her.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThe American historian Retha M. Warnicke writes that Anne was \\\"the perfect woman courtier... her carriage was graceful and her French clothes were pleasing and stylish; she danced with ease, had a pleasant singing voice, played the lute and several other musical instruments well, and spoke French fluently... A remarkable, intelligent, quick-witted young noblewoman... that first drew people into conversation with her and then amused and entertained them. In short, her energy and vitality made her the center of attention in any social gathering.\\\" Henry VIII's biographer J. J. Scarisbrick adds that Anne \\\"revelled in\\\" the attention she received from her admirers.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nDuring this time, Anne was courted by Henry Percy, son of the Earl of Northumberland, and entered into a secret betrothal with the young man. Thomas Wolsey's gentleman usher, George Cavendish, maintained the two had not been lovers. If Cavendish is to be believed, their relationship was celibate. The romance was broken off when Percy's father refused to support their engagement. Cardinal Wolsey refused the match for several conjectured reasons. According to Cavendish, Anne was sent from court to her family's countryside estates, but it is not known for how long. Upon her return to court, she again entered the service of Catherine of Aragon. Percy was married to Lady Mary Talbot, to whom he had been betrothed since adolescence.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nPrior to her marriage to King Henry VIII, Anne had befriended Sir Thomas Wyatt, who was one of the greatest poets of the Tudor reign. In 1520, Wyatt married Elizabeth Cobham, who told by many accounts, was not a wife of his choosing. Thus, in 1525, Wyatt charged his wife with adultery and separated from her; coincidentally, historians believe that it was also the year where his interest in Anne intensified. While Anne Boleyn was still King Henry's mistress in 1532, Wyatt accompanied the royal couple to Calais in France. A year later, Anne Boleyn and the King were secretly married, and Wyatt served in Anne's coronation in June 1533.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nIn 1526, King Henry became enamoured with Anne and began his pursuit. Some say that Anne resisted the King's attempts to seduce her, refusing to become his mistress, often leaving court for the seclusion of Hever Castle. But within a year, he proposed marriage to her, and she accepted. Both assumed an annulment could be obtained within a matter of months. There is no evidence to suggest that they engaged in a sexual relationship until very shortly before their marriage; Henry's love letters to Anne suggest that their love affair remained unconsummated for much of their seven-year courtship.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nHenry's annulment\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nIt is probable that the idea of annulment (not divorce as commonly assumed) had suggested itself to Henry much earlier than this and was motivated by his desire for an heir to secure the Tudor claim to the crown. Before Henry's father Henry VII ascended the throne, England was beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the crown and Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. He and Catherine had no living sons: all Catherine's children except Mary died in infancy. Catherine of Aragon had first come to England to be bride to Henry's brother Arthur who died soon after their marriage. Since Spain and England still wanted an alliance, a dispensation was granted by Pope Julius II on the grounds that Catherine was still a virgin. The marriage of Catherine and Henry took place in 1509, but eventually he became dubious about its validity, due to Catherine's inability to provide an heir being seen as a sign of God's displeasure. His feelings for Anne, and her refusals to become his mistress, probably contributed to Henry's decision that no Pope had a right to overrule the Bible.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThis meant that he had been living in sin with Catherine of Aragon all these years, though Catherine hotly contested this and refused to concede that her marriage to Arthur had been consummated. It also meant that his daughter Mary was a bastard, and that the new Pope (Clement VII) would have to admit the previous Pope's mistake and annul the marriage. Henry's quest for an annulment became euphemistically known as the \\\"King's Great Matter.\\\"\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne saw an opportunity in Henry's infatuation and the convenient moral quandary. She determined that she would yield to his embraces only as his acknowledged queen. She began to take her place at his side in policy and in state, but not yet in his bed.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nScholars and historians hold various opinions as to how deep Anne's commitment to the Reformation was, how much she was perhaps only personally ambitious, and how much she had to do with Henry's defiance of papal power. There is anecdotal evidence, related to biographer George Wyatt by her former lady-in-waiting Anne Gainsford, that Anne brought to Henry's attention a heretical pamphlet, perhaps Tyndale's \\\"The Obedience of a Christian Man\\\" or one by Simon Fish called \\\"Supplication for Beggars,\\\" which cried out to monarchs to rein in the evil excesses of the Catholic Church. She was sympathetic to those seeking further reformation of the Church, and actively protected scholars working on English translations of the scriptures. According to Maria Dowling, \\\"Anne tried to educate her waiting-women in scriptural piety” and is believed to have reproved her cousin, Mary Shelton, for “having 'idle poesies' written in her prayer book.” If Cavendish is to be believed, Anne's outrage at Wolsey may have personalised whatever philosophical defiance she brought with her from France.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nFurther, the most recent edition of Ives's biography admits that Anne may very well have had a personal spiritual awakening in her youth which spurred her on, not just as catalyst but expediter for Henry's Reformation, though the process took a number of years.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nIn 1528, sweating sickness broke out with great severity. In London, the mortality rate was great and the court was dispersed. Henry left London, frequently changing his residence; Anne Boleyn retreated to the Boleyn residence at Hever Castle, but contracted the illness; her brother-in-law, William Carey, died. Henry sent his own physician to Hever Castle to care for Anne, and shortly afterwards, she recovered. It soon became the one absorbing object of Henry's desires to secure an annulment from Catherine. Henry had set his hopes upon a direct appeal to the Holy See, acting independently of Cardinal Wolsey, to whom he at first communicated nothing of his plans related to Anne. In 1527 William Knight, the King's secretary, was sent to Pope Clement VII to sue for the annulment of his marriage to Catherine, on the grounds that the dispensing bull of Pope Julius II permitting him to marry his brother's widow, Catherine, had been obtained under false pretences. Henry also petitioned, in the event of his becoming free, a dispensation to contract a new marriage with any woman even in the first degree of affinity, whether the affinity was contracted by lawful or unlawful connection.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThis clearly referred to Anne.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAs the Pope was, at that time, prisoner of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, as a result of the Sack of Rome in May 1527, Knight had some difficulty obtaining access. In the end he had to return with a conditional dispensation, which Wolsey insisted was technically insufficient. Henry now had no choice but to put his great matter into Wolsey's hands, who did all he could to secure a decision in Henry's favour, even going so far as to convene an ecclesiastical court in England, with a special emissary, Lorenzo Campeggio from the Pope himself to decide the matter. But the Pope never had empowered his deputy to make any decision. The Pope was still a veritable hostage of Charles V, and Charles V was the loyal nephew of Henry's queen, Catherine. The Pope forbade Henry to contract a new marriage until a decision was reached in Rome, not in England. Convinced that Wolsey's loyalties lay with the Pope, not England, Anne, as well as Wolsey's many enemies, ensured his dismissal from public office in 1529.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nGeorge Cavendish, Wolsey's chamberlain, records that the servants who waited on the king and Anne at dinner in 1529 in Grafton heard her say that the dishonour that Wolsey had brought upon the realm would have cost any other Englishman his head. Henry replied, \\\"Why then I perceive...you are not the Cardinal's friend.\\\" Henry finally agreed to Wolsey's arrest on grounds of praemunire. Had it not been for his death from illness in 1530, he might have been executed for treason. A year later in 1531 (fully two years before Henry's marriage to Anne), Queen Catherine was banished from court and her rooms were given to Anne.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nPublic support remained with Queen Catherine. One evening in the autumn of 1531, Anne was dining at a manor house on the river Thames and was almost seized by a crowd of angry women. Anne just managed to escape by boat.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nWhen Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died in 1532, the Boleyn family chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, was appointed, with papal approval.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nIn 1532, Thomas Cromwell brought before Parliament a number of acts including the Supplication against the Ordinaries and Submission of the Clergy, which recognised royal supremacy over the church, thus finalising the break with Rome. Following these acts, Thomas More resigned as Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nPremarital role and marriage\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nEven before her marriage, Anne Boleyn was able to grant petitions, receive diplomats, give patronage and had enormous influence over her future husband to plead the cause of foreign diplomats. The ambassador from Milan wrote in 1531 that it was essential to have her approval if one wanted to influence the English government, a view corroborated by an earlier French ambassador in 1529.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nDuring this period, Anne Boleyn played an important role in England's international position by solidifying an alliance with France. She established an excellent rapport with the French ambassador, Gilles de la Pommeraie. Anne and Henry attended a meeting with the French king at Calais in winter 1532, in which Henry hoped to enlist the support of Francis I of France for his intended marriage. On 1 September 1532, Henry granted her suo jure the Marquessate of Pembroke, an appropriate peerage for a future queen; as such she became a rich and important woman: the three dukes and two marquesses who existed in 1532 were the King's brother-in-law, the King's illegitimate son, and other descendants of royalty; she ranked above all other peeresses. The Pembroke lands and the title of Earl of Pembroke had been held by Henry's great-uncle, and Henry performed the investiture himself.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne's family also profited from the relationship. Her father, already Viscount Rochford, was created Earl of Wiltshire. Henry also came to an arrangement with Anne's Irish cousin and created him Earl of Ormond. At the magnificent banquet to celebrate her father's elevation, Anne took precedence over the Duchesses of Suffolk and Norfolk, seated in the place of honour beside the King which was usually occupied by the Queen. Thanks to Anne's intervention, her widowed sister Mary received an annual pension of £100, and Mary's son, Henry Carey, was educated at a prestigious Cistercian monastery.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThe conference at Calais was something of a political triumph, but even though the French government gave implicit support for Henry's remarriage and Francis I himself held private conference with Anne, the French King maintained alliances with the Pope which he could not explicitly defy.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nSoon after returning to Dover, Henry and Anne married in a secret ceremony on November 14, 1532. She soon became pregnant and, to legalise the first wedding considered to be unlawful at the time, there was a second wedding service, also private in accordance with The Royal Book, which took place in London on 25 January 1533. Events now began to move at a quick pace. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer (who had been hastened, with the Pope's assent, into the position of Archbishop of Canterbury recently vacated by the death of Warham) sat in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of the King's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. He thereupon declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be good and valid.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nQueen of England: 1533–1536\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nCatherine was formally stripped of her title as queen and Anne was consequently crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533 in a magnificent ceremony at Westminster Abbey with a banquet afterwards. She was the last queen consort of England to be crowned separately from her husband. Unlike any other queen consort, Anne was crowned with St Edward's Crown, which had previously been used to crown only a monarch. Historian Alice Hunt suggests that this was done because Anne's pregnancy was visible by then and she was carrying the heir who was presumed to be male.Alice Hunt, The Drama of Coronation: Medieval Ceremony in Early Modern England, Cambridge University Press, 2008 On the previous day, Anne had taken part in an elaborate procession through the streets of London seated in a litter of \\\"white cloth of gold\\\" that rested on two palfreys clothed to the ground in white damask, while the barons of the Cinque Ports held a canopy of cloth of gold over her head. In accordance with tradition she wore white, and on her head a gold coronet beneath which her long dark hair hung down freely. The public's response to her appearance was lukewarm.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nMeanwhile, the House of Commons had forbidden all appeals to Rome and exacted the penalties of praemunire against all who introduced papal bulls into England. It was only then that Pope Clement at last took the step of announcing a provisional sentence of excommunication against the King and Cranmer. He condemned the marriage to Anne, and in March 1534, he declared the marriage to Catherine legal and again ordered Henry to return to her. Henry now required his subjects to swear the oath attached to the First Succession Act, which effectively rejected papal authority in legal matters and recognised Anne Boleyn as queen. Those who refused, such as Sir Thomas More, who had resigned as Lord Chancellor, and John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, were then placed in the Tower of London. In late 1534 parliament declared Henry \\\"the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England\\\". The Church in England was now under Henry's control, not Rome's.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nOn 14 May 1534, in one of the realm's first official acts protecting Protestant Reformers, Anne wrote a letter to Thomas Cromwell seeking his aid in ensuring that English merchant Richard Herman be reinstated a member of the merchant adventurers in Antwerp and no longer persecuted simply because he had helped in \\\"setting forth of the New testament in English.\\\" Before and after her coronation, Anne protected and promoted evangelicals and those wishing to study the scriptures of William Tyndale. She had a decisive role in influencing the Protestant reformer Matthew Parker to attend court as her chaplain, and prior to her death entrusted her daughter to Parker's care.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nStruggle for a son\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAfter her coronation, Anne settled into a quiet routine at the King's favourite residence, Greenwich Palace, to prepare for the birth of her baby. The child was born slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533. Between three and four in the afternoon, Anne gave birth to a girl, who was christened Elizabeth, probably in honour of either or both Anne's mother Elizabeth Howard and Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York. But the birth of a girl was a heavy blow to her parents, since they had confidently expected a boy. All but one of the royal physicians and astrologers had predicted a son for them and the French king had already been asked to stand as his godfather. Now the prepared letters announcing the birth of a prince had an s hastily added to them to read princes[s] and the traditional jousting tournament for the birth of an heir was cancelled.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nNevertheless, the infant princess was given a splendid christening, but Anne feared that Catherine's daughter, Mary, now stripped of her title of princess and labelled a bastard, posed a threat to Elizabeth's position. Henry soothed his wife's fears by separating Mary from her many servants and sending her to Hatfield House, where Princess Elizabeth would be living with her own sizeable staff of servants, and where the country air was thought better for the baby's health. Anne frequently visited her daughter at Hatfield and other residences.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThe new queen had a larger staff of servants than Catherine. There were more than 250 servants to tend to her personal needs, everyone from priests to stable-boys, and more than 60 maids-of-honour who served her and accompanied her to social events. She also employed several priests who acted as her confessors, chaplains, and religious advisers. One of these was Matthew Parker, who would become one of the chief architects of Anglican thought during the reign of Anne's daughter, Elizabeth I.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nStrife with the king\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThe king and his new queen enjoyed a reasonably happy accord with periods of calm and affection. Anne Boleyn's sharp intelligence, political acumen and forward manners, although desirable in a mistress, were, at the time, unacceptable in a wife. She was once reported to have spoken to her uncle in words that \\\"shouldn't be used to a dog\\\". After a stillbirth or miscarriage as early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the possibility of divorcing her without having to return to Catherine.Williams, p.138. Nothing came of the issue as the royal couple reconciled and spent summer 1535 on progress. By October, she was again pregnant.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne Boleyn presided over a magnificent court. She spent lavish amounts of money on gowns, jewels, head-dresses, ostrich-feather fans, riding equipment, furniture and upholstery, maintaining the ostentatious display required by her status. Numerous palaces were renovated to suit her and Henry's extravagant tastes. Her motto was \\\"The most happy\\\", and she had chosen a white falcon as her personal device.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne was blamed for the tyranny of her husband's government and was referred to by some of her subjects as \\\"The king's whore\\\" or a \\\"naughty paike [prostitute]\\\". Public opinion turned further against her following her failure to produce a son. It sank even lower after the executions of her enemies Sir Thomas More and Bishop John Fisher.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nDownfall and execution: 1536\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nOn 8 January 1536, news of Catherine of Aragon's death reached the King and Anne, who were overjoyed. The following day, Henry and Anne wore yellow, the symbol of joy and celebration in England, from head to toe, and celebrated Catherine's death with festivities. In Spain, the home country of Catherine of Aragon, yellow was the colour of mourning, in addition to black. For this reason, the wearing of yellow by Henry and Anne may have been a symbol of mourning. With Mary's mother dead, Anne attempted to make peace with her. Mary rebuffed Anne's overtures, perhaps because of rumours circulating that Catherine had been poisoned by Anne and/or Henry. These began after the discovery during her embalming that her heart was blackened. Modern medical experts are in agreement that this was not the result of poisoning, but of cancer of the heart, something which was not understood at the time.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThe Queen, pregnant again, was aware of the dangers if she failed to give birth to a son. With Catherine dead, Henry would be free to marry without any taint of illegality. At this time Henry began paying court to Jane Seymour. He gave her a locket with a miniature portrait of himself inside and Jane, in the presence of Anne, began opening and shutting it. Anne responded by ripping off the locket with such force her fingers bled.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nLater that month, the King was unhorsed in a tournament and knocked unconscious for two hours, a worrying incident that Anne believed led to her miscarriage five days later. Another possible cause of the miscarriage was an incident in which, upon entering a room, Anne saw Jane Seymour sitting on the lap of Henry. After flying into a rage, Henry soothed her, saying \\\"peace be sweetheart, and all will be well.\\\" Whatever the cause, on the day that Catherine of Aragon was buried at Peterborough Abbey, Anne miscarried a baby which, according to the imperial ambassador Eustace Chapuys, she had borne for about three and a half months, and which \\\"seemed to be a male child\\\". Chapuys commented \\\"She has miscarried of her saviour.\\\" In Chapuys' opinion, this loss was the beginning of the end of the royal marriage.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nGiven Henry's desperate desire for a son, the sequence of Anne's pregnancies has attracted much interest. Author Mike Ashley speculated that Anne had two stillborn children after Elizabeth's birth and before the male child she miscarried in 1536. Most sources attest only to the birth of Elizabeth in September 1533, a possible miscarriage in the summer of 1534, and the miscarriage of a male child, of almost four months gestation, in January 1536. As Anne recovered from her miscarriage, Henry declared that he had been seduced into the marriage by means of \\\"sortilege\\\"—a French term indicating either \\\"deception\\\" or \\\"spells\\\". His new mistress, Jane Seymour, was quickly moved into royal quarters. This was followed by Anne's brother George being refused a prestigious court honour, the Order of the Garter, given instead to Sir Nicholas Carew.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nCharges of adultery, incest and treason\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne's biographer Eric Ives believes that her fall and execution were primarily engineered by her former ally Thomas Cromwell. The conversations between Chapuys and Cromwell thereafter indicate Cromwell as the instigator of the plot to remove Anne; evidence of this is seen in the Spanish Chronicle and through letters written from Chapuys to Charles V. Anne argued with Cromwell over the redistribution of Church revenues and over foreign policy. She advocated that revenues be distributed to charitable and educational institutions; and she favoured a French alliance. Cromwell insisted on filling the King's depleted coffers, while taking a cut for himself, and preferred an imperial alliance. For these reasons, Ives suggests, \\\"Anne Boleyn had become a major threat to Thomas Cromwell.\\\" Cromwell's biographer John Schofield, on the other hand, contends that no power struggle existed between Anne and Cromwell and that \\\"not a trace can be found of a Cromwellian conspiracy against Anne... Cromwell became involved in the royal marital drama only when Henry ordered him onto the case.\\\" Cromwell did not manufacture the accusations of adultery, though he and other officials used them to bolster Henry's case against Anne.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nHistorian Retha Warnicke questions whether Cromwell could have or wished to manipulate the king in such a matter. Such a bold attempt by Cromwell, given the limited evidence, could have risked his office, even his life. Henry himself issued the crucial instructions: his officials, including Cromwell, carried them out. The result, historians agree, was a legal travesty. However modern lawyers have concluded that the rules of the time were not bent in order to assure Anne Boleyn's conviction; there was no need to tamper with rules that guaranteed the desired result since law at the time, like armies, was an engine of state, not a mechanism for justice.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nTowards the end of April a Flemish musician in Anne's service named Mark Smeaton was arrested. He initially denied being the Queen's lover but later confessed, perhaps tortured or promised freedom. Another courtier, Henry Norris, was arrested on May Day, but being an aristocrat, could not be tortured. Prior to his arrest, Norris was treated kindly by the King, who offered him his own horse to use on the May Day festivities. It seems likely that during the festivities, the King was notified of Smeaton's confession and it was shortly thereafter the alleged conspirators were arrested upon his orders. Norris denied his guilt and swore that Queen Anne was innocent; one of the most damaging pieces of evidence against Norris was an overheard conversation with Anne at the end of April, where she accused him of coming often to her chambers not to pay court to her lady-in-waiting Madge Shelton but to herself. Sir Francis Weston was arrested two days later on the same charge, as was William Brereton, a Groom of the King's Privy Chamber.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nSir Thomas Wyatt, a poet and friend of the Boleyns who was allegedly infatuated with her before her marriage to the king, was also imprisoned for the same charge but later released, most likely due to his or his family's friendship with Cromwell. Sir Richard Page was also accused of having a sexual relationship with the Queen, but he was acquitted of all charges after further investigation could not implicate him with Anne. The final accused was Queen Anne's own brother, George Boleyn, arrested on charges of incest and treason. He was accused of two incidents of incest: November 1535 at Whitehall and the following month at Eltham.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nOn 2 May 1536, Anne was arrested and taken to the Tower of London by barge. It is likely that Anne may have entered through the Court Gate in the Byward Tower rather than the Traitors' Gate, according to historian and author of The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn, Eric Ives. In the Tower, she collapsed, demanding to know the location of her father and \\\"swete broder\\\", as well as the charges against her.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nIn what is reputed to be her last letter to King Henry, dated 6 May, she wrote:\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nFour of the accused men were tried in Westminster on 12 May 1536. Weston, Brereton, and Norris publicly maintained their innocence and only the tortured Smeaton supported the Crown by pleading guilty. Three days later, Anne and George Boleyn were tried separately in the Tower of London, before a jury of 27 peers. She was accused of adultery, incest, and high treason. By the Treason Act of Edward III, adultery on the part of a queen was a form of treason (because of the implications for the succession to the throne) for which the penalty was hanging, drawing and quartering for a man and burning alive for a woman, but the accusations, and especially that of incestuous adultery, were also designed to impugn her moral character. The other form of treason alleged against her was that of plotting the king's death, with her \\\"lovers\\\", so that she might later marry Henry Norris. Henry Percy, 6th Earl of Northumberland sat on the jury that unanimously found Anne guilty. When the verdict was announced, he collapsed and had to be carried from the courtroom. He died eight months later, leaving no heirs and therefore was succeeded by his nephew.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAccording to a 1980 legal review by Schauer and Schauer, \\\"there is little if any evidence, apart from Smeaton's possible torture, that the rules of the time were in any way bent in order to assure Anne Boleyn's conviction\\\".\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nOn 14 May, Cranmer declared Anne's marriage to Henry null and void.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nFinal hours\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAlthough the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned to death. George Boleyn and the other accused men were executed on 17 May 1536. William Kingston, the Constable of the Tower, reported Anne seemed very happy and ready to be done with life. Henry commuted Anne's sentence from burning to beheading, and rather than have a queen beheaded with the common axe, he brought an expert swordsman from Saint-Omer in France, to perform the execution. On the morning of 19 May, Kingston wrote:\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nHer impending death may have caused her great sorrow for some time during her imprisonment. The poem \\\"Oh Death Rock Me Asleep\\\" is generally believed to have been authored by Anne and reveals that she may have hoped death would end her suffering.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nShortly before dawn, she called Kingston to hear mass with her, and swore in his presence, on the eternal salvation of her soul, upon the Holy Sacraments, that she had never been unfaithful to the king. She ritually repeated this oath both immediately before and after receiving the sacrament of the Eucharist.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nOn the morning of Friday 19 May, Anne Boleyn was executed within the Tower precincts, not upon the site of the execution memorial, but rather, according to historian Eric Ives, on a scaffold erected on the north side of the White Tower, in front of what is now the Waterloo Barracks. She wore a red petticoat under a loose, dark grey gown of damask trimmed in fur and a mantle of ermine. Accompanied by two female attendants, Anne made her final walk from the Queen's House to the scaffold and she showed a \\\"devilish spirit\\\" and looked \\\"as gay as if she was not going to die\\\". Anne climbed the scaffold and made a short speech to the crowd:\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThis version of her speech is found in Foxe's, Actes and Monuments and an almost identical version in Ives (2005). In a 1,318 line poem, written in French, two weeks after Anne's death, Lancelot de Carle provides a moving account of her last words and their effect on the crowd:She gracefully addressed the people from the scaffold with a voice somewhat overcome by weakness, but which gathered strength as she went on. She begged her hearers to forgive her if she had not used them all with becoming gentleness, and asked for their prayers. It was needless, she said, to relate why she was there, but she prayed the Judge of all the world to have compassion on those who had condemned her, and she begged them to pray for the King, in whom she had always found great kindness, fear of God, and love of his subjects.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThe spectators could not refrain from tears.Lancelot de Carle, a secretary to the French Ambassador, Antoine de Castelnau, was in London in May 1536, and was an eyewitness to her trial and execution.John Guy contends that Crispin de Milherve, who was an eyewitness to Anne Boleyn's trial and execution, and Lancelot de Carle have been shown by French scholars to be the same person. The poem, Épistre Contenant le Procès Criminel Faict à l'Encontre de la Royne Anne Boullant d'Angleterre, (A Letter Containing the Criminal Charges Laid Against Queen Anne Boleyn of England), provides a detailed account of Anne's early life and the circumstances relating to her arrest, trial and execution. All the accounts are similar. It is thought that Anne avoided criticising Henry to save Elizabeth and her family from further consequences, but even under such extreme pressure Anne did not confess guilt, and indeed subtly implied her innocence, in her appeal to those who might \\\"meddle of my cause\\\".\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nDeath and burial\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThe ermine mantle was removed and Anne lifted off her headdress, tucking her hair under a coif. After a brief farewell to her weeping ladies and a request for prayers, she kneeled down and one of her ladies tied a blindfold over her eyes. She knelt upright, in the French style of executions. Her final prayer consisted of her repeating continually, \\\"Jesu receive my soul; O Lord God have pity on my soul.\\\"\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nThe execution consisted of a single stroke. It was witnessed by Thomas Cromwell; Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk; the King's illegitimate son, Henry Fitzroy; the Lord Mayor of London, as well as aldermen, sheriffs, and representatives of the various craft guilds. Most of the King's Council were also present. Cranmer, who was at Lambeth Palace, was reported to have broken down in tears after telling Alexander Ales: \\\"She who has been the Queen of England on earth will today become a Queen in heaven.\\\" When the charges were first brought against Anne, Cranmer had expressed his astonishment to Henry and his belief that \\\"she should not be culpable.\\\" Still, Cranmer felt vulnerable because of his closeness to the queen, and so on the night before the execution, he declared Henry's marriage to Anne to have been void, like Catherine's before her. He made no serious attempt to save Anne's life, although some sources record that he had prepared her for death by hearing her last private confession of sins, in which she had stated her innocence before God.Schama, p.307.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nOn the day of her death, a Scottish friend found Cranmer weeping uncontrollably in his London gardens, saying that he was sure that Anne had now gone to Heaven.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nShe was then buried in an unmarked grave in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula. Her skeleton was identified during renovations of the chapel in 1876, in the reign of Queen Victoria, and Anne's resting place is now marked in the marble floor.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nRecognition and legacy\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nNicholas Sander, a Catholic recusant born c. 1530, was committed to deposing Elizabeth I and re-establishing Catholicism in England. In his De Origine ac Progressu schismatis Anglicani (The Rise and Growth of the Anglican Schism), published in 1585, he was the first to write that Anne had six fingers on her right hand. Since physical deformities were generally interpreted as a sign of evil, it is unlikely that Anne Boleyn would have gained Henry's romantic attention had she had any. Upon exhumation in 1876, no abnormalities were discovered. Her frame was described as delicate, approximately 5'3\\\", with finely formed, tapering fingers.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAnne Boleyn was described by contemporaries as intelligent and gifted in musical arts and scholarly pursuits. She was also strong-willed and proud, and often quarrelled with Henry. Biographer Eric Ives evaluates the apparent contradictions in Anne's persona:\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nNo contemporary portraits of Anne Boleyn survive. A bust of her was cast on a commemorative medallion in 1534, believed to have been struck to celebrate her second pregnancy.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nFollowing the coronation of her daughter as queen, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of John Foxe, who argued that Anne had saved England from the evils of Roman Catholicism and that God had provided proof of her innocence and virtue by making sure her daughter Elizabeth I ascended the throne. An example of Anne's direct influence in the reformed church is what Alexander Ales described to Queen Elizabeth as the \\\"evangelical bishops whom your holy mother appointed from among those scholars who favoured the purer doctrine\\\". Over the centuries, Anne has inspired or been mentioned in numerous artistic and cultural works. As a result, she has remained in the popular memory and has been called \\\"the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had.\\\"\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nLegends\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nMany legends and fantastic stories about Anne Boleyn have survived over the centuries. One is that she was secretly buried in Salle Church in Norfolk under a black slab near the tombs of her ancestors. Her body was said to have rested in an Essex church on its journey to Norfolk. Another is that her heart, at her request, was buried in Erwarton (Arwarton) Church, Suffolk by her uncle Sir Philip Parker.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nIn 18th-century Sicily, the peasants of the village of Nicolosi believed that Anne Boleyn, for having made Henry VIII a heretic, was condemned to burn for eternity inside Mount Etna. This legend was often told for the benefit of foreign travellers.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nA number of people have claimed to have seen Anne's ghost at Hever Castle, Blickling Hall, Salle Church, the Tower of London, and Marwell Hall. The most famous account of her reputed sighting has been described by paranormal researcher Hans Holzer. In 1864, Major General J.D. Dundas of the 60th Rifles regiment was quartered in the Tower of London. As he was looking out the window of his quarters, he noticed a guard below in the courtyard, in front of the lodgings where Anne had been imprisoned, behaving strangely. He appeared to challenge something, which to the General \\\"looked like a whitish, female figure sliding towards the soldier\\\". The guard charged through the form with his bayonet, then fainted. Only the General's testimony and corroboration at the court-martial saved the guard from a lengthy prison sentence for having fainted while on duty. In 1960, Canon W. S. Pakenham-Walsh, vicar of Sulgrave, Northamptonshire, reported having conversations with Anne.\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nIssue\",\n \"Anne Boleyn\\n\\nAncestry\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":136099,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"qg_485"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Pablo Picasso is one of the co-founders of what artistic movement?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Cubism"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["cubist artist","cubist","cubist painting","synthetic cubism","analytical cubism","multiple perspective","cubistic","cubism","analytic cubism","cubists"],"string":"[\n \"cubist artist\",\n \"cubist\",\n \"cubist painting\",\n \"synthetic cubism\",\n \"analytical cubism\",\n \"multiple perspective\",\n \"cubistic\",\n \"cubism\",\n \"analytic cubism\",\n \"cubists\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Pablo Picasso\n\nPablo Ruiz y Picasso, also known as Pablo Picasso (; ; 25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973), was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. Regarded as one of the greatest and most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding the Cubist movement, the invention of constructed sculpture, the co-invention of collage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are the proto-Cubist Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), and Guernica (1937), a portrayal of the Bombing of Guernica by the German and Italian airforces at the behest of the Spanish nationalist government during the Spanish Civil War.","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso, Henri Matisse and Marcel Duchamp are regarded as the three artists who most defined the revolutionary developments in the plastic arts in the opening decades of the 20th century, responsible for significant developments in painting, sculpture, printmaking and ceramics.","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his early years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood and adolescence. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, and ideas. His work is often categorized into periods. While the names of many of his later periods are debated, the most commonly accepted periods in his work are the Blue Period (1901–1904), the Rose Period (1904–1906), the African-influenced Period (1907–1909), Analytic Cubism (1909–1912), and Synthetic Cubism (1912–1919), also referred to as the Crystal period.","Pablo Picasso\n\nExceptionally prolific throughout the course of his long life, Picasso achieved universal renown and immense fortune for his revolutionary artistic accomplishments, and became one of the best-known figures in 20th-century art.","Pablo Picasso\n\nEarly life","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso was baptized Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Ruiz y Picasso, a series of names honoring various saints and relatives. Ruiz y Picasso were included for his father and mother, respectively, as per Spanish law. Born in the city of Málaga in the Andalusian region of Spain, he was the first child of Don José Ruiz y Blasco (1838–1913) and María Picasso y López. His mother was of Italian descent, from the territory of Genoa. Though baptized a Catholic, Picasso would later on become an atheist. Picasso's family was of middle-class background. His father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts and a curator of a local museum. Ruiz's ancestors were minor aristocrats.","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were \"piz, piz\", a shortening of lápiz, the Spanish word for \"pencil\". From the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was a traditional academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters, and drawing the human body from plaster casts and live models. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork.","Pablo Picasso\n\nThe family moved to A Coruña in 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. They stayed almost four years. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his unfinished sketch of a pigeon. Observing the precision of his son's technique, an apocryphal story relates, Ruiz felt that the thirteen-year-old Picasso had surpassed him, and vowed to give up painting, though paintings by him exist from later years.","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his seven-year-old sister, Conchita, died of diphtheria. After her death, the family moved to Barcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home. Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, and the jury admitted him, at just 13. The student lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a small room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day, judging his drawings. The two argued frequently.","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso's father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrid's Royal Academy of San Fernando, the country's foremost art school. At age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrollment. Madrid held many other attractions. The Prado housed paintings by Diego Velázquez, Francisco Goya, and Francisco Zurbarán. Picasso especially admired the works of El Greco; elements such as his elongated limbs, arresting colors, and mystical visages are echoed in Picasso's later work.","Pablo Picasso\n\nCareer beginnings","Pablo Picasso\n\nBefore 1900","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso's training under his father began before 1890. His progress can be traced in the collection of early works now held by the Museu Picasso in Barcelona, which provides one of the most comprehensive records extant of any major artist's beginnings. During 1893 the juvenile quality of his earliest work falls away, and by 1894 his career as a painter can be said to have begun. The academic realism apparent in the works of the mid-1890s is well displayed in The First Communion (1896), a large composition that depicts his sister, Lola. In the same year, at the age of 14, he painted Portrait of Aunt Pepa, a vigorous and dramatic portrait that Juan-Eduardo Cirlot has called \"without a doubt one of the greatest in the whole history of Spanish painting.\"","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn 1897 his realism became tinged with Symbolist influence, in a series of landscape paintings rendered in non-naturalistic violet and green tones. What some call his Modernist period (1899–1900) followed. His exposure to the work of Rossetti, Steinlen, Toulouse-Lautrec and Edvard Munch, combined with his admiration for favorite old masters such as El Greco, led Picasso to a personal version of modernism in his works of this period.","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso made his first trip to Paris, then the art capital of Europe, in 1900. There, he met his first Parisian friend, journalist and poet Max Jacob, who helped Picasso learn the language and its literature. Soon they shared an apartment; Max slept at night while Picasso slept during the day and worked at night. These were times of severe poverty, cold, and desperation. Much of his work was burned to keep the small room warm. During the first five months of 1901, Picasso lived in Madrid, where he and his anarchist friend Francisco de Asís Soler founded the magazine Arte Joven (Young Art), which published five issues. Soler solicited articles and Picasso illustrated the journal, mostly contributing grim cartoons depicting and sympathizing with the state of the poor. The first issue was published on 31 March 1901, by which time the artist had started to sign his work Picasso; before he had signed Pablo Ruiz y Picasso.","Pablo Picasso\n\nBlue Period","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso's Blue Period (1901–1904), characterized by somber paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green, only occasionally warmed by other colors, began either in Spain in early 1901, or in Paris in the second half of the year. Many paintings of gaunt mothers with children date from the Blue Period, during which Picasso divided his time between Barcelona and Paris. In his austere use of color and sometimes doleful subject matter – prostitutes and beggars are frequent subjects – Picasso was influenced by a trip through Spain and by the suicide of his friend Carlos Casagemas. Starting in autumn of 1901 he painted several posthumous portraits of Casagemas, culminating in the gloomy allegorical painting La Vie (1903), now in the Cleveland Museum of Art.","Pablo Picasso\n\nThe same mood pervades the well-known etching The Frugal Repast (1904), which depicts a blind man and a sighted woman, both emaciated, seated at a nearly bare table. Blindness is a recurrent theme in Picasso's works of this period, also represented in The Blindman's Meal (1903, the Metropolitan Museum of Art) and in the portrait of Celestina (1903). Other works include Portrait of Soler and Portrait of Suzanne Bloch.","Pablo Picasso\n\nRose Period","Pablo Picasso\n\nThe Rose Period (1904–1906) is characterized by a more cheery style with orange and pink colors, and featuring many circus people, acrobats and harlequins known in France as saltimbanques. The harlequin, a comedic character usually depicted in checkered patterned clothing, became a personal symbol for Picasso. Picasso met Fernande Olivier, a bohemian artist who became his mistress, in Paris in 1904. Olivier appears in many of his Rose Period paintings, many of which are influenced by his warm relationship with her, in addition to his increased exposure to French painting. The generally upbeat and optimistic mood of paintings in this period is reminiscent of the 1899–1901 period (i.e. just prior to the Blue Period) and 1904 can be considered a transition year between the two periods.","Pablo Picasso\n\nBy 1905, Picasso became a favorite of American art collectors Leo and Gertrude Stein. Their older brother Michael Stein and his wife Sarah also became collectors of his work. Picasso painted portraits of both Gertrude Stein and her nephew Allan Stein. Gertrude Stein became Picasso's principal patron, acquiring his drawings and paintings and exhibiting them in her informal Salon at her home in Paris. At one of her gatherings in 1905, he met Henri Matisse, who was to become a lifelong friend and rival. The Steins introduced him to Claribel Cone and her sister Etta who were American art collectors; they also began to acquire Picasso and Matisse's paintings. Eventually Leo Stein moved to Italy. Michael and Sarah Stein became patrons of Matisse, while Gertrude Stein continued to collect Picasso.","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn 1907 Picasso joined an art gallery that had recently been opened in Paris by Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler. Kahnweiler was a German art historian and art collector who became one of the premier French art dealers of the 20th century. He was among the first champions of Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque and the Cubism that they jointly developed. Kahnweiler promoted burgeoning artists such as André Derain, Kees van Dongen, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Maurice de Vlaminck and several others who had come from all over the globe to live and work in Montparnasse at the time.","Pablo Picasso\n\nModern art transformed","Pablo Picasso\n\nAfrican-influenced Period","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso's African-influenced Period (1907–1909) begins with the two figures on the right in his painting, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, which were inspired by African artefacts. Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that follows.","Pablo Picasso\n\nCubism","Pablo Picasso\n\nAnalytic cubism (1909–1912) is a style of painting Picasso developed with Georges Braque using monochrome brownish and neutral colors. Both artists took apart objects and \"analyzed\" them in terms of their shapes. Picasso and Braque's paintings at this time share many similarities. Synthetic cubism (1912–1919) was a further development of the genre, in which cut paper fragments – often wallpaper or portions of newspaper pages – were pasted into compositions, marking the first use of collage in fine art.","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn Paris, Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of friends in the Montmartre and Montparnasse quarters, including André Breton, poet Guillaume Apollinaire, writer Alfred Jarry, and Gertrude Stein. Apollinaire was arrested on suspicion of stealing the Mona Lisa from the Louvre in 1911. Apollinaire pointed to his friend Picasso, who was also brought in for questioning, but both were later exonerated.","Pablo Picasso\n\nCrystal period","Pablo Picasso\n\nBetween 1915 and 1917, Picasso began a series of paintings depicting highly geometric and minimalist Cubist objects, consisting of either a pipe, a guitar or a glass, with an occasional element of collage. \"Hard-edged square-cut diamonds\", notes art historian John Richardson, \"these gems do not always have upside or downside\". \"We need a new name to designate them,\" wrote Picasso to Gertrude Stein: Maurice Raynal suggested \"Crystal Cubism\". These \"little gems\" may have been produced by Picasso in response to critics who had claimed his defection from the movement, through his experimentation with classicism within the so-called return to order following the war.","Pablo Picasso\n\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1909, Femme assise (Sitzende Frau), oil on canvas, 100 x 80 cm, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Neue Nationalgalerie.jpg|1909, Femme assise (Sitzende Frau), oil on canvas, 100 × 80 cm, Staatliche Museen, Neue Nationalgalerie, Berlin\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1909-10, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 x 73 cm, Tate Modern, London.jpg|1909–10, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 × 73 cm, Tate Modern, London. This painting from the collection of Wilhelm Uhde was confiscated by the French state and sold at the Hôtel Drouot in 1921\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1910, Woman with Mustard Pot (La Femme au pot de moutarde), oil on canvas, 73 x 60 cm, Gemeentemuseum, The Hague. Exhibited at the Armory Show, New York, Chicago, Boston 1913.jpg|1910, Woman with Mustard Pot (La Femme au pot de moutarde), oil on canvas, 73 × 60 cm, Gemeentemuseum, The Hague.","Pablo Picasso\n\nExhibited at the Armory Show, New York, Chicago, Boston 1913\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1910, Girl with a Mandolin (Fanny Tellier), oil on canvas, 100.3 x 73.6 cm, Museum of Modern Art New York..jpg|1910, Girl with a Mandolin (Fanny Tellier), oil on canvas, 100.3 × 73.6 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York\nFile:Picasso Portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler 1910.jpg|1910, Portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, The Art Institute of Chicago. Picasso wrote of Kahnweiler \"What would have become of us if Kahnweiler hadn't had a business sense?\"\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1910-11, Guitariste, La mandoliniste, Woman playing guitar, oil on canvas.jpg|1910–11, Guitariste, La mandoliniste (Woman playing guitar or mandolin), oil on canvas\nFile:Pablo Picasso, c.1911, Le Guitariste.jpg|c.1911, Le Guitariste. Reproduced in Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger, Du \"Cubisme\", 1912\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1911, Still Life with a Bottle of Rum, oil on canvas, 61.3 x 50.5 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.jpg|1911, Still Life with a Bottle of Rum, oil on canvas, 61.3 × 50.5 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1911, The Poet (Le poète), Céret, oil on linen, 131.2 × 89.5 cm, The Solomon R.","Pablo Picasso\n\nGuggenheim Foundation, Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice.jpg|1911, The Poet (Le poète), oil on linen, 131.2 × 89.5 cm (51 5/8 × 35 1/4 in), The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1911-12, Violon (Violin), oil on canvas, Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands.jpg|1911–12, Violon (Violin), oil on canvas, 100 × 73 cm (oval), Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands. This painting from the collection of Wilhelm Uhde was confiscated by the French state and sold at the Hôtel Drouot in 1921\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1913, Bouteille, clarinette, violon, journal, verre.jpg|1913, Bouteille, clarinet, violon, journal, verre, 55 × 45 cm. This painting from the collection of Wilhelm Uhde was confiscated by the French state and sold at the Hôtel Drouot in 1921\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1913-14, Woman in a Chemise in an Armchair, oil on canvas, 149.9 x 99.4 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|1913, Femme assise dans un fauteuil (Eva), Woman in a Chemise in an Armchair, oil on canvas, 149.9 × 99.4 cm, Leonard A.","Pablo Picasso\n\nLauder Cubist Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1913-14, Head (Tête), cut and pasted colored paper, gouache and charcoal on paperboard, 43.5 x 33 cm, Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh.jpg|1913–14, Head (Tête), cut and pasted colored paper, gouache and charcoal on paperboard, 43.5 × 33 cm, Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1913-14, L'Homme aux cartes (Card Player), oil on canvas, 108 x 89.5 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York.jpg|1913–14, L'Homme aux cartes (Card Player), oil on canvas, 108 × 89.5 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1914-15, Nature morte au compotier (Still Life with Compote and Glass), oil on canvas, 63.5 x 78.7 cm (25 x 31 in), Columbus Museum of Art, Ohio.jpg|1914–15, Nature morte au compotier (Still Life with Compote and Glass), oil on canvas, 63.5 × 78.7 cm (25 × 31 in), Columbus Museum of Art, Ohio\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1916, L'anis del mono (Bottle of Anis del Mono) oil on canvas, 46 x 54.6 cm, Detroit Institute of Arts, Michigan.jpg|1916, L'anis del mono (Bottle of Anis del Mono), oil on canvas, 46 × 54.6 cm, Detroit Institute of Arts, Michigan","Pablo Picasso\n\nFame","Pablo Picasso\n\nAfter acquiring some fame and fortune, Picasso left Olivier for Marcelle Humbert, who he called Eva Gouel. Picasso included declarations of his love for Eva in many Cubist works. Picasso was devastated by her premature death from illness at the age of 30 in 1915.","Pablo Picasso\n\nAt the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 Picasso was living in Avignon. Braque and Derain were mobilized and Apollinaire joined the French artillery, while the Spaniard Juan Gris remained from the Cubist circle. During the war Picasso was able to continue painting uninterrupted, unlike his French comrades. His paintings became more sombre and his life changed with dramatic consequences. Kahnweiler’s contract had terminated on his exile from France. At this point Picasso’s work would be taken on by the art dealer Léonce Rosenberg. After the loss of Eva Gouel, Picasso had an affair with Gaby Lespinasse. During the spring of 1916 Apollinaire returned from the front wounded. They renewed their friendship, but Picasso began to frequent new social circles.","Pablo Picasso\n\nTowards the end of World War I, Picasso made a number of important relationships with figures associated with Serge Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. Among his friends during this period were Jean Cocteau, Jean Hugo, Juan Gris, and others. In the summer of 1918, Picasso married Olga Khokhlova, a ballerina with Sergei Diaghilev's troupe, for whom Picasso was designing a ballet, Erik Satie's Parade, in Rome; they spent their honeymoon near Biarritz in the villa of glamorous Chilean art patron Eugenia Errázuriz.","Pablo Picasso\n\nAfter returning from his honeymoon, and in desperate need of money, Picasso started his exclusive relationship with the French-Jewish art dealer Paul Rosenberg. As part of his first duties, Rosenberg agreed to rent the couple an apartment in Paris at his own expense, which was located next to his own house. This was the start of a deep brother-like friendship between two very different men, that would last until the outbreak of World War II.","Pablo Picasso\n\nKhokhlova introduced Picasso to high society, formal dinner parties, and all the social niceties attendant to the life of the rich in 1920s Paris. The two had a son, Paulo Picasso, who would grow up to be a dissolute motorcycle racer and chauffeur to his father. Khokhlova's insistence on social propriety clashed with Picasso's bohemian tendencies and the two lived in a state of constant conflict. During the same period that Picasso collaborated with Diaghilev's troupe, he and Igor Stravinsky collaborated on Pulcinella in 1920. Picasso took the opportunity to make several drawings of the composer.","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn 1927 Picasso met 17-year-old Marie-Thérèse Walter and began a secret affair with her. Picasso's marriage to Khokhlova soon ended in separation rather than divorce, as French law required an even division of property in the case of divorce, and Picasso did not want Khokhlova to have half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova's death in 1955. Picasso carried on a long-standing affair with Marie-Thérèse Walter and fathered a daughter with her, named Maya. Marie-Thérèse lived in the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and hanged herself four years after Picasso's death. Throughout his life Picasso maintained several mistresses in addition to his wife or primary partner. Picasso was married twice and had four children by three women:","Pablo Picasso\n\n* Paulo (4 February 1921 – 5 June 1975) (Born Paul Joseph Picasso) – with Olga Khokhlova\n* Maya (5 September 1935 – ) (Born Maria de la Concepcion Picasso) – with Marie-Thérèse Walter\n* Claude (15 May 1947 –) (Born Claude Pierre Pablo Picasso) – with Françoise Gilot\n* Paloma (19 April 1949 – ) (Born Anne Paloma Picasso) – with Françoise Gilot","Pablo Picasso\n\nPhotographer and painter Dora Maar was also a constant companion and lover of Picasso. The two were closest in the late 1930s and early 1940s, and it was Maar who documented the painting of Guernica.","Pablo Picasso\n\nClassicism and surrealism","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn February 1917, Picasso made his first trip to Italy. In the period following the upheaval of World War I, Picasso produced work in a neoclassical style. This \"return to order\" is evident in the work of many European artists in the 1920s, including André Derain, Giorgio de Chirico, Gino Severini, Jean Metzinger, the artists of the New Objectivity movement and of the Novecento Italiano movement. Picasso's paintings and drawings from this period frequently recall the work of Raphael and Ingres.","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn 1925 the Surrealist writer and poet André Breton declared Picasso as 'one of ours' in his article Le Surréalisme et la peinture, published in Révolution surréaliste. Les Demoiselles was reproduced for the first time in Europe in the same issue. Yet Picasso exhibited Cubist works at the first Surrealist group exhibition in 1925; the concept of 'psychic automatism in its pure state' defined in the Manifeste du surréalisme never appealed to him entirely. He did at the time develop new imagery and formal syntax for expressing himself emotionally, \"releasing the violence, the psychic fears and the eroticism that had been largely contained or sublimated since 1909\", writes art historian Melissa McQuillan. Although this transition in Picasso's work was informed by Cubism for its spatial relations, \"the fusion of ritual and abandon in the imagery recalls the primitivism of the Demoiselles and the elusive psychological resonances of his Symbolist work\", writes McQuillan. Surrealism revived Picasso’s attraction to primitivism and eroticism.","Pablo Picasso\n\nDuring the 1930s, the minotaur replaced the harlequin as a common motif in his work. His use of the minotaur came partly from his contact with the surrealists, who often used it as their symbol, and it appears in Picasso's Guernica. The minotaur and Picasso's mistress Marie-Thérèse Walter are heavily featured in his celebrated Vollard Suite of etchings.","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn 1939–40 the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, under its director Alfred Barr, a Picasso enthusiast, held a major retrospective of Picasso's principal works until that time. This exhibition lionized the artist, brought into full public view in America the scope of his artistry, and resulted in a reinterpretation of his work by contemporary art historians and scholars.","Pablo Picasso\n\nArguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of the German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War – Guernica. This large canvas embodies for many the inhumanity, brutality and hopelessness of war. Asked to explain its symbolism, Picasso said, \"It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them.\"","Pablo Picasso\n\nGuernica was on display in New York's Museum of Modern Art for many years. In 1981, it was returned to Spain and was on exhibit at the Casón del Buen Retiro. In 1992 the painting was put on display in Madrid's Reina Sofía Museum when it opened.","Pablo Picasso\n\nWorld War II and beyond","Pablo Picasso\n\nDuring the Second World War, Picasso remained in Paris while the Germans occupied the city. Picasso's artistic style did not fit the Nazi ideal of art, so he did not exhibit during this time. He was often harassed by the Gestapo. During one search of his apartment, an officer saw a photograph of the painting Guernica. \"Did you do that?\" the German asked Picasso. \"No,\" he replied, \"You did\".","Pablo Picasso\n\nRetreating to his studio, he continued to paint, producing works such as the Still Life with Guitar (1942) and The Charnel House (1944–48). Although the Germans outlawed bronze casting in Paris, Picasso continued regardless, using bronze smuggled to him by the French Resistance.","Pablo Picasso\n\nAround this time, Picasso took up writing as an alternative outlet. Between 1935 and 1959 he wrote over 300 poems. Largely untitled except for a date and sometimes the location of where it was written (for example \"Paris 16 May 1936\"), these works were gustatory, erotic and at times scatological, as were his two full-length plays Desire Caught by the Tail (1941) and The Four Little Girls (1949).","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn 1944, after the liberation of Paris, Picasso, then 63 years old, began a romantic relationship with a young art student named Françoise Gilot. She was 40 years younger than he was. Picasso grew tired of his mistress Dora Maar; Picasso and Gilot began to live together. Eventually they had two children: Claude, born in 1947 and Paloma, born in 1949. In her 1964 book Life with Picasso, Gilot describes his abusive treatment and myriad infidelities which led her to leave him, taking the children with her. This was a severe blow to Picasso.","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso had affairs with women of an even greater age disparity than his and Gilot's. While still involved with Gilot, in 1951 Picasso had a six-week affair with Geneviève Laporte, who was four years younger than Gilot. By his 70s, many paintings, ink drawings and prints have as their theme an old, grotesque dwarf as the doting lover of a beautiful young model.\nJacqueline Roque (1927–1986) worked at the Madoura Pottery in Vallauris on the French Riviera, where Picasso made and painted ceramics. She became his lover, and then his second wife in 1961. The two were together for the remainder of Picasso's life.","Pablo Picasso\n\nHis marriage to Roque was also a means of revenge against Gilot; with Picasso's encouragement, Gilot had divorced her then husband, Luc Simon, with the plan to marry Picasso to secure the rights of her children as Picasso's legitimate heirs. Picasso had already secretly married Roque, after Gilot had filed for divorce. This strained his relationship with Claude and Paloma.","Pablo Picasso\n\nBy this time, Picasso had constructed a huge Gothic home, and could afford large villas in the south of France, such as Mas Notre-Dame-de-Vie on the outskirts of Mougins, and in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. He was an international celebrity, with often as much interest in his personal life as his art.","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn addition to his artistic accomplishments, Picasso made a few film appearances, always as himself, including a cameo in Jean Cocteau's Testament of Orpheus. In 1955 he helped make the film Le Mystère Picasso (The Mystery of Picasso) directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot.","Pablo Picasso\n\nLater works","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the 3rd Sculpture International held at the Philadelphia Museum of Art in mid-1949. In the 1950s, Picasso's style changed once again, as he took to producing reinterpretations of the art of the great masters. He made a series of works based on Velázquez's painting of Las Meninas. He also based paintings on works by Goya, Poussin, Manet, Courbet and Delacroix.","Pablo Picasso\n\nHe was commissioned to make a maquette for a huge 50 ft-high public sculpture to be built in Chicago, known usually as the Chicago Picasso. He approached the project with a great deal of enthusiasm, designing a sculpture which was ambiguous and somewhat controversial. What the figure represents is not known; it could be a bird, a horse, a woman or a totally abstract shape. The sculpture, one of the most recognizable landmarks in downtown Chicago, was unveiled in 1967. Picasso refused to be paid $100,000 for it, donating it to the people of the city.","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso's final works were a mixture of styles, his means of expression in constant flux until the end of his life. Devoting his full energies to his work, Picasso became more daring, his works more colorful and expressive, and from 1968 to 1971 he produced a torrent of paintings and hundreds of copperplate etchings. At the time these works were dismissed by most as pornographic fantasies of an impotent old man or the slapdash works of an artist who was past his prime. Only later, after Picasso's death, when the rest of the art world had moved on from abstract expressionism, did the critical community come to see that Picasso had already discovered Neo-Expressionism and was, as so often before, ahead of his time.","Pablo Picasso\n\nDeath","Pablo Picasso\n\nPablo Picasso died on 8 April 1973 in Mougins, France, while he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinner. He was interred at the Chateau of Vauvenargues near Aix-en-Provence, a property he had acquired in 1958 and occupied with Jacqueline between 1959 and 1962. Jacqueline Roque prevented his children Claude and Paloma from attending the funeral. Devastated and lonely after the death of Picasso, Jacqueline Roque killed herself by gunshot in 1986 when she was 59 years old.","Pablo Picasso\n\nPolitical views","Pablo Picasso\n\nAside from the several anti-war paintings that he created, Picasso remained personally neutral during World War I, the Spanish Civil War, and World War II, refusing to join the armed forces for any side or country. He had also remained aloof from the Catalan independence movement during his youth despite expressing general support and being friendly with activists within it. At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1937, Picasso was already in his late fifties. He was even older at the onset of World War II, and could not be expected to take up arms in those conflicts. As a Spanish citizen living in France, Picasso was under no compulsion to fight against the invading Germans in either World War. (However, in 1940 he did apply for French citizenship, but it was refused on the grounds of his \"extremist ideas evolving towards communism\". This information was not revealed until 2003.) In the Spanish Civil War, service for Spaniards living abroad was optional and would have involved a voluntary return to their country to join either side. While Picasso expressed anger and condemnation of Francisco Franco and fascists through his art, he did not take up arms against them.","Pablo Picasso\n\nThe Spanish Civil War provided the impetus for Picasso's first overtly political work, The Dream and Lie of Franco which was produced \"specifically for propagandistic and fundraising purposes.\" This surreal fusion of words and images was intended to be sold as a series of postcards to raise funds for the Spanish Republican cause.","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn 1944 Picasso joined the French Communist Party, attended an international peace conference in Poland, and in 1950 received the Stalin Peace Prize from the Soviet government, But party criticism of a portrait of Stalin as insufficiently realistic cooled Picasso's interest in Soviet politics, though he remained a loyal member of the Communist Party until his death. In a 1945 interview with Jerome Seckler, Picasso stated: \"I am a Communist and my painting is Communist painting. ... But if I were a shoemaker, Royalist or Communist or anything else, I would not necessarily hammer my shoes in a special way to show my politics.\" His Communist militancy, common among continental intellectuals and artists at the time (although it was officially banned in Francoist Spain), has long been the subject of some controversy; a notable source or demonstration thereof was a quote commonly attributed to Salvador Dalí (with whom Picasso had a rather strained relationship ):\nPicasso es pintor, yo también; [...] Picasso es español, yo también; Picasso es comunista, yo tampoco.\n(Picasso is a painter, so am I; [...] Picasso is a Spaniard, so am I; Picasso is a communist, neither am I.)","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn the late 1940s his old friend the surrealist poet and Trotskyist and anti-Stalinist André Breton was more blunt; refusing to shake hands with Picasso, he told him: \"I don't approve of your joining the Communist Party nor with the stand you have taken concerning the purges of the intellectuals after the Liberation\".","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn 1962, he received the Lenin Peace Prize. Biographer and art critic John Berger felt his talents as an artist were \"wasted\" by the communists.","Pablo Picasso\n\nAccording to Jean Cocteau's diaries, Picasso once said to him in reference to the communists: \"I have joined a family, and like all families, it's full of shit\".","Pablo Picasso\n\nHe was against the intervention of the United Nations and the United States in the Korean War and he depicted it in Massacre in Korea.","Pablo Picasso\n\nStyle and technique","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso was exceptionally prolific throughout his long lifetime. The total number of artworks he produced has been estimated at 50,000, comprising 1,885 paintings; 1,228 sculptures; 2,880 ceramics, roughly 12,000 drawings, many thousands of prints, and numerous tapestries and rugs.","Pablo Picasso\n\nThe medium in which Picasso made his most important contribution was painting. In his paintings, Picasso used color as an expressive element, but relied on drawing rather than subtleties of color to create form and space. He sometimes added sand to his paint to vary its texture. A nanoprobe of Picasso's The Red Armchair (1931) by physicists at Argonne National Laboratory in 2012 confirmed art historians' belief that Picasso used common house paint in many of his paintings. Much of his painting was done at night by artificial light.","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso's early sculptures were carved from wood or modeled in wax or clay, but from 1909 to 1928 Picasso abandoned modeling and instead made sculptural constructions using diverse materials. An example is Guitar (1912), a relief construction made of sheet metal and wire that Jane Fluegel terms a \"three-dimensional planar counterpart of Cubist painting\" that marks a \"revolutionary departure from the traditional approaches, modeling and carving\".","Pablo Picasso\n\nFrom the beginning of his career, Picasso displayed an interest in subject matter of every kind, and demonstrated a great stylistic versatility that enabled him to work in several styles at once. For example, his paintings of 1917 included the pointillist Woman with a Mantilla, the Cubist Figure in an Armchair, and the naturalistic Harlequin (all in the Museu Picasso, Barcelona). In 1919, he made a number of drawings from postcards and photographs that reflect his interest in the stylistic conventions and static character of posed photographs. In 1921 he simultaneously painted several large neoclassical paintings and two versions of the Cubist composition Three Musicians (Museum of Modern Art, New York; Philadelphia Museum of Art). In an interview published in 1923, Picasso said, \"The several manners I have used in my art must not be considered as an evolution, or as steps towards an unknown ideal of painting ... If the subjects I have wanted to express have suggested different ways of expression I have never hesitated to adopt them.\"","Pablo Picasso\n\nAlthough his Cubist works approach abstraction, Picasso never relinquished the objects of the real world as subject matter. Prominent in his Cubist paintings are forms easily recognized as guitars, violins, and bottles. When Picasso depicted complex narrative scenes it was usually in prints, drawings, and small-scale works; Guernica (1937) is one of his few large narrative paintings.","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso painted mostly from imagination or memory. According to William Rubin, Picasso \"could only make great art from subjects that truly involved him ... Unlike Matisse, Picasso had eschewed models virtually all his mature life, preferring to paint individuals whose lives had both impinged on, and had real significance for, his own.\" The art critic Arthur Danto said Picasso's work constitutes a \"vast pictorial autobiography\" that provides some basis for the popular conception that \"Picasso invented a new style each time he fell in love with a new woman\". The autobiographical nature of Picasso's art is reinforced by his habit of dating his works, often to the day. He explained: \"I want to leave to posterity a documentation that will be as complete as possible. That's why I put a date on everything I do.\"","Pablo Picasso\n\nArtistic legacy","Pablo Picasso\n\nAt the time of Picasso's death many of his paintings were in his possession, as he had kept off the art market what he did not need to sell. In addition, Picasso had a considerable collection of the work of other famous artists, some his contemporaries, such as Henri Matisse, with whom he had exchanged works. Since Picasso left no will, his death duties (estate tax) to the French state were paid in the form of his works and others from his collection. These works form the core of the immense and representative collection of the Musée Picasso in Paris. In 2003, relatives of Picasso inaugurated a museum dedicated to him in his birthplace, Málaga, Spain, the Museo Picasso Málaga.","Pablo Picasso\n\nThe Museu Picasso in Barcelona features many of his early works, created while he was living in Spain, including many rarely seen works which reveal his firm grounding in classical techniques. The museum also holds many precise and detailed figure studies done in his youth under his father's tutelage, as well as the extensive collection of Jaime Sabartés, his close friend and personal secretary.","Pablo Picasso\n\nSeveral paintings by Picasso rank among the most expensive paintings in the world. Garçon à la pipe sold for US$104 million at Sotheby's on 4 May 2004, establishing a new price record. Dora Maar au Chat sold for US$95.2 million at Sotheby's on 3 May 2006. On 4 May 2010, Nude, Green Leaves and Bust was sold at Christie's for $106.5 million. The 1932 work, which depicts Picasso's mistress Marie-Thérèse Walter reclining and as a bust, was in the personal collection of Los Angeles philanthropist Frances Lasker Brody, who died in November 2009. On 11 May 2015 his painting Women of Algiers set the record for the highest price ever paid for a painting when it sold for US$179.3 million at Christie's in New York.","Pablo Picasso\n\nOn 21 June 2016 a painting by Pablo Picasso titled Femme Assise (1909) sold for £43.2 million ($63.4 million) at Sotheby's London, exceeding the estimate by nearly $20 million, setting a world record for the highest price every payed at auction for a Cubist work.","Pablo Picasso\n\nAs of 2004, Picasso remained the top-ranked artist (based on sales of his works at auctions) according to the Art Market Trends report. More of his paintings have been stolen than any other artist's; the Art Loss Register has 550 of his works listed as missing.","Pablo Picasso\n\nThe Picasso Administration functions as his official Estate. The US copyright representative for the Picasso Administration is the Artists Rights Society.","Pablo Picasso\n\nIn the 1996 movie Surviving Picasso, Picasso is portrayed by actor Anthony Hopkins. Picasso is also a character in Steve Martin's 1993 play, Picasso at the Lapin Agile.","Pablo Picasso\n\nRecent major exhibitions","Pablo Picasso\n\nPicasso: Masterpieces from the Musée National Picasso, Paris, an exhibition of 150 paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints and photographs from the Musée National Picasso in Paris. The exhibit touring schedule includes:\n* 8 October 2010 – 17 January 2011, Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington, US.\n* 19 February 2011 – 15 May 2011, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia, US.\n* 11 June 2011 – 9 October 2011, M. H. de Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, California, US. \n* 12 November 2011 – 25 March 2012, Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney. \n* 28 April 2012 – 26 August 2012, Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.","Pablo Picasso\n\nFile:Stamp P.JPG|Postage stamp, USSR, 1973. Picasso has been honoured on stamps worldwide.\nImage:HotelSale hinten.JPG|Musée Picasso, Paris (Hotel Salé, 1659)\nImage:Museu Picasso Barcelona.jpg|Museu Picasso is located in the gothic palaces of Montcada street in Barcelona\nImage:Art Museum Pablo Picasso Münster Arkaden.jpg|Art Museum Pablo Picasso Münster Arkaden","Art movement\n\nAn art movement is a tendency or style in art with a specific common philosophy or goal, followed by a group of artists during a restricted period of time, (usually a few months, years or decades) or, at least, with the heyday of the movement defined within a number of years. Art movements were especially important in modern art, when each consecutive movement was considered as a new avant-garde.","Art movement\n\nConcept","Art movement\n\nAccording to theories associated with modernism and the concept of postmodernism, art movements are especially important during the period of time corresponding to modern art. The period of time called \"modern art\" is posited to have changed approximately halfway through the 20th century and art made afterward is generally called contemporary art. Postmodernism in visual art begins and functions as a parallel to late modernism and refers to that period after the \"modern\" period called contemporary art. The postmodern period began during late modernism (which is a contemporary continuation of modernism), and according to some theorists postmodernism ended in the 21st century. During the period of time corresponding to \"modern art\" each consecutive movement was often considered a new avant-garde.","Art movement\n\nAlso during the period of time referred to as \"modern art\" each movement was seen corresponding to a somewhat grandiose rethinking of all that came before it, concerning the visual arts. Generally there was a commonality of visual style linking the works and artists included in an art movement. Verbal expression and explanation of movements has come from the artists themselves, sometimes in the form of an art manifesto,[http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/chapters/i8066.html \"Poetry of the Revolution. Marx, Manifestos, and the Avant-Gardes\" introduction, Martin Puchner] Retrieved April 4, 2006 and sometimes from art critics and others who may explain their understanding of the meaning of the new art then being produced.","Art movement\n\nIn the visual arts, many artists, theorists, art critics, art collectors, art dealers and others mindful of the unbroken continuation of modernism and the continuation of modern art even into the contemporary era, ascribe to and welcome new philosophies of art as they appear. Postmodernist theorists posit that the idea of art movements are no longer as applicable, or no longer as discernible, as the notion of art movements had been before the postmodern era. There are many theorists however who doubt as to whether or not such an era was actually a fact; or just a passing fad.","Art movement\n\nThe term refers to tendencies in visual art, novel ideas and architecture, and sometimes literature. In music it is more common to speak about genres and styles instead. See also cultural movement, a term with a broader connotation.","Art movement\n\nAs the names of many art movements use the -ism suffix (for example cubism and futurism), they are sometimes referred to as isms.","Art movement\n\n19th- and 20th-century art movements","Art movement\n\n19th century","Art movement\n\nFile:Jacques-Louis_David_006.jpg|Jacques-Louis David, The Coronation of Napoleon, (1806), Musée du Louvre, History painting\nFile:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|Eugène Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People 1830, Romanticism\nFile:The Course of Empire The Savage State Thomas Cole 1836.jpeg|Thomas Cole, The Course of Empire: The Savage State 1836, Hudson River School\nFile:Gustave Courbet 018.jpg|Gustave Courbet, Stone-Breakers, 1849, Realist School\nFile:corot.villedavray.750pix.jpg|Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, c. 1867, Ville d'Avray National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, Barbizon School \nFile:Claude Monet - Graystaks I.JPG|Claude Monet, Haystacks, (sunset), 1890–1891, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Impressionism\nFile:Van Gogh - Starry Night - Google Art Project.jpg|Vincent van Gogh, The Starry Night, 1889, Post-Impressionism\nFile:The Scream.jpg|Edvard Munch, 1893, early example of Expressionism","Art movement\n\n20th century","Art movement\n\n1900–1918","Art movement\n\nFile:Wassily Kandinsky, 1903, The Blue Rider (Der Blaue Reiter), oil on canvas, 52.1 x 54.6 cm, Stiftung Sammlung E.G. Bührle, Zurich.jpg|Wassily Kandinsky, 1903, Der Blaue Reiter \nFile:Family of Saltimbanques.JPG|Pablo Picasso, Family of Saltimbanques, 1905, Picasso's Rose Period\nFile:Matisse-Open-Window.jpg|Henri Matisse 1905, Fauvism\nFile:Les Demoiselles d'Avignon.jpg|Pablo Picasso 1907, Proto-Cubism\nFile:Violin and Candlestick.jpg|Georges Braque 1910, Analytic Cubism\nFile:Gray Tree 1911.jpg|Piet Mondrian, 1912, early De Stijl\nFile:Malevici06.jpg|Kazimir Malevich, (Supremus No. 58), Museum of Art, 1916, Suprematism\nFile:Duchamp Fountaine.jpg|Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, 1917, photograph by Alfred Stieglitz, Dada","Art movement\n\n1918–1945","Art movement\n\nFile:Theo van Doesburg Composition XX.jpg|Theo van Doesburg, Composition XX, 1920, De Stijl\nFile:The Elephant Celebes.jpg|Max Ernst, The Elephant Celebes (1921), Tate, Surrealism\nFile:NY Met demuth figure 5 gold.JPG|Charles Demuth, I Saw the Figure 5 in Gold, 1928, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Precisionism\nFile:Grant Wood - American Gothic - Google Art Project.jpg|Grant Wood, American Gothic, 1930, Social Realism","Art movement\n\n1940–1965","Art movement\n\n1965–2000","Art movement\n\n21st century"],"string":"[\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPablo Ruiz y Picasso, also known as Pablo Picasso (; ; 25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973), was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. Regarded as one of the greatest and most influential artists of the 20th century, he is known for co-founding the Cubist movement, the invention of constructed sculpture, the co-invention of collage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped develop and explore. Among his most famous works are the proto-Cubist Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), and Guernica (1937), a portrayal of the Bombing of Guernica by the German and Italian airforces at the behest of the Spanish nationalist government during the Spanish Civil War.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso, Henri Matisse and Marcel Duchamp are regarded as the three artists who most defined the revolutionary developments in the plastic arts in the opening decades of the 20th century, responsible for significant developments in painting, sculpture, printmaking and ceramics.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his early years, painting in a naturalistic manner through his childhood and adolescence. During the first decade of the 20th century, his style changed as he experimented with different theories, techniques, and ideas. His work is often categorized into periods. While the names of many of his later periods are debated, the most commonly accepted periods in his work are the Blue Period (1901–1904), the Rose Period (1904–1906), the African-influenced Period (1907–1909), Analytic Cubism (1909–1912), and Synthetic Cubism (1912–1919), also referred to as the Crystal period.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nExceptionally prolific throughout the course of his long life, Picasso achieved universal renown and immense fortune for his revolutionary artistic accomplishments, and became one of the best-known figures in 20th-century art.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso was baptized Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Ruiz y Picasso, a series of names honoring various saints and relatives. Ruiz y Picasso were included for his father and mother, respectively, as per Spanish law. Born in the city of Málaga in the Andalusian region of Spain, he was the first child of Don José Ruiz y Blasco (1838–1913) and María Picasso y López. His mother was of Italian descent, from the territory of Genoa. Though baptized a Catholic, Picasso would later on become an atheist. Picasso's family was of middle-class background. His father was a painter who specialized in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life Ruiz was a professor of art at the School of Crafts and a curator of a local museum. Ruiz's ancestors were minor aristocrats.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an early age. According to his mother, his first words were \\\"piz, piz\\\", a shortening of lápiz, the Spanish word for \\\"pencil\\\". From the age of seven, Picasso received formal artistic training from his father in figure drawing and oil painting. Ruiz was a traditional academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined copying of the masters, and drawing the human body from plaster casts and live models. His son became preoccupied with art to the detriment of his classwork.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nThe family moved to A Coruña in 1891, where his father became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. They stayed almost four years. On one occasion, the father found his son painting over his unfinished sketch of a pigeon. Observing the precision of his son's technique, an apocryphal story relates, Ruiz felt that the thirteen-year-old Picasso had surpassed him, and vowed to give up painting, though paintings by him exist from later years.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn 1895, Picasso was traumatized when his seven-year-old sister, Conchita, died of diphtheria. After her death, the family moved to Barcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city, regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true home. Ruiz persuaded the officials at the academy to allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, and the jury admitted him, at just 13. The student lacked discipline but made friendships that would affect him in later life. His father rented a small room for him close to home so he could work alone, yet he checked up on him numerous times a day, judging his drawings. The two argued frequently.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso's father and uncle decided to send the young artist to Madrid's Royal Academy of San Fernando, the country's foremost art school. At age 16, Picasso set off for the first time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction and stopped attending classes soon after enrollment. Madrid held many other attractions. The Prado housed paintings by Diego Velázquez, Francisco Goya, and Francisco Zurbarán. Picasso especially admired the works of El Greco; elements such as his elongated limbs, arresting colors, and mystical visages are echoed in Picasso's later work.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nCareer beginnings\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nBefore 1900\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso's training under his father began before 1890. His progress can be traced in the collection of early works now held by the Museu Picasso in Barcelona, which provides one of the most comprehensive records extant of any major artist's beginnings. During 1893 the juvenile quality of his earliest work falls away, and by 1894 his career as a painter can be said to have begun. The academic realism apparent in the works of the mid-1890s is well displayed in The First Communion (1896), a large composition that depicts his sister, Lola. In the same year, at the age of 14, he painted Portrait of Aunt Pepa, a vigorous and dramatic portrait that Juan-Eduardo Cirlot has called \\\"without a doubt one of the greatest in the whole history of Spanish painting.\\\"\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn 1897 his realism became tinged with Symbolist influence, in a series of landscape paintings rendered in non-naturalistic violet and green tones. What some call his Modernist period (1899–1900) followed. His exposure to the work of Rossetti, Steinlen, Toulouse-Lautrec and Edvard Munch, combined with his admiration for favorite old masters such as El Greco, led Picasso to a personal version of modernism in his works of this period.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso made his first trip to Paris, then the art capital of Europe, in 1900. There, he met his first Parisian friend, journalist and poet Max Jacob, who helped Picasso learn the language and its literature. Soon they shared an apartment; Max slept at night while Picasso slept during the day and worked at night. These were times of severe poverty, cold, and desperation. Much of his work was burned to keep the small room warm. During the first five months of 1901, Picasso lived in Madrid, where he and his anarchist friend Francisco de Asís Soler founded the magazine Arte Joven (Young Art), which published five issues. Soler solicited articles and Picasso illustrated the journal, mostly contributing grim cartoons depicting and sympathizing with the state of the poor. The first issue was published on 31 March 1901, by which time the artist had started to sign his work Picasso; before he had signed Pablo Ruiz y Picasso.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nBlue Period\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso's Blue Period (1901–1904), characterized by somber paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green, only occasionally warmed by other colors, began either in Spain in early 1901, or in Paris in the second half of the year. Many paintings of gaunt mothers with children date from the Blue Period, during which Picasso divided his time between Barcelona and Paris. In his austere use of color and sometimes doleful subject matter – prostitutes and beggars are frequent subjects – Picasso was influenced by a trip through Spain and by the suicide of his friend Carlos Casagemas. Starting in autumn of 1901 he painted several posthumous portraits of Casagemas, culminating in the gloomy allegorical painting La Vie (1903), now in the Cleveland Museum of Art.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nThe same mood pervades the well-known etching The Frugal Repast (1904), which depicts a blind man and a sighted woman, both emaciated, seated at a nearly bare table. Blindness is a recurrent theme in Picasso's works of this period, also represented in The Blindman's Meal (1903, the Metropolitan Museum of Art) and in the portrait of Celestina (1903). Other works include Portrait of Soler and Portrait of Suzanne Bloch.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nRose Period\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nThe Rose Period (1904–1906) is characterized by a more cheery style with orange and pink colors, and featuring many circus people, acrobats and harlequins known in France as saltimbanques. The harlequin, a comedic character usually depicted in checkered patterned clothing, became a personal symbol for Picasso. Picasso met Fernande Olivier, a bohemian artist who became his mistress, in Paris in 1904. Olivier appears in many of his Rose Period paintings, many of which are influenced by his warm relationship with her, in addition to his increased exposure to French painting. The generally upbeat and optimistic mood of paintings in this period is reminiscent of the 1899–1901 period (i.e. just prior to the Blue Period) and 1904 can be considered a transition year between the two periods.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nBy 1905, Picasso became a favorite of American art collectors Leo and Gertrude Stein. Their older brother Michael Stein and his wife Sarah also became collectors of his work. Picasso painted portraits of both Gertrude Stein and her nephew Allan Stein. Gertrude Stein became Picasso's principal patron, acquiring his drawings and paintings and exhibiting them in her informal Salon at her home in Paris. At one of her gatherings in 1905, he met Henri Matisse, who was to become a lifelong friend and rival. The Steins introduced him to Claribel Cone and her sister Etta who were American art collectors; they also began to acquire Picasso and Matisse's paintings. Eventually Leo Stein moved to Italy. Michael and Sarah Stein became patrons of Matisse, while Gertrude Stein continued to collect Picasso.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn 1907 Picasso joined an art gallery that had recently been opened in Paris by Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler. Kahnweiler was a German art historian and art collector who became one of the premier French art dealers of the 20th century. He was among the first champions of Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque and the Cubism that they jointly developed. Kahnweiler promoted burgeoning artists such as André Derain, Kees van Dongen, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Maurice de Vlaminck and several others who had come from all over the globe to live and work in Montparnasse at the time.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nModern art transformed\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nAfrican-influenced Period\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso's African-influenced Period (1907–1909) begins with the two figures on the right in his painting, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, which were inspired by African artefacts. Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into the Cubist period that follows.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nCubism\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nAnalytic cubism (1909–1912) is a style of painting Picasso developed with Georges Braque using monochrome brownish and neutral colors. Both artists took apart objects and \\\"analyzed\\\" them in terms of their shapes. Picasso and Braque's paintings at this time share many similarities. Synthetic cubism (1912–1919) was a further development of the genre, in which cut paper fragments – often wallpaper or portions of newspaper pages – were pasted into compositions, marking the first use of collage in fine art.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn Paris, Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of friends in the Montmartre and Montparnasse quarters, including André Breton, poet Guillaume Apollinaire, writer Alfred Jarry, and Gertrude Stein. Apollinaire was arrested on suspicion of stealing the Mona Lisa from the Louvre in 1911. Apollinaire pointed to his friend Picasso, who was also brought in for questioning, but both were later exonerated.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nCrystal period\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nBetween 1915 and 1917, Picasso began a series of paintings depicting highly geometric and minimalist Cubist objects, consisting of either a pipe, a guitar or a glass, with an occasional element of collage. \\\"Hard-edged square-cut diamonds\\\", notes art historian John Richardson, \\\"these gems do not always have upside or downside\\\". \\\"We need a new name to designate them,\\\" wrote Picasso to Gertrude Stein: Maurice Raynal suggested \\\"Crystal Cubism\\\". These \\\"little gems\\\" may have been produced by Picasso in response to critics who had claimed his defection from the movement, through his experimentation with classicism within the so-called return to order following the war.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1909, Femme assise (Sitzende Frau), oil on canvas, 100 x 80 cm, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Neue Nationalgalerie.jpg|1909, Femme assise (Sitzende Frau), oil on canvas, 100 × 80 cm, Staatliche Museen, Neue Nationalgalerie, Berlin\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1909-10, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 x 73 cm, Tate Modern, London.jpg|1909–10, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 × 73 cm, Tate Modern, London. This painting from the collection of Wilhelm Uhde was confiscated by the French state and sold at the Hôtel Drouot in 1921\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1910, Woman with Mustard Pot (La Femme au pot de moutarde), oil on canvas, 73 x 60 cm, Gemeentemuseum, The Hague. Exhibited at the Armory Show, New York, Chicago, Boston 1913.jpg|1910, Woman with Mustard Pot (La Femme au pot de moutarde), oil on canvas, 73 × 60 cm, Gemeentemuseum, The Hague.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nExhibited at the Armory Show, New York, Chicago, Boston 1913\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1910, Girl with a Mandolin (Fanny Tellier), oil on canvas, 100.3 x 73.6 cm, Museum of Modern Art New York..jpg|1910, Girl with a Mandolin (Fanny Tellier), oil on canvas, 100.3 × 73.6 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York\\nFile:Picasso Portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler 1910.jpg|1910, Portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, The Art Institute of Chicago. Picasso wrote of Kahnweiler \\\"What would have become of us if Kahnweiler hadn't had a business sense?\\\"\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1910-11, Guitariste, La mandoliniste, Woman playing guitar, oil on canvas.jpg|1910–11, Guitariste, La mandoliniste (Woman playing guitar or mandolin), oil on canvas\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, c.1911, Le Guitariste.jpg|c.1911, Le Guitariste. Reproduced in Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger, Du \\\"Cubisme\\\", 1912\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1911, Still Life with a Bottle of Rum, oil on canvas, 61.3 x 50.5 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.jpg|1911, Still Life with a Bottle of Rum, oil on canvas, 61.3 × 50.5 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1911, The Poet (Le poète), Céret, oil on linen, 131.2 × 89.5 cm, The Solomon R.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nGuggenheim Foundation, Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice.jpg|1911, The Poet (Le poète), oil on linen, 131.2 × 89.5 cm (51 5/8 × 35 1/4 in), The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1911-12, Violon (Violin), oil on canvas, Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands.jpg|1911–12, Violon (Violin), oil on canvas, 100 × 73 cm (oval), Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands. This painting from the collection of Wilhelm Uhde was confiscated by the French state and sold at the Hôtel Drouot in 1921\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1913, Bouteille, clarinette, violon, journal, verre.jpg|1913, Bouteille, clarinet, violon, journal, verre, 55 × 45 cm. This painting from the collection of Wilhelm Uhde was confiscated by the French state and sold at the Hôtel Drouot in 1921\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1913-14, Woman in a Chemise in an Armchair, oil on canvas, 149.9 x 99.4 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|1913, Femme assise dans un fauteuil (Eva), Woman in a Chemise in an Armchair, oil on canvas, 149.9 × 99.4 cm, Leonard A.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nLauder Cubist Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1913-14, Head (Tête), cut and pasted colored paper, gouache and charcoal on paperboard, 43.5 x 33 cm, Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh.jpg|1913–14, Head (Tête), cut and pasted colored paper, gouache and charcoal on paperboard, 43.5 × 33 cm, Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1913-14, L'Homme aux cartes (Card Player), oil on canvas, 108 x 89.5 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York.jpg|1913–14, L'Homme aux cartes (Card Player), oil on canvas, 108 × 89.5 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1914-15, Nature morte au compotier (Still Life with Compote and Glass), oil on canvas, 63.5 x 78.7 cm (25 x 31 in), Columbus Museum of Art, Ohio.jpg|1914–15, Nature morte au compotier (Still Life with Compote and Glass), oil on canvas, 63.5 × 78.7 cm (25 × 31 in), Columbus Museum of Art, Ohio\\nFile:Pablo Picasso, 1916, L'anis del mono (Bottle of Anis del Mono) oil on canvas, 46 x 54.6 cm, Detroit Institute of Arts, Michigan.jpg|1916, L'anis del mono (Bottle of Anis del Mono), oil on canvas, 46 × 54.6 cm, Detroit Institute of Arts, Michigan\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nFame\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nAfter acquiring some fame and fortune, Picasso left Olivier for Marcelle Humbert, who he called Eva Gouel. Picasso included declarations of his love for Eva in many Cubist works. Picasso was devastated by her premature death from illness at the age of 30 in 1915.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nAt the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 Picasso was living in Avignon. Braque and Derain were mobilized and Apollinaire joined the French artillery, while the Spaniard Juan Gris remained from the Cubist circle. During the war Picasso was able to continue painting uninterrupted, unlike his French comrades. His paintings became more sombre and his life changed with dramatic consequences. Kahnweiler’s contract had terminated on his exile from France. At this point Picasso’s work would be taken on by the art dealer Léonce Rosenberg. After the loss of Eva Gouel, Picasso had an affair with Gaby Lespinasse. During the spring of 1916 Apollinaire returned from the front wounded. They renewed their friendship, but Picasso began to frequent new social circles.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nTowards the end of World War I, Picasso made a number of important relationships with figures associated with Serge Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. Among his friends during this period were Jean Cocteau, Jean Hugo, Juan Gris, and others. In the summer of 1918, Picasso married Olga Khokhlova, a ballerina with Sergei Diaghilev's troupe, for whom Picasso was designing a ballet, Erik Satie's Parade, in Rome; they spent their honeymoon near Biarritz in the villa of glamorous Chilean art patron Eugenia Errázuriz.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nAfter returning from his honeymoon, and in desperate need of money, Picasso started his exclusive relationship with the French-Jewish art dealer Paul Rosenberg. As part of his first duties, Rosenberg agreed to rent the couple an apartment in Paris at his own expense, which was located next to his own house. This was the start of a deep brother-like friendship between two very different men, that would last until the outbreak of World War II.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nKhokhlova introduced Picasso to high society, formal dinner parties, and all the social niceties attendant to the life of the rich in 1920s Paris. The two had a son, Paulo Picasso, who would grow up to be a dissolute motorcycle racer and chauffeur to his father. Khokhlova's insistence on social propriety clashed with Picasso's bohemian tendencies and the two lived in a state of constant conflict. During the same period that Picasso collaborated with Diaghilev's troupe, he and Igor Stravinsky collaborated on Pulcinella in 1920. Picasso took the opportunity to make several drawings of the composer.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn 1927 Picasso met 17-year-old Marie-Thérèse Walter and began a secret affair with her. Picasso's marriage to Khokhlova soon ended in separation rather than divorce, as French law required an even division of property in the case of divorce, and Picasso did not want Khokhlova to have half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova's death in 1955. Picasso carried on a long-standing affair with Marie-Thérèse Walter and fathered a daughter with her, named Maya. Marie-Thérèse lived in the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and hanged herself four years after Picasso's death. Throughout his life Picasso maintained several mistresses in addition to his wife or primary partner. Picasso was married twice and had four children by three women:\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\n* Paulo (4 February 1921 – 5 June 1975) (Born Paul Joseph Picasso) – with Olga Khokhlova\\n* Maya (5 September 1935 – ) (Born Maria de la Concepcion Picasso) – with Marie-Thérèse Walter\\n* Claude (15 May 1947 –) (Born Claude Pierre Pablo Picasso) – with Françoise Gilot\\n* Paloma (19 April 1949 – ) (Born Anne Paloma Picasso) – with Françoise Gilot\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPhotographer and painter Dora Maar was also a constant companion and lover of Picasso. The two were closest in the late 1930s and early 1940s, and it was Maar who documented the painting of Guernica.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nClassicism and surrealism\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn February 1917, Picasso made his first trip to Italy. In the period following the upheaval of World War I, Picasso produced work in a neoclassical style. This \\\"return to order\\\" is evident in the work of many European artists in the 1920s, including André Derain, Giorgio de Chirico, Gino Severini, Jean Metzinger, the artists of the New Objectivity movement and of the Novecento Italiano movement. Picasso's paintings and drawings from this period frequently recall the work of Raphael and Ingres.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn 1925 the Surrealist writer and poet André Breton declared Picasso as 'one of ours' in his article Le Surréalisme et la peinture, published in Révolution surréaliste. Les Demoiselles was reproduced for the first time in Europe in the same issue. Yet Picasso exhibited Cubist works at the first Surrealist group exhibition in 1925; the concept of 'psychic automatism in its pure state' defined in the Manifeste du surréalisme never appealed to him entirely. He did at the time develop new imagery and formal syntax for expressing himself emotionally, \\\"releasing the violence, the psychic fears and the eroticism that had been largely contained or sublimated since 1909\\\", writes art historian Melissa McQuillan. Although this transition in Picasso's work was informed by Cubism for its spatial relations, \\\"the fusion of ritual and abandon in the imagery recalls the primitivism of the Demoiselles and the elusive psychological resonances of his Symbolist work\\\", writes McQuillan. Surrealism revived Picasso’s attraction to primitivism and eroticism.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nDuring the 1930s, the minotaur replaced the harlequin as a common motif in his work. His use of the minotaur came partly from his contact with the surrealists, who often used it as their symbol, and it appears in Picasso's Guernica. The minotaur and Picasso's mistress Marie-Thérèse Walter are heavily featured in his celebrated Vollard Suite of etchings.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn 1939–40 the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, under its director Alfred Barr, a Picasso enthusiast, held a major retrospective of Picasso's principal works until that time. This exhibition lionized the artist, brought into full public view in America the scope of his artistry, and resulted in a reinterpretation of his work by contemporary art historians and scholars.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nArguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of the German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War – Guernica. This large canvas embodies for many the inhumanity, brutality and hopelessness of war. Asked to explain its symbolism, Picasso said, \\\"It isn't up to the painter to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them.\\\"\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nGuernica was on display in New York's Museum of Modern Art for many years. In 1981, it was returned to Spain and was on exhibit at the Casón del Buen Retiro. In 1992 the painting was put on display in Madrid's Reina Sofía Museum when it opened.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nWorld War II and beyond\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nDuring the Second World War, Picasso remained in Paris while the Germans occupied the city. Picasso's artistic style did not fit the Nazi ideal of art, so he did not exhibit during this time. He was often harassed by the Gestapo. During one search of his apartment, an officer saw a photograph of the painting Guernica. \\\"Did you do that?\\\" the German asked Picasso. \\\"No,\\\" he replied, \\\"You did\\\".\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nRetreating to his studio, he continued to paint, producing works such as the Still Life with Guitar (1942) and The Charnel House (1944–48). Although the Germans outlawed bronze casting in Paris, Picasso continued regardless, using bronze smuggled to him by the French Resistance.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nAround this time, Picasso took up writing as an alternative outlet. Between 1935 and 1959 he wrote over 300 poems. Largely untitled except for a date and sometimes the location of where it was written (for example \\\"Paris 16 May 1936\\\"), these works were gustatory, erotic and at times scatological, as were his two full-length plays Desire Caught by the Tail (1941) and The Four Little Girls (1949).\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn 1944, after the liberation of Paris, Picasso, then 63 years old, began a romantic relationship with a young art student named Françoise Gilot. She was 40 years younger than he was. Picasso grew tired of his mistress Dora Maar; Picasso and Gilot began to live together. Eventually they had two children: Claude, born in 1947 and Paloma, born in 1949. In her 1964 book Life with Picasso, Gilot describes his abusive treatment and myriad infidelities which led her to leave him, taking the children with her. This was a severe blow to Picasso.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso had affairs with women of an even greater age disparity than his and Gilot's. While still involved with Gilot, in 1951 Picasso had a six-week affair with Geneviève Laporte, who was four years younger than Gilot. By his 70s, many paintings, ink drawings and prints have as their theme an old, grotesque dwarf as the doting lover of a beautiful young model.\\nJacqueline Roque (1927–1986) worked at the Madoura Pottery in Vallauris on the French Riviera, where Picasso made and painted ceramics. She became his lover, and then his second wife in 1961. The two were together for the remainder of Picasso's life.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nHis marriage to Roque was also a means of revenge against Gilot; with Picasso's encouragement, Gilot had divorced her then husband, Luc Simon, with the plan to marry Picasso to secure the rights of her children as Picasso's legitimate heirs. Picasso had already secretly married Roque, after Gilot had filed for divorce. This strained his relationship with Claude and Paloma.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nBy this time, Picasso had constructed a huge Gothic home, and could afford large villas in the south of France, such as Mas Notre-Dame-de-Vie on the outskirts of Mougins, and in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. He was an international celebrity, with often as much interest in his personal life as his art.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn addition to his artistic accomplishments, Picasso made a few film appearances, always as himself, including a cameo in Jean Cocteau's Testament of Orpheus. In 1955 he helped make the film Le Mystère Picasso (The Mystery of Picasso) directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nLater works\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the 3rd Sculpture International held at the Philadelphia Museum of Art in mid-1949. In the 1950s, Picasso's style changed once again, as he took to producing reinterpretations of the art of the great masters. He made a series of works based on Velázquez's painting of Las Meninas. He also based paintings on works by Goya, Poussin, Manet, Courbet and Delacroix.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nHe was commissioned to make a maquette for a huge 50 ft-high public sculpture to be built in Chicago, known usually as the Chicago Picasso. He approached the project with a great deal of enthusiasm, designing a sculpture which was ambiguous and somewhat controversial. What the figure represents is not known; it could be a bird, a horse, a woman or a totally abstract shape. The sculpture, one of the most recognizable landmarks in downtown Chicago, was unveiled in 1967. Picasso refused to be paid $100,000 for it, donating it to the people of the city.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso's final works were a mixture of styles, his means of expression in constant flux until the end of his life. Devoting his full energies to his work, Picasso became more daring, his works more colorful and expressive, and from 1968 to 1971 he produced a torrent of paintings and hundreds of copperplate etchings. At the time these works were dismissed by most as pornographic fantasies of an impotent old man or the slapdash works of an artist who was past his prime. Only later, after Picasso's death, when the rest of the art world had moved on from abstract expressionism, did the critical community come to see that Picasso had already discovered Neo-Expressionism and was, as so often before, ahead of his time.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nDeath\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPablo Picasso died on 8 April 1973 in Mougins, France, while he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinner. He was interred at the Chateau of Vauvenargues near Aix-en-Provence, a property he had acquired in 1958 and occupied with Jacqueline between 1959 and 1962. Jacqueline Roque prevented his children Claude and Paloma from attending the funeral. Devastated and lonely after the death of Picasso, Jacqueline Roque killed herself by gunshot in 1986 when she was 59 years old.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPolitical views\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nAside from the several anti-war paintings that he created, Picasso remained personally neutral during World War I, the Spanish Civil War, and World War II, refusing to join the armed forces for any side or country. He had also remained aloof from the Catalan independence movement during his youth despite expressing general support and being friendly with activists within it. At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1937, Picasso was already in his late fifties. He was even older at the onset of World War II, and could not be expected to take up arms in those conflicts. As a Spanish citizen living in France, Picasso was under no compulsion to fight against the invading Germans in either World War. (However, in 1940 he did apply for French citizenship, but it was refused on the grounds of his \\\"extremist ideas evolving towards communism\\\". This information was not revealed until 2003.) In the Spanish Civil War, service for Spaniards living abroad was optional and would have involved a voluntary return to their country to join either side. While Picasso expressed anger and condemnation of Francisco Franco and fascists through his art, he did not take up arms against them.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nThe Spanish Civil War provided the impetus for Picasso's first overtly political work, The Dream and Lie of Franco which was produced \\\"specifically for propagandistic and fundraising purposes.\\\" This surreal fusion of words and images was intended to be sold as a series of postcards to raise funds for the Spanish Republican cause.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn 1944 Picasso joined the French Communist Party, attended an international peace conference in Poland, and in 1950 received the Stalin Peace Prize from the Soviet government, But party criticism of a portrait of Stalin as insufficiently realistic cooled Picasso's interest in Soviet politics, though he remained a loyal member of the Communist Party until his death. In a 1945 interview with Jerome Seckler, Picasso stated: \\\"I am a Communist and my painting is Communist painting. ... But if I were a shoemaker, Royalist or Communist or anything else, I would not necessarily hammer my shoes in a special way to show my politics.\\\" His Communist militancy, common among continental intellectuals and artists at the time (although it was officially banned in Francoist Spain), has long been the subject of some controversy; a notable source or demonstration thereof was a quote commonly attributed to Salvador Dalí (with whom Picasso had a rather strained relationship ):\\nPicasso es pintor, yo también; [...] Picasso es español, yo también; Picasso es comunista, yo tampoco.\\n(Picasso is a painter, so am I; [...] Picasso is a Spaniard, so am I; Picasso is a communist, neither am I.)\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn the late 1940s his old friend the surrealist poet and Trotskyist and anti-Stalinist André Breton was more blunt; refusing to shake hands with Picasso, he told him: \\\"I don't approve of your joining the Communist Party nor with the stand you have taken concerning the purges of the intellectuals after the Liberation\\\".\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn 1962, he received the Lenin Peace Prize. Biographer and art critic John Berger felt his talents as an artist were \\\"wasted\\\" by the communists.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nAccording to Jean Cocteau's diaries, Picasso once said to him in reference to the communists: \\\"I have joined a family, and like all families, it's full of shit\\\".\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nHe was against the intervention of the United Nations and the United States in the Korean War and he depicted it in Massacre in Korea.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nStyle and technique\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso was exceptionally prolific throughout his long lifetime. The total number of artworks he produced has been estimated at 50,000, comprising 1,885 paintings; 1,228 sculptures; 2,880 ceramics, roughly 12,000 drawings, many thousands of prints, and numerous tapestries and rugs.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nThe medium in which Picasso made his most important contribution was painting. In his paintings, Picasso used color as an expressive element, but relied on drawing rather than subtleties of color to create form and space. He sometimes added sand to his paint to vary its texture. A nanoprobe of Picasso's The Red Armchair (1931) by physicists at Argonne National Laboratory in 2012 confirmed art historians' belief that Picasso used common house paint in many of his paintings. Much of his painting was done at night by artificial light.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso's early sculptures were carved from wood or modeled in wax or clay, but from 1909 to 1928 Picasso abandoned modeling and instead made sculptural constructions using diverse materials. An example is Guitar (1912), a relief construction made of sheet metal and wire that Jane Fluegel terms a \\\"three-dimensional planar counterpart of Cubist painting\\\" that marks a \\\"revolutionary departure from the traditional approaches, modeling and carving\\\".\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nFrom the beginning of his career, Picasso displayed an interest in subject matter of every kind, and demonstrated a great stylistic versatility that enabled him to work in several styles at once. For example, his paintings of 1917 included the pointillist Woman with a Mantilla, the Cubist Figure in an Armchair, and the naturalistic Harlequin (all in the Museu Picasso, Barcelona). In 1919, he made a number of drawings from postcards and photographs that reflect his interest in the stylistic conventions and static character of posed photographs. In 1921 he simultaneously painted several large neoclassical paintings and two versions of the Cubist composition Three Musicians (Museum of Modern Art, New York; Philadelphia Museum of Art). In an interview published in 1923, Picasso said, \\\"The several manners I have used in my art must not be considered as an evolution, or as steps towards an unknown ideal of painting ... If the subjects I have wanted to express have suggested different ways of expression I have never hesitated to adopt them.\\\"\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nAlthough his Cubist works approach abstraction, Picasso never relinquished the objects of the real world as subject matter. Prominent in his Cubist paintings are forms easily recognized as guitars, violins, and bottles. When Picasso depicted complex narrative scenes it was usually in prints, drawings, and small-scale works; Guernica (1937) is one of his few large narrative paintings.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso painted mostly from imagination or memory. According to William Rubin, Picasso \\\"could only make great art from subjects that truly involved him ... Unlike Matisse, Picasso had eschewed models virtually all his mature life, preferring to paint individuals whose lives had both impinged on, and had real significance for, his own.\\\" The art critic Arthur Danto said Picasso's work constitutes a \\\"vast pictorial autobiography\\\" that provides some basis for the popular conception that \\\"Picasso invented a new style each time he fell in love with a new woman\\\". The autobiographical nature of Picasso's art is reinforced by his habit of dating his works, often to the day. He explained: \\\"I want to leave to posterity a documentation that will be as complete as possible. That's why I put a date on everything I do.\\\"\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nArtistic legacy\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nAt the time of Picasso's death many of his paintings were in his possession, as he had kept off the art market what he did not need to sell. In addition, Picasso had a considerable collection of the work of other famous artists, some his contemporaries, such as Henri Matisse, with whom he had exchanged works. Since Picasso left no will, his death duties (estate tax) to the French state were paid in the form of his works and others from his collection. These works form the core of the immense and representative collection of the Musée Picasso in Paris. In 2003, relatives of Picasso inaugurated a museum dedicated to him in his birthplace, Málaga, Spain, the Museo Picasso Málaga.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nThe Museu Picasso in Barcelona features many of his early works, created while he was living in Spain, including many rarely seen works which reveal his firm grounding in classical techniques. The museum also holds many precise and detailed figure studies done in his youth under his father's tutelage, as well as the extensive collection of Jaime Sabartés, his close friend and personal secretary.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nSeveral paintings by Picasso rank among the most expensive paintings in the world. Garçon à la pipe sold for US$104 million at Sotheby's on 4 May 2004, establishing a new price record. Dora Maar au Chat sold for US$95.2 million at Sotheby's on 3 May 2006. On 4 May 2010, Nude, Green Leaves and Bust was sold at Christie's for $106.5 million. The 1932 work, which depicts Picasso's mistress Marie-Thérèse Walter reclining and as a bust, was in the personal collection of Los Angeles philanthropist Frances Lasker Brody, who died in November 2009. On 11 May 2015 his painting Women of Algiers set the record for the highest price ever paid for a painting when it sold for US$179.3 million at Christie's in New York.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nOn 21 June 2016 a painting by Pablo Picasso titled Femme Assise (1909) sold for £43.2 million ($63.4 million) at Sotheby's London, exceeding the estimate by nearly $20 million, setting a world record for the highest price every payed at auction for a Cubist work.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nAs of 2004, Picasso remained the top-ranked artist (based on sales of his works at auctions) according to the Art Market Trends report. More of his paintings have been stolen than any other artist's; the Art Loss Register has 550 of his works listed as missing.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nThe Picasso Administration functions as his official Estate. The US copyright representative for the Picasso Administration is the Artists Rights Society.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nIn the 1996 movie Surviving Picasso, Picasso is portrayed by actor Anthony Hopkins. Picasso is also a character in Steve Martin's 1993 play, Picasso at the Lapin Agile.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nRecent major exhibitions\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nPicasso: Masterpieces from the Musée National Picasso, Paris, an exhibition of 150 paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints and photographs from the Musée National Picasso in Paris. The exhibit touring schedule includes:\\n* 8 October 2010 – 17 January 2011, Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington, US.\\n* 19 February 2011 – 15 May 2011, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia, US.\\n* 11 June 2011 – 9 October 2011, M. H. de Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, California, US. \\n* 12 November 2011 – 25 March 2012, Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney. \\n* 28 April 2012 – 26 August 2012, Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.\",\n \"Pablo Picasso\\n\\nFile:Stamp P.JPG|Postage stamp, USSR, 1973. Picasso has been honoured on stamps worldwide.\\nImage:HotelSale hinten.JPG|Musée Picasso, Paris (Hotel Salé, 1659)\\nImage:Museu Picasso Barcelona.jpg|Museu Picasso is located in the gothic palaces of Montcada street in Barcelona\\nImage:Art Museum Pablo Picasso Münster Arkaden.jpg|Art Museum Pablo Picasso Münster Arkaden\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\nAn art movement is a tendency or style in art with a specific common philosophy or goal, followed by a group of artists during a restricted period of time, (usually a few months, years or decades) or, at least, with the heyday of the movement defined within a number of years. Art movements were especially important in modern art, when each consecutive movement was considered as a new avant-garde.\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\nConcept\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\nAccording to theories associated with modernism and the concept of postmodernism, art movements are especially important during the period of time corresponding to modern art. The period of time called \\\"modern art\\\" is posited to have changed approximately halfway through the 20th century and art made afterward is generally called contemporary art. Postmodernism in visual art begins and functions as a parallel to late modernism and refers to that period after the \\\"modern\\\" period called contemporary art. The postmodern period began during late modernism (which is a contemporary continuation of modernism), and according to some theorists postmodernism ended in the 21st century. During the period of time corresponding to \\\"modern art\\\" each consecutive movement was often considered a new avant-garde.\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\nAlso during the period of time referred to as \\\"modern art\\\" each movement was seen corresponding to a somewhat grandiose rethinking of all that came before it, concerning the visual arts. Generally there was a commonality of visual style linking the works and artists included in an art movement. Verbal expression and explanation of movements has come from the artists themselves, sometimes in the form of an art manifesto,[http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/chapters/i8066.html \\\"Poetry of the Revolution. Marx, Manifestos, and the Avant-Gardes\\\" introduction, Martin Puchner] Retrieved April 4, 2006 and sometimes from art critics and others who may explain their understanding of the meaning of the new art then being produced.\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\nIn the visual arts, many artists, theorists, art critics, art collectors, art dealers and others mindful of the unbroken continuation of modernism and the continuation of modern art even into the contemporary era, ascribe to and welcome new philosophies of art as they appear. Postmodernist theorists posit that the idea of art movements are no longer as applicable, or no longer as discernible, as the notion of art movements had been before the postmodern era. There are many theorists however who doubt as to whether or not such an era was actually a fact; or just a passing fad.\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\nThe term refers to tendencies in visual art, novel ideas and architecture, and sometimes literature. In music it is more common to speak about genres and styles instead. See also cultural movement, a term with a broader connotation.\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\nAs the names of many art movements use the -ism suffix (for example cubism and futurism), they are sometimes referred to as isms.\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\n19th- and 20th-century art movements\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\n19th century\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\nFile:Jacques-Louis_David_006.jpg|Jacques-Louis David, The Coronation of Napoleon, (1806), Musée du Louvre, History painting\\nFile:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|Eugène Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People 1830, Romanticism\\nFile:The Course of Empire The Savage State Thomas Cole 1836.jpeg|Thomas Cole, The Course of Empire: The Savage State 1836, Hudson River School\\nFile:Gustave Courbet 018.jpg|Gustave Courbet, Stone-Breakers, 1849, Realist School\\nFile:corot.villedavray.750pix.jpg|Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, c. 1867, Ville d'Avray National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, Barbizon School \\nFile:Claude Monet - Graystaks I.JPG|Claude Monet, Haystacks, (sunset), 1890–1891, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Impressionism\\nFile:Van Gogh - Starry Night - Google Art Project.jpg|Vincent van Gogh, The Starry Night, 1889, Post-Impressionism\\nFile:The Scream.jpg|Edvard Munch, 1893, early example of Expressionism\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\n20th century\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\n1900–1918\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\nFile:Wassily Kandinsky, 1903, The Blue Rider (Der Blaue Reiter), oil on canvas, 52.1 x 54.6 cm, Stiftung Sammlung E.G. Bührle, Zurich.jpg|Wassily Kandinsky, 1903, Der Blaue Reiter \\nFile:Family of Saltimbanques.JPG|Pablo Picasso, Family of Saltimbanques, 1905, Picasso's Rose Period\\nFile:Matisse-Open-Window.jpg|Henri Matisse 1905, Fauvism\\nFile:Les Demoiselles d'Avignon.jpg|Pablo Picasso 1907, Proto-Cubism\\nFile:Violin and Candlestick.jpg|Georges Braque 1910, Analytic Cubism\\nFile:Gray Tree 1911.jpg|Piet Mondrian, 1912, early De Stijl\\nFile:Malevici06.jpg|Kazimir Malevich, (Supremus No. 58), Museum of Art, 1916, Suprematism\\nFile:Duchamp Fountaine.jpg|Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, 1917, photograph by Alfred Stieglitz, Dada\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\n1918–1945\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\nFile:Theo van Doesburg Composition XX.jpg|Theo van Doesburg, Composition XX, 1920, De Stijl\\nFile:The Elephant Celebes.jpg|Max Ernst, The Elephant Celebes (1921), Tate, Surrealism\\nFile:NY Met demuth figure 5 gold.JPG|Charles Demuth, I Saw the Figure 5 in Gold, 1928, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Precisionism\\nFile:Grant Wood - American Gothic - Google Art Project.jpg|Grant Wood, American Gothic, 1930, Social Realism\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\n1940–1965\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\n1965–2000\",\n \"Art movement\\n\\n21st century\"\n]","isConversational":false}}}],"truncated":false,"partial":false},"paginationData":{"pageIndex":1360,"numItemsPerPage":100,"numTotalItems":138384,"offset":136000,"length":100}},"jwt":"eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSIsImtpZCI6IjVHZDBvd0g5MTM2eDZjc1FvbE1zcktNWUZoRVFoUm5PVVVybEpjOUhaUEEifQ.eyJyZWFkIjp0cnVlLCJwZXJtaXNzaW9ucyI6eyJyZXBvLmNvbnRlbnQucmVhZCI6dHJ1ZX0sImlhdCI6MTc4OTkxNTM3MSwianRpIjoiODY2ZTllNTgtNWE3Mi00MmE4LThjOWUtNmM1MjNjOTQ2MmExIiwic3ViIjoiL2RhdGFzZXRzL01lbW9yeUFzTW9kYWxpdHkvVHJpdmlhUUEiLCJleHAiOjE3ODk5MTg5NzEsImlzcyI6Imh0dHBzOi8vaHVnZ2luZ2ZhY2UuY28ifQ.vam0I9BYFVHnH6uByqt_gABWDDlyGQSTMOa8JceiP8LBQP-LT9R9zidWChovJ7lXbn-28x3v4n7nR7xKrLGYCg","displayUrls":true,"splitSizeSummaries":[{"config":"default","split":"train","numRows":138384,"numBytesParquet":4149441207},{"config":"default","split":"validation","numRows":17944,"numBytesParquet":531588839},{"config":"default","split":"test","numRows":17210,"numBytesParquet":506953567}]},"discussionsStats":{"closed":0,"open":0,"total":0},"fullWidth":true,"hasGatedAccess":true,"hasFullAccess":true,"isEmbedded":false,"savedQueries":{"community":[],"user":[]}}">
id stringlengths 4 10 | question stringlengths 18 1.2k | answer stringlengths 1 179 | answer_aliases listlengths 0 358 | documents listlengths 1 1.63k |
|---|---|---|---|---|
qg_318 | If iron is galvanized, which metal is it coated with? | Zinc | [
"zinc poisoning",
"zinc tablets",
"special high grade zinc",
"zn2",
"super high grade zinc",
"zinc concentrate",
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"zinc alloy",
"zinc metallurgy",
"zinc ions",
"zinc tiles",
"zinc processing",
"element 30",
"zinc alloys",
"zinc",
"zinc supplementation",
"zi... | [
"Galvanization\n\nGalvanization, or galvanisation, (or galvanizing as it is most commonly called in that industry), is the process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, to prevent rusting. The most common method is hot-dip galvanizing, in which parts are submerged in a bath of molten zinc. Galvani... |
qg_319 | President Lyndon B. Johnson nominated the first African American judge to the US Supreme Court. Who was it? | Thurgood Marshall | [
"justice thurgood marshall",
"thurgood marshall",
"thurgood marshal",
"thoroughgood marshall",
"marshall thurgood"
] | [
"Lyndon B. Johnson\n\nLyndon Baines Johnson (; August 27, 1908January 22, 1973), often referred to as LBJ, was the 36th President of the United States from 1963 to 1969, assuming the office after serving as the 37th Vice President of the United States under President John F. Kennedy, from 1961 to 1963. Johnson was ... |
qg_320 | The 1983 James Bond film Never Say Never Again is a remake of what 1965 Bond film? | Thunderball | [
"thunderball game",
"thunderball",
"thunderball disambiguation",
"thunderball album"
] | [
"James Bond\n\nThe James Bond series focuses on a fictional British Secret Service agent created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming, who featured him in twelve novels and two short-story collections. Since Fleming's death in 1964, eight other authors have written authorised Bond novels or novelizations: Kingsley Amis, C... |
qg_322 | January 25, 1947 saw the death, from neurosyphilis, of what famous American, nicknamed Scarface? | Al Capone | [
"scarface capone",
"alphonse g capone",
"alfonse 22scarface 22 capone",
"alphonse gabriel capone",
"al capone",
"alphonse gabriel 22al 22 capone",
"mae capone",
"capone",
"alphonse capone",
"albert francis capone",
"al cappone",
"mae coughlin",
"scarface american gangster"
] | [
"Al Capone\n\nAlphonse Gabriel \"Al\" Capone (; January 17, 1899 – January 25, 1947) was an American gangster who attained fame during the Prohibition era as the co-founder and boss of the Chicago Outfit. His seven-year reign as crime boss ended when he was 33 years old.",
"Al Capone\n\nCapone was born in the bor... |
qg_323 | How much of the earth's surface is covered by oceans? | 71% | [
"71",
"seventy one"
] | [
"Earth\n\nEarth (otherwise known as the world, in Gaia, or in Latin: Terra ) is the third planet from the Sun, the densest planet in the Solar System, the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets, and the only astronomical object known to harbor life.",
"Earth\n\nAccording to radiometric dating and... |
qg_324 | The planet Venus is known as the Evening Star. Which of the celestial bodies is known as The Morning Star? | Venus | [
"venerian year",
"sol c",
"astronomy venus",
"venus",
"sun c",
"second planet",
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"venis",
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"kleinchen",
"sol 2",
"structure of venus",
"sol ii",
"2nd planet",
"planet venus",
"metal star",
"studies of venus",
"cytherocentric orbit",
"aitorma"
] | [
"Planet\n\nA planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that\n* is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity,\n* is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and\n* has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations... |
qg_329 | The terms curd and whey are associated with making what? | Cheese | [
"chese",
"mouldy cheese",
"cheeze",
"chees",
"cheese wheel",
"coagulated milk curd",
"cheese powder",
"cheeses",
"🧀",
"cheese"
] | [
"Curd\n\nCurds are a dairy product obtained by coagulating milk in a process called curdling. The coagulation can be caused by adding rennet or any edible acidic substance such as lemon juice or vinegar, and then allowing it to sit. The increased acidity causes the milk proteins (casein) to tangle into solid masses... |
qg_331 | Raiders of the Lost Ark, Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade was followed up by what 2008 blockbuster? | The Kingdom of the Crystal Skull | [
"crystal skull",
"indiana jones and phantom menace",
"indian jones kingdom of crystal skull",
"indy iv",
"kotcs",
"indiana jones and kingdom of crystal skull film",
"indiana jones and kingdom of crystal skull",
"ijatkotks",
"ij4",
"kingdom of crystal skull",
"raiders of phantom menace",
"india... | [
"Raiders of the Lost Ark\n\nRaiders of the Lost Ark (later marketed as Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark) is a 1981 American action adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg, with a screenplay written by Lawrence Kasdan, from a story by George Lucas and Philip Kaufman. It was produced by Frank Marshal... |
qg_332 | “Oh my God, they killed Kenny! …You bastards!” is frequently heard on what TV classic? | South Park | [
"south park digital studios",
"hell s pass hospital",
"tynacorp",
"lord of underworld",
"south park opening sequence",
"southparkstudios com",
"little danny pocket",
"south park studios",
"cheesy poofs",
"south park opening credits",
"year of fan",
"south pakr",
"tardicaca shark",
"i m not... | [
"Kenny McCormick\n\nKenneth \"Kenny\" McCormick (sometimes spelled as McKormick) is a main character in the animated adult television series South Park, along with his friends Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, and Eric Cartman. His oft-muffled and indiscernible speech—the result of his parka hood covering his mouth—is ... |
qg_333 | In economics, which four countries are known as the BRIC countries, grouped as being at a similar stage of newly advanced economic development? | Brazil, Russia, India, China | [
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"bric",
"bric nations",
"bric s",
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"bric economies",
"brica",
"brick economies",
"brics",
"brazil russia india and china",
"timbi",
"brimc",
"bric political organi... | [
"BRIC\n\nIn economics, BRIC is a grouping acronym that refers to the countries of Brazil, Russia, India and China, which are all deemed to be at a similar stage of newly advanced economic development. It is typically rendered as \"the BRICs\" or \"the BRIC countries\" or \"the BRIC economies\" or alternatively as t... |
qg_336 | The month of January was named after which Roman god? | Janus | [
"janus head",
"ianus mythology",
"janus quadrifrons",
"janus god",
"janus",
"janus in popular culture",
"janus geminus",
"janus bifrons",
"bifrons",
"ianus",
"count bifrons",
"janus mythology",
"dianus",
"janus roman religion",
"janus faced"
] | [
"Roman mythology\n\nRoman mythology is the body of traditional stories pertaining to ancient Rome's legendary origins and religious system, as represented in the literature and visual arts of the Romans. \"Roman mythology\" may also refer to the modern study of these representations, and to the subject matter as re... |
qg_337 | The longest serving and first flying space shuttle, which vehicle was lost on re-entry Feb 1, 2003, resulting in the loss of 7 astronauts? | Columbia | [
"columbia",
"columbia disambiguation",
"columbia town",
"columbia yacht",
"columbia song",
"columbia municipality",
"columbia automobile"
] | [
"Space Shuttle\n\nThe Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program name was Space Transportation System (STS), taken from a 1969 plan for a system of r... |
qg_340 | Which cartoon character, who cooks at the Krusty Krab, calls Bikini Bottom home? | Spongebob Squarepants | [
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"spongebob squarepants movie series",
"national no spongebob day",
"spongebob squarepants tv show",
"spongebob squarepants collapse",
"spongebob squarepants",
"krabby patty formula",
"boys who cry",
"international following of spongebob squarepants",
"spongebob com",
"spongeb... | [
"Krusty Krab\n\nThe Krusty Krab is a fictional fast food restaurant in the American animated comedy TV series SpongeBob SquarePants. It was founded by Mr. Krabs (who is also the owner), and is famous for its Krabby Patty burgers. The restaurant first appears in the pilot episode, \"Help Wanted\" and has since becom... |
qg_342 | The magic practice of scrying, which involves seeing things physically in a medium, usually relies on the use of what spherical object? | Crystal Ball | [
"crystal ball",
"shew stone",
"show stone",
"crystal balls",
"🔮"
] | [
"Scrying\n\nScrying (also called seeing or peeping) is the practice of looking into a translucent ball or other material with the belief that things can be seen, such as spiritual visions, and less often for purposes of divination or fortune-telling.",
"Scrying\n\nThe most common media used are reflective, transl... |
qg_344 | Feb 2, 1905, saw the birth of what Russian born American author who founded the philosophical system called Objectivism? | Ayn Rand | [
"alisa rosenbaum",
"frank o connor actor",
"ayn rand o connor",
"ayb rand",
"rayn",
"alisa zinov yevna rosenbaum",
"alisa zinovyevna rosenbaum",
"alissa rosenbaum",
"alissa zinovievna rosenbaum",
"алиса зиновьевна розенбаум",
"alissa zinovievna",
"alisa z rosenbaum",
"zinovievna rosenbaum",
... | [
"Objectivism (Ayn Rand)\n\nObjectivism is a philosophical system developed by Russian American writer Ayn Rand (1905–1982). Rand first expressed Objectivism in her fiction, most notably The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas Shrugged (1957), and later in nonfiction essays and books. Leonard Peikoff, a professional phi... |
qg_345 | In what US city is this years Super Bowl scheduled to be played? | Indianapolis | [
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"inpolis city in",
"un locode usind",
"vogue place",
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"indianapolis indiana usa",
"indianapolis",
"deep rock tunnel connector",
"city of indianapolis",
"list of monuments in indianapolis",
"india... | [
"Super Bowl XLIV\n\nSuper Bowl XLIV was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion New Orleans Saints and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Indianapolis Colts to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2009 season. The Saints defeated the Colts... |
qg_346 | Amethyst is the birthstone for which month of the year? | February | [
"februray",
"㋁",
"svečan",
"february",
"national lactose intolerance awareness month",
"februarie",
"feb",
"feburary",
"febuary",
"lactose intolerance awareness month"
] | [
"Amethyst\n\nAmethyst is a violet variety of quartz often used in jewelry. The name comes from the ancient Greek ἀ a- (\"not\") and μέθυστος méthystos (\"intoxicated\"), a reference to the belief that the stone protected its owner from drunkenness. The ancient Greeks wore amethyst and made drinking vessels decorate... |
qg_352 | The Boxer Rebellion was an uprising that took place in what country? | China | [
"中華",
"zhōngguó",
"peoples republic of china",
"chinese people s republic",
"territorial disputes of china",
"people s republic of china",
"zhongguo",
"china peking",
"proc",
"red china modern",
"land of china",
"people s republic of china mainland china",
"中華人民共和國",
"zhonghuá rénmín gòngh... | [
"Boxer Rebellion\n\nThe Boxer Rebellion, Boxer Uprising or Yihequan Movement was a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising which took place in China towards the end of the Qing dynasty between 1899 and 1901. It was initiated by the Militia United in Righteousness (Yihetuan), known in English as the \"Boxer... |
qg_356 | What was the name of the competitor to the Matchbox die cast car, introduced by Mattel in 1968? | Hot Wheels | [
"shogun racers",
"twin mill",
"hot wheels ballistiks",
"volkswagen beach bomb",
"hot wheels",
"hotwheels",
"hot wheels beach bomb",
"list of 2007 hot wheels",
"treasure hunt series"
] | [
"Matchbox (brand)\n\nMatchbox is a popular toy brand which was introduced by Lesney Products in 1953, and is now owned by Mattel, Inc. The brand was named as the original die-cast Matchbox toys, which were sold in boxes similar in style and size to those in which matches were sold. Subsequently, the brand would enc... |
qg_358 | A flexible flyer is a type of what? | steerable, wooden sled | [
"steerable wooden sled"
] | [
"Flexible flyer\n\nA flexible flyer or steel runner sled is a steerable wooden sled with thin metal runners.",
"Flexible flyer\n\nUsage and Design",
"Flexible flyer\n\nFlexible fliers are flexible both in design and usage. Riders may sit upright on the sled or lie on their stomachs, allowing the possibility to ... |
qg_359 | What Canadian band sang about a modern warrior named Tom Sawyer who had a mean, mean stride? | Rush | [
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"rush movie",
"rush upcoming film",
"rush song",
"rush film",
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"rush",
"rush tv series"
] | [
"Canadians\n\nCanadians () are the people who are identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical, or cultural. For most Canadians, several (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their being Canadian.",
"Canadians\n\nCanada is a bilingua... |
qg_360 | Feb 4th marks the anniversary of the election of George Washington to the nation's highest office. In what year did he become the first US president? | 1789 | [
"one thousand seven hundred and eighty nine"
] | [
"George Washington\n\nGeorge Washington (Contemporary records, which used the Julian calendar and the Annunciation Style of enumerating years, recorded his birth as February 11, 1731. The provisions of the British Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, implemented in 1752, altered the official British dating method to the ... |
qg_361 | If I'm practicing trephination, what am I boring a hole in? | The human skull | [
"human cranium",
"skull human",
"human crania",
"human skull",
"hominid skull",
"human skulls"
] | [
"Trepanning\n\nTrepanning, also known as trepanation, trephination, trephining or making a burr hole (the verb trepan derives via Old French via Medieval Latin from the Greek noun of relevant meaning trypanon, literally \"borer, auger\") is a surgical intervention in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the hu... |
qg_362 | 1936 saw Ty Cobb, Babe Ruth, Honus Wagner, Christy Mathewson and Walter Johnson the first inductees into what? | Baseball Hall of Fame | [
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"hall of fame baseball",
"baseball hall of fame and museum",
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"Ty Cobb\n\nTyrus Raymond \"Ty\" Cobb (December 18, 1886 – July 17, 1961), nicknamed \"The Georgia Peach\", was an American Major League Baseball (MLB) outfielder. He was born in rural Narrows, Georgia. Cobb spent 22 seasons with the Detroit Tigers, the last six as the team's player-manager, and finished his career... |
qg_363 | If my local college awards me a D D degree, what Doctorate have I earned? | Divinity | [
"godliest",
"godly",
"divine mark",
"divine",
"divinity",
"godhood",
"godliness",
"personal divinity",
"divinities",
"divineness",
"godlier",
"divinenesses",
"divinely"
] | [
"Doctorate\n\nA doctorate (from Latin docere, \"to teach\") or doctor's degree (from Latin doctor, \"teacher\") or doctoral degree (from the ancient formalism licentia docendi) is an academic degree awarded by universities that, in most countries, qualifies the holder to teach at the university level in the degree'... |
qg_366 | The 1993 file Cool Runnings is based on a Jamaican team trying to compete in what sport at the 1988 Winter Olympics? | Bobsled | [
"bob sleigh",
"bobsled run",
"4 man bobsleigh",
"bobsleigh",
"brakewoman bobsleigh",
"bobsledders",
"bobsledder",
"bobsleigh run",
"bobsled",
"bobsledding",
"bob sled",
"two man bob",
"bobteam",
"2 person bobsled",
"bobbsledding",
"bobsleigh sport",
"brakeman bobsleigh",
"bobsleigh... | [
"Cool Runnings\n\nCool Runnings is a 1993 American sports film directed by Jon Turteltaub, and starring Leon, Doug E. Doug, Rawle D. Lewis, Malik Yoba and John Candy. The film was released in the United States on October 1, 1993. It was Candy's third to last film of his career and the last of his films to be relea... |
qg_367 | Well, according to the most famous groundhog of all, Punxsutawney Phil, are we in for 6 more weeks of winter, or early spring? | Spring | [
"spring symphony",
"springs",
"spring album",
"spring",
"spring disambiguation"
] | [
"Groundhog\n\nThe groundhog (Marmota monax), also known as a woodchuck, or whistlepig, is a rodent of the family Sciuridae, belonging to the group of large ground squirrels known as marmots. The groundhog is also referred to as a chuck, wood-shock, groundpig, whistler, thickwood badger, Canada marmot, monax, moonac... |
qg_369 | Located between 3rd and 4th Ave, what building is home to Seattle Symphony? | Benaroya Hall | [
"benaroya concert hall",
"benaroya hall"
] | [
"Seattle Symphony\n\nThe Seattle Symphony is an American orchestra based in Seattle, Washington. Since 1998, the orchestra is resident at Benaroya Hall. The orchestra's season runs from September through July, and serves as the pit orchestra for most productions of the Seattle Opera in addition to its own concerts.... |
qg_371 | Playing in the Eastern Conference, what NBA team plays their home games in Time Warner Cable Arena, Charlotte, North Carolina? | Bobcats | [
"felis rufus",
"lynx rufous",
"bob cats",
"bobcat",
"bobcat urine",
"lynx rufus",
"bobcats",
"bay lynx",
"bob cat",
"bobcat mammal",
"north american wildcat"
] | [
"Eastern Conference (NBA)\n\nThe Eastern Conference of the National Basketball Association is made up of 15 teams, organized in three divisions of five teams each.",
"Eastern Conference (NBA)\n\nThe three division winners and the non-division winner with the best record are seeded 1 through 4 for the playoffs in ... |
qg_372 | First issued by Bank of America in 1958, the BankAmericard is now known by what name? | Visa | [
"visa",
"visas",
"visa disambiguation"
] | [
"Bank of America\n\nBank of America (abbreviated as BoA or BofA) is an American multinational banking and financial services corporation headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina. It is the second largest bank holding company in the United States by assets. As of 2013, Bank of America is the 21st largest company ... |
qg_375 | Known as the Empire State of the South, what was the 4th state to join the union on January 2, 1788? | Georgia | [
"goergia",
"georgia",
"georgia film",
"geordia",
"georgia state",
"georgia song",
"western georgia",
"georgia disambiguation"
] | [
"Georgia (U.S. state)\n\nGeorgia ( ) is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. Named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788. It declared its s... |
qg_376 | Isaac Stern, Nicolai Paganini, Itzhak Pearlman, and Yehudi Menuhin were all famous for playing which instrument? | Violin | [
"violon",
"violino",
"violin instrument",
"viollon",
"carnatic violin",
"violina",
"🎻",
"violinist",
"violins",
"geige",
"fiddleandviolin",
"fiddle and violin",
"violin",
"violinist disambiguation",
"violin tuning",
"violin player"
] | [
"Niccolò Paganini\n\nNiccolò (or Nicolò) Paganini (; 27 October 1782 - 27 May 1840) was an Italian violinist, violist, guitarist, and composer. He was the most celebrated violin virtuoso of his time, and left his mark as one of the pillars of modern violin technique. His 24 Caprices for Solo Violin Op. 1 are among ... |
qg_377 | What Philadelphia landmark is portrayed on the back of the $100 bill? | Independence Hall | [
"independence hall pennsylvania",
"independence hall united states",
"independence hall philadelphia",
"independence hall"
] | [
"Philadelphia\n\nPhiladelphia is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the fifth-most populous in the United States, with an estimated population in 2014 of 1,560,297. In the Northeastern United States, at the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, Philadelphia is the economic and ... |
qg_378 | February 3, 1959 was known as The Day the Music Died, as a plane crash in Clearlake, Ia, took the life of Roger Peterson, Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and who? | J. P. Richardson | [
"jape perry richardson",
"j p 22the big bopper 22richardson",
"j perry richardson",
"jiles perry richardson",
"j p 22the big bopper 22 richardson",
"jay perry richardson",
"j p richardson",
"big bopper",
"j p richardson jr",
"jiles richardson",
"jay p richardson",
"jay richardson musician",
... | [
"The Day the Music Died\n\nOn February 3, 1959, rock and roll musicians Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and J. P. \"The Big Bopper\" Richardson were killed in a plane crash near Clear Lake, Iowa, together with the pilot, Roger Peterson. The event later became known as \"The Day the Music Died\", after singer-songwrite... |
qg_379 | The only US president to hold a PhD, Feb 3, 1924 saw the death of Woodrow Wilson, 28th President of the United States. Hailing from New Jersey, under what party was he elected? | Democrat | [
"democrats",
"democratic",
"democrat",
"democratic disambiguation",
"democrat disambiguation"
] | [
"President of the United States\n\nThe President of the United States of America (POTUS) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.",
"President of th... |
qg_380 | Generally considered the first recorded speculative bubble, trade in what commodity collapsed in February 1637, devastating the economy of The United Provinces (now the Netherlands)? | Tulips | [
"tullip",
"parrot tulip",
"tulipa",
"liriopogon",
"tulips",
"tulipa genus",
"liriactis",
"list of tulip varieties",
"tulip",
"podonix",
"eduardoregelia",
"culture of tulips",
"parrot tulips",
"🌷",
"tulip bulb"
] | [
"Economic bubble\n\nAn economic bubble (sometimes referred to as a speculative bubble, a market bubble, a price bubble, a financial bubble, a speculative mania or a balloon) is trade in an asset at a price or price range that strongly deviates from the corresponding asset's intrinsic value. It could also be desc... |
qg_381 | Which cartoon character, who cooks at the Krusty Krab, lives in a pineapple under the sea? | Spongebob Squarepants | [
"spongebob nation",
"spongebob squarepants movie series",
"national no spongebob day",
"spongebob squarepants tv show",
"spongebob squarepants collapse",
"spongebob squarepants",
"krabby patty formula",
"boys who cry",
"international following of spongebob squarepants",
"spongebob com",
"spongeb... | [
"Krusty Krab\n\nThe Krusty Krab is a fictional fast food restaurant in the American animated comedy TV series SpongeBob SquarePants. It was founded by Mr. Krabs (who is also the owner), and is famous for its Krabby Patty burgers. The restaurant first appears in the pilot episode, \"Help Wanted\" and has since becom... |
qg_382 | The longest serving and first flying space shuttle, which vehicle was lost on re-entry during mission STS-107 on Feb 1, 2003? | Columbia | [
"columbia",
"columbia disambiguation",
"columbia town",
"columbia yacht",
"columbia song",
"columbia municipality",
"columbia automobile"
] | [
"Space Shuttle\n\nThe Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program name was Space Transportation System (STS), taken from a 1969 plan for a system of r... |
qg_384 | On Feb 4, 1974 what heiress was kidnapped from her Berkeley apartment by a left-wing urban guerilla group that called itself the Symbionese Liberation Army? | Patty Hearst | [
"bernard l shaw bodyguard",
"patricia hearst",
"every secret thing hearst book",
"patricia campbell hearst",
"patti hearst",
"steven weed",
"patty hearst",
"patritia hearst"
] | [
"Symbionese Liberation Army\n\nThe United Federated Forces of the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA) was an American self-styled left-wing revolutionary organization active between 1973 and 1975 that considered itself a vanguard army. The group committed bank robberies, two murders, and other acts of violence.",
"S... |
qg_386 | Boletus, Chicken of the Woods, Chanterelle, and Crimini are all types of what? | Mushrooms | [
"psychoactive fungus",
"mushrooms",
"toadstool",
"psychoactive mushrooms",
"mushroom curry",
"psychoactive fungi",
"macrofungi",
"toadstools",
"🍄",
"fungophobia",
"mushroom",
"psychoactive mushroom",
"bacidocarp"
] | [
"Boletus\n\nBoletus is a genus of mushroom-producing fungi, comprising over 100 species. The genus Boletus was originally broadly defined and described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, essentially containing all fungi with pores. Since then, other genera have been defined gradually, such as Tylopilus by Petter Adolf Karst... |
qg_388 | Who's missing? Roger Peterson, J. P. Richardson, Ritchie Valens? | Buddy Holly | [
"charles holley",
"buddy holly",
"charles hardin holly",
"charles h holley",
"holly buddy",
"buddy holly and crickets",
"buddy holly rock roll collection",
"buddy holley",
"charles hardin helley",
"charles holly",
"charles hardin holley",
"buddie hollie",
"buddie holly",
"charles harden",
... | [
"The Day the Music Died\n\nOn February 3, 1959, rock and roll musicians Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and J. P. \"The Big Bopper\" Richardson were killed in a plane crash near Clear Lake, Iowa, together with the pilot, Roger Peterson. The event later became known as \"The Day the Music Died\", after singer-songwrite... |
qg_389 | In the zoological hierarchy, which classification is the most specific? | Species | [
"species biological",
"species and speciation",
"speceis",
"biospecies",
"species pluralis",
"species",
"morphospecies",
"theory of species",
"cohesion species",
"nominal species",
"undiscovered species",
"morphological species",
"species taxonomy",
"phylogenetic species concept",
"spp",... | [
"Zoology\n\nZoology (, zoh-OL-luh-jee) or animal biology is the branch of biology that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. The term is derived fro... |
qg_391 | What is the name of the most popular of all ground hogs, whose emerges from Gobbler's Knob each Feb 2? | Punxsutawney Phil | [
"punxsutawney phil",
"punksetawney phil",
"gobbler s knob",
"punxatauney phil",
"gobblers knob",
"punxsatawney phil",
"punksutawney phil",
"puxatony phil",
"punksatawney phil",
"punxsetawney phil",
"groundhog phil"
] | [
"Punxsutawney Phil\n\nPunxsutawney Phil Sowerby is the name of a succession of groundhogs in Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania. On February 2 (Groundhog Day) each year, the town of Punxsutawney celebrates the legendary groundhog with a festive atmosphere of music and food. During the ceremony, which begins well before th... |
qg_392 | Which Season 4 American Idol winner is slated to sing the national anthem before this years super bowl? | Carrie Underwood | [
"carrie underwood",
"list of appearances by carrie underwood",
"carrey underwood",
"carrieunderwoodappearances"
] | [
"American Idol\n\nAmerican Idol is an American singing competition television series created by Simon Fuller, produced by 19 Entertainment, and distributed by FremantleMedia North America. It began airing on Fox on June 11, 2002, and ended on April 7, 2016. It started off as an addition to the Idols format based on... |
qg_393 | In what Super Bowl did the Seahawks face the Steelers? | 40 | [
"forty"
] | [
"Super Bowl\n\nThe Super Bowl is the annual championship game of the National Football League (NFL), the highest level of professional American football in the world. The game culminates a season that begins in the late summer of the previous calendar year. Normally, Roman numerals are used to identify each game, ... |
qg_394 | Which “somewhat obscure” golfer has a real first name of Eldrick? | Tiger Woods | [
"tiger woods",
"woods tiger",
"eldrick t 22tiger 22 woods",
"jaimee grubbs",
"eldrick",
"tont",
"eldrick tont woods",
"cablinasian",
"tiger woods mistress",
"tigerwoods com",
"tiger wood",
"cablin asian",
"tigre woods",
"eldrick 22tiger 22 woods",
"eldrick woods",
"how i play golf",
... | [
"Tiger Woods\n\nEldrick Tont \"Tiger\" Woods (born December 30, 1975) is an American professional golfer who is among the most successful golfers of all time. He has been one of the highest-paid athletes in the world for several years.",
"Tiger Woods\n\nFollowing an outstanding amateur and two-year college golf ... |
qg_396 | In what Miami stadium is this year's Super Bowl going to be played? | Sun Life stadium | [
"land shark stadium",
"dolphins stadium",
"pro player park",
"pro player stadium",
"landshark stadium",
"joe robbie stadium",
"dolphin stadium",
"sun life stadium",
"sunlife stadium"
] | [
"Super Bowl\n\nThe Super Bowl is the annual championship game of the National Football League (NFL), the highest level of professional American football in the world. The game culminates a season that begins in the late summer of the previous calendar year. Normally, Roman numerals are used to identify each game, ... |
qg_397 | Exxon used to advertise their gas by enjoining you to "put a what in your tank"? | Tiger | [
"🐅",
"mating tigers",
"tiger populations",
"panthera tigris",
"naahar",
"endangered subspecies of tiger",
"🐯",
"tiger",
"tiger blood",
"tigris striatus",
"tiger wild",
"felis tigris",
"tigers animal",
"tigers in captivity",
"african tiger",
"tiger cub",
"tigris regalis",
"tigers"... | [
"Exxon\n\nExxon is a chain of gas stations and a brand of motor fuel and related products by ExxonMobil. From 1973 to 1999, Exxon was the corporate name of the company previously known as Humble Oil or Standard Oil of New Jersey. It was one of the Seven Sisters that dominated the global petroleum industry from the... |
qg_400 | From which East Coast state does the current Miss America hail from, having been crowned earlier this week? | Virginia | [
"commonwealth of virginia",
"sports in virginia",
"va state",
"rest of virginia",
"va usa",
"virginia usa state",
"10th state",
"virginian commonwealth",
"us va",
"tenth state",
"viginia",
"commonwealth of va",
"mother of presidents",
"virginia",
"virginia united states",
"council of v... | [
"Miss America\n\nMiss America refers to both \"The Miss America Organization\" (MAO) and \"The Miss America Foundation\" (MAF). The MAO \"is a 501(c)4 non-profit organization that controls and oversees the local, state, and national competition framework and hosts the annual Miss America Competition and telecast\" ... |
qg_401 | In one of only 2 unanimous elections by the U.S. Electoral College, George Washington was elected to the first ever presidency in what year? | 1789 | [
"one thousand seven hundred and eighty nine"
] | [
"Electoral College (United States)\n\nThe United States Electoral College is the institution that elects the President and Vice President of the United States every four years. Citizens of the United States do not directly elect the president or the vice president; instead they elect representatives called \"electo... |
qg_402 | February 4th, 2004 saw the founding of what "mildly popular" online social network by Harvard student Mark Zuckerberg? | Facebook | [
"on fb me",
"fb me",
"thefacebook",
"fb com",
"facenook",
"facebook patent",
"crackbook",
"facebook users",
"facebok",
"beacongate",
"fbook",
"фейсбук",
"facebook at work",
"facephiliac",
"facebook statistics",
"www facebook com",
"mini feed",
"facebor",
"facebook",
"fb pac",
... | [
"Social networking service\n\nA social networking service (also social networking site, SNS or social media) is a platform to build social networks or social relations among people who share similar personal and career interests, activities, backgrounds or real-life connections. The variety of stand-alone and built... |
qg_404 | What is the more common name of the fictional character Simon Templar, star of books by Leslie Charteris, a TV series starring Roger Moore, and a movie starring Val Kilmer? | The Saint | [
"saint",
"saint disambiguation",
"saint song"
] | [
"Simon Templar\n\nSimon Templar is a British fictional character known as The Saint. He featured in a long-running series of books by Leslie Charteris published between 1928 and 1963. After that date, other authors collaborated with Charteris on books until 1983; two additional works produced without Charteris's pa... |
qg_406 | Now famously known as Nipplegate, whose nip was seen on national TV during Superbowl 38, due to a “wardrobe malfunction”? | Janet Jackson | [
"janet jackson s eleventh studio album",
"artistry of janet jackson",
"janet damita jo jackson",
"artists influenced by janet jackson",
"janet jackson singer",
"rhythm nation records",
"janet jackson",
"janet damita jackson",
"janet jackson s new album"
] | [
"Super Bowl XXXVIII\n\nSuper Bowl XXXVIII was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Carolina Panthers and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion New England Patriots to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2003 season. The Patriots defeated ... |
qg_409 | What original SNL cast member and writer is currently the junior senator from the great state of Minnesota? | Al Franken | [
"senator al franken",
"sen al franken",
"alan stewart franken",
"senator franken",
"alan s franken",
"alan franken",
"al frankin",
"al franken",
"al stuart franken",
"al franken day",
"alan stuart franken",
"alan stuart 22al 22 franken"
] | [
"Saturday Night Live\n\nSaturday Night Live (abbreviated as SNL) is an American late-night live television sketch comedy and variety show created by Lorne Michaels and developed by Dick Ebersol. The show premiered on NBC on October 11, 1975, under the original title NBC's Saturday Night. The show's comedy sketches,... |
qg_410 | Havarti, Limburger, Fontina, and Edam are all types of what? | Cheese | [
"chese",
"mouldy cheese",
"cheeze",
"chees",
"cheese wheel",
"coagulated milk curd",
"cheese powder",
"cheeses",
"🧀",
"cheese"
] | [
"Havarti\n\nHavarti or Cream Havarti () is a semisoft Danish cow's milk cheese. It is a table cheese that can be sliced, grilled, or melted.",
"Havarti\n\nIn 1952, Havarti cheese was named after the Havarthigaard in Øverød, north of Copenhagen, where the owner, Hanne Nielsen, had developed modern cheesemaking in ... |
qg_412 | George Washington Gale Ferris, Jr. invented what engineering marvel for the 1893 exposition in Chicago in the hopes of creating something as impressive as the Eiffel Tower? | Ferris Wheel | [
"chicago wheel",
"ferris wheel"
] | [
"Chicago\n\nChicago ( or) is the third most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois and the Midwestern United States, and the county seat of Cook County. The Chicago metropolitan area, often referred to as Chicagoland, has nearly 10... |
qg_413 | On Feb 9, 1997, The Simpsons became the longest running prime-time animated series in the US, surpassing what ABC show that ran from 1960 to 1966? | The Flintstones | [
"flintstones",
"flintstone",
"list of flintstones characters",
"flintstones fox",
"flintstones 2013",
"hoppy flintstones",
"hollyrock",
"mr slate",
"flinstones 2013 tv series",
"flintstones 1980",
"flintstones fox tv series",
"loyal order of water buffaloes lodge no 26",
"loyal order of wate... | [
"The Simpsons\n\nThe Simpsons is an American animated sitcom created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series is a satirical depiction of a working class lifestyle epitomized by the Simpson family, which consists of Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa, and Maggie. The show is set in the fictional town ... |
qg_414 | Which of the American Idol judges has been there for all 10 seasons? | Randy Jackson | [
"randy jackson american idol",
"randall darius jackson",
"randy darius jackson",
"randy jackson"
] | [
"American Idol\n\nAmerican Idol is an American singing competition television series created by Simon Fuller, produced by 19 Entertainment, and distributed by FremantleMedia North America. It began airing on Fox on June 11, 2002, and ended on April 7, 2016. It started off as an addition to the Idols format based on... |
qg_415 | February 11, 1963 saw the PBS debut of The French Chef. What famed chef starred in the show? | Julia Child | [
"cooking with master chefs",
"dinner at julia s",
"french chef cookbook",
"birthday party for julia child compliments to chef",
"julia s breakfasts lunches suppers",
"julia jacques cooking at home",
"julia s menus for special occasions",
"julia s casual dinners",
"julia child s menu cookbook",
"fr... | [
"Meryl Streep\n\nMary Louise \"Meryl\" Streep (born June 22, 1949) is an American actress. Cited in the media as the \"best actress of her generation\", Streep is particularly known for her versatility in her roles, transformation into the characters she plays, and her accent adaptation. She made her professional... |
qg_416 | Played by Dirk Benedict in the series and Bradley Cooper in the movie, by what nickname was Templeton Peck known on The A-Team? | Faceman | [
"templeton 22face 22 peck",
"templeton peck",
"face team",
"lt templeton 22faceman 22 peck",
"lt templeton 22the faceman 22 peck",
"templeton 22faceman 22 peck",
"templeton 22the faceman 22 peck",
"faceman team",
"faceman peck",
"faceman"
] | [
"Dirk Benedict\n\nDirk Benedict (born Dirk Niewoehner on March 1, 1945) is an American movie, television and stage actor who played the characters Lieutenant Templeton \"Faceman\" Peck in The A-Team television series and Lieutenant Starbuck in the original Battlestar Galactica film and television series. He is the ... |
qg_417 | On a map, are the lines that run parallel to the equator called lines of longitude or lines of latitude? | Latitude | [
"rectifying latitude",
"planetocentric latitude",
"astronomical latitude",
"north latitude",
"length of degree of latitude",
"latittude",
"lattitude",
"planetographic latitude",
"latitudes",
"south latitude",
"isometric latitude",
"geodetic latitude",
"latetude",
"authalic latitude",
"co... | [
"Map\n\nA map is a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of some space, such as objects, regions, and themes.",
"Map\n\nMany maps are static two-dimensional, geometrically accurate (or approximately accurate) representations of three-dimensional space, while others are dynamic or interact... |
qg_418 | One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World was the Colossus of Rhodes, a mammoth statue of what Greek god? | Helios | [
"hêlios",
"ήλιος",
"helios panoptes",
"helios sun",
"usil",
"helios megistos",
"helios",
"helius",
"ἥλιος",
"pyrois"
] | [
"Colossus of Rhodes\n\nThe Colossus of Rhodes ()Kolossos means \"giant statue\". R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *koloky- (Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 740). was a statue of the Greek titan-god of the sun Helios, erected in the city of Rhodes, on the Greek island of the sam... |
qg_420 | Which former major league baseball pitcher, known as The Big Unit, now pitches Geico? | Randy Johnson | [
"randy johnson pitcher",
"randy johnson",
"randall david johnson"
] | [
"GEICO\n\nThe Government Employees Insurance Company (GEICO) is an American auto insurance company headquartered in Chevy Chase, Maryland. It is the second largest auto insurer in the United States, after State Farm. It is a wholly owned subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway that as of 2015 provided coverage for more t... |
qg_422 | What flavoring is used in the liqueur amaretto? | Almond | [
"almond tree",
"almond bitter oil",
"prunus amygdalus dulcis",
"almendrado",
"marcona almonds",
"almond oil",
"luz nut",
"almond trees",
"oil of bitter almond",
"oleum amygdalae",
"almond",
"amygdalus fragilis",
"prunus amygdalus",
"baadaam",
"bitter almond",
"mandel nut",
"almonds",... | [
"Amaretto\n\nAmaretto (Italian for \"a little bitter\") is a sweet, almond-flavoured, Italian liqueur associated with Saronno, Italy. Various commercial brands are made from a base of apricot pits, almonds, or both.",
"Amaretto\n\nAmaretto serves a variety of culinary uses, can be drunk by itself, and is added to... |
qg_423 | In a national TV embarrassment, the vault of which Chicago gangster, nicknamed Scarface, was excavated live by Geraldo Riveria and his crew but was found to contain nothing? | Al Capone | [
"scarface capone",
"alphonse g capone",
"alfonse 22scarface 22 capone",
"alphonse gabriel capone",
"al capone",
"alphonse gabriel 22al 22 capone",
"mae capone",
"capone",
"alphonse capone",
"albert francis capone",
"al cappone",
"mae coughlin",
"scarface american gangster"
] | [
"Chicago\n\nChicago ( or) is the third most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois and the Midwestern United States, and the county seat of Cook County. The Chicago metropolitan area, often referred to as Chicagoland, has nearly 10... |
qg_426 | All the News That's Fit to Print first appeared as the motto of what newspaper, known as The Paper of Record or The Gray Lady, in 1897? | The New York Times | [
"new york times newsroom navigator",
"old grey lady",
"nytimes",
"treason times",
"dinita smith",
"newyorktimes",
"local east village",
"new york times sunday book review",
"sunday new york times",
"newyorktimes com",
"www nytimes com",
"newyork times",
"newsroom navigator",
"new york time... | [
"The New York Times\n\nThe New York Times (sometimes abbreviated to NYT) is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18, 1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 117 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other news organization.",
"The New Yo... |
qg_427 | The NFL championship is played for the Lombardi trophy. What do the winners of the Canadian Football League play for? | Grey Cup | [
"grey cup",
"coupe grey",
"gray cup",
"grey cup championship"
] | [
"Vince Lombardi Trophy\n\nThe Vince Lombardi Trophy is the trophy awarded each year to the winning team of the National Football League's championship game, the Super Bowl. The trophy is named in honor of NFL coach Vince Lombardi.",
"Vince Lombardi Trophy\n\nHistory",
"Vince Lombardi Trophy\n\nDuring lunch with... |
qg_428 | What is name of the fibrous tissue that connects bones to other bones? | Ligament | [
"ligaments articular",
"ligaments",
"collateral ligaments",
"ligamentum",
"ligament",
"capsular ligaments",
"ligamentopathy",
"desmology"
] | [
"Connective tissue\n\nConnective tissue (CT) is one of the four types of biological tissue that support, connect, or separate different types of tissues and organs in the body. It develops from the mesoderm. The other three types are epithelial, muscle, and nervous tissue. Connective tissue is found in between othe... |
qg_429 | What noted magician, who has offered $1 million to anyone who could prove they had psychic powers, made a similar offer this week to any manufacturer who could prove that their homeopathic drugs worked as advertised? | James Randi | [
"amazing randy",
"james 22the amazing 22 randi",
"deyvi peña",
"randall zwinge",
"randall james zwinge",
"james randi",
"james randy",
"amazing randi",
"randall hamilton zwinge",
"randi james",
"randall james hamilton zwinge"
] | [
"Psychic\n\nA psychic is a person who claims to use extrasensory perception (ESP) to identify information hidden from the normal senses. The word \"psychic\" is also used as an adjective to describe such abilities. Psychics may be theatrical performers, such as stage magicians, who use techniques such as prestidigi... |
qg_430 | Whos recent book, titled Known and Unknown: A Memoir, is currently ranked #1 on the Amazon sales list? | Donald Rumsfeld | [
"rumsfield",
"donald henry rumsfeld",
"david rumsfeld",
"donald henry rumsfield",
"donald rumsfeld",
"ramsfeld",
"secretary rumsfeld",
"d h rumsfeld",
"donald rumsfield",
"don henry rumsfeld",
"don rumsfeld",
"donald rumpsfeld",
"donald h rumsfeld",
"donald ramsfeld",
"rumsfeldian"
] | [
"Known and Unknown: A Memoir\n\nKnown and Unknown: A Memoir is an autobiographical book by Donald Henry Rumsfeld, an American politician and businessman who served as Secretary of Defense from 1975 to 1977 and again from 2001 to 2006 (among many other positions). He published it through Penguin Group USA in Februar... |
qg_432 | The Internet TLD for Albania is what? | .AL | [
"al"
] | [
"Library\n\nA library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a physical building or room, or a virtual space, or both. A library's collection can include book... |
qg_433 | What is the name of the card dispensing box used in casino Blackjack? | A Shoe | [
"hose",
"shoe",
"h o s e"
] | [
"Blackjack\n\nBlackjack, also known as twenty-one, is the most widely played casino banking game in the world. Blackjack is a comparing card game between a player and dealer, meaning players compete against the dealer but not against other players. It is played with one or more decks of 52 cards. The objective of... |
qg_434 | The Voyage of the Beagle was the 1839 book by what British naturalist, detailing his 5 year voyage aboard the HMS Beagle? | Charles Darwin | [
"cr darwin",
"darwin200",
"darwin 200",
"charles robert darwin",
"darwin s theory",
"charles r darwin",
"charels darwin",
"mary darwin",
"www darwin200 org uk",
"c r darwin",
"chuck darwin",
"charles darwin",
"darwin charles",
"darwin s",
"charlesdarwin",
"charles darwin s",
"c darwi... | [
"The Voyage of the Beagle\n\nThe Voyage of the Beagle is the title most commonly given to reissues of the book written by Charles Darwin and published in 1839 as his Journal and Remarks, bringing him considerable fame and respect. This was the third volume of The Narrative of the Voyages of H.M. Ships Adventure and... |
qg_438 | Featuring the Oscar winning song When You Wish Upon A Star, what 1940 Disney movie release was the second full length animated movie, following Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs? | Pinocchio | [
"pinocchio boy",
"pinnocchio",
"pinochio",
"pinnochio",
"pinocchio in popular culture",
"pinocchio",
"pinnochio boy"
] | [
"When You Wish upon a Star\n\n\"When You Wish upon a Star\" is a song written by Leigh Harline and Ned Washington for Walt Disney's 1940 adaptation of Pinocchio. The original version was sung by Cliff Edwards in the character of Jiminy Cricket, and is heard over the opening credits and in the final scene of the fi... |
qg_439 | Feb 6, 1966 saw the birth of what singer, best known for making possible the Internet meme known as rickrolling? | Rick Astley | [
"dick spatsley",
"playlist best of rick astley",
"playlist very best of rick astley",
"rick ashley",
"rickard astley",
"richard paul astley",
"rick asley",
"d spatsley",
"rick astley"
] | [
"Rickrolling\n\nRickrolling, alternatively rick-rolling, is a prank and an Internet meme involving an unexpected appearance of the music video for the 1987 Rick Astley song \"Never Gonna Give You Up\". The meme is a type of bait and switch using a disguised hyperlink. Those led to the music video believing that the... |
qg_441 | What action figure, the first to be marketed to boys, was modified in 1974 with the addition of "kung fu grip"? | G.I. Joe | [
"general issue joe",
"g i joe",
"gijoe",
"action joe",
"gi joe",
"kung fu grip",
"gi joes",
"g i joe super joe adventure team",
"group action joe"
] | [
"Action figure\n\nAn action figure is a poseable character figurine, made of plastic or other materials, and often based upon characters from a film, comic book, video game, or television program. These action figures are usually marketed toward boys and adult collectors.",
"Action figure\n\nAccording to a study ... |
qg_445 | In Holyoak, Ma, William G Morgan, a YMCA physical education director, created an indoor gamed originally called Mintonette. Now an Olympic sport, by what name is the game know? | Volleyball | [
"court volleyball",
"libero volleyball",
"volley ball",
"serve volleyball",
"rally point system",
"spike volleyball",
"v ball",
"volleyball rules",
"indoor volleyball",
"lebro",
"volleyball",
"vollyball",
"mintonette",
"volleyball court",
"volleyball dig",
"history of volleyball",
"s... | [
"William G. Morgan\n\nWilliam George Morgan (23 January 1870 – 27 December 1942) was the inventor of volleyball, originally called \"Mintonette\". He was born in Lockport, New York, USA. Morgan was the eldest of his siblings. His parents were George Henry Morgan (1841-1915) and Nancy Chatfield (1848-1932). He lat... |
qg_447 | What television program began "There is nothing wrong with your television set. Do not attempt to adjust the picture. We are controlling transmission."? | The Outer Limits | [
"outer limits disambiguation",
"outer limits",
"outer limits tv series"
] | [
"The Outer Limits (1963 TV series)\n\nThe Outer Limits is an American television series that aired on ABC from 1963 to 1965 at 7:30PM EST on Monday evenings. The series is often compared to The Twilight Zone, but with a greater emphasis on science fiction stories (rather than stories just dealing with fantasy or su... |
qg_448 | Who's missing: Virgil Earp, Wyatt Earp, John Holliday | Morgan Earp | [
"morgan earp",
"morgan seth earp"
] | [
"Virgil Earp\n\nVirgil Walter Earp (July 18, 1843 – October 19, 1905) was Tombstone, Arizona City Marshal when he led his brothers Morgan and Wyatt and Doc Holliday in a confrontation with outlaw Cowboys at the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral on October 26, 1881. They killed brothers Tom and Frank McLaury and Billy Cla... |
qg_449 | What is gymnophobia the fear of? | Nudity | [
"disrobing",
"naked children",
"nudity and children",
"clothes free",
"bare ass",
"naked women",
"partially nude",
"bare balls",
"nakedness",
"disrobe",
"naked girls",
"fully nude",
"naked",
"female nudity",
"nakedity",
"stark naked",
"partial nudity",
"male nudity",
"nudity",
... | [
"Gymnophobia\n\nGymnophobia is a fear (phobia) of nudity.",
"Gymnophobia\n\nTerminology",
"Gymnophobia\n\nThe term gymnophobia comes from the Greek γυμνός - gumnos, \"naked\" and φόβος - phobos, \"fear\". A phobia that has a significant amount of overlap with gymnophobia is dishabiliophobia, which is the fea... |
qg_452 | What name is given to the palace of bliss for the souls of slain heroes in Scandinavian mythology? | Valhalla | [
"valhalah",
"valhala",
"valholl",
"val hall",
"valhol",
"walhǫllr",
"valhalla",
"valhoell",
"valhöll"
] | [
"Norse mythology\n\nNorse mythology is the body of mythology of the North Germanic people stemming from Norse paganism and continuing after the Christianization of Scandinavia and into the Scandinavian folklore of the modern period. The northernmost extension of Germanic mythology, Norse mythology consists of tales... |
qg_454 | Complete the following pangram: "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy what?" | dog | [
"dogs",
"dogs album",
"dogs song",
"dogs disambiguation",
"dog song",
"dog disambiguation",
"dogs band"
] | [
"Pangram\n\nA Pangram (, pan gramma, \"every letter\") or holoalphabetic sentence for a given alphabet is a sentence using every letter of the alphabet at least once. Pangrams have been used to display typefaces, test equipment, and develop skills in handwriting, calligraphy, and keyboarding.",
"Pangram\n\nThe be... |
qg_455 | For which paper was reporter Clark Kent/Superman employed? | The Daily Planet | [
"daily planet"
] | [
"Clark Kent\n\nClark Joseph/Jerome Kent is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster, he debuted in Action Comics #1 (June 1938) and serves as the civilian and secret identity of the superhero Superman.",
"Clark Kent\n\nOver the decades... |
qg_456 | Scotsman Alexander Selkirk was the inspiration for what Daniel Dafoe novel? | Robinson Crusoe | [
"life and strange surprizing adventures of robinson crusoe",
"life and surprising adventures of robinson crusoe",
"robinson crusoe",
"life and strange surprizing adventures of robinson crusoe of york mariner",
"robinson crusoe novel",
"robinson caruso",
"robinson crusoes",
"island of despair"
] | [
"Alexander Selkirk\n\nAlexander Selkirk (1676 - 13 December 1721), also known as Alexander Selcraig, was a Scottish sailor who spent more than four years as a castaway (1704–1709) after being marooned on an uninhabited island in the South Pacific Ocean, or South Sea.",
"Alexander Selkirk\n\nSelkirk was an unruly ... |
qg_457 | "When you care enough to send the very best" is the advertising slogan of what product? | Hallmark Cards | [
"william e coutts company",
"hallmark cards",
"hmk cds",
"hallmark gold crown",
"image craft",
"www hallmark com",
"when you care enough to send very best",
"hallmark licensing",
"hallmark cards inc",
"holidays hallmark",
"coutts hallmark"
] | [
"Hallmark Cards\n\nHallmark Cards is a privately owned American company based in Kansas City, Missouri. Founded in 1910 by Joyce Hall, Hallmark is the largest manufacturer of greeting cards in the United States. In 1985, the company was awarded the National Medal of Arts.",
"Hallmark Cards\n\nHistory",
"Hallma... |
qg_459 | Which painter was married to Mexican artist Diego Rivera? | Frida Kahlo | [
"kahlo frida",
"frida cahlo",
"frida kahlo",
"kahlo",
"frida carlo",
"frida rivera",
"frieda kahlo",
"frida kalho",
"firda kahlo",
"freda kahlo",
"magdalena carmen frida kahlo y calderon",
"magdalena carmen frida kahlo y calderón",
"frida khalo",
"frida kalo"
] | [
"Diego Rivera\n\nDiego María de la Concepción Juan Nepomuceno Estanislao de la Rivera y Barrientos Acosta y Rodríguez, known as Diego Rivera (; December 8, 1886 – November 24, 1957) was a prominent Mexican painter. His large frescoes helped establish the Mexican Mural Movement in Mexican art. Between 1922 and 1953,... |
qg_461 | For which delivery company does Philip Fry work in that awesome TV series Futurama? | Planet Express | [
"futurama animated series",
"arachno spores",
"monster robot maniac fun collection",
"planet express",
"glagnar s human rinds",
"future armour",
"ultraporn",
"omicronians",
"panucci s pizza",
"thompson s teeth",
"ogrady s pub",
"futurerama",
"dancing space potatoes",
"alien language one",
... | [
"Futurama\n\nFuturama is an American animated science fiction sitcom created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series follows the adventures of a late-20th-century New York City pizza delivery boy, Philip J. Fry, who, after being unwittingly cryogenically frozen for one thousand years, finds em... |
qg_464 | Following the Super Bowl, where did MVP Drew Brees announce he was going next? | Disney World | [
"disneyland 2000",
"disney s village resort",
"walt disney world fl",
"walt disney world orlando fl",
"walt disney world resorts",
"people trap",
"disney world florida",
"list of disneyworlds",
"disney florida",
"disney world",
"disney orlando",
"walt disney world",
"walt disney world resort... | [
"Super Bowl\n\nThe Super Bowl is the annual championship game of the National Football League (NFL), the highest level of professional American football in the world. The game culminates a season that begins in the late summer of the previous calendar year. Normally, Roman numerals are used to identify each game, ... |
qg_467 | One half of the duo known as President's Day, which former president had his birthday on Feb 12th? | Abraham Lincoln | [
"lincoln s cabinet",
"president lincoln",
"president abe lincoln",
"abe lincoln",
"abraham lincoln and american civil war",
"presedent lincon",
"honest abe",
"abe licnoln",
"lincoln",
"lincoln abraham",
"abraham lincoln president",
"abaham lincoln",
"president abraham",
"abe lincolin",
"... | [
"Washington's Birthday\n\nWashington's Birthday is a United States federal holiday celebrated on the third Monday of February in honor of George Washington, the first President of the United States, who was born on February 22, 1732. It can occur on the 15th through the 21st of February inclusive.",
"Washington's... |
qg_468 | Deadliest Catch boat captain Phil Harris died yesterday, after suffering a major stroke on January 29th. What Seattle based boat was he the captain of? | Cornelia Marie | [
"fv cornelia marie",
"cornelia marie",
"tony lara"
] | [
"Deadliest Catch\n\nDeadliest Catch is a reality television series produced by Original Productions for the Discovery Channel. It portrays the real life events aboard fishing vessels in the Bering Sea during the Alaskan king crab, snow crab and bairdi crab fishing seasons.",
"Deadliest Catch\n\nThe Aleutian Isl... |
qg_469 | By I(nternational) A(stronomical) U(nion) definition, what is the final classification of Pluto? Planet, Dwarf Planet, or Small Solar System Body? | Dwarf Planet | [
"belt planet",
"planetary dwarf",
"plutonic planets",
"dwarf planet",
"planette",
"solar system dwarf planets",
"dwarf planets",
"plutonic planet",
"dwarf astronomy",
"dwarfplanet"
] | [
"Pluto\n\nPluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond Neptune. It was the first Kuiper belt object to be discovered. It is the largest and second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known o... |
qg_473 | The Greek goddess of forests and hills, childbirth, virginity, fertility, and the hunt, who is the twin sister of Apollo? | Artemis | [
"locheia",
"agrotora",
"agrotara",
"aelurus deity",
"artemis locheia",
"aritimi",
"ἄρτεμις",
"amarynthia",
"alpheiusa",
"alpheaea",
"artemis",
"ἀρτέμιδος",
"aetole",
"hunt of artemis",
"artemis mythology",
"artemis persica",
"artemis alphaea",
"alphaea",
"aeginaea"
] | [
"Apollo\n\nApollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: , Apollōn ( ); Doric: , Apellōn; Arcadocypriot: , Apeilōn; Aeolic: , Aploun; ) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The ideal of the kouros (a beardless, athletic yout... |
qg_474 | Super Bowl XLIV was the apparently the most watched television show in US history, attracting some 106.5 million people. The final show of what long running TV series previously held the record for 27 years? | MASH | [
"m• •s•h",
"m s h disambiguation",
"mash",
"m s h",
"mash disambiguation"
] | [
"Super Bowl XLIV\n\nSuper Bowl XLIV was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion New Orleans Saints and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Indianapolis Colts to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2009 season. The Saints defeated the Colts... |
qg_475 | In which Olympic sport is a stone delivered and then possible swept, the object being to get it over the hog line and into the house? | Curling | [
"curling sheet",
"curling rink",
"curling shoes",
"button curling",
"hammer curling",
"curling stone",
"roaring game",
"curling sport",
"curling",
"sweeping sport",
"curling broom",
"chess on ice",
"curling rock",
"history of curling",
"free guard zone"
] | [
"Curling\n\nCurling is a sport in which players slide stones on a sheet of ice towards a target area which is segmented into four concentric circles. It is related to bowls, boules and shuffleboard. Two teams, each with four players, take turns sliding heavy, polished granite stones, also called rocks, across the i... |
qg_476 | On Feb 16, 1923, archeologist Howard Carter uncovered the tomb of whom? | Tutankhamun | [
"tutanhamon",
"tutenkhamen",
"tutenkamen",
"living image of aten",
"king tut s death",
"tuthankamen",
"tutankamon",
"nebkheperure tutankhamun",
"tutankamun",
"tut anj amon",
"king tut",
"tutankhanum",
"tutankamen",
"tutankhamen",
"pharaoh tutankhamun",
"tutankhamum",
"kingtut",
"bo... | [
"Archaeology\n\nArchaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the huma... |
qg_478 | A favorite of Jean Luc Picard, what black tea blend is flavored with an oil extracted from the rind of a bergamot orange? | Earl Grey | [
"viscount howick",
"earl gray",
"baron grey of howick",
"earl grey"
] | [
"Jean-Luc Picard\n\nCaptain Jean-Luc Picard is a fictional character in the Star Trek: The Next Generation (a.k.a. TNG) franchise. He appears in the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation and the feature films Star Trek: Generations (1994), Star Trek: First Contact (1996), Star Trek: Insurrection (1998), ... |
qg_479 | Which U.S. president placed a trade embargo on Cuba, making the nation's popular cigars illegal to import, immediately after he personally stocked up on 1200 H. Upmann Petits? | John F. Kennedy | [
"early years of john f kennedy",
"camelot era",
"j f k administration",
"j f k",
"john fitzgerald kennady",
"kennedyesque",
"john f kenedy",
"john f kennedy",
"jfk administration",
"john f kennedie",
"president kennedy",
"john f 22jack 22 kennedy",
"u s president j f kennedy",
"kennedyism"... | [
"President of the United States\n\nThe President of the United States of America (POTUS) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.",
"President of th... |
qg_480 | Rhinoplasty is a surgical procedure on what part of the human body? | Nose | [
"nose",
"noses",
"schnoz",
"smeller",
"schnozzle",
"schnozz"
] | [
"Rhinoplasty\n\nRhinoplasty (, , nose + , to shape), commonly known as a nose job, is a plastic surgery procedure for correcting and reconstructing the form, restoring the functions, and aesthetically enhancing the nose by resolving nasal trauma (blunt, penetrating, blast), congenital defect, respiratory impediment... |
qg_481 | Which English monarch, who ruled from April 1509 to January 1547, is remembered for having married Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, Catherine Parr, Elizabeth Blount, and Mary Boleyn? | King Henry VIII | [
"henry viii king of england",
"king of england henry viii",
"henry viii kids",
"henry tudor viii",
"henry viii musician",
"henry duke of york",
"king henry eighth",
"henry 8th",
"king henry 8",
"henry 8",
"henry viii england",
"bluff hal",
"henry viii of ireland",
"henryviii",
"heinrich ... | [
"Monarchy of the United Kingdom\n\nThe monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories. The monarch's title is \"King\" (male) or \"Queen\" (female). The current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth... |
qg_485 | Pablo Picasso is one of the co-founders of what artistic movement? | Cubism | [
"cubist artist",
"cubist",
"cubist painting",
"synthetic cubism",
"analytical cubism",
"multiple perspective",
"cubistic",
"cubism",
"analytic cubism",
"cubists"
] | [
"Pablo Picasso\n\nPablo Ruiz y Picasso, also known as Pablo Picasso (; ; 25 October 1881 – 8 April 1973), was a Spanish painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright who spent most of his adult life in France. Regarded as one of the greatest and most influential artists of the 20th ... |
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